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Multi-path Propagation
Bearer Services
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
GSM
1.1 Introduction
the phenomenal success in mobile telecommunication over the last decade. Now,
at the dawn of the era of true broadband services, GSM continues to evolve to
meet new demands. One of GSM's great strengths is its international roaming
capability, giving consumers a seamless service in about 160 countries. This has
been a vital driver in growth, with around 300 million GSM subscribers currently
in Europe and Asia. In the Americas, today's 7 million subscribers are set to grow
rapidly, with market potential of 500 million in population, due to the
introduction of GSM 800, which allows operators using the 800 MHz band to
have access to GSM technology too. [002]
The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European
Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a study group called the Groupe Spécial
Mobile (GSM) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system.
The proposed system had to meet certain criteria:
GSM is mainly used for speech communication, but its use for mobile data
communication is growing steadily. The key technologies used in GSM are SMS,
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
Here I am eager to mention the words of Mr. Chunk Parish, Founding
Member and Chairman (1998-1999) WAP Forum; “WAP is a major step in
building the Wireless Internet, where people on-the-go can access the internet
through their wireless devices to get information such as e-mails, news
headlines, stock reports, map directions, and sports scores when they need it
and where they need.” [115]
1. GSM 900 (global system for mobile communications in the 900 MHz
band) with uplink frequency range of 1710 MHz to 1785 MHz, and downlink
frequency range of 1805 MHz to 1880 MHz.
2. DCS 1800 (digital cellular system for the 1800 MHz band) DCS 1800 has
uplink frequency range of 1850 MHz to 1910 MHz and the downlink frequency
range is 1930 MHz to 1990 MHz.
3. PCS 1900 (Personal Communications Service) GSM 1900 is mainly used
in the United States. [116]
GSM 900 is a designed for extensive radio coverage even in rural areas. DCS
1800 is designed for radio coverage in areas with very high subscriber density.
GSM is a global standard, GSM 900 being used in most European, Asian and
pacific countries, GSM 1800 being used in the same place to increase the capacity
of the system, and GSM 1900 being used primarily in the US. [004]
In its simplest form, Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a set
of ETSI standards specifying the infrastructure for a digital cellular service. The
standard is used in approx. 85 countries in the world including such locations as
Europe, Japan and Australia.
Chapter 2
GSM NETWORK
AREAS
Location Area
Cell
2.1.1 Cell
Cell is the basic service area. The cell is the area given radio coverage by
one base transceiver station. The GSM network identifies each cell via the cell
global identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell.
The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is
paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a
single MSC. Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is
covered by one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the
MSC (see Figure).
The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can
contain one or more MSCs. [013]
The solar or AC powered network station is called the Base Station (BS). [109]
The size of the cell may typically range between 1 to 12 miles. The size of the
cell is determined by many factors, but the two important factors are:
The cell size varies directly with the transmitter power; greater the transmitter
power, larger the cell size and vice versa. Larger population of the service users
demand smaller cell size to provide better mobile services with least network
problems and easy handling of the data traffic.
The important question that arises at this point is why is the geographical
area of mobile network divided into cells? The answer to this technical
question is that to make tracking of a user of MS easier as he/she moves inside
the area. It is essential because a service provide must be able to:
• Locate and track a caller
• Assign a channel to the call
• Transfer the channel from BS to BS as caller moves out of range
The transmission power of a cell is kept low, because low power prevents the
signals from interfering with those of the other neighboring cells of the network.
Cells are drawn in hexagonal shape because the hexagonal shaped cells
have no gaps or overlaps between them. It causes no interruption to the
communication of a mobile subscriber moving from one cell to another. It is
obvious from the figure that other shapes of the cells are leaving gaps where no
coverage is provided to the mobile users. On the other hand, there is no such
problem in hexagonal cells.
2.2.2Types of Cells
Due to the uneven changes in the population density of different countries
and regions in the world, there are different types of cells used according to the
best results in uninterruptible communication. These are listed as:
• Macro Cells
• Micro Cells
• Pico Cells
• Umbrella Cells
• Selective Cells [015], [016]
a) Macro Cells
Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is
installed on a mast or larger building structures that are taller than an average
roof-top level. [017]
A macro cell is a cell in a mobile phone network that provides radio
coverage served by a power cellular base station (tower). Generally, macro cells
provide coverage larger than micro cell such as rural areas or along highways.
The antennas for macro cells are mounted on ground-based masts, rooftops and
the other existing structures, at a height that provides a clear view over the
surrounding buildings and terrain. Macro cell base stations have power outputs
of typically tens of watts. [018], [019], [020]
b) Micro Cells
The antennas for micro cells are mounted at street level. Micro cell
antennas are smaller than macro cell antennas and when mounted on existing
structures can often be disguised as building features. Micro cells provide radio
coverage over distances up to, typically, between 300m and 1000m. Micro cell
base stations have lower output powers than macro cells, typically a few watts.
[022], [026]
c) Pico Cells
Pico cells are small cells whose diameter is only few dozen meters; they are
used mainly in indoor applications. It can cover e.g. a floor of
a building or an entire building, or for example in shopping centres or airports.
[023] Pico cells provide more localized coverage than micro cells, inside buildings
where coverage is poor or there are high numbers of users. [024], [026]
d) Umbrella Cells
A layer with micro cells is covered by at least one macro cell, and a micro
cell can in turn cover several Pico cells, the covering cell is called an umbrella cell.
If there are very small cells and a user is crossing the cells very quickly, a large
number of handovers will occur among the different neighboring cells. The
power level inside an umbrella cell is increased compared to the micro cells with
which it is formed. This makes the mobile to stay in the same cell (umbrella cell)
causing the number of handovers to be decreased as well as the work to be done
by the network. [025], [026]
e) Selective Cells
The full coverage of the cells may not be required in all sorts of
applications, but cells with limited coverage are used with a particular shape.
These are named selective due to the selection of their shape with respect to the
coverage areas. For example, the cells used at the entrance of the tunnels are
selective cells because coverage of 120 degrees is used in them. [026]
2.2.3 Clusters
A cluster can contain all the frequencies of the mobile radio system.
The numbers in the cells define the pattern. The cells with the same
number in the pattern can use the same set of frequencies. In the pattern with the
reuse factor of 4, only one cell separates the cells using the same set of
frequencies. In the pattern with the reuse factor of 7, two cells separate the
reusing cells.
The distance between the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient
to avoid interference. The frequency reuse increases the capacity in the number
of users of a service provider.
For the proper function of the cellular system, following two conditions must
be satisfied:
• The power level of the transmitter within the single cell must be limited in
order to reduce the interference with the transmitters of the neighboring cells.
The distance of about 2.5 times the diameter of a cell must be maintained
between transmitters of the neighboring cells to avoid any damage to the
system.
• Neighboring cells can not share the same channels. In order to reduce the
interference, the frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.
Chapter 3
HISTORY OF GSM
1985: West Germany, France and Italy signed an agreement for the development
of GSM. The United Kingdom joined in the following year, and the group decided
that digital technology would become the future of global wireless
communication. Digital technology offered an attractive combination of
performance and spectral efficiency. In addition, such a system would allow the
development of advanced features like speech security and data
communications. Digital also was compatible with Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) technology, which was being developed by land-based.
1986: the GSM Permanent Nucleus held a series of validation trials in Paris.
They tested eight or nine different designs in the quest for an appropriate radio
path, because at the heart of developing a new digital standard was the resolution
of questions relating to reliability and error correction. One of the most
important conclusions from the early tests of the new GSM technology was that
the new standard should employ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
technology. The choice was TDMA or FDMA. [032]
1991: The GSM 1800 standard was released. Commercial service was started in
mid1991.
1993: Australia becomes the first non-European country to sign the MoU. First
commercial DCS 1800 system was launched in United Kingdom (UK).
There were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries, with 25 additional countries
having already selected or considering GSM. [033] This is not only a European
standard – South Africa, Australia, and many Middle and Far East countries have
chosen GSM.
1994: By the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide.
[034] the acronym GSM now (aptly) stands for Global System for Mobile
telecommunications. [035]
1995: The specification for the Personal Communication Services (PCS) was
developed in the USA. This version of GSM operates at 1900MHz
1996: The first GSM 1900 systems become available. Those comply with the PCS
1900 standard. [036]
Finally, the history of GSM is summarized in the form of a simple table
given below:
Chapter 4
GSM RADIO ASPECTS
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they are transmitted, or
propagated from one point on the Earth to another, or into various parts of the
atmosphere. Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviors
depending upon the frequency:
• Ground Propagation
• Sky Propagation
• Line-of-Sight Propagation
Ground Propagation
Waves with low frequencies (< 2 MHz) follow the earth’s surface and can
propagate long distances. These waves are used for AM radio and submarine
communication, for example.
Sky Propagation
Many international broadcasts and amateur radio use short waves (2-30 MHz)
that are reflected at the ionosphere. This way the waves can bounce back and
forth between the ionosphere and the earth’s surface, traveling around the world.
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves between antennas that are
visible to each other. Mobile phone systems, satellite systems, cordless
telephones etc. use even higher frequencies greater than 30 MHz. the emitted
waves follow more or less a straight line of sight. This enables direct
communication with satellites (no reflection at the ionosphere) or microwave
links on the ground. However, an additional consideration for ground-based
communication is that the waves are bent by the atmosphere due to refraction.
For the GSM-900 system, two frequency bands have been made available:
The 25 MHz bands are then divided into 124 pairs of frequency duplex
channels with 200 kHz carrier spacing using Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA). Since it is not possible for a same cell to use two adjacent channels, the
channel spacing can be said to be 200 kHz interleaved.
One or more carrier frequencies are assigned to individual Base Station (BS)
and a technique known as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is used to split
this 200 kHz radio channel into 8 time slots (which creates 8 logical channels). A
logical channel is therefore defined by its frequency and the TDMA frame time
slot number. By employing eight time slots, each channel transmits the digitized
speech in a series of short bursts: a GSM terminal is only ever transmitting for
one eighth of the time. [038]
The fading effect is caused by shadowing and diffraction (bending) of the radio
waves.
Signal propagation in free space almost follows a straight line, like light. But in
real life, we rarely have a line-of-sight between the sender and the receiver of the
radio signals. Mobile phones are typically used in big cities with skyscrapers, o
mountains, inside buildings, while driving through a valley etc. here several
effects occur in addition to the attenuation caused by the distance between the
sender and receiver, which are very much frequency dependent.
Finally, there is he effect of refraction that occurs because the velocity of the
electromagnetic waves depends on the density of the medium through which it
travels. The waves that travel into denser medium are bent towards the medium.
That is why line-of-sight radio waves are bent towards the earth: the density of
the atmosphere is higher closer to the ground.
Multi-path Propagation
Cellular radio as a network does not specify how the individual subscribers
have access to the network. The two main access methods are: analog and digital.
a) Analog access
Analog systems use the familiar single channel per user concept, known as
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). World-wide there are up to six
incompatible analog cellular standards, such as NMT. The available spectrum is
divided into channels A, B, C, D, and so on. During the call, a single user will
occupy completely one channel of e.g. 25 kHz bandwidth irrespective whether the
modulation is analog or digital. The signaling over the network is digital, the
speech is modulated analog narrow-band FM
b) Digital access
• Better compatibility with the network supporting the cellular radio system
• Alternative access method to achieve a better spectral efficiency
Digital systems let each user have access to the frequency band for a short
time (traffic burst), during which time the user transmits data at a high rate.
GSM uses TDMA within a FDMA structure. As a result, different users can
transmit using the same frequency, but they can't transmit at the same time. A
25MHz frequency band is divided using an FDMA scheme into 124 one-way
carrier frequencies. Each base station is assigned one or more carriers to use in
its cell. A 200 kHz frequency band separates the carrier frequencies from each
other. Normally, a 25MHz band should be divisible into 125 carrier frequencies
but in GSM the 1st carrier frequency is used as a guard band between GSM and
other services that might be working on lower frequencies.
4.4 Bursts
• Normal burst
• Dummy burst
• Access burst
• Synchronization burst
• Frequency correction burst [041]
Figure 4.7: Organization of bursts, TDMA frames, and multi-frames for speech
and data [046]
Examples of burst parts are: training sequence, encrypted bits, tail bits,
guard period and stealing flag bits.
a) Training sequence
A fixed bit pattern, called the TSC (training sequence code) is known by
both the MS and the BTS. It is used to train the MS in predicting and correcting
the signal distortions (due to Doppler and multi-path effects) in the
demodulation process. The TSC has a 26, 41 or 64 bit pattern.
b) Encrypted bits
The encrypted bits represent the useful bits serving for speech, data
transmission, or signaling.
c) Tail bits
The tail bits (TB) at the beginning define ("flag") the start of a burst. The
tail bits at the end define the end of a burst.
d) Guard period
The network has the option to use the information bits in the normal burst
to send signaling data as needed. By setting a flag, using the stealing flag bits, the
receiver can distinguish between traffic (user data) and signaling information.
The stealing flag bits indicate whether the adjacent 57 bits in the
associated data field contain speech/data information or are "stolen" from the
traffic channel for carrying pre-emptive FACCH (fast associated control channel)
signaling information. The FACCH is used for sending signaling data if the
capacity of the SACCH (slow associated control channel) is not sufficient. [043]
4.5. Channels
A channel relates to the recurrence of one burst in every frame. The
channel is characterized by both its frequency and its position within the TDMA
frame. This characterization is cyclical, and the channel pattern repeats every 3
hours.
There are two major categories of channels in GSM: traffic channels, and
control channels. Channels can also be classified as being dedicated or common.
Dedicated channels are assigned to a mobile station, while common channels are
used by idle mobile stations.
4.5.2Control Channels
The mobile station already has to be frequency agile, meaning it can move
between transmit, receive, and monitor time slot within one TDMA frame, which
normally are on different frequencies. GSM makes use of this inherent frequency
agility to implement slow frequency hopping, where the mobile and BTS transmit
each TDMA frame on a different carrier frequency. The frequency hopping
algorithm is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since multi-path fading
is dependent on carrier frequency, slow frequency hopping helps alleviate the
problem. In addition, co-channel interference is in effect randomized.
Chapter 5
GSM ARCHITECTURE
• an antenna
• an amplifier
• a receiver
• a transmitter and
• similar hardware and software for sending and receiving signals and
converting between RF waves and audio signals [052]
The mobile station (MS) comprises all user equipment and software needed
for communication with a Wireless telephone network. MS refers to the Mobile
Phone i.e. the handset held by the users in the mobile network. This is the
terminology of 2G systems like GSM. In the 3G systems, MS (mobile station) is
now referred as User Equipment UE. The MS includes radio equipment and the
man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the
services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be
portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data
communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and
from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections
through the system. [053], [064]
• Mobile Terminal (MT) - offers common functions that are used by all
the service the Mobile Station offers. It is equivalent to the network
termination of an ISDN access and is also the end-point of the radio
interface.
• Terminal Equipment (TE) - is a peripheral device of the Mobile
Station and offers services to the user. It does not contain any functions
specific in GSM.
• Terminal Adapter (TA) - hides radio-specific characteristics.
• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) - is a personalization of the Mobile
Station and stores user specific parameters (such as mobile number,
contacts etc). [054]
Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used
to identity the mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in
different phases of call setup. The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is
the number that the calling party dials in order to reach the subscriber. It is used
by the land network to route calls toward an appropriate MSC. The international
mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function of the subscriber within
the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him.
The MS has two very important entities, each with its own identity:
When a mobile subscriber wants to use the system, he or she mounts their
SIM card and provide their Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is
compared with a PIN stored within the SIM. If the user enters three incorrect
PIN codes, the SIM is disabled. The service provider if requested by the
subscriber can also permanently bypass the PIN. Disabling the PIN code
simplifies the call setup but reduces the protection of the user’s account in the
event of a stolen SIM. [067], [068]
a) Fixed Terminals
These MEs are installed in cars having the maximum power output of 20 W.
b) Portable Terminals
Portable terminals are also installed in the vehicles. Their maximum
allowed output power is 8 W.
c) Handheld terminals
The handheld terminals are most popular because of their smaller size and
weight, which are decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit up to 2 W of
power. With evolution in technology, the maximum allowed power is reduced to
0.8 W.
5.1.2.5 Mobile subscriber identities in GSM
It would be better to discuss some of the important subscriber identities in
the GSM, which make the use of this technology safer for every person whether
he/she is a subscriber of GSM or not.
1) International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile
country code (MCC), mobile network code (MNC) (to identify the PLMN), and a
PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is the
only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI
consists of the MCC followed by the MNC and MSIN and shall not exceed 15
digits. It is used in the case of system-internal signaling transactions in order to
identify a subscriber. The first two digits of the MSIN identify the HLR where the
mobile subscriber is administrated. [069]
The Base Station (BS) terminates the radio interface (Um) on the stationary
network side. The BS has a modular design and includes the:
In GSM, the Base Station System is a term given to a BSC (Base Station
Controller) and the BTS (Base Transceiver Station) associated with it. The
number of BTS associated with a BSC is dependent on the manufacturer.
Although not mandatory, through interpretation of the Abis interface standard
BTS and BSC employed within a BSS will always be supplied by the same
manufacturer. [072], [073]
The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other.
The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its
control. It assigns and releases frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own
area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in
its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally
heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the
power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level
for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH.
The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference
signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of received
MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in
its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to
advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. The BSC may
also perform traffic concentration to reduce the number of transmission lines
from the BSC to its BTSs. [074]
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier
frequencies, frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for
cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from
radio planning engineering which involves modeling of the signal propagation as
well as traffic projections. [075], [076]
The packet control unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It
performs some of the processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The
allocation of channels between voice and data is controlled by the base station,
but once a channel is allocated to the PCU, the PCU takes full control over that
channel.
The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in
some proposed architectures, it can be at the SGSN site. In most of the cases, the
PCU is a separate node communicating extensively with the BSC on the radio side
and the SGSN on the Gb side.
The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the
radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the
network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same
TDM frame.
There are two categorize in which, BTS may be arranged in the cells depending
upon the circumstances of the region in which they are to be used. The two
arrangements are shown in figure below.
Collocated BTS
Remote BTS
Star BTS
5.2.2.5 Sectorization
The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7
interface (A-interface) that, as stated before, is fully defined in the GSM
recommendations. This allows the system operator to purchase switching
equipment from one supplier and radio equipment and the controller from
another. The interface between the BSC and a remote BTS likewise is a standard
the Abis. In splitting the BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle
was that only such functions that had to reside close to the radio
transmitters/receivers should be placed in BTS. This will also help reduce the
complexity of the BTS.
the transcoder is located at MSC, they are still considered functionally a part of
the BSS. This approach allows for the maximum of flexibility and innovation in
optimizing the transmission between MSC and BTS.
Mbps if a CEPT1 channel is provided on the Abis interface. This channel can
carry up to 120-(16x 120) traffic and control signals. Since the data rate to the
PSTN is normally at 2 Mbps, which is the result of combining 30-Kbps by 64-
Kbps channels, or 120- Kbps by 16-Kbps channels. [080]
5.2.3.1 Um-interface
It is the air interface between the mobile station (MS) and the BTS. This
interface uses LAPDm protocol for signaling, to conduct call control,
measurement reporting, handover, power control, authentication, authorization,
location update and so on. Traffic and signaling are sent in bursts of 0.577 ms at
intervals of 4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms.
5.2.3.2 Abis-interface
It is the interface between the BTS and BSC, generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or
E1 TDM circuit. Uses TDM sub-channels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for
BTS supervision and telecom signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC
to the BTS and MS.
The Abis interface uses multiplexing or rate adaptation (RA) on its links.
The first option means that four 16 kbit/s links are multiplexed into one 64 kbit/s
channel. The latter option means that no multiplexing of the 16 kbit/s channels
takes place. [058]
5.2.3.3 A-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and MSC. It is used for carrying traffic
channels and the BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although there are usually
transcoding units between BSC and MSC, the signaling communication takes
place between these two ending points and the transcoder unit doesn't touch the
SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are transcoded or rate adapted.
5.2.3.4 Ater-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and transcoder. It is a proprietary
interface whose name depends on the vendor (for example Ater by Nokia), it
carries the A interface information from the BSC leaving it untouched.
5.2.3.5 Gb-interface
It connects the BSS to the SGSN in the GPRS core network . [059]
The network and the switching subsystem together include the main
switching functions of GSM as well as the databases needed for subscriber data
and mobility management (VLR). The main role of the MSC is to manage the
communications between the GSM users and other telecommunication network
users. The basic switching function is performed by the MSC, whose main
function is to coordinate setting up calls to and from GSM users. The MSC has
interface with the BSS on one side (through which MSC VLR is in contact with
GSM users) and the external networks on the other (ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN). The
main difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is that the
MSC has to take into account the impact of the allocation of RRs and the mobile
All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based
services, so most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard
GSM core network. [062]
• The home location register (HLR) for obtaining data about the SIM and
mobile services ISDN number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number).
• The UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) which handles the radio
communication with 3G mobile phones.
• The visitor location register (VLR) for determining where other mobile
subscribers are located.
• Other MSCs for procedures such as handover.
a) Billing Center
Each MSC writes call accounting records to local disk memory. Billing
Center periodically polls the disk records of each MSC to collect the billing data
for the PLMN.
b) Service Center
The Service Center interfaces with the MSCs to provide special services,
such as the Short Message Service (SMS), to mobile subscribers in the PLMN.
The Billing Center and Service Center are not a basic part of the GSM system.
[083]
There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which
reflect their complex role in the network; all of these terms though could refer to
the same MSC, but doing different things at different times.
The gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC
the subscriber who is being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the
PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a
G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may
provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function; however, some
manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs
connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the
calls they handle.
3) Anchor MSC
The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated.
The target MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. A mobile
switching centre server is a part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from
3GPP Release 5. [084]
Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from
Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the
subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery system
The HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator.
Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each
HLR record.
The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the
MSISDNs, which are the telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and
receive calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used for making and receiving
voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to have other secondary
MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a primary
key to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains
with the mobile phone operator.
The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions
and messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location
update messages received as mobile phones roam around.
The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones
move around a lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or
collected from the MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors
integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is
very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.
• Authentication data.
• MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number).
• GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access.
• Access point (GPRS) subscribed.
• The V-MSC to pass needed data for its procedures; e.g., authentication or call
setup.
• The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area.
• Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they
roam into new VLR areas. For example, the temporal mobile subscriber identity
(TMSI).
• To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered
by the VLR.
• To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no
call is ongoing.
• To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use.
• To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls.
• To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the
area of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period
of inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off
and left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for
a long time).
• To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another,
as instructed by the HLR. [086], [087], [088]
The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but
instead generates data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure.
The security of the process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and
the SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture
and is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between
the AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a
challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called Kc
for use in over the air communications. [088]
EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units.
The IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per
PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all
ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores
the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or
originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and
each group has different characteristics:
White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid
MS’s. This is the category of genuine equipment.
Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty
software, and wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with
faults not important enough for barring. [088]
collect large amounts of data exists, maintenance personal can select which of the
detailed statistics to be collected based on personal interests and past experience.
As a result of performance analysis, if necessary, an alarm can be set remotely.
The OMC provides system change control for the software revisions and
configuration data bases in the network entities or uploaded to the OMC. The
OMC also keeps track of the different software versions running on different
subsystem of the GSM. [090], [091]
Chapter 6
GSM SUBSCRIBERS
DATA
Further data about the subscribers and their contractual agreement with
the service provider is tabulated on next page.
Chapter 7
GSM SERVICES
GSM permits the integration of different voice and data services and the inter-
working with existing networks. Services make a network interesting for
customers. GSM has defined three different categories of services:
• Bearer Services
• Tele Services
• Supplementary Services
Bearer services are also referred to as data services. Data services provide the
capacity necessary to transmit appropriate data signals between two access
points creating an interface to the network.
GSM specifies different mechanisms for data transmission, the original GSM
allowing for data rates of up to 9600 bits/s for non-voice services. Bearer services
permit transparent and non-transparent, synchronous and non-synchronous
data transmission.
Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical layer (layer 1)
to transmit data. Data transmission has a constant delay and throughput if no
transmission errors occur. Transparent bearer services do not try to recover lost
data in case of, for example, shadowing or interruptions due to handover.
Tele services are also known as telephony services. Telephony services are mainly
voice services that provide subscribers with the complete capability (including
necessary terminal equipment) to communicate with other subscribers. The voice
oriented Tele services include:
• Fax transmission
• Videotext access
• Fax mail —with this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at
any fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which
they can be retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the
desired fax number. [091], [92], [93], [097]
Components between the two TE (MS) makes the Bearer Services [115]
• Call forwarding —this service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not
reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed
unconditionally.
Note: Bearer and Tele services are carried under the umbrella term
“telecommunication services”.
Chapter 8
GSM FUNCTIONS
In this chapter, the description of the GSM network is focused on the different
functions to fulfill by the network and not on its physical components. In GSM,
five main functions can be defined:
• Transmission
• Radio Resources Management (RRM).
• Mobility Management (MM).
• Communication Management (CM).
• Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM).
8.2 Transmission
Transmission means sending and receiving of data and signaling bits. Not
all the components of the GSM network are strongly related with both types of
types of Tx. While the MSC, BTS and BSC, among others, are involved with data
and signaling, components such as HLR, VLR or EIR registers, are only
concerned with signaling. The GSM standard also provides separate facilities for
transmitting digital data. This allows a mobile phone to act like any other
computer on the Internet, sending and receiving data via the Internet Protocol.
[097]
8.3.1 Handoff
The user movements may result a change in the channel/cell, when the
quality of the communication is degrading; this is known as handoff. Handoffs
occur between:
To perform the handoff the mobile station controls continuously its own
signal strength and the signal strength of the neighboring cells. The list of cells
that must be monitored by the mobile station is given by the base station. Power
measurements allow deciding which the best cell is in order to maintain the
quality of the communication link. Two basic algorithms are used for handoffs:
The `power budget' algorithm: Here the handoff pre-empts the power
increase, to obtain a good SIR.
The different services to which the subscriber has access are also checked.
Next the security check is performed in the equipment identity (IMEI). If the
IMEI number of the mobile is authorized in the EIR, the mobile station is allowed
to connect the network. To assure user confidentiality, the user is registered with
a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) after its first location update
procedure. Enciphering is another option to guarantee a very strong security.
[100], [102]
• a country code
• a national destination code; this identifies the subscriber's operator
• a code mapping to the subscriber's HLR.
• The call is then passed to the GMSC (if the call is originated from a
fixed network) that 'knows' the HLR corresponding to the particular
MSISDN number. The GMSC signals the HLR for call routing
information. The HLR requests this information from the subscriber's
current VLR. This VLR allocates temporarily a Mobile Station Roaming
Number (MSRN) for the call. The MSRN number is the information
returned by the HLR to the GMSC. It is latter that routes the call
through the MSRN number, to the subscriber's current MSC/VLR. In
the subscriber's current LA, the mobile is paged.
The OAM component allows the operator to monitor and control the
system as well as modify the configuration of the elements of the system. Not
only the OSS is part of the OAM, but also the BSS and NSS participate in
functions such as:
• Provide the operator with all the information it needs. This information is
forwarded to the OSS to control the network.
• Perform self-test tasks in addition to the OAM functions.
• Control of multiple BTSs by the BSS. [105]
When a mobile subscriber roams into a new location area (new VLR), the
VLR automatically determines that it must update the HLR with the new location
information, which it does using an SS7 Location Update Request Message. The
Location Update Message is routed to the HLR through the SS7 network, based
on the global title translation of the IMSI that is stored within the SCCP Called
Party Address portion of the message. The HLR responds with a message that
informs the VLR whether the subscriber should be provided service in the new
location.
When a user dials a GSM mobile subscriber's MSISDN, the PSTN routes
the call to the Home MSC based on the dialed telephone number. The MSC must
then query the HLR based on the MSISDN, to attain routing information
required to route the call to the subscribers' current location.
The MSC stores global title translation tables that are used to determine
the HLR associated with the MSISDN. When only one HLR exists, the translation
tables are trivial. When more than one HLR is used however, the translations
become extremely challenging; with one translation record per subscriber (see
the example below). Having determined the appropriate HLR address, the MSC
sends a Routing Information Request to it.
When the HLR receives the Routing Information Request, it maps the
MSISDN to the IMSI, and ascertains the subscribers' profile including the current
VLR at which the subscriber is registered. The HLR then queries the VLR for a
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN). The MSRN is essentially an ISDN
telephone number at which the mobile subscriber can currently be reached. The
MSRN is a temporary number that is valid only for the duration of a single call.
The HLR generates a response message, which includes the MSRN, and
sends it back across the SS7 network to the MSC. Finally, the MSC attempts to
complete the call using the MSRN provided. [107]
Chapter 9
ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES OF
GSM
• GSM is mature; this maturity means a more stable network with robust
features
• Less signal deterioration inside buildings
• Ability to use repeaters
• Talk-time is generally higher in GSM phones due to the pulse nature of
transmission
• The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch
networks and handsets at will
• GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international roaming is not
a problem.
• The subscriber can enjoy the broadest international coverage. It is possible
with the GSM roaming service. [110]
• Good coverage indoors on 850/900 MHz. Repeaters possible. 35 km hard
limit.
• Very good due to simple protocol, good coverage and mature, power-
efficient chipsets. [111], [112]
• GSM has a fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km, which is imposed by
technical limitations. [110], [111]
Chapter 10
CONCLUSIONS
The services provided by the GSM are divided into three categories; the
Tele services, Bearer services, and supplementary services. Its functions include;
Transmission, Radio Resources Management (RRM), Mobility Management
(MM), Communication Management (CM), Operation, Administration and
Maintenance (OAM).
There are many advantages of GSM technology, but few of them are; GSM
more stable network with robust features, there is less signal deterioration inside
buildings etc., the availability of SIMs allows users to switch networks and
handsets at will, GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international
roaming is not a problem, the subscriber can enjoy the broadest international
coverage. It is possible with the GSM roaming service, Very good due to simple
protocol, good coverage and mature, power-efficient chipsets.
Nothing in this world is ideal, drawbacks are always there. The
disadvantage associated with the GSM is that pulse nature of TDMA transmission
used interferes with some electronics, especially certain audio amplifiers. GSM
has a fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km, which is imposed by technical
limitations.
Overall, GSM is really a great and efficient technology bringing world
together and making every place as our homes due to a communication with
people anywhere anytime.
Appendix A
Although these technologies sound very intimidating, you can get a good
sense of how they work just by breaking down the title of each one. The first word
tells you what the access method is. The second word, division, lets you know that
it splits calls based on that access method.
The last part of each name is multiple-access. This simply means that
more than one user can utilize each cell.
FDMA
FDMA separates the spectrum into distinct voice channels by splitting it into
uniform chunks of bandwidth. To better understand FDMA, think of radio
stations: Each station sends its signal at a different frequency within the available
band. FDMA is used mainly for analog transmission. While it is certainly capable
of carrying digital information, FDMA is not considered to be an efficient method
for digital transmission.
TDMA
TDMA is the access method used by the Electronics Industry Alliance and
Appendix B
ADVANTAGES
Fully digital, very
Simple, robust
flexible
Standard in fixed
Typically combined with
networks, used together
COMMENT the TDMA (frequency
with the FDMA, used in
hopping)
many mobile networks
Points to Remember:
(1) FDMA is implemented only where two or more different frequencies are in
(2) In pure FDMA, channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all
certain patterns.
(3) Different transmitters use FDMA within each other’s interference range to
avoid interference.
Appendix C
Coverage
The most important factor is getting service in the areas you will be using
your phone. Upon viewing competitors' coverage maps you may discover that
only GSM or CDMA carriers offer cellular service in your area. If so, there is no
decision to be made, but most people will find that they do have a choice.
With the advent of cellular phones doing double and triple duty as
streaming video devices, podcast receivers and email devices, speed is important
to those who use the phone for more than making calls. CDMA has been
traditionally faster than GSM, though both technologies continue to rapidly
leapfrog along this path. Both boast "3G" standards, or 3rd generation
technologies.
EVDO, also known as CDMA2000, is CDMA's answer to the need for speed
with a downstream rate of about 2 megabits per second, though some reports
suggest real world speeds are closer to 300-700 kilobits per second (kbps). This is
comparable to basic DSL.
GSM's answer is EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), which
boasts data rates of up to 384 kbps with real world speeds reported closer to 70-
140 kbps. With added technologies still in the works that include UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telephone Standard) and HSDPA (High Speed Downlink
Packet Access), speeds reportedly increase to about 275—380 kbps. This
technology is also known as W-CDMA, but is incompatible with CDMA networks.
An EDGE-ready phone is required.
In the case of EVDO, theoretical high traffic can degrade speed and
performance, while the EDGE network is more susceptible to interference. Both
require being within close range of a cell to get the best speeds, while
performance decreases with distance.
In the United States only GSM phones use SIM cards. The removable SIM
card allows phones to be instantly activated, interchanged, swapped out and
upgraded, all without carrier intervention. The SIM itself is tied to the network,
rather than the actual phone. Phones that are card-enabled can be used with any
GSM carrier. The CDMA equivalent, a R-UIM card, is only available in parts of
Asia but remains on the horizon for the U.S. market. CDMA carriers in the U.S.
require proprietary handsets that are linked to one carrier only and are not card-
enabled.
To upgrade a CDMA phone, the carrier must deactivate the old phone then
activate the new one. The old phone becomes useless.
Roaming
For the most part, both networks have fairly concentrated coverage in
major cities and along major highways. GSM carriers, however, have roaming
contracts with other GSM carriers, allowing wider coverage of more rural areas,
generally speaking, often without roaming charges to the customer. CDMA
networks may not cover rural areas as well as GSM carriers, and though they may
contract with GSM cells for roaming in more rural areas, the charge to the
customer will generally be significantly higher.
International Roaming
If you need to make calls to other countries, a GSM carrier can offer
international roaming, as GSM networks dominate the world market. If you
travel to other countries you can even use your GSM cell phone abroad, providing
it is a quad-band phone (850/900/1800/1900 MHz). By purchasing a SIM card
with minutes and a local number in the country you are visiting, you can make
calls against the card to save yourself international roaming charges from your
carrier back home. CDMA phones that are not card-enabled do not have this
capability.
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