UNIT 13 STATIC AND DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS AND EQUIVALENT DYNAMICAL SYSTEM

Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

13.2 Static Force Analysis

13.2.1 Effect of Sliding Friction 13.2.2 Reciprocating Engine Mechanism 13.2.3 Four Bar Chain

13.3 Equivalent Dynamical System 13.4 Correction Couple Applied to Two Mass System 13.5 Dynamic Force Analysis in a Reciprocating Engine 13.6 Summary 13.7 Key Words 13.8 Answers to SAQs

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In a mechanism, the members are subjected to some form of loading. These loads may be due combustion of fuel in IC engines or hydraulic pressure in turbines, friction force due to sliding and turning pairs, inertia forces, weight, etc. Some of the forces are not always constant for different configurations of machine but these forces also can be considered constant for a particular configuration. The applied forces change with the change in configuration and, thereby, the loads carried by different members also change. Therefore, each configuration of the machine is considered as system of rigid bodies in equilibrium.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to do static force analysis of a mechanism, form dynamically equivalent system of two point masses for a given link, determine friction circles and friction axis, and perform dynamic force analysis.

13.2 STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

The machine is considered as a system of rigid bodies which is in equilibrium under the action of external forces which are called static forces. Some of these forces may change with the change in configuration. For a particular configuration these forces are constant and loads carried by each member can be determined. Such an analysis can be carried out for different configurations of the machine to know the history of loading for each cycle of the machine. The history of loading is very important for the design of the machine members. 5

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

13.2.1 Effect of Sliding Friction

Due to the relative motion between the elements, frictional forces are generated. The links of a mechanism are connected mostly by either sliding pairs or turning pairs. The Figures 13.1(a) and (b) shows the piston subjected to the gas force P. The connecting rod shall apply the reactive force F34 which acts through the point B. These forces are not collinear therefore, there has to be a third force which is reaction from the cylinder wall. This force F14 is the resultant of normal reaction and force of friction. The angle of inclination of F14 with normal to the cylinder is the angle of friction given by
= tan 1

. . . (13.1)

where is the coefficient of friction. The maximum force of friction is N, where N is the normal reaction. The different location of F14 is shown in Figures 13.1(c), (d), (e) and (f) depending of direction of motion and the contact whether it is at the top or bottom.
3 F34 P B 4 Piston (4)

Cylinder Walls ( I )

F14

(a)

(b)

N N

F14

F14

(c)
F14 N N

(d)

F14

(e) Figure 13.1

(f)

Some of links are connected through the turning pairs. We can consider two links 2 and 3 as shown in Figure 13.2(a). Let link 3 rotate clockwise with respect to the link 2. Since the friction opposes the relative motion it produces counterclockwise couple. The friction force along with normal reaction is shown in Figure 13.2(b). These forces will be the distributed forces at the contact area. Figures 13.2(c) and (d) show the horizontal and vertical components of radial and tangential forces at two symmetric points of the element of link 3. It will be seen that the vertical components of the radial distributed load cancel with each other and horizontal components of tangential distributed load 6

cancel with each other. Therefore, there will be net reaction Rn and force of friction Rn. The force, exerted by link 2 on link 3, i.e. F23 is given by
2 F23 = ( Rn ) 2 + Rn = Rn sec

. . . (13.2)
Impending Motion

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

3 3 2

Element of Link 2

(a)
V Rn H H V Vertical Components Cancel Radial Loads Rn V H V

(b)

Horizontal Components Cancel Tangential Loads

(b) Figure 13.2

(c)

Let d represent the diameter of the pint and rf be the radius of friction circle

Rn

d = F23 r f 2
d d = tan Rn 2 2

. . . (13.3)

Rn sec r f = Rn rf = d sin 2

. . . (13.4)

For small values of , values of sin and tan are nearly equal. Therefore,

rf 

d d tan = 2 2

. . . (13.5)

The force F23 will be tangential to the friction circle. The Figure 13.3(a) illustrates shows the different forces acting at the pin joint.
Friction Circle A rf Rn d/2 2 Rn T2 4 P 3

F23 = N Sec

O Increasing
Decreasing

B
Impending Motion

(a) Figure 13.3

(b)

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

A link which has pin joints at both the ends. The different possibilities of equilibrium of the link is shown in Figures 13.4(a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f). The line of action of force is known as friction axis. The procedure of determination of friction axis as follows :

(a)

(b)

(c)
A F23 A

(d)
34

F43 32

B (f) Figure 13.4

(e)

Consider the motion of different links in Figure 13.3(b). The link 2 rotates counterclockwise. For impending slide of link 4, i.e. piston angle decreases. The angular velocity of link 3 relative to link 2 is clockwise. For this motion reactive force F23 gives a counterclockwise moment about centre A to oppose the angular impending motion hence the direction of F23 is as shown in Figure 13.4(e). The link 3 has clockwise angular velocity relative to link 4. Therefore, the line of action of force F43 will be as shown in Figure 13.4(f). The friction axis will be as shown in Figure 13.4(d). Figures 13.5(a) and (b) show the forces in equilibrium for the link 4 for the top and bottom contacts, respectively.
F14 F34 F34

+ +

F14

(a) Figure 13.5

(b)

SAQ 1
(a) (b) 8 What do you mean by a friction circle? How do you determine friction axis?

13.2.2 Reciprocating Engine Mechanism

The reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Figure 13.6(a). The free body diagrams of different links is shown in Figures 13.6(a), (b), (c) and (d). The forces at the piston, i.e. link 4 include the gas force P.
F34 A

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

P 3 4 P B 2 O F14 Link 4

(a)
F23 A A

(b)

C2 F32 B F43 Link 3 O Link 2

F12

(c) Figure 13.6

(d)

Force Analysis without Friction As a first step, let the friction be neglected. In the free body diagram shown in Figure 13.6(b), force P is known by knowing the gas pressure and the diameter of the piston. In case of other two forces, the line of action are known. Since friction force has been neglected, the line of action of the reaction F14 is vertical. Because there are only there forces, they have to pass through a common point (concurrent) for equilibrium to exist. Examination of the free body diagram of link 3 (Figure 13.6(c)) proves that the force F43 has line of action along AB because there are only two forces which have to be collinear. The collinear force can be in equilibrium if they are equal in magnitude and opposite in action. Therefore, the line of action of F34 (= | F43 |) is along link AB. In order to know the magnitudes and directions of F34 and F14, polygon of forces can be formed by assuming suitable scale or it can be determined analytically by using the following equations.

F34 cos = P or

F34 =

P F34 cos

F34 sin = F14 F14

F34 F32 F14

d Couple C2 (Resistance Couple on Crank) P 2

F12

(a) Figure 13.7

(b)

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

By knowing the direction and the magnitude of F34, F43 will be known in magnitude and direction. The direction of F43 shall be opposite to F34 and the magnitudes of these two will be equal by Newtons third law which states that the action and reaction have equal magnitude and they are opposite in the line of action. F32 will be opposite to F23 and the will be equal in magnitude. In free body diagram of link 2, force F12 will act at the point O. The forces F32 is acting at the point A (Figure 13.6(d)). It can be observed that the forces F32 and F12 cannot be collinear to keep link 2 in equilibrium. From the practical point of view it should not be so in order to resist overcoming load which is to be driven by the mechanism. Since the reciprocating mechanism converts the linear motion to rotary motion crank 2 will supply a turning moment to the load. Therefore, F12 has to be equal in magnitude to F32 and opposite in direction to form a couple which has to counteracted by the load couple C2 to keep link 2 in equilibrium. It is shown in Figure 13.7(b). The magnitude of the couple will be (F32 d) where d is the area of the couple. Force Analysis with Friction The reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Figure 13.6(a). The slider has impending motion towards the right. Let the friction angle be . It is required to determine the couple on the link 2 for static equilibrium. Figure 13.8(a) shows free body diagram of the link 4 which is a slider. The force diagram has been drawn in Figure 13.8(b). A suitable scale may be assumed and know force P can be poltted. For other two forces F14 and F34 only directions are known. Lines can be drawn from two extremities parallel to the direction of these forces. They will meet at a point. From this triangle of forces the magnitude of F14 and F34 shall be known. The forces on the connecting rod AB shall be acting along the friction axis which has been discussed in Section 13.2.1. After knowing F34, F23 will be known which is equal and opposition to F32 knowledge of which shall provide magnitude of the couple.
F34

F34 P P F14

F14

(a)
F32 O

(b)

A F23 c d F43 B

F12

(c) Figure 13.8

(d)

SAQ 2
What do you mean by a free body diagram?

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13.2.3 Four Bar Chain

A four bar mechanism is shown in Figure 13.9(a). It is subjected to the three forces F1, F2 and F3 at points P, Q and S, respectively. These forces have been considered in order to make case more general.
F34 B Q A F1 =? P 2 3 F2 4 S F4 S F3 B

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

Q4 F34 = F43 F32 = F23

O4

O14

(a)

(b)
A F32 F43

F23

F2

F3

O2 F12

(c) Figure 13.9

(d)

Force Analysis without Friction Considering that the friction at the hinges does not exist. The free body diagrams of link 2, 3 and 4 are shown in Figures 13.9(b), (c) and (d), respectively. For given values of F2 and F3 the value of F1 is to be determined. From these free body diagrams, it becomes clear that each link has four or more than four unknowns. These four unknowns cannot be determined by using three equations which are available in a statically determinate structure. But the solution is possible by solving the problem in parts. The F34 acting on the link 4, can be resolved parallel to the link and perpendicular P T T and F34 , respectively. By taking moments about O4, F34 can be to the link F34 determined.
T T F43 = F34

Figure 13.10(b) shows link 4 and Figure 13.10(a) shows link 3 on which external T can be combined to give resultant force R force F2 is acting. The forces F2 and F43
T which passes through the point of intersection of F43 and F2. The link 3 is now P subjected to R, F43 and F23 and they have to pass through a pint which is U. F23 P passes through A and U. The magnitude of F23 and F43 can be determined by polygon of forces as shown in Figure 13.10(c). The forces acting on link 2 are F12, F32 and F1. These three forces have to pass through a point V as shown in Figure 13.10(d). Force F32 = F23. Therefore, force F32 is known and directions of F1 and F12 are also known. The triangle of forces can now be drawn and F1 can be determined.

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Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

F23 A

P F34 U F2 4 B F43 R T d O4 F3 T F34

(a)
T F43 P F43 F2 F23

(b)
A F32

V F12

F1

O2 (b) Figure 13.10

(a)

Force Analysis with Friction Friction is present in turning pairs. By drawing friction circles, the position of the friction axis can be known. By knowing position of friction axis as explained in case of slider crank mechanism, line of action of the forces shall be known. After that this case also can be handled in the same as discussed earlier.

SAQ 3
What changes in the static force analysis occur if friction is considered?

13.3 EQUIVALENT DYNAMICAL SYSTEM

When motion takes place, it is most desirable to replace a rigid body or link by two masses for dynamic analysis. It simplifies analysis. The equivalent dynamical system shall have two point masses. The two mass system will be equivalent dynamically to the rigid body if (a) The total body if the two masses of equal to the mass of the rigid body i.e. (b)
m1 + m2 = m

. . . (13.6)

where m1 is mass of rigid body and m2 are point masses. The centre of gravity of the two masses is at the same place as that of the rigid body i.e.
m1 a = m2 b

. . . (13.7)

where a and b distances of m1 and m2 from centre of gravity, respectively.

G m

l
m1 A a G b B m2

Figure 13.11

12

(c)

The mass moment of inertia of the two masses system about an axis passing through centre of gravity G is equal to the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body. i.e.
m1 a 2 + m2 b 2 = m k 2

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

. . . (13.8)

where k is radius of gyration of the rigid body about an axis through centre of gravity G. From Eq. (13.8)

m1 = m2

b a

Substituting value of m1 in Eq. (13.8) we get

m2
or

b + m2 = m a ma a+b mb a+b

m2 m1

Similarly

Substituting values of m1 and m2 in Eq. (13.8), we get

mb a 2 m a b2 + = mk2 ( a + b) a + b

Example 13.1

k2 = a b

. . . (13.9)

The length of connecting rod of an engine is 500 mm (centre to centre) and its mass is 20 kg. The distance of centre of gravity is 125 mm from crank pin centre and crank radius is 100 mm. The radius of the small end pin is 30 mm. The frequency of oscillations of the rod when suspended from the small end is 45 cycles per minute. Determine dynamically equivalent system keeping one mass at the small end. Solution Length of connecting rod l = 500 mm Frequency =

45 Hz = 0.75 Hz 60

Natural circular frequency ' n ' = 2 0.75 r/s

n =

hm g IA

I A = m k 2 + m h2

n =

gh (k + h 2 )
2

h = 500 125 + 15 = 390 mm g = 9810 mm (2 0.75)2 = 9810 390 k 2 + 3902

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Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

or

(2 0.75) 2 (k 2 + 3902 ) = 9810 390

k = 142 mm One of the masses is to be at the small end, therefore, a = 375 mm.
k 2 = a b or b = k2 = 53.8 mm 375

m1 = m1 =
or

mb ma and m2 = a+b a+b

20 53.8 20 375 and m2 = 375 + 53.8 375 + 53.8

and m2 = 17.49 kg.

m1 = 2.51 kg

13.4 CORRECTION COUPLE APPLIED TO TWO MASS SYSTEM

For two mass system to be dynamically equivalent, it should satisfy all the above mentioned three equations. Sometimes, the position of both the masses is fixed as it is convenient in case of the connecting rod of IC engines. One mass is assumed at the small end and other at the big end. In that case all the equations cannot be satisfied and the two mass system shall not be dynamically equivalent to the rigid body. Only the first two conditions can be satisfied in this case but third condition shall not be satisfied. This condition will be satisfied if a couple is applied to the two mass system. This couple is known as the correction couple. Figure 13.12 shows the connecting rod of an IC engine. It is of length l. It is replaced by two lumped masses ma and mc at the piston end and crank pin, respectively. In equivalent dynamical system of the connecting rod mass ma is at the piston end and mass mc is between the crank pin and centre of gravity G. The radius of gyration of the connecting rod. k=ab
500 mm G B G A

+
A h 125 mm B mc c l ma G L G b a a ma

mb

Figure 13.12

Since the location of masses is now fixed, therefore, the new approximate radius of gyration is given by
k1 = a c

The difference in mass moment of inertia is given by

I I1 = m ( k 2 k12 )

. . . (13.10)

If is angular acceleration of the connecting rod, the difference in inertia torque is given by 14

T = (T T1 ) = m (k12 k 2 )

= m (ac ab) = ma (c b) or
T = m a (l L )

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

. . . (13.11)

This is the correction couple which should be applied in case, the position of the two masses is fixed. The magnitude of the correction couple is usually small and can be neglected, whenever, it is unnecessary.

SAQ 4
In which case correction couple should be considered?

13.5 DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS IN A RECIPROCATING ENGINE

Figure 13.13(a) shows reciprocating engine mechanism O2 AB. Let : mp = Mass of reciprocating parts, mc = Mass of the connecting rod N = Reaction at the cylinder wall, Fr = Radial component of the force at the crank pin, Ft = Tangential component of the force at the crank pin, P = Net force at the piston along the line of stroke, Fc = Inertia force on the connecting rod, ap = Acceleration of the reciprocating mass, K = Radius of gyration of connecting rod, and P = Gas force mp ap Weight of connecting rod, W = mc g.
I Y FN

x FC FT P FT Q d g E F N W=mcg R O2 FC W Fr A M FN FR

D G P K B

Figure 13.13

Since acceleration of various points shall be required, Kleins construction can be drawn and O2AQR represents acceleration diagram. The procedure for drawing this has already been explained earlier.

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Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

The connecting rod can be replaced by a dynamically equivalent system. One of the masses can be placed at the small end and the piston of the other mass can be determined by using the following equation.
GD = k2 BG

. . . (13.12)

where G being the centre of gravity. Point R can be joined with R to represent resultant acceleration of the connecting rod. The horizontal lines (parallel to the line of stroke O2B) can be drawn from points G and D to determine acceleration of these points. The acceleration of G and D are given by 2 O2g and 2 O2d, where being angular velocity of the crank. The length scale is same as that of the configuration diagram.
FC = mc 2 O2 g

Draw the lines of action of N and Fr so that they meet at point I. From D draw a line DE parallel to dO2 to meet O2B at E. The resultant inertia force on the connecting rod passes through point E. Therefore, draw a line from E parallel to gO2 to represent line of action of resultant inertia force FC on the connecting rod. The line of action of the weight W may also be extended. Drop perpendiculars from I to the lines of action of FC and W which are I X and I Y. To determine Ft, moment of different forces may be taken and the following equation is obtained.
Ft I A = P I B + FC I X + W I Y

. . . (13.13) . . . (13.14)

or

Ft =

P I B + FC I X + W I Y IA

In order to determine Fr and N, force polygon may be drawn as shown in Figure 13.13(b) which will give their magnitudes because their directions are already known.
Example 13.2

A single cylinder vertical engine has a bore 35 cm and a stroke of 40 cm. The connecting rod is 110 cm long. Mass of reciprocating parts is 140 kg. At the expansion stroke with the crank at 30o from the TDC, the gas pressure is 0.8 MPa. If engine runs at 260 rpm, determine (a) (b) (c)
Solution

net force at the piston, resultant load on the gudgeon pin, and thrust on the cylinder walls.

Given that : Piston diameter, d = 35 cm = 0.35 m Piston stroke, s = 40 cm = 0.4 m Length of CR, l = 110 cm Mass of reciprocating points, m = 140 kg Pressure in cylinder, p = 0.8 MPa Speed, N = 260 rpm Angle = 30o

n= =

l 110 2 = = 5.5 , r 0.40 100

2 260 = 27.33 r/s 60

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(a)

Net Force on the Piston

Net force on the piston of a vertical engine P = Gas force Inertia force + Load Gas force =

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

2 d p = (0.35)2 0.8 106 N 4 4

= 76969 N

cos 2 Inertia force = m 2 r = cos + n cos 60 Inertia force = 140 (27.23) 2 0.2 cos 30o + 5.5
= 19867 N Load 'W ' = 140 g = 1373.4 N Net force on the piston P = 76969 19867 + 1373.4 = 58475 N (b)
Resultant Load on the Gudgeon Pin

Q=

P cos
sin sin 30o = n 5.5

sin =

or (c)

= 5.216o

Q=

58475 cos 5.216o

= 58718 N

Thrust on Cylinder Walls

N = P tan = 58475 tan 5.216 = 5338 N

Example 13.3

The mass of reciprocating parts in a horizontal reciprocating engine is 120 kg. The crank length is 90 mm and engine speed is 600 rpm. Length and mass of the connecting rod is 450 mm and 90 kg, respectively. The join of connecting rod about its centre of gravity is 150 mm. The distance of centre of gravity from small end is 180 mm. Find the magnitude and sense of inertia torque on the crank shaft when the crank has turned 30o from the inner-dead centre.
Solution

Given data : Crank radius, r = 90 mm = 0.09 m Length of connecting rod, l = 450 m = 0.45 m Mass of reciprocating parts, mr = 120 kg Mass of connecting rod, mc = 90 kg Radius of gyration, k = 150 mm = 0.15 m N = 600 rpm 17

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Mechanical Vibration

2 N 2 60 = = 62.83 r/s 60 60

The configuration diagram of the reciprocating engine mechanism has been drawn in Figure 13.14 to a suitable scale. Let one mass of the equivalent dynamical system is at small end and the other at point D
BG GD = k 2

GD =

(150)2 k2 = = 125 mm BG 180

Graphical construction can be drawn as explained in Section 13.5. It is shown in Figure 13.14.
I Y FT FR P M 0 = 30 O

Q Fc Fp X B G w = mc g D

A d g

Figure 13.14

From Figure 13.14 I Y = 0.179 m, I X = 0.215 m I A = 0.517 m, I B = 0.303 m Acceleration of connecting rod = 0.0854 m/s2 Acceleration of reciprocating parts, ap = 0.0871 Inertia force of the connecting rod.
FC = mc w2 ac = 90 (62.83)2 0.0854 = 30341.32 N

W = 90 g = 882.9 N Inertia force of reciprocating parts Fp = mr w2 a p = 120 (62.83)2 0.0871 = 41260.4 N

FT = IX FC + Fp IB + W IY IA

0.215 30341.32 + 0.303 41260.4 + 882.9 0.179 0.517

= 37152.22 N Torque required on crank shaft = 37152.22 0.09 = 3343.7 Nm (counterclockwise). 18

13.6 SUMMARY
The static force analysis can be done by drawing free body diagrams of different links and then by drawing force polygons or analytically unknown forces can be determined. The assumption made in static force analysis that the mass of connecting rod or couple is neglected. The mass of the crank is also neglected. Sometimes it is better to represent a moving link by a two mass system which is equivalent dynamically to the link concerned. The effect of the friction may be considered or it may be neglected. Friction acts at the sliding pair and the turning pairs. The friction force at the sliding pair may be considered along with the gas force. The compression or tension force in the connecting rod or coupler does not pass through the centres of hinges but acts along the friction axis which is tangential to the friction circles at the hinges. If mass of different links is considered, it results in dead loads and the inertia forces on the links. The magnitude of inertia force is given by the product of mass and acceleration having its direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. Therefore, accelerations are to be determined before dynamic analysis of a mechanism. The dynamic analysis may be done graphically or analytically.

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis and Equivalent Dynamical System

13.7 KEY WORDS

Free Body Diagram : When a body or link is isolated, the forces (active and reactive) are also shown on it. This is called free body diagram of the body. The necessary condition for this is that the body should be in equilibrium. : It is a circle which drawn with hinge centre as the centre and radius equal to the product of coefficient of friction and radius of the pin. : It is a line which is tangential to the friction circles and along which the tension or compression in the link acts. : The magnitude of the inertia force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration and its direction is opposite to the direction of acceleration.

Friction Circle

Friction Axis

Inertia Force

13.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

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