ADIFFERENTCANADA

Laurier(LiberalPrimeMinister)proclaimedthatthe20thcenturywouldbethecenturyof Canada Intheearly20thcentury,mostCanadianslivedonfarms/smallvillages VictorianEra:AneranamedafterQueenVictoriathatwasmorallystrict.Familieswere expectedtoattendchurchregularlyandfullysupportEngland. Suffragists:Agroupofwomenwhodespiterepression,wantedtherighttovotesothey couldinfluencetheirgovernment. CanadabegantobecomeurbanizedasliteratureandartbecamemoreCanadianand sentimental Canadawasstillhowever,verymuchaBritishcolony FrenchCanadiansdidnotsupportBritain,theywerenationalistswhowantedCanadatobe moreindependent

CANADASCHANGINGPOPULATION AfterLaurierbecameprimeminister,herealizedCanadaneededmorepeople HestartedtopromoteCanadaasagreatplacetoliveandencouragedimmigration MostCanadianshoweverwereethnocentric,thinkingtheirownracewassuperior Asaresult,racismanddiscriminationwerecommonpracticesfortheimmigrantsthatcame in Headtax:ThefederalgovernmentthentriedtolimitimmigrationfromAsiabyplacinga headtaxonimmigrantsfromChina. In1908,therewasavirtualbanonEastIndianImmigrants Thesummerof1914,TheKomagataMaru,ashipcarryingmostlySikhs,wasforcedto returntoIndiaaftertheyweredeniedentryintoCanada ABORIGINALPEOPLE ThemovementsofAboriginalswereregulatedundertheIndianActof1876 Bythe1880s,AboriginalsinthePrairieswerelivingonreserves:designatedareasofland, usedtofreetheopenlandforEuropeanimmigrants. Aboriginalswereexpectedtotakeupfarmingasopposedtohunting,butalotofthemwent hungryasequipmentwaslimited Residentialschools:SchoolsforAboriginalchildrenrunbychurcheswheretheconditions wereunsanitaryandcauseddiseasesliketuberculosistospreadquickly. Assimilation:AfederalgovernmentpolicytryingtoabolishtraditionalAboriginalcultureand accustomthemtotheEuropeanwayoflife.Suchresidentialschoolsandforcedfarmingare examplesofthis. URBANIZATION Morepeoplebegantomovetotownsandcities,howeverthecontrastbetweenrichand poorwasevident AsthepopulationCanadagrew,asdidtheeconomy,withtheuseofelectricityboosting Canadasindustrialgrowth

Workersbegantoformtradeunionswhichpressedforbetterpay,reducedhoursofwork andbetterworkingconditions.Theywouldgoonstrikewhenemployersrefusedtheir demands. By1914,Canadawasinarecessionafter2decadesofrapidgrowth Atthistime,Canadiansfinallybegantorealizethetollthatindustrializationwastakingon theenvironment

CANADAANDWORLDWARI

Summerof19141918(ArmisticedeclaredontheWesternFront) EasternFront=pastRussia,WesternFront=pastFrance Propagandawasusedtopersuadepeopletosupportthewar

CAUSESOFTHEWAR
June28th,1914ArchdukeFranzFerdinand(CrownPrinceofAustriaHungary)andhiswife SophiewereshotbyGavriloPrincip(memberofSerbiannationalistgroup,theBlackHand) whilevisitingSarajevo. Nationalism:Europewascontrolledbythreeweakandcrumblingempires:TheAustro Hungarian,theRussianandtheOttoman.Manycountriesresentedbeingpartofanempire andwantedindependence.WhenBosniaHerzegovina,forexample.wastakenoverby AustriaHungary,Serbianswereoutraged. Alliances:Toreducevulnerabilitytoattack,manycountriesformedalliances. TripleAllianceAKAtheCentralPowers:Germany,AustriaHungaryandItaly TripleEntenteAKAtheAllies:France,GreatBritainandRussia Ifanyonecountrywasattacked,othermembersofwouldimmediatelyalsobecome involved. Militarism:CountriesinEuropehadbeenrapidlybuildinguptheirarmies.Germanyin particularkeptexpandinginanattempttomaintainthebalanceofpower.Ithadthe strongestarsenalofweaponsinEuropebutwantedtobeatGreatBritaininthenavalsector. Bothcountriesstartedtobuildlargebattleshipscalleddreadnoughtsandhadhugefleetsof warships. Imperialism:ManyEuropeancountrieshadacquiredcoloniesoverseasandoftenchallenged eachotherforrightstocertainterritoriesandresources. THEDOMINOEFFECT AustriaHungaryblamedSerbiafortheassassinationofFranzFerdinand AustriaHungarydeclaredwaronSerbia Russia,SerbiasallymobilizeditstroopsandGermany,AustriaHungarysallydidthesame Allthegreatpowershadmobilizedarmieswithinweeksandwereatwar BritaindeclaredwaronGermanyafteritinvadedBelgium ItbecametheTripleEntentevs.theTripleAlliance,withmanycountriesatwar

CANADASROLE
2 PrimeMinisteratthetimewasRobertBorden(conservative) Canadabecameapoliticalunionin1867,butBritainstillcontrolleditsforeignpolicy MostEnglishspeakerssupportedthewarbecausetheywerepatriotictowardsG.B

WilfredLaurier(liberal)supportedthewarandsaidthatCanadianswerereadytohelp Manyenthusiasticvolunteerssignedup(over30,000)becausetheythoughtthewarwould beshortandtheywouldbehomebyChristmas o Someenjoyedtheideaofbeingahero o Othersneededtoescapefinancialhardshipsathome Womenwereencouragedtostayhomeandsupportmen,butsomebecamenursesand ambulancedrivers. Minoritiesinitiallywerenotwelcome,buttheyeventuallyovercamethediscriminationand joined,thoughfewwerepromoted

TRAINING
SamHughes(British),theministerofmilitiasetupatrainingcentreinValcartier,Qubec 32000troopsweresentafterafewweeksofminimaltraining WarbroughtCanadianstogetherastheybegantodevelopanationalidentity ThisarmywascalledtheCanadianExpeditionaryForce(CorpsExpeditionnaireCanadien), andfoughtforthemostpartindependentlyfromBritain Hugheswasalsoinchargeofthearmamentindustry HecreatedtheShellCommitteeandby1917wassupplying1/3ofBritainsshells However,becausehewasapooradministrator,theMinistryofMilitiabecameinefficient andconfusing Hebegantomanufactureweaponsofpoorqualityandwasmoreconcernedwithmaking moneythanquality. TheCanadianRossrifletendedtojaminrapidfiresoCanadiantroopswouldtakeBritishLee Enfieldrifleswhentheycould. Hugheswasdismissedin1916,butwasknightedbeforeso

THEWARMEASURESACT(Loidesmeasuresdeguerre)
Bordenrealizedthegovernmentneededmorecontroltomeetthedemandsofwar HeintroducedtheWarMeasuresAct(Loidesmeasuresdeguerre)whichsaidthe governmentcoulddoanythingnecessaryforthesecurityofCanada Mailcouldbecensored,theycouldinterveneintheeconomyandhabeascorpus(theright toajudge)wassuspended Anyonedeemedsuspiciouscouldbesenttojailordeported ImmigrantsfromGermanyandAustriaHungaryhadspecialidentitycardsandsomewere senttointernmentcamps

THEWARONLAND
3 TheSchlieffenPlan:TheGermanplantoquicklyinvadeBelgium,thenFrancetocapture Paris.TheywouldthenturntheirattentiontowardsRussia. Theycameclose(35kmfromParisbyAugust1914),buttheywereexhaustedbythepaceof theplanandwerepushedback GermanythendecidedtodigadefensivelineoftrenchesandtheAlliesfollowedsuit AvastnetworkoftrencheswasthenbuiltfromtheEnglishChanneltotheSwissborder NoMansLandwastheareabetweenthetrenchesofbothsides,comprisedofcorpses, barbedwireandmud BytheChristmasof1914,neithersidecouldadvancebutneithercouldretreateither

By1914,newweaponsweresoadvancedthatchargingwasnolongeragoodstrategy Themachinegunwasinvented Planeswereusedtospyonenemies Tankswereinventedin1916andwereusedtobreakthroughthebarbedwireinfrontof trenches Manycommandersdidntrealizethatnewweaponsneedednewstrategiesandover3 years,hundredsofthousandsofsoldiersdiedinFranceandBelgium Conditionswerecold,damp,rainy,muddy,smellyandoverrunbyrats ManymendevelopedTrenchFoot,wherefeetwouldswellandturnblack,oftenrequiring amputation Injuredmenwereoftenlefttodieinnomanslandbecauserescuewastoodangerous

INTHETRENCHES

MAJORCEFBATTLESOFWORLDWARI
THESECONDBATTLEOFYPRES April22,1915andApril24th,1915theFrenchandCanadiantroopswereblinded,burned andkilledbythechlorinegas(AKAmustardgas)usedbytheGermans FoughtInYpres,BelgiumnearFlanderssField Gasattackdespitethefactthatgasformilitarypurposeswasoutlawedsince1907 Foramonth,neithersidegainedadvantageinthefieldofFlanders,but6000Canadians werekilledwoundedorcaptured THEBATTLEOFTHESOMME
July1916,1916BritishandFrenchforcesunderGeneralDouglasHaiglaunchedamassive attackalongtheridgesnearSommeRiver,France Haiginsistedonusingpreviousstrategies,despitethembeinguselessintrenchwarfare WavesofsoldiersmarchedacrossopenfieldsandwerekilledbyGermanmachineguns 85%oftheRoyalNewfoundlandRegimentwerekilled/woundedinhalfanhour(over700 men) OveramillioncasualtieswhenthebattleendedinNovember. Haigclaimedvictory.24000Canadiansdied.

THEBATTLEOFVIMYRIDGE
4 GermanscontrolledVimyRidge(northernFrance)sincetheirfirstoffensivein1914 Frenchhadtried3timestoregainVimy,butfailed Inlate1916,CanadiansledbyGeneralJulianByngwerechosentoleadnewassault Byngtrainedthetroopsthoroughlyanddevelopedstrategies Fromthewestsideoftheridge,CanadiansbombardedGermansforoveramonthwhile armyengineersmadetunnelstomovetroopssecretlytoforwardpositions AtzerohourApril9th,1917,EasterMonday,thetroopsmovedintoposition Canadiansfollowedtheplanofattackandtooktheirfirstobjectives April10th,theycapturedHill145,thehighestpointoftheridge April12th,theytookthepimple,thelastGermanposition

Greatvictory,takenmoreprisonersandmoreartillerythananyotherBritishoffensive Over3500menwerekilledand7000wounded ThevictoryisagreatsourceofprideinCanadianhistory

PASSCHENDAELE
In1917,CanadianswerecalledtoretakePasschendaeleRidgeinBelgium ByngwaspromotedbecauseofVimyandhisreplacementwasGeneralArthurCurrie (Canadianrealestatedealer) CurriestilltookordersfromHaig,whowantedtorecapturePasschendaele Curriewarnedthatitwasabadideaandcasualtieswouldbehigh,butHaigignoredhim TheAllieswon,butthevictorycostover15000Canadianlivesandhalfamillionsoldiers frombothsides

THEROLEOFWOMEN
Almost2500womenjoinedthemedicalandfieldambulancecorps NurseswerecalledtheBluebirdsbecauseoftheiruniforms Manydiedasaresultoffire,bombsandgas Somebecamevolunteers,butthegreatestchangewastheircontributiontothelabourforce Before1914,womenweredomesticservantsandworkersintheclothing/foodindustry Womenbecamehiredforallkindsofworkduringthewar

WARINTHEAIR
Atthestart,pilotsflewaloneinbiplanestospyonenemytroopmovements Thepilotssoonbecamearmedhoweverwithpistolsandrifles Withinayear,planesbegantohavemachinegunsmountedtotheplanes Aftershootingdown5enemyaircrafts,apilotbecameanace Aceswouldgobackhometofundraiseandrecruit Lifeasapilotwasexciting,butdangerous(morethan50000pilotswerekilledfrom1914 1918) Canadadidnothaveitsownairforce.PilotsjoinedtheBritishRFC.

WARATSEA
GermanscouldnotmatchtheBritishnavy,buttheyhadsubmarinesakaUboats Submarinesbecameequippedwithtorpedoes,whichdestroyedwar/merchantships Lusitania:In1915,aGermansubmarinesankaBritishpassengerlinercalledtheLusitania, killing1200passengers,mostlyCanadiansandAmericans. In1917,Germanyannouncedthatsubmarineswouldsinkanyshipwithinthewarzone aroundBritain Allieseventuallydevelopedaconvoysystemandunderwaterlisteningdevicethathelped themlocateanddestroysubmarines Canadahadtwowarships,theRainbow(patrolledtheWestCoast)andtheNiobe(inHalifax) Halifax=ideallocationtorefuelandrepairAlliedwarshipsasitwasprotectedbytheNiobe CanadasmerchantshipsprovidedfoodandmunitionstoBritain.Manymerchantseamen diedwhilecrossingtheAtlantic.

THEWARATHOME Thewarwasgoodfortheeconomy.By1916,theeconomywasbooming. BordenreplacedtheShellCommitteewiththeImperialMunitionsBoard,andfactorieswere builttoconstructships,airplanesandshells HundredsofthousandsofCanadianswereemployedinthesefactories Workerseventuallybecamefrustratedbythelowwageshowever PAYINGFORTHEWAR Despitetheboomingeconomy,warwasexpensiveandthegovernmentcouldntpayforits contributiontothewar Victorybonds:thegovernmentsoldvictorybondstoappealtopatriots.Afterthewarwas over,thecitizenswerepromisedtheywouldgettheirmoneyback,plusinterest. Incometax:Originallysupposedtobetemporarywelloffindividualspaid3%oftheir income. Borrowingfromothercountries:Victorybondsandincometaxwerenotenough,andby
1918,theCanadiangovernmentdeepindebtwasforcedtoborrowmoneyfromother countries,especiallytheUS.

WOMENSRIGHTTOVOTE
1915WomeninManitobagottherighttovote 1915AlbertaandSaskatchewanfollowedsuitlaterduringtheyear 1917WomeninOntarioandBritishColumbiagottherighttovoteinprovincialelections 1918AllCanadianwomenhavetherighttovoteinfederalelections

THEHALIFAXDISASTER
December6th,1917TheMontBlanc(aFrenchvessel),carryingmorethan2500tof dynamitewasaccidentallyhitbyanothership.Theresultingexplosiondevastatedmuchof thecityandharbor. 20003000peoplewerekilledandmorethan10000injured.

CONSCRIPTION
6 Bordenhadpromisedtherewouldbenoconscription,butduringhisvisittoBritain,David LloydGeorge,theBritishprimeministerconvincedBordenthatthewarneededtobewon WhenhewentbacktoCanada,BordenintroducedtheMilitaryServiceAct(abillthatmade servicecompulsory) TheActhadexceptionsforthedisabled,thosewithessentialjobs/specialskillsandthose whodidntbelieveinwarbecauseofreligion Recruitmentrateswereuneven,thelowestlevelsbeinginQuebec FrenchCanadiansfeltnopatrioticconnectiontoBritainorFranceandthereforefeltlikethe Actwasforcingthemtofightinawarthatwasnttheirs Farmersalsoopposedconscription,especiallyinthePrairies.Theyneededtoworkonfarms. Industrialworkersfeltthattheywerealreadyplayingapartinthewar Labourersledtheoppositiontoconscription. LabourleaderGingerGoodwinhidfromauthoritiesafterhewasdrafted.Hewaseventually trackeddownandkilledbyapoliceconstable.

 CANADASMOSTDIVISIVEELECTION
Bordendecidedtocallanelectionovertheissueofconscription Hehadpassedtwopiecesoflegislationthatweredesignedtoensurehisreelection o TheMilitaryVotersActallowingmen/womenoverseastovote o TheWartimeElectionsActallowingallwomendirectlyrelatedtoservicemento vote.Theactalsocancelledvoteforallimmigrantsandobjectorswhocamefrom enemycountriesinthelast14years. BordeninvitedoppositionLiberalswhosupportedconscriptiontojoinhiminaUnion Government TheseLiberalswereofferedCabinetpositionstojoinhim WilfredLaurierhoweverwasopposedtoconscription LiberalslostalotofsupportbecauseofLauriersview TheUnionGovernmentwontheelectionwithsupportfromthearmedforces Conscriptioncontroversyhoweverdidnotsubside.InQuebec,FrenchCanadiansmarched thestreets.OnEasterWeekendof1918,atananticonscriptionriot,4demonstrators wereshotdeadand10werewounded. Conscriptionwentonwith130000enlisted,butonly25000reachingFrancebeforethewar ended.Outof404000menwhowerecalled,380500appliedforexemptions.

COLLAPSEOFTHECENTRALPOWERS
1)Marchof1917CzarNicolasofRussiawasforcedtoabdicateandaprovisionalRussian governmentwasformed. 2)April2nd1917TheUSdeclaredwaronGermany,angeredbythesinkingofneutralships suchastheLusitania. InOctober1917,RussianrevolutionariescalledBolsheviksoverthewtheprovisional governmentandsignedapeacetreatywithGermany Inalastdesperateoffensive,theGermanswentandstrucktheweakpointsintheenemy lines.TheytookbackYpres,theSomme,PasschendaeleandeverythingbutVimyRidge Bythetimetheywereonly75kmfromParis,theyhadexhaustedthemselves:withoutfresh troops,foodorsuppliesandcouldnotcontinue. TheHundredDaysthefinalmonthsofthewarwhereCanadiansledbyCurriebroke throughGermanlinesandwonimportantbattlesatArras,CambraiandValenciennes.The GermanKaiserfledtoHolland. TheArmisticewassignedinarailwaycaronNovember11th,1918at11am.

CANADAONTHEWORLDSTAGE
ParisPeaceConference:Afterthesigningofthearmistice,theAlliesandGermanymetin Paristodiscussapeaceagreement.BordenobtainedaseatforCanada. TheTreatyofVersailles:Thedocumentthatsetoutthetermsofthepeaceagreementin 1919.Bordengottosignit.ItalsocreatedtheLeagueofNations.Americanpresident WoodrowWilsonhadlaidouta14pointplanearlierin1918thatemphasizedforgiveness, buttheFrench/BelgianleaderswantedcompensationfromGermany.Theydecidedthat: o Germanywouldhavetoacceptresponsibilityforcausingthewar(guiltclause) o Germanyhadtopay30billiondollarsworthofreparations o TheEuropeanmapwouldberedrawn,reducingGermanysterritory

TheGermanarmywouldberestrictedto100000men,withnomoreUboatsorair force GermanycouldnotpayaswithallotherEuropeancountries,itwasinruins LeagueofNations:CreatedafterthewarbytheTreatyofVersailles.Canadawasamember anditwasbasedontheprincipleofcollectivesecurity(ifonemembercameunderattack, allmemberswouldcometohelp).TheLeaguecouldpunishanaggressivenationthrough economicsanctionswhichrestrictedtradewiththenation.TheAmericansrefusedtojoinas WoodrowWilsonhadastrokethatlefthimhalfparalyzed,makinghimnolongerableto campaignforjoiningtheLeague. Afterthewar,peoplewenthungryallacrossEurope.TheSpanishFlusweptacrossthe continent,killingover22million(morethanthewar).50000Canadiansdiedandschools wereclosedformonths. o

CANADAANDTHETWENTIES
Adecadeofprosperity,funandwildliving TheJazzAge,boldnewmusic,shockingfashionsandimprovementoflife SoldiersreturnedtoCanadawithnopensions,nospecialmedicalservicesandfew jobs WORKERSRESPOND
WorkersWantedhigherwages,betterconditionsandtherighttojoinunions Thisresultedinmanystrikes BritishEmpireSteelCorporationForfouryears,theunionandthesteelcorporation confrontedeachotherinLabourWars.Thestrikesturnedviolent,andthecompanycalled inpolice/troopstobreakthemup. Westernleadersweremoresocialist,thinkingcitizensshouldhavemoreinvolvement, influencedbythecommunistBolsheviksinRussia March1919TheWesternLaborConferenceUnionleadersfoundedtheOneBigUnion, whichrepresentedallCanadianworkers,aimingtohelpworkersgaincontrol

THEWINNIPEGGENERALSTRIKE
Lasted43days May1919,Winnipegsmetalandbuildingworkerswalkedofftheirjobs Theywantedhigherwages,ashorterworkingweekandtherighttocollectivebargaining Collectivebargaining:Allowstheunionleadershiptonegotiatewithemployersonbehalfof unionmembers 30000peoplewentonstrike,eventhoughhalfwerentunionized CitizensCommitteeofOneThousand:Formedbybusinessleaders,politiciansand industrialists.Theysawtheunionleadersaspartofacommunistconspiracytooverthrow thegovernment. TheFederalgovernmentfearedthatthisstrikewouldinfluenceothercitiesandtherefore intervened TheyamendedTheImmigrationActsotheycoulddeportforeignbornunionleaders ThemayorofWinnipegappointedspecialpolice,firedcivicworkersandhadleaders arrested

BloodySaturday:OnJune21st,strikersheldaparadetoprotestthemayorsactions.The RoyalNorthWestMountedPolice/specialpolicechargedintothecrowdwithclubsand pistols,makingtheaffairviolent.Onestrikerdied,30wereinjuredandmanyothers arrested.Thestrikersthenreturnedtowork. TheRoyalCommissionexaminedthestrikeandfoundthegrievancestobevalid J.SWoodsworth,whowasarrestedduringthestrikewentontofoundtheCooperative CommonwealthFederation(CCF)whichlaterbecametheNewDemocraticParty(NDP)

CHALLENGESTOFEDERALISM
Regionalism:theconcernoflocalproblemswithinaregion,whichincreasedafterthewar. MaritimeRightsMovement:Abriefmovementformedbyprominentbusinessandpolitical leaders,urgingallpoliticiansseekingofficetomakepoliciesthatbenefittheMaritimes.This movementdiedquicklywithoutaccomplishingmuch. NationalPolicy:Inplacesince1878,placingtariffsanddutiesonforeigngoodsimportedinto Canada.ThiswasimplementedsothatCanadiansboughtmoreCanadiangoods,strengthening theeconomy.Farmerswerefrustratedastheyfeltalienatedbythispolicy.Farmerswantedfree trade(nomoretariffs,allowingfarmerstobuycheaper,USmademachinery). UnitedFarmersParties:Farmersmadetheirownpoliticalparties.Bytheearly1920s, Ontarioandtheprairieselectedthesepartieswhichformedthegovernment. FederalProgressivePartyCreatedbyThomasCrerar,aformerministerofagriculturein Bordensuniongovernment.ItwantedanewNationalPolicybasedonfreetradeandpublic ownershipofrailways.Theycontestedthe1921election.

CANADIANSCHOOSEANEWGOVERNMENT
1919WilliamLyonMackenzieKingwaschosentoleadtheLiberals WilliamLyonMackenzieKing:Reputationofareformer,anauthorityonsocialand economicissues.Hewasconciliatory,alwayslookingforthemiddlepaththatoffendedthe leastamountofpeople. ArthurMeighen:chosentoreplaceBordenastheleaderoftheConservatives.Hewasa brilliantdebaterandalongstandingmemberofparliament.Hebelievedinprinciplesover compromiseanddidntcarewhoheoffended. KingandMeighenhatedeachother;haddifferentapproachestopolitics.(Kingwithnot wantingtooffendpeopleandMeighennotcaringifhedid) Inthe1921FederalElection,Liberalshad117members,Conservativeshad50membersand theProgressiveshad64. TheLiberalshadelectedaminoritygovernment(neededthesupportofopposition memberstopasslegislation). TheProgressivePartydidntlastlong;butbroughtalongchanges: o TheOldPensionAct:passedin1927,grantingbasicpension($240peryear)to Canadiancitizens. BordenhadraisedCanadasprofileinternationallyandMackenzieKingcontinuedtopush formoreindependence 1922KingrefusedtosupportBritainwhenitwantedtoinvadeTurkey 1923KinginsistedthathebeallowedtosignaninternationaltreatywithoutaBritish representativesigningit

CANADASGROWINGINDEPENDENCE

KingByngCrisis:Afterthe1925election,theLiberalshad101seats,theConservatives,116 andtheProgressives,24.TheLiberalsthereforeneededthehelpoftheProgressivestostay inpower,buttheylosttheirsupportasaresultofaliquorsmugglingscandalintheCustoms Department.TheConservativescalledforamotionofcensure(voteofstrongdisapproval) againstKingsgovernment.Ifithadpassed,Kingwouldneedtoresignasprimeminister. KingaskedGovernorGeneralByngtocallanotherelection,butByngrefusedsayingthatthe censureneededtobecompletedfirst.KingwasfuriousandByngwaseventuallyforcedto callanelection.Kingappealedtonationalismduringhiscampaignandwon. TheBalfourReport:AttheImperialConferenceof1926,thedominionsoftheEnglish Empirerequestedformalrecognitionofautonomy(freedomtogovernthemselves).A specialcommitteeunderLordBalfour(respectedBritishpolitician)examinedtherequest. TheypublishedtheBalfourReport,whichsupportedthedominions. TheStatuteofWestminster:Passedin1931bytheBritishgovernment,makingthe recommendationsoftheBalfourReportlaw.(Thereportsupporteddominionautonomy) TheStatutecreatedtheBritishCommonwealth,makingCanadaequaltoBritain. Canadacouldnowmakeitsownlaws,howeverthereweretworestrictions. TheBritishNorthAmericaAct:AKAtheCanadianconstitution.IthadtostayinBritain becausetheCanadiangovernmentscouldntagreeonanamendingformula(theprocedure forchangingtheact). ThejudicialcourtofappealforCanadiansresidedinBritainuntil1949.

THEECONOMYIMPROVES
thebeginningofthe20s=economicdepression itbegantoimprovehoweverinthemiddleofthedecade Wheatwasanimportantexportbuttherewasalsogrowthintheexploitationofresources

THEUNITEDSTATESINVESTSINCANADASECONOMY TheUSbecametheworldseconomicleaderafterthewar UScompaniesinvestedinpulpandpapermills/minesacrossthecountry.Themajorityof theseresourceswereexportedtotheUS. Branchplants:businessesownedandcontrolledbycompaniesintheUSbutoperatedin Canada.InvestorssettheseupinsteadoflendingmoneytothecompanieslikeBritaindid. Bytheendofthe1920s,theCanadianautoindustrywastakenoverbytheBigThreeUS automobilecompanies(GM,FordandChrystler). TheUSenrichedtheCanadianeconomybyextractingrawmaterials(primaryindustries) However,thesematerialsweretakentotheUSformanufacturing(secondaryindustries)

PROHIBITION
DuringWorldWarI,theWomansChristianTemperanceUnionandotherorganizations succeededinbringinguponProhibition,banningthemanufactureandsaleofalcoholic drinksinCanada Thosewithmoneycouldstillgetit(doctorprescriptionastonic,orillegalbathtubgin) By1920,governmentsadmittedthatProhibitionwasnotworking.Itwasdislikedbymost. After1921,mostprovincialgovernmentsdecidedtoregulatealcoholinstead.Afteraseries ofplebiscites(votesonapublicissue),Canadiansadoptedgovernmentcontrolledliquor stores.

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ProhibitioncontinuedintheUSuntil1933. CanadianscouldnowsupplytheUSwithillegalliquor(calledrumrunning),whichwasvery profitable.Theysmuggledalcoholacrosstheborder.

URBANIZATION
Thegrowthinthemanufacturingsectorbroughtmorepeopletocitiesinsearchofwork Thiswascalledurbanization.By1931,citydwellersoutnumberedtheruralpopulation. ThemodernCanadiancitybegantoform:businessesclusteredinthecitycenter,slums becameabiggerproblem,pollutiongotworseandrichfamiliesmovedtoresidentialareas

THEROLEOFWOMEN
1920S=AneweraforwomeninCanada Inthe1921federalelection,only5womenranforofficeandonlyonewonherseat AgnesMacphail:theonlywomanintheHouseofCommonsuntil1935 Womenwerestillexpectedtobewivesandmothers.Becauseofnewtechnologysuchas thevacuumandwashingmachine,houseswereexpectedtobecleaner.Marriedwomen weresupposedtostayathomeandfewwomenbecamedoctorsorlawyers. ThePersonsCaseof1929EmilyMurphy,awellknownsuffragistwasappointedahead magistrate(judicialofficer)inAlberta.UndertheBritishNorthAmericanActhowever,only personscouldholdthistitleandwomenwerenotseenaspersonsunderthelaw.The SupremeCourtofAlbertasaidshecouldbeajudge,butthematterdidntstopthere.Emily Murphyand4otherwomenchallengedPrimeMinisterMackenzieKingtoappointawoman senatorandtoclarifythedefinitionofpersons.TheywereknownasTheFamousFive. TheyappealedtotheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncilinBritainandonOctober18, 1929,womenwereofficiallyconsideredpersons. Thefirstfemalesenatorwasappointedin1930,CairineWilson(Liberal).

ANEWPROSPERITY
RoaringTwenties:TheimprovedeconomycausedCanadianstoparticipateinastyleoflife calledtheRoaringTwenties.Peopleboughtallsortsoftechnologyandwenttothemovies andfadsfromtheUSquicklyspread.NewdancesliketheShimmyandTurkeyTrotwere introducedandCanadianfashionwasalsoinfluencedbytheUS. Automobiles:Carsbegantochangethelandscapeofthecountry. AssemblyLines:Thefirstassemblylinewascreatedin1913byHenryFord.Carscouldthen bemanufacturedcheaplyandquickly. TheTransCanadaHighwayIn1920,Canadaonlyhad1600kmoftopratedhighways,and thisfigurewouldincrease10xbytheendofthedecade.TheCanadianShieldandRocky MountainswerephysicalbarriersthatdelayedtheconstructionoftheTransCanada HighwayandsomostofthebetterroadsransouthtotheUS.BCsoonstartedtodriveon therightsideoftheroadliketheAmericansandnotontheleftliketheBritish. Aviation:Aviationcontinuedtoexpandasmanyveteranpilotsflewgeologistsand prospectorsintoremoteareastoexploreminingopportunities. Telephone:Inthe1920s,thephonebecameastandardhouseholdapplianceandphone linesweresharedbymanyneighborswhichallowedanyonetoeavesdroponothers conversations.

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Radio:Theuseofradiobegantobreakdowntheisolationoffarawaycommunities.Bythe endofthe20s,nearly300000CanadiansweretuningintoUSstationsforentertainment. Movies:Soonenough,moviescameintocompetewithradios.Talkingmoviesarrivedin 1927. TheGroupofSevenAgroupofpaintersthatheldanexhibitioninTorontoin1920.They brokewithtraditionalCanadianartandpaintedtheruggedlandscapesofthecountry. EmilyCarr:ThebestknownpainterofthePacificCoast(inVictoria).Shewasinfluencedby theGroupofSeven. Baseball:BaseballbecameimportanttoCanadianswholistenedtogamesontheradio. Boxing,rugby,curlingandgolfwerealsopopular. Hockey:BecamepopularwhensportswriterFosterHewittmadethefirsthockeyradio broadcastin1923.

DISCRIMINATION
AboriginalNations:Theywerestillnotclassifiedaspersonsunderthelaw. Theystillcouldntvoteinprovincial/federalelections Gottherighttovoteinprovincialelectionsin1949. Theygottherighttovoteinfederalelectionsin1960. Theywerefacedwithdiscriminationandhostility.Residentialschoolsweretraumatizingfor Aboriginalchildrenandsotheyhadtroublefindingwork. Intheearly1920s,theAboriginalpeopleinBCchallengedthefederalandprovincial governmentsonthreeissues:thepotlachceremony,cutofflandsandAboriginaltitle. Potlach:animportantculturalceremonyamongcertainpeopleofthePacific.Itrecorded births,deaths,marriagesandotherevents.Itwascarefullyplannedandestablishedstatus intribes.Thegovernmentsawitasanobstacletoassimilationanditwasforbiddenin1884. Aboriginaltitle:Alsoknownaslandclaims.OnlyinBCdidsomeFirstNationshave negotiatedlandtreaties. CutOffLands:LargetractsoflandthathadbeensetasidefortheAboriginalpeoplethatthe governmenthadtakenwithouttheconsentoftheAboriginals. JoeCapilano:achiefoftheSquamishpeoplewhowenttoLondonin1906topresentaland claimpetitiontoKingEdwardVII.Yearslater,theAlliedTribesofBritishColumbia,an organizationmadeofseveraltribes,appealedthegovernmentsactions.Theysaidthe removalofthelandwascontrarytotheIndianAct(regulatedrelationsbetweenthefederal governmentandtheAboriginals).ThegovernmentrespondedbychangingtheIndianActso thattheynolongerneededAboriginalconsenttotransferreservelands. UnderAndrewPaullandPeterKelly,theAlliedTribesofBritishColumbiacontinuedto petitionthegovernmenttobegintreatynegotiations.In1927,theywenttotheHouseof CommonsandSenate,buttheDepartmentofIndianAffairsdefendedthegovernments actions.TheythenamendedtheIndianActagaintoforbidtheraisingoracceptanceof moneytopursuelandclaims. AfricanCanadians:DiscriminationagainstAfricanshadbeenblatant TheEducationAct:InNovaScotia,TheEducationActof1918providedseparateschoolsfor BlacksandEuropeans.Itremainedthiswayuntil1954.

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In1921,theSuperiorCourtofQuebecruledinfavourofraciallysegregatedseatingin Montrealtheatres. In1929,ablackdelegationtoaWorldBaptistConventioninTorontowasdeniedahotel room. In1924,theEdmontonCityCouncilrefusedtobanAfricanCanadiansfrompublicparks. In1919,theBrotherhoodofRailwayWorkersacceptedblackportersasmembers,thefirst Canadianuniontoabolishracialdiscrimination. Immigrants:TheCanadiangovernmentadoptedimmigrationrestrictions,withpreferencetotheUS andGreatBritain ManyCanadianslikedimmigrantsbecausetheyworkedforlowwages Labourgroupssawimmigrantsasunfaircompetitionwhostoletheirjobs Asianimmigrants:In1923,thegovernmentpassedalawthatexcludedChineseimmigrants toCanadauntil1947.TheCanadaJapanAgreementof1922restrictedimmigrationfrom Japanto150servantsandlabourersayear. In1925,oncetheeconomyimproved,thegovernmentrelaxedrestrictionsonimmigration. Theywantedtoincreasethepopulationsothatbusinesseswouldhavealargermarket.

THESTOCKMARKETCRASH
TheNorthAmericaneconomywasboominginthelate20s October29th,1929TheNewYorkStockExchangecollapsed;allthepricesofstocksfell quicklyandledtotheGreatDepression.

THETHIRTIES:ADECADEOFDESPAIR
FALLINGOFFTHEECONOMICEDGE
Duringtheeconomicboom,sharesinthestockexchangewerebeingexchangedfeverishly Buyingonmargin:Buyingshareswithonlya10%downpayment,assumingthepricesofthe stockswouldincreaseanditwouldpayforitself.Thiswasverycommoninthe20s. Becausestockswerebeingboughtsomuch,thepricesweredrivenupbeyondtheirreal value.Wheninvestorsstartedsellinginordertocashinonprofits,othersdidthesameand thevalueofstocksfelldramatically. October29th,1929TheNewYorkStockMarketCollapseThiswasfollowedbythe TorontoandMontrealstockmarkets.Peoplewentbankruptinasingleday.

LEADINGUPTOTHEDEPRESSION
Thedecreaseinthepriceofwheatontheworldmarket:Morewheatwasbeingproduced thansold.Canada/USdependedonforeignmarkets,butmanycountriesstartedtoproduce theirownwheat.Assalesdropped,farmersalariesalsodroppedandmanywereunableto paytheirmortgagesandloanpayments. Overproduction:Otherindustrieswereproducingmoregoodsthanwerebeingsold.They begantocutbackonproduction,whichledtolayoffsinfactories. Hightariffsonforeigngoods:TheUSimplementedhightariffsonforeigngoods,aiming improvetheUSsowneconomy.Thiswasaformofprotectionism.Thesetariffsslowed downworldtrade.

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Germanysinabilitytomeetitsfinancialobligations:AccordingtotheTreatyofVersailles, Germanywasrequiredtopayreparationsforthewar,howeverbecauseitseconomywasin ruinspostwar,itwasnotabletodoso.FranceandGreatBritainhadbeencountingon GermanysothattheycouldrepaytheirowndebtstotheUS.However,becauseGermany couldnotpay,theUScouldnotgettheirmoneyback.

CANADAANDTHEDEPRESSION
TheDepressionshowcasedCanadasdependencyontheexportofprimaryresources WheatfromtheprairiesandnewsprintfromBC,OntarioandQuebecmadeCanada vulnerabletochangesinworldmarkets Asworlddemanddecreased,manypeopleinCanadalosttheirjobs Withoutmoney,theycouldnotconsumeorbuygoods Workersinthefactoriesthatproducedthesegoodsalsolosttheirjobsbecauseofthelack ofdemand.Inthisway,millionsofpeoplelosttheirjobs. TheUShadbecomeCanadasgreatesttradingpartnerandsowhentheUSeconomy crashed,wealsofelttheeffects.

DESPERATEYEARS
Factoryworkersandbusinessownerslosttheirjobsandcouldnolongeraffordrent Pogey:Governmentreliefpaymentstothosewhohadnoothersourceofincome.Many existedononlythis,howeverthosethatreceivedhadtopubliclydeclarefinancialfailure. Privatecharitiesalsohelpedthoseinneed,withsoupkitchensfeedingthehungry. Thecountrywasfilledwithunemployedmendriftingplacetoplacehoppingfreighttreinsin searchofwork.

DROUGHTONTHEPRAIRIES
ThePrairieshadbeenhitbyadisastrousdroughtthatbeganin1928,lastingalmost8years. Therewereconstantduststormsandmillionsoffertiletopsoilblewaway Aplagueofgrasshoppersdescendedontheprairiesaswell,stallingtrains,cloggingcar radiators,etc. ThePrairieFarmRehabilitationAdministrationAct:Passedin1935bythefederal governmenttohelpfarmersbuildirrigationsystemsandreservoirs.

THEDISADVANTAGED
Forwomen,therewerefewjobsotherthandomesticworkpayingjustafewdollarsaweek Aboriginalfamiliesonreliefgotonly5dollarsamonthandwereexpectedtoliveoffthe landdespitethefactthatconditionsonreservesweretoopoortodoso Immigrantswereviewedwithhostilityandweredeniedjobs Jewsweretargetedinparticularandmanyprofessionswouldbeclosedtothem In1931,thegovernmentputastoptoimmigration

RESPONDINGTOTHEDEPRESSION
PrimeMinisterMackenzieKingwasunpreparedtodealwithacrisisliketheDepression Hebelievedthatthesituationwastemporaryandthoughtthatsocialaidwasthe responsibilityofmunicipalandprovincialgovernments

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Thisattitudelosthimtheelectionof1930,wherehelosttoR.B.Bennett(conservative)

BENNETTSRESPONSE
Bennettwasnotinfavourofgovernmentreliefeither Nevertheless,hegaveprovinces$20millionforworkcreationprograms,thoughthe economydidnotimprove Hisplanwastoraisetariffsby50%toprotectCanadasbusinesses(protectionism),butthis onlybuilttradebarriersagainstCanada Asthesituationgotworse,Bennettbecameatargetforangerandfrustration o Adesertedfarm=calledaBennettbarnyard,anewspaper=aBennettblanket Bennettwasafraidthejoblessmiddleclasswouldbecomeinfluencedbycommunismandin 1931,hebannedtheCommunistPartyandarresteditsleaders Thefederalgovernmentalsodecidedtocreateworkcampsforunemployed,singlemen

WORKCAMPS
Werelocateddeepinthewoodstoisolatethemen Theyworkedonprojectssuchasbuildingroadsandclearingland Theywerepaid20centsadayandgivenroom/board,thoughtheconditionswereterrible

THEONTOOTTAWATREK
In1935,overathousandmenlefttheworkcampstoprotestcampconditions UndertheReliefCampWorkersUnion,theybegantotaketheircomplaintstoOttawa TheyrodethroughPrairies,pickingupsupportersalongtheway TheRCMPstoppedtheminRegina,allowingonlytheleaderstoproceedtoOttawa Bennetthoweverdismissedthemimmediatelyandattackedthemasradicals/troublemakers InRegina,theRCMPwastoldtoclearthetrekkersfromthestadiuminwhichtheywere held.Theyresistedfor2hours.Onemandiedandmanywereinjured,with130arrested.

POLITICSOFPROTEST
CooperativeCommonwealthFederation(CCF)FormedintheWestin1932.Itappealedto Canadiansincludingfarmers,labourersandintellectuals.TheirleaderwasJ.SWoodsworth. Asocialistparty,itsupportedsocialprogramstoassistpeopleinneedofmoney.Theyurged thegovernmenttospendmoneyonpublicworkstocreateemployment. SocialCreditParty:LedbyWilliamAberhartandwonthe1935electioninAlberta.Aberhart wasacharismaticpreacherandhighschoolteacherfromCalgary.Hethoughtthat capitalismwasawastefuleconomicsystemandthoughtthatthegovernmentshouldput moneyintotheeconomysothatpeoplecouldspendit.Hepromisedeachcitizenabasic dividendof25dollarsamonth,butsocialcreditwasdisallowedbytheSupremeCourt.The partyremainedinpowerhoweveruntil1971underErnestManningandHarryStrom.

PROVINCIALSOLUTIONS Ontario:theLiberalscamebacktopowerin1934,thefirsttimein29years.LedbyMitch Hepburnwhodidlittlefortheunemployed.Healsosuppressedstrikes. Quebec:theUnionNationale(anationalisticFrenchCanadianparty)cametopowerin 1936.LedbyMauriceDuplessiswhodidlittletoimproveconditionsinQuebec.

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BC:LiberalDufferinPattullowaselectedin1933andintroducedreformstoshortenthe workdayandincreasewages/reliefpayments.Publicworkprojectswerelaunched(Fraser RiverBridgeinNewWestminster)andanewVancouverCityHall.Theprojectswere shortlivedasthefederalgovernmentsaiditwastheirresponsibilitytointroduceprograms.

ACHANGEINGOVERNMENT
By1935,voterswerefedupwithBennettandreturnedMackenzieKingtopower Despitebeingencouragedtospendmillionsonjobcreation,heonlyspentofafractionof that

INCREASETENSIONINTHEFEDERALPROVINCIALRELATIONS
In1937,KingcreatedtheRowellSiroisCommission,anotherRoyalCommission Theunemploymentcrisiscreatedtensionbetweenfederalandprovincialgovernments TheRowellSiroisCommissionrecommendedequalizationpayments(givingmoneyto poorerprovincestoensurethesamelevelofservices) TheeconomystartedtoimprovehoweverandasWorldWarIIbegan,mostofthe recommendationsoftheCommissionwerepushedasideforlater

DISTRACTIONSFROMDESPAIR
Movies,magazinesandradiowerestillpopular CBC(CanadianBroadcastingCorporation):Createdin1936bythefederalgovernmentso thatCanadacouldhaveapublicradioservice. TheDionnequintupletsBornin1934inCorbeil,Ontario,theybecameinternational sensationsandweretakenintothecareoftheOntariogovernment.Theywereputon displayandthegovernmentearnedmillionsofdollarsfromthem.

THERISEOFDICTATORSHIPS
ManyEuropeaneconomiesdidnotrecoverfromWorldWarI,Depressionworsenedit Somebelievedthatcommunismwastheonlysolutiontosocialsuffering Othersbelievedastrongmilitarywasneededtorestoreorder SovietUnion:JosefStalintookoverastheleaderoftheCommunistPartyafterthedeathof Lenin,theleaderofthe1917revolution.Hewasaruthlessandcruelleaderwhose agriculturalpolicieskilledmillionsofSovietworkers.TheUnionhadbecomeatotalitarian state,witheveryaspectofpeopleslivescontrolledbythegovernment. Italy:BenitoMussolini(IlDuce)cameintopowerin1922.Hecreatedafascistgovernment. Fascism:opposedtodemocracy,relyingonmilitary/policepowertomaintaincontrol.They controlledallmediaandusedpropagandatopromotetheidealsofthestates.

GERMANYPOSTWAR
Afterthewar,GermanswereunhappywiththeTreatyofVersailles Theydidnotlikebeingblamed TheeconomyhadbeenruinedandtheGermancurrencydeclined.TocontrolGerman inflation,Britain,FranceandtheUSagreedtogivethembettertermsforthereparation payments.

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HITLERCOMESTOPOWER
Hitlerhadbeengainingsupportsince1923bycriticizingtheweakgovernment HitlerandhisNaziParty(influencedbyFascistItaly),promisedthattheyhadthesolutionto bringGermanyoutoftheDepression January1933:HitlerbecametheChancellorGermanyandbyMarch,hispartyhadwon controloftheparliament TheNazigovernmentstoppedreparationpaymentsandbegantoexpanditsarmedforces Hitlerpouredmoneyintopublicprojectsandtheeconomybegantoimprove Nazisabolishedallotherpoliticalpartiesandbannedtradeunions HitlerbecameknownasderFuhrer(theLeader),aruthlessdictator TheNaziswereracist,thinkingGermanswerethemasterrace,composedtoAryans,a pureraceofNorthernEuropeans NazispersecutednonAryanssuchasJews,homosexuals,Gypsiesandthosewhodisabilities TheysetupconcentrationcampstoimprisonandisolatethemfromGermansociety

ONTHEROADTOWAR
In1931,JapaninvadedtheChineseMachuria.ChinacomplainedtotheLeagueofNations whotriedtonegotiatewithJapan,howeverJapansimplywithdrewfromtheLeague. Spring1935,ItalyattackedAbyssinia(nowknownasEthiopia)andtheLeagueofNations imposedtradesanctionsagainstItaly.

GERMANYONTHEOFFENSIVE
In1936,HitlerorderedhistroopsintoRhineland,goingunpunishedbytheLeagueof Nations SpanishCivilWar:1936GeneralFranciscoFrancoandhisfascistfollowersledanattackon theSpanishgovernment.Thisresultedinacivilwarbetweenthesocialistgovernmentand therebelforcesofFranco.FrancohadsupportfromHitlerandMussoliniandsohewonthe warandbecamerulerofSpain.

THEPOLICYOFAPPEASEMENT
NoonewaswillingtofightanotherwarsotheywerewillingtotolerateHitlersactionsto maintainpeace.Thisonlyencouragedhimfurther. InMarch1938,HitlerinvadedAustriaandthendemandedtotakeovertheSudetenland(the GermanspeakingregioninCzechoslovakia).InSeptember1938,ataconferenceinMunich, BritainandFranceagreedtothisandHitlerpledgeditwouldbehislastterritorialclaim. March1939HitlertookovertherestofCzechoslovakiadespitehispledge August1939HitlermadeapactwithStalin,leaderoftheSovietUnion.Theyvowedtonot fighteachotherinthecaseofwarandagreedtosharePolandbetweenthetwoofthem. September1,1939GermanyinvadedPoland,wantingtotakebackanareathathadbeen takenawayintheTreatyofVersailles. BritainandFranceorderedGermanyoutofPolandbySeptember3rd,1939.Germany ignoredthisdeadlineandsotheworldbecameentangledinanewconflict.

CANADASRESPONSETOGROWINGTENSIONS
17 Throughoutthe30s,Canadaremainedisolationists(uninterestedinforeignaffairs)

In1937,MackenzieKingwenttoGermanyhimselfandthoughtHitlerhadpleasant,no warlikeintentions.HethereforedidnotseewhyCanadashouldbecomeinvolved. TheSecretaryofState,PierreRinfretandLiberalCabinetmember,ThomasCrerarwereboth antiSemitic TheSt.Louis:anoceanlinerwithover900JewishrefugeesonboardthatarrivedinCanada in1939.TheywererefusedpermissiontodockandreturnedtoEurope,wheremanyofthe passengersdiedinconcentrationcamps.

CANADAANDWORLDWARII
CANADADECLARESWAR
In1938,BritishPrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainthoughthehadavoidedwarbysigning theMunichAgreement(givingHitlerpartofCzechoslovakiaashisfinalconquest) HitlerignoredthetermsandtookovertherestofCzechoslovakia;warseemedinevitable InMay,KingGeorgeVIandQueenElizabethofBritaincametovisit,buildingstrongties betweenCanadaandBritain PrimeMinisterKingdidnotwanttogetinvolvedinanotherwar September8,1939AfterBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermany,Kingdecidedtocall aspecialsessionofParliamenttodecideCanadasresponse. OnlytheCCFwasagainstwar,andsoonSeptember10,CanadadeclaredwaronGermany

MOBILIZINGCANADASRESOURCE Canadawasnotpreparedforwar Thepopulationwaslessenthusiastic,butneverthelesstheystillgot58330volunteers AboriginalsvolunteeredatthehighestpercentagethananyothergroupinCanada AfricanCanadianswereoriginallyrejectedhowevertheywerelateraccepted Somewantedtheprivatespayof$1.30adaywhileothersfelttriestoBritain FirsttroopswentoutfromHalifaxonDecember10,1939 THEBRITISHCOMMONWEALTHAIRTRAININGPLAN TheBritishCommonwealthAirTrainingPlan:inDecember1939,Canadaagreedto

host/administeratrainingplanledbyBritishinstructorswhowouldtrainpilotsandother flightpersonnel.AirfieldswerebuiltintheprairiesandtheprogramwasamajorCanadian contributiontothewareffort.ThePlantrainedover130000pilots,navigators,flight engineersandgroundstaff.

TOTALWAR
InApril1940,thegovernmentestablishedtheDepartmentofMunitionsandSupplies,with C.D.Howeasitsminister Howecoulddowhateverhewanted.Hewasdirect,impatientandconvincedleadersto manufacturegoodstheydneverhandledbefore.Iftheprivatesectorcouldnotdoit,he createdCrowncorporationstodothejob. Evenfarmersweretoldtoproducemorewheatandotherfoods Policyoftotalwar:Canadianswillingtodowhateverittooktodefeattheenemy.

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THEWARINEUROPE
TheAllies:Britain,France,Commonwealth TheAxis:Italy,GermanyandJapan PhoneyWar:AlliedtroopswerestationedalongFrancesborderwithGermany,wherethey waitedforGermanysnextmove.Theywaitedsevenmonthsandnothinghappened. April1940:Germanyreneweditsblitzkrieg(lighteningwar)andattackedNorwayand Denmark Blitzkrieg:PowerfulwartacticusedbytheGermans.Ithadsurpriseattackswithlightning speed.Germantanks(panzers)wouldcrashthroughenemylines,drivingasfarastheycould whilewarplanesrippedthroughthesky,bombingtheenemybelow.Soldierswouldalso parachuteintoenemyterritoryanddestroycommunication/transportationlinks.

EVACUATIONOFDUNKIRK
IttookGermanyhourstoconquerDenmarkand2monthstosubdueNorway May10theGermanarmedforcesstartedtoinvadetheNetherlands ItwentthroughBelgiumquickly,thenintoFrance TheAlliesweresoonsurroundedintheFrenchportofDunkirkandtheyhadtoescape beforetheGermanscapturedthetown Theyattemptedanevacuationbysea,andtheBritishsenteveryboatcapableofnavigating theEnglishChanneltoDunkirk EvacuationbeganonMay26 Twodayslater,theGermanLuftwaffe(airforce)bombedtheport,makingescapemore difficult EvacuationendedonJune4th,bringingover340000AlliedsoldierstoBritain TheGermanArmycontinuedtosweepthroughFranceandonJune22,1940,France surrendered.BritainandtheCommonwealthwerealoneagainstGermany.

THEBATTLEOFBRITAIN
OperationSeaLion:theinvasionofBritain,HitlersnextgoalafterbombingDunkirk. GermanyfirstwantedtodestroyBritainsairpower. July10th,1940LuftwaffestartedabombingcampaignaimedatharboursinEngland. BySeptember,theywerebombingcivilians. TheBlitz:ThenamegiventotheGermanraidswheretheybombedLondonandothercities for50consecutivenights. TheywerestillunabletodefeattheBritishairforcehowever.TheBritishhadaradarsystem thatwarnedthemofoncomingGermans.TheyalsohadSpitfiresandHurricanes,fighter planesthatwereeffectivedefenseplanes. Eventually,theBritishairforcebecamemoresuccessfulinshootingdownGermanbombers andinMay1941,HitlergaveuponhisplantoinvadeBritain Morethan23000peoplewerekilledintheBlitz

THEWARSPREADS
OperationBarbarossa:HitlersnextplanaftertheBattleofBritaintoinvadetheUSSR. DespitehispeaceagreementwiththeUSSR,HitlerwantedtocompletehisGermanEmpire.

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WhentheSovietUniontookoverpartoftheBalkansin1940,Hitlerbecamesuspiciousand decidedtoinvaderightaway. TheSovietsweresurprisedandbyautumntheGermansreachedtheoutskirtsofMoscow andLeningrad(nowSt.Petersburg). TheGermanswerenotequippedfortheSovietwinter,soonlosingtheiradvantage In1942,GermanylaunchedanotheroffensiveandgotasfarasStalingrad,butwerestopped bywinteronceagain. Aftersuffering300000casualties,theGermanssurrenderedin1943 TheSovietUnionseizedthischancetoregainmuchofitslostterritory. Byearly1944,theSovietswereadvancingintoEasternEuropetowardsGermany.

THEWARINTHEPACIFIC
JapanwasanAxismember,butwasnotinvolvedinthewarinEurope In1941,itwaspreparedtoinvadeUSandEuropeancoloniesinAsiawhichwererichin resourcessuchasoil,rubberandtin PearlHarbour:OnDecember7th,1941,JapaneseplanesbombedtheUSnavalbaseinPearl Harbour,ontheislandofHawaii,destroyinghalthefleet. TheywentontobombthePhilippines. Thenextday,theUSdeclaredwaronJapan,promptingtheAxistodeclarewarontheUS JapancontinuedtoinvadeSoutheastAsiaandBurma,plusIndonesiaandAustralia December7th,1941HoursafterPearlHarbour,Japanesetroopsbegantheirinvasionof HongKong ByChristmasDay1941,HongKonghadfallentotheJapanese CanadahadsenttroopstoHongKongmonthsearlier,butall1975Canadiantroopshad beenkilledortakenprisoner.

CANADASROLEINEUROPE
TheDieppeRaid TheAllieswantedtodoasmallraidtotestnewtechniquesandequipment Until1942,mostofthewarhadbeenfoughtinAfrica The2ndCanadianDivisionwaschosentobethemainforceofattackinaraidontheFrench portofDieppe(underGermanoccupation) Therewereproblemsfromthestartoftheraidhowever MorningofAugust19th,1942oneoftheshipscarryingCanadianstoDieppeunexpectedly metasmallGermanconvoy.Theyengagedinasmallseabattle,butthenoisealerted Germansonshore.Theshipswerealsodelayedsotheycouldnotembarkbeforedawn. TheywereeasilyshotdowninthedaylightbyGermanmachineguns. Communicationbetweentheshipsandlandwasbadsotheysentmorereinforcements ashore,trappingthosetroopstoo. Alliedtankscouldntgettractiononthebeachandcouldntmove Theraidwasafailure,with907Canadiancasualtiesina9hourbattle

CANADIANSATSEA TheRoyalCanadianNavywasdesperatelyshortofequipment/manpower By1941,theBattleoftheAtlanticwasinfullforce BritainwasdependentonCanadaforfoodandmilitarysupplies 20

GermanstriedtostarvetheBritishbycuttingoffandsinkingmerchantships Topreventbeingsunk,Alliesailedinconvoys(warshipsescortedvesselscarryingsupplies) UBoatscontinuedtodestroyhundredsofsupplyships Canadabegantobuildcorvettessmall,unstableshipsthatwerequick ByMay1942,BritainhadcrackedtheGermannavalcodeandmoreAlliedshipswere surviving.Thenavypersonnelweregettingbettertrainedandsupplieswerebeing conserved. TheCanadiannavygrewalotduringthewar,andprovidedhalftheescortsacrossthe Atlantic

CANADIANSINTHEAIR
TheRoyalCanadianAirForcealsogrewafterthewarbegan TheyparticipatedinbombingraidsinBritain,NorthAfrica,Italy,NorthwestEuropeand SoutheastAsia,includingnightraidsoverGermany Bymid1943,theAlliesstartedbombingGermanindustriesnightafternightwhileUS bombersattackedduringtheday Hamburgwasbombedrelentlesslyasthecitywasengulfedbyflames Nearly10000Canadianbomberslosttheirlives In1941,theRCAFformedtheWomensDivisiontosupportthewareffort Theyweretrainedasclerks,cooks,assistantsandrivers Onlylaterinthewarwerewomenallowedtofly.Theydeliveredtheplanesbutwerenot allowedincombat.

THEINVASIONOFITALY
WinstonChurchillthoughtthebestwaytorecaptureEuropewasthroughthesoft underbellyofEurope:ItalyandSicily Theinvasionlasted2years July10,1943CanadianshelpedtheAlliesinvadeSicily.Aftertwoweeksoffighting,the Allieswon. InSeptember,theymovedtomainlandItalywherethemuddyconditionsandrainyweather madebattleandadvancesslow. OnJune4,1944,theAlliestookRome,butfightinginItalycontinueduntilspringof1945.

DDAYANDLIBERATION
June6th,1944DDay:theAllieslaunchedOperationOverlordafullscaleinvasionof Europe TheylearnedfromDieppeandthistimetheinvasionwasplannedtotheverylastdetail OnthemorningofJune6th,over30000CanadiansoldiersarrivesatJunobeachandworked throughtheGermanbuiltobstacles(concretebarrier,barbedwire)togetinland Germandefensewaspoorastherehadbeenastormandtheydidntexpectanattack TheAlliesfoughtforweekstogetinland Theythenbeganan11monthadvancethroughFranceandBelgium,towardsGermany InMarch1945,AlliedforcesattackedGermany CanadiansweregiventheresponsibilityofliberatingtheNetherlands

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AllieshadattemptedtosavetheNetherlandsearlierin1944butfailed.TheGermanshad destroyedmanyportcitieslikeAmsterdamandRotterdam.Theirfoodsuppliesandhad beencutoffandsomanyDutchwerestarvingtodeath. InearlyAprilCanadiansbegantheirattackontheNetherlands Thefightingwasslowandover6300Canadiansdied April17ththeCanadiansdefeatedtheGermansinthenortherncityofGroningen May4thGermansweresurroundedandtheysurrendered Airdropsoffoodandconvoysoftruckscarryingsuppliesprovidedfoodtothecivilians Canadianswerehailedasheroes TheAlliesattackedGermanyfromthewestandtheSovietUnionattackedfromtheEast GermanysurrenderedonMay7th,1945 HitlerandhiswifeEvaBrauncommittedsuicideinaBerlinBunkerbeforesubmittingtothe Allies

THEHOLOCAUSTDISCOVERED
Millionsofpeoplehadbeenmurderedinconcentrationcamps TheFinalSolution:aplanadoptedbytheNazigovernmentin1941toridsocietyofall peopletheyconsideredundesirable.DeathcampswerebuiltallovertheGermanEmpire andJewsfromalloverEuropewerebroughttothesecamps.Theirheadswereshaved, familiesseparatedandtheweak/youngweresentimmediatelytodieingaschambers.The strongandhealthyhadtowork,untiltheybecametooweak.Then,theytoowentintothe gaschambers. By1945,theGermanshadkilledover6millionJews,gypsies,slavsandothers. ThiseventwascalledtheHolocaust.

JAPANSURRENDERS
AftertheAlliedvictoryinEurope,thewarinthePacificintensified Bymid1945,mostoftheJapaneseairforce/navywasdestroyed Theirarmywasstillstronghowever,sotheUSdecidedtouseanatomicbomb ManhattanProject:atopsecretplanbyUSandBritishscientistsin1941todevelopa nuclearbomb.Canadabecameawarein1942. August6th,1945aUSbombernicknamedEnolaGaydroppedtheatomicbombover Hiroshima,killing70000residents. August9th,1945A2ndbombwasdroppedonNagasaki,killing40000people. Realizingtheycouldnotwithstandthepowerofthenuclearbomb,Japansurrendered. Thewarwasover.

THEWARATHOME
Canadianfactorieswereproducingmoregoodsthaneverbefore Workersworkedverylonghoursandwomencameintotakemensplacesintheworkforce Manyworkers,especiallysinglewomen,movedfromruralareastoindustrialcities

CANADASWARTIMEECONOMY
22 Withincreasedproductionandemployment,peoplehadmoremoney Therewerelessgoodstobuythough,becausemostwerebeingshippedofftoBritain Inflation:Whentherestoomuchmoneyandnotenoughgoods,thepricesskyrocket.

KingappointedJamesIlsley(lawyerfromNovaScotia)toaddresspotentialinflationand debt HeencouragedpeopletobuyVictoryBonds Inflationstilloccurredhowever In1941,theWartimePricesandTradeBoardfrozeallwagesandpricestopreventinflation 1942Kingintroducedfoodrationing,limitingtheamountofgoodsonecouldreceiveper week

GROWINGDEMANDFORSOCIALCHANGE
Duringthewar,thegovernmenttriedtorestrictstrikes Workerswantedhigherwagesandtherighttobargain AfterthesteelworkersinNovaScotiaandcoalminersinAlberta/BCwentonstrike,the governmentsofteneditspolicyandallowedworkerstojoinunions TheCCFbegantobecomepopular In1943,theCCFmadeuptheoppositioninOntario In1944,theCFFformedthegovernmentinSaskatchewan FeelingthethreatoftheCCF,Kingintroducedtheunemploymentinsuranceprogramin 1940andexpandedCanadassocialassistanceprogramin1945.

THECONSCRIPTIONCRISIS
TheNationalResourcesMobilizationAct:IntroducedbyMackenzieKinginresponsetothe peoplewantingmoregovernmentactiontowardsthewar.Thisactgavethegovernment specialemergencypowerstomobilizealltheresourcesinthenationtodefeattheenemy, thusallowingconscription. ConservativeswerepressuringKingtoadoptoverseasconscription SoKingheldaplebisciteontheissueonApril17th,1942 AllprovincesexceptQuebecvotedinfavourofconscription InAugust1942,anamendmenttotheNationalResourcesMobilizationActpermitted overseasconscription QuebecwasangryandKingtriedtosmooththeconflictover,butfailed TheMinisterofDefense,J.L.Ralstonresignedbutlaterdecidedtostayinhisposition.King kepthisresignationletter. Hehadmanagedtoavoidtheissueofoverseasconscriptionfor2yearsuntil... Inthe1944invasionofEurope,Canadahadlostmanysoldiersandthereforereplacements wereneeded.RalstonwentovertoEuropeandconcludedthatmoresoldierswereindeed needed.KingrefusedtobeconvincedandannouncedRalstonsresignationtwoyearsafter hisletterhadbeenhandedin KingreplacedRalstonwithGeneralAndrewMcNaughton,whohehadhopedwouldbeable toencouragevolunteers,buthefailedtodoso Kingfinallycavedandsentconscriptsoverseas Notallwentpeacefully,astherewereriotsinMontrealandconscriptsfromBCrefusedto leave

WHATTHEWARMEANTTOCANADA
23 CanadaprovidedsupporttotheAllieseconomicallyandmilitarily Theeconomyboomedasagriculturewasovertakenbyindustry

Manufacturingwasnowimportantandindustrialareasbecamemorecommon Thisattractedamassivewaveofimmigrationpostwar ThewarprovedtotheworldCanadasidentityandstrength

CANADAINTHEPOSTWARWORLD

TheUSandtheSovietUnionhadbeenalliesduringWWII,buttheirrelationssoon grewtense Theywerehostiletowardseachotherandusedspies Bothsidesstockpiledweaponsandbombs CanadaatthistimewastryingtokeeptheUSfromweakeningitsnationalidentity

THECOLDWARBEGINS
TheUSandSovietUnionwereconsideredsuperpowers Theybothhadweaponscapableofnuclearannihilation,thereforetheysimplyfoughtfor politicalinfluenceinotherpartsoftheworld ThisrivalrywascalledtheColdWar,asitwasntanopenwar,thoughitlastedover40years Causes: Differentpoliticalsystems:TheSovietUnionwascommunist;thegovernment controlledallindustryandcommerce.Nopoliticaloppositionwastolerated.TheUShowever wascapitalist,withaneconomybasedonprivateenterprise,individualsinvestinginbusiness forprofit.Peoplehadfreedomofspeechinsuchasystem. Westerncountriesweresuspiciousofcommunismastheythoughtitwasaimedto overthrowWesternsocietiesinaworldrevolution. TheSovietstookoverEasternEuropeandestablishedcommunistgovernmentsthere CommuniststookoverChinain1949,theformergovernmentfleeingtoTaiwan CommitteeonUnAmericanActivities:createdbytheUSgovernmentduringtheColdwar toweedoutanycommunistsinthecountry.ChairedbySenatorJosephMcCarthy,who terrifiedthecountrywithsecretlistsofallegedcommunists.Anyonesuspectedofbeinga communistwouldbepersecuted,firedandblacklisted(notallowedtofindanotherjob).

THECOLDWARATHOME
In1949,theleaderoftheConservativestriedtomakethespreadofcommunismAKAthe redmenace,anissue. PrimeMinisterLouisSt.Laurent,however,refusedtooutlawcommunismasitwas undemocratictodoso Nevertheless,manyCanadiansbegantofearcommunism Theybegantosuspectunionleaderswhofoughtforbetterconditionsforworkersand defenseindustriessecretlysentoutlistsofemployeesforscreening Workerssuspectedofcommunismweredismissedfornoapparentreason InQuebec,PremierMauriceDuplessistookastrongstandagainstcommunism Policeraidedofficesandhomestofindrevolutionarymaterial ThePadlockLawwasusedtoshutdownsuspectedorganizations/newspapers

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WhenapoorlyconstructedbridgecollapsedinTroisRivieresin1951,Duplessisclaimedit wascommunistsabotage

NATOANDTHEWARSAWPACT NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization:AmilitaryallianceformedbytheUSinfearofthe
SovietUnionin1949,comprisedofCanada,theUS,GreatBritainandotherWestern Europeancountries.Ifanyonememberwasattacked,theotherswererequiredtohelp. TheWarsawPact:WhenNATOacceptedWestGermanyasamember,theSovietUnionfelt threatenedandformedanalliancecalledtheWarsawPactin1955.Thisalliancewas comprisedofEasternEuropeancountries,usedtoprotectthemselvesfromattack. Armiesconstantlypracticedforwarandhadspieseverywhere,searchingforsecretsand carryingoutmurders/assassinations In1956,theSovietsbrutallycrushedarevolutioninHungary TheBerlinWall:builtbyEastGermanyin1961toseparateEast/WestBerliners.

THEISSUEOFNORTHAMERICANDEFENSE
Withlongrangebombersdeveloped,NorthAmericabecamevulnerabletoattack ToprotectagainstSovietairattacks,theUSbuilt3linesofradarstationsacrossCanada: o ThePinetreeLine o TheMidCanadaLine(intheArctic) o TheDistantEarlyWarning(theDEW) Theywereconstructedbetween1950and1957,andweredesignedtodetectanysurprise Sovietattacks Forthefirsttime,USmilitarywasstationedinCanadiansoil. SomeCanadiansfeltthiscompromisedtheirindependence Soon,theUSandtheSovietshaddevelopedintercontinentalballisticmissiles TomeetthepotentialthreatofSovietattackinNorthAmerica,CanadaandtheUS establishedtheNorthAmericanAirDefenseAgreement,whichincludedallfigherforces, missilebasesandradarscontrolledbyacentralcommandstationinCheyenneMountain, Colorado.

CIVILDEFENCE:THEHOMEFRONTINTHECOLDWAR Canadianswereafraidthatanopenwarwouldrainbombsandmissilesontheircities Thegovernmentthereforedevelopedcivildefenseplans o Nuclearshelterswerebuilt,schoolsrandrills,etc. PLANNINGFORPEACE:THEUNITEDNATIONS

InApril1945,delegatesfrom51countriesdrewupacharterfortheUnitedNations TheUnitedNationswasbasedontheideaofcollectivesecurity Iffacedwithanaggressornation,itcould: o Condemntheaggressorthroughspeechesandresolutions o Useeconomicsanctions,urgingmembersnottotradewiththeaggressor o Respondmilitarilybysendinginanarmedforce TheSecurityCouncilisresponsibleformaintainingpeaceandsecurity Itsmain5membersareBritain,France,theUS,RussiaandChina

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Therearealso10othernonpermanentmemberswith2yearterms Decisionsrequiretheconsentof9members,butthe5permanentmembershavethepower toveto(rejectactionsthattheydisagreewith) Upto1955,thevetowasused78times,75timesofwhichwerebytheSovietUnion TheUNalsowantedtoabolishdisease,famineandprotecthumanrights TheycreatedagenciessuchastheWorldHealthOrganizationandUNICEFforthis TheyalsoestablishedtheInternationalMonetaryFundtostabilizetheworldeconomy

THEKOREANCONFLICT
WorldWarIIhadleftKoreadivided Thenorthsidewascommunist,supportedbytheUSSRandcommunistChina ThesouthsidewasafragiledemocracybackedbytheUS In1950,NorthKoreatriedtoinvadeSouthKoreaandwarbrokeout AUNforcecomprisedmostlyofAmericanstriedtoforcetheinvaderstoretreat.Canada sentthousandsoftroopsaswell. LesterPearson,CanadasMinisterofAffairs,urgedallsidestoagreetoaceasefire,which wasreachedin1953 Thewarhadincreasedtensionbetweenthewestandthecommunistnations

THESUEZCRISIS
TheSuezcanallinkstheMediterraneantotheRedSea,theshortestsearoutefromEurope totheIndianOcean In1956,Egyptspresident,GamalAbdelNasser,tookoverthecanalonbehalfofEgypt IsraelwasfrightenedbyEgyptshostilityastheyhadthreatenedtobarshipstoandfrom Israelusingthecanal FranceandBritainwerequicktogodefendIsraelandsolandedtroopsinthecanalzone TheSovietUnionthenofferedEgyptfinancialaidandmissiles LesterPearsonwenttotheUNandtriedtoworkoutasolution HeproposedthataUNEmergencyforcebesenttotheSuezCanaltoseparateandmediate betweentherivalarmies Forhelpingdefusethecrisis,PearsonwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrize

THECUBANMISSILECRISIS
1959CubanrebelsunderFidelCastrooverthrewCubasproUSleader TheUSthenimposedtradeandeconomicsanctionsonCuba In1961,theUSbackedaninvasionofCubabyagroupofantiCastroCubans Theinvasionfailed,butCubawenttotheUSSRforsupport October1962USplanestookpicturesoftheUSSRinstallingnuclearmissilesinCuba PresidentKennedy,seeingthisthreat,announcedanavalandairblockadeofCuba TheUSwasreadyforwar SovietPremierNikitaKhrushchevoriginallyrefusedtoremovethemissilesandordered shipstogotowardstheUSshipsthatblockedCuba Lastminute,KhrushchevagreedtodismantlethemissilebasesinexchangefortheUSs promisetonotinvadeCuba CanadarefusedtoplaceCanadasNORADforcesonalertasPrimeMinisterDiefenbakerwas reluctanttohaveCanadadrawnintotheconflict

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TheUSwasfuriousandtheeventcausedmuchdamagetoCanadaUSrelations

THENUCLEARISSUEINCANADA
ThecountrywasdividedastowhetherornotCanadashouldacceptnuclearweapons In1963,therulingConservativePartywasdividedontheissue Duringtheelectoralcampaignof1963,LesterB.Pearson(Liberal)proposedthatCanadian forcesacceptnuclearweaponsundercertainconditions TheConservativesunderDiefenbakerhoweverappealedtonationalism PearsonwoninanarrowdefeatandtheLiberalsformedaminoritygovernment VietnamwasdividedintwojustlikeKorea Thenorthwascommunistandinthesouth,therewasadictatorshipsupportedbytheUS Atfirst,theUSofferedonlymilitaryadviceandeconomichelp,butbythe60s,theywere lendingtroopsaswell In1965,PresidentLyndonJohnsonincreasedthenumberoftroopsandauthorizedthe bombingofNorthVietnam By1966,therewere190000USsoldiersinVietnam Thiswarwasthefirsttoberecordedbytelevisioncamerasandsotheantiwarprotests beganacrossthecountryasaresultofseeingthedamageonTVscreens TheNorthVietnameselaunchedtheTetOffensive,simultaneouslyattackingcities throughoutSouthVietnamandseizingtheUSembassyinSaigon TheUStroopscouldnotwinthewar In1969,RichardNixontookoffice,pledgingtotakethetroopsoutofSoutheastAsia TheforcesleftSouthVietnamin1973 Lessthantwoyearslater,aNorthVietnameseoffensivecrushedSouthVietnam,unifying thewholecountryundercommunistrule ThousandsofVietnamesefledtoCanadainfearofcommunism

THEVIETNAMWAR

CANADASREACTIONTOTHEWAR
Somebenefitedfromthewar,sellinggoodstotheUSDefenseDepartment Mostpeoplestillsawcommunismasathreat PrimeMinisterPearsonalsodoubtedthewar In1965,hecriticizedOperationRollingThunder(theUSbombingcampaignofNorth Vietnam)

TRUDEAUSFOREIGNPOLICY
27 PierreElliotTrudeau(LIBERAL)waselectedprimeministerin1968. HewantedtochartacourseinforeignpolicythatwaslessdependentonUSapproval. TrudeaudidnotwanttoangertheStateshowever HewantedtoscalebackCanadasparticipationinthenucleararmsracewiththeUSSR hopingitwouldeaseColdWartensions From19701972,nuclearmissileswereremovedfromCanadasNATOforcesinEurope TrudeaualsocutthenationaldefensebudgetandreducedCanadasNATOcontingentin Europe CanadacontinuedtoparticipateinNATOandNORAD

CANADAASAMIDDLEPOWER
Trudeauwantedworldpeaceandunderstandingamongnations CanadahadbegantobuildlinksbetweentheEast,West,NorthandSouth,becominga middlepower Hecalledformoreaidtopoorcountriesintheworldandimprovelivingconditionsfortheir people Thispolicyoftradeandaid=thecornerstoneofTrudeausforeignpolicy CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency:formedin1968.Itsresponsibilitywasto boostforeignaidtolessindustrializedcountries.Countriesreceivingaidwouldhaveto agreetobuyproductsmadeinCanada.Thiswasalsocalledtiedaidandmadeuphalfof thedevelopmentaidthatCanadagavetoothernations.

THECOMMONWEALTHANDLAFRANCOPHONIE
CanadawasinagoodpositiontobuildbridgesbetweenNorthandSouthbecauseitwas partoftheCommonwealthandlaFrancophonie Commonwealth:TheformermembersoftheBritishempire. LaFrancophonie:anorganizationofFrenchspeakingstates. In1950,CommonwealthcountriesestablishedtheColomboPlantoprovidemoneyandaid tolessdevelopedcountriesintheorganization.MostCanadianaidundertheColomboPlan wenttoIndiaandPakistan.

THECOLDWARRENEWED
Intheearly1970s,tensionbetweentheUSandtheUSSReasedandtheyagreedtoreduce thenumberoftheirnuclearweapons StrategicArmsLimitationTreaty(SALT1):Signedin1972bytheUSandtheUSSR,a breakthroughagreementbetweenthetwosuperpowers. In1979however,theUSSRinvadedAfghanistanandsentnewmissilestoEasternEurope. NATOinresponsedecidedtoannouncethatit,toowasdeployingmoremissilestoEurope. InprotestagainsttheSovietoccupationofAfghanistan,manyWesternnationsboycotted the1980OlympicgamesinMoscow. In1983,SovietjetsshotdownaKoreanpassengerjet Amonthlater,theUSinvadedGrenadaanddeposedaproSovietgovernment Eachsuperpoweraccusedtheotherofprovokingwar Trudeauappealedtobothcountriestoshowmorerestraintandmadeatouroftheworld capitalstoenlistotherleaderstohelpmediatethetensionbetweentheUSandtheUSSR. Februrary29th,1984Trudeauhadbecometiredofpoliticsanddecidedtoretireaftera walkthroughthesnowystreetsofOttawa.

THEMULRONEYERA:CLOSERTIESWITHTHEUNITEDSTATES BrianMulroney(Conservative)becamePrimeMinisterinSeptember1984 MulroneytriedtogetclosertotheUS;developingaclosepersonalrelationshipwithUS PresidentRonaldReagan In1985,theUSgovernmentrevealedaplanforadefenseshield,partofwhichwouldorbit theEarth.ItwascalledtheStrategicDefenseInitiative,nicknamedStarWars.

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MulroneydeniedCanadasofficialinvolvement,buthetightenedotherlinkswiththeUS TheForeignInvestmentReviewAgency(FIRA):formedin1973byTrudeautoblockany foreigninvestmentthatseemedtonotbeinCanadasinterest.ThiswouldreducetheUSs controlovertheCanadianeconomy. MulroneydeclaredCanadaopenforbusinessanddismantledFIRA,replacingitwith InvestmentCanada,whichencouragedsuitableforeigninvestment. In1987,hestartednegotiationsthatledCanadaintotheFreeTradeAgreement,withthe US.Theagreementremovedtariffsongoodscrossingtheborderandopenedupinvestment betweenthetwocountries. Freetradewasverycontroversial,somethoughtitwouldhelptheCanadianindustrygrow, whereasothersthoughtitwouldleadtothedownfalloftheCanadianeconomy Aftermuchdebate,theFreeTradeAgreementwasestablishedin1989 NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement:Signedin1992,whentheMulroneygovernment expandedthefreetradezonetoMexico. Thisdecisionwasalsocontroversialforsimilarreasons.Amidprotests,theLiberal GovernmentunderJeanChrtiensignedtheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement,which cameintoeffectin994. TheConservativeshadbeendefeatedin1993.

THEENDOFTHECOLDWAR
Thewarendedsurprisinglyquickly SovietLeaderMikhailGorbachev,realizingtheUSSRcouldnotaffordsuchcostlyarms, proposedmassivecutsinthearsenalofbothsuperpowers Hethenbeganaseriesofsocial,economicandpoliticalreformsthatwouldhelpthe communistcountriesrunmoreefficiently/bemorecitizenfriendly Heloosenedcensorshipandallowedfreedomofspeech Thesechangesencouragedothercommunistcountriestodothesame InNovember1919,theBerlinWallcamedown EventheSovietUnionfellapartin1991,withitsstatesbecomingindependentcountries TheColdWarwasover Chinaexperimentedalsowithcapitalismandcitizenswantedpoliticalfreedom TheirhopesweredashedhoweverinTiananmenSquareinJune1989.RedArmysoldiers andtanksattackedstudentsinvolvedinthedemocracymovement,killinghundredsmaybe thousands. Regardless,thedivisionbetweenthecommunistandwesternworldwasgone

THENEWWORLDORDER
29 ManythoughttheendoftheColdWarwouldbringpeace,buttherewerestillnumerous regionalandethnicrivalries August1990IraqinvadedKuwait TheUNdemandedthatIraqwithdrew,howeverbyJanuary1991,thedeadlinegivenhad passedandUS/coalitionforcesbegantobombtargetsfromtheairandsea OperationDesertStormhadbegun TheGulfWardestroyedmuchoftheIraqiarmyandcountryinfrastructure Theuseoflaserguidedbombsandcruisemissileschangedwarforever AfterwinningtheGulfWAR,usPresidentGeorgeBushproclaimedaNewWorldOrder

Fromnowon,theUNwouldtakeamoreactiveroleasaglobalpoliceforce,ina peacekeepingrole AstheremainingsuperpowerafterthecollapseoftheUSSR,theUSwaslefttodominate worldaffairs

SOMALIA
OperationRestoreHopeLaunchedinSomaliain1992bytheUN,itaimedtohelpthe countrywhichwasravagedbycivilwarandstarvation. Themissionresultedincrisiswhenonenight,membersoftheCanadianAirborneRegiment arrestedateeninthenight,torturedhimandbeathimtodeath.Canadianswereshockedat thisblatantactofracismandin1995,theAirborneRegimentwasdisbanded.

RWANDA
Rwandawastornapartbyethnicrivalries AgroupofUNpeacekeepersledbyCanadianmajorGeneralRomeoDallairewenttohelp controltheslaughter Dallairehadaplantohaltthekilling,butitrequiredtheUNtosendtroopsquicklyandit alsorequiredthesupportoftheUS TheresponsefromtheUNandUSwasunenthusiastic Withinafewweeks,closetoamillionpeoplehaddied.TheUNhadfailed.

ANEWERAOFGLOBALIZATION
OneofJeanChrtiensprioritieswastoexpandCanadastradetoothercountries HesignedfreetradeagreementswithChileandIsrael CanadaalsojoinedtheAsiaPacificEconomicCooperationGroup Theseinitiativeswerepartoftheglobalizationtrend,avastnetworkofbusiness, communicationsandculturallinksamongcountries Goodscouldbeeasilyshippedduetoimprovedcommunicationandtechnology TheInternetmadeitpossibletodobusinessonlineinalmostanypartoftheworld

GLOBALIZATIONASAPROBLEM
Mostthinkthatitwillraiselivingstandardsforeveryone Othershoweverthinkthatitgrowstoomuchdependenceonothereconomies Also,manymultinationalcorporationshaverelocatedtopartsoftheworldwherelabouris cheaper.Thistakesjobsawayfromonesowncountry,aswellasintroducingpoor/abusive workconditionsforothersinforeigncountries.

ACHANGINGSOCIETY
ManywarveteransgotmarriedoverseasandbroughtbackWarbridestoCanada TheywereforcedtoadapttoanewCanada,whichwaseverchanging

COMINGHOME

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Toeasethetransitionofveteransbackintosociety,theyweregivenbackthejobstheyhad before Veterans/warwidowsweregivenhiringpreferenceforgovernmentjobs TheVeteransLandAct:Anactenablingveteranstoobtainmortgagesatpreferredrates.

THENEWFACEOFCANADA
Displacedpersons:RefugeeswholanguishedincampsacrossEurope,including concentrationcampsurvivorsandotherswhohadnohomes,possessionsorhope. Canadaacceptdisplacedpersonsandsettledthemincommunities Mostnewimmigrantsnowsettledincitiesasopposedtofarms Suburbs:Newhousingdevelopmentsintheoutlyingareasofcitieswherelandwas cheaper.Manymoresuburbswerebuiltasthepopulationexpanded.Theneedforhousing increasedandsothesecommunitieswerebuilt. Suburbanvalues:Suburbanfamilieswereseenastraditional;withthestayathomemom andtheperfectchildren.Womensjobsweregivenbacktowarveteransandnew householdgadgetssuchaselectricfloorpolishersmadehouseworkeasier. Babyboom:Thepostwarperioduntil1960wheretherewasadrasticincreaseinbirthrate. 6.7millionchildrenwerebornbetween1946and1961.

DEVELOPMENTSINSOCIETY
Automobiles:Inthe1950s,Canadiansfellinlovewithcars Smallstoresshutdowninwantofsupermarketsandshoppingmalls Fewthoughtaboutthepollutionitwouldcause,seatbeltswerenonexistand drinking/drivingwasconsideredacceptable Television/ConsumerSociety:TVencouragedaconsumersociety,wherepeoplewouldbuymore products.Thousandsofinventionswereintroducedandshoppingbecameanationalpastime. TeenCulture:Withnomorewars/economichardshiptoforcestudentsoutofschool,theteenagerwas invented Theyhadmoreleisuretime,moremoneytospendandmoreindependencethankids Rockandroll(developedinthe50s),becamepopularandwerefavouredamongstteens Canadaandthegood:MostCanadianswerestillconservative Hockeyhoweverwasstillafavouritepastime ProtectingCanadianCulture:CanadawasinfluencedheavilybytheUSandHollywood ToinvestigateCanadianculture,thefederalgovernmentcreatedTheMasseyCommission in1949.ItsuggestedtheCanadiansbeprotectedfromUSinfluences. ItrecommendedthestrengtheningoftheNationalFilmBoard(establishedin1939) Italsorecommendedfundingtotheartsanduniversities TheycreatedtheCanadaCouncilin1957whichawardedgrantstowritersandartists TheMasseyCommissionalsorecommendedthatTVbeusedfornationalentertainment TheyputtheCBC(previouslymadeforradio)inchargeoftelevision ThefirsttwostationsopenedinTorontoandMontrealin1952 However,USprogramswerestillpreferredbyaudiencesandchildrengrewupknowing moreaboutAmericanculturethanCanadianculture

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In1968,thegovernmentestablishedTheCanadianRadiotelevisionand TelecommunicationsCommission,whichimposedrulesrequiringCanadiancontent.

POSTWARPROSPERITY
OnAugust6th,1945,PrimeMinisterMackenzieKingcalledameetingoftheprovincial premierstodiscusstheeconomy Kingrecommendedthatthefederalgovernmentbeinchargeoftheeconomy ProvinceslikeQuebecandOntariohoweverwerenotwillingtogiveuptheirownpowers C.D.Howe,theMinisterofReconstruction,TradeandCommercehadanewstrategy: o Privateindustrywouldhandlethetransitionoftheeconomywiththehelpof governmentincentives o Taxbreakswouldbegiventocompanieswhoproducedconsumergoods o GovernmentCrowncorporationswereauctionedofftoprivatecompanies o Soon,Canadaseconomywasbooming Theprovincesthentransferredtaxationpowerstothefederalgovernment Theprovincesreceivetherighttoprovidesocialservices Thefederalgovernmentnowhadmuchmorepowerattheexpenseoftheprovinces

RICHRESOURCESANDNEWINDUSTRIES
Canadiansbegantothinkthattheywerebecomingthe49thstatebecauseoftheUSsgreat influenceoverthem,anuncertaindebatethatcontinueduntiltheFreeTradeAgreement OilwasdiscoveredinAlbertain1947 Boomtownswerecreatedwherenewminesandwellsdeveloped Ontariohoweverwasstillthecentreofmanufacturing TheTransCanadaHighwaythelongestnationalhighwayintheworld,whichwas completedin1970.ItspannedfromSt.JohnstoVictoria. TheSt.LawrenceSeawayajoinedCanadaUnitedStatesprojectspanningfrom1954 1959.ItlinkedtheAtlanticOceanwiththeGreatLakes. TheTransCanadaPipelineBuilttotransportgascheaplyfromthewesttotheindustrial centresofCanada.

CANADIANOWNERSANDWORKERS
Inthewest,H.R.MacMillanputtogetheroneoftheworldslargestforestrycompanies InNewBrunswick,K.C.Irvingbecameoneoftheworldsrichestmen Tradeunionsfoughtforagreatershareofthecountrysprosperity From19461947,7millionworkdayswerelosttostrikes Wagesroseasaresult,allowingCanadiansmoremoneytospendthereforebenefitting otherbusinesses

LIMITATIONS Womenwerepaidsignificantlylessthanmen Immigrantsandtheworkingpoorworkedundermiserableconditions TheFirstNationssufferedfromtheindustrialpollution Thedevelopmentofmines,highwaysandboomtownsdisruptedNativehuntinggrounds 32

 THENATIONEXPANDS AfterWorldWarII,islandersofNewfoundland(independentuntil1932)decidedtoholda referendumtovoteontheirpoliticalfuture J.R.JoeySmallwoodwasaskillfulpoliticianwhoarguedtheyshouldjoinCanada June1948Thefirstreferendumwasheldwithnoclearmajority March31st,1949TheyheldasecondvoteandtheConfederationwonthevote. March31st,1949NewfoundlandbecameapartofCanada. THECHANGINGFACEOFPOLITICS MackenzieKinghadbeeninpowerlongerthananyotherprimeminister In1948,heretiredattheageof73 LouisSt.Laurentwashisreplacement ThemediaatthistimebegantoplayalargerroleinCanadianlife,influencingthepublicinto seeingcertainviews TVspromotedJohnDiefenbaker(ProgressiveConservative),whowasseenaselectrifying. HewontheelectionandtheLiberalschoseanewleader,LesterPearson DIEFVS.MIKE Overthenextdecade,PearsonandDiefenbakertookturnsbeingPrimeMinisterandLeader oftheOpposition;theywerebitterrivalsthrough5nationalelectionsin10years. Diefenbaker:aPrairiespopulistwholistenedoordinarypeople. HewascommittedtotheequalityofallCanadians(calledunhyphenatedCanadianism). HewasalsoanationalistwhobelievedinpreservingCanadasBritishconnectionswhile standinguptotheAmericans. HewasprohumanrightsandthefirstprimeministertoincludeawomaninhisCabinetand includeanAboriginalsenator. HegavestatusIndianslivingonreservestherighttovoteinfederalelections HeintroducedtheCanadianBillofRights Pearson:HebelivedthatBritishconnectionstoCanadawouldbeseveredinthelongrun Heintroducedtrialabolitionofcapitalpunishmentandeasierdivorcelaws HeintroducedCanadasflagandimprovedthesocialwelfaresystem

SOCIALWELFARE
Kingintroducedanunemploymentinsurancein1940andthebabybonusin1944 CanadianPensionPlan:Introducedin1966byPearsonsgovernment,whichimprovedon existingpensionschemes. CanadaAssistancePlan:Helpedtheprovincesfinancesocialassistanceprogramsforall needypeople,introducedbyPearsonsgovernment. PearsonalsointroducedMedicare SaskatchewanPremierT.C.TommyDouglasintroducedamedicareprogramfirst Thebillwaspassedin1962 In1962also,TommyDouglasbecametheleaderoftheNewDemocraticParty,formedfrom theCCF TheLiberalswerethreatenedbytheNDPandfearedtheywouldwintheelectionthrough theintroductionofMedicare

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In1966,theNationalMedicalCareActwaspassed.Thismeantthatfederalandprovincial governmentswouldthensharethecostofmedicalcarewithfundingfromtaxes. In1967,Canadaturned100yearsold DiefenbakerandPearsonrealizedtheywerebecomingoutoftouchwiththetimesso Pearsonsteppeddown,beingreplacedbyTrudeau.Diefenbakerwasdefeatedina leadershipconventionoftheProgressiveConservativePartyin1967.

THETRUDEAUERA Trudeauwasaflashypolitician,arrivinginsportscars,datingcelebritiesandjokingwith reporters.Canadianswereinlovewithhim.Trudeaumaniagrippedthenation. Hewantedtobuildajustsociety. Hebelievedthatthegovernmenthadthedutytoprotecttherights/freedomsofthepeople TheYouthquake: DuetothelargenumberofyouthinNorthAmerica,amorepowerfulyouthcultureof protestcalledyouthquakewascreated ThetransitionbeganwiththeBritishInvasionledbytheBeatles Thisbeganthehippiephenomenon;aneraofsexualpromiscuityanddrugs Thisyouthquakeshowedthatyoungpeoplewerebecomingmorepoliticallyaware In1972,thevotingageforfederalelectionswasloweredfrom21to18 Bythe1980s,thebabyboomersbegantolivemoresubduedlives.Theirdesireforwealth nicknamedthemtheMeGenerationandsothesocialprotestmovementhadgone TheWomensMovement: Inthe1960s,theideaoffeminismemerged Womenfelttrappedbytheirhouseholds Inresponse,thegovernmentsetuptheRoyalCommissionontheStatusofWomenin1967 toexamineawomansroleinsociety.Theyrealized: o Womenshouldhavetherightworkoutsideofhome o Societyshouldtakeresponsibilityforchildren;daycaresshouldbeimplemented o Womenshouldbeentitledtopaidmaternityleavefromtheirjobs o Thefederalgovernmentshouldhelpwomenovercomediscrimination TheNationalActionCommitteeontheStatusofWomen:apressuregroupformedin1971 byseveralwomensgroups.Theylobbiedwithgovernmentstoactquicklyonthe Commissionsrecommendations.Theywonaclauseguaranteeingtheequalityofwomenin CanadasCharterofRightsandFreedoms,whichcameintoforcein1982. Bythe1980s,moreCanadianwomenbecameengineers,doctorsandpoliticians TheEnvironmentalMovement: Publicconcernovertheenvironmentbegantorisedramatically Eventually,thegovernmentpassedlawsrequiringcompaniestoprovetheirprojectswould notharmtheenvironment Recyclingbecamemorecommonandvehicleshadtobecomemorefuelefficient 34

Greenpeace:Anenvironmentalgroupformedin1970byagroupofactivistsinBC. ConcernedaboutnucleartestingoffthecoastofAlaska,theytookaboattotheareaand refusedtoleaveuntilthetestwascancelled.Theyhaveusedsimilartacticssincethenand todayarebasedinAmsterdam.

ECONOMICCHALLENGES TheOilEmbargoof1973bytheOrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries In1973,warbrokeoutintheMiddleEastbetweenIsraelanditsArabneighbors ManywesterncountriesincludingCanadasupportedIsrael OPECretaliatedbyrefusingtoselloiltothosecountries;gasandoilpricesjumped400% overnight Thisinflationwasseenacrossthecountry,spreadingtoproductsaswell Aspricesrose,workerswantedhigherwagesandasthewagesgothigher,thepricesdidtoo Businessesbegantofallandunemploymentratesgothigh RegionalDisparity:ThegapbetweenthepoorerandmoreprosperousregionsofCanada. Astherecessionofthe70shit,theprovinceswhodependedonnationalresourceswere mostimpacted.However,OntarioandQuebecdidnotsufferasmuchandotherprovinces resentedthemforthat. WesternAlienation:PeopleinthePrairiesbelievedthatOttawafavouredCentralCanadaatthe expenseoftheWest.Inresponsetotheoilcrisis,thefederalgovernmentfrozethepriceofoil andgas,whileimposingataxonpetroleumthatwasexportedfromwesternCanada.The moneyfromthosetaxeswouldbeusedtosubsidizethecostofimportedoilfromtheEast. Albertanswerefurious. Trudeauincreasetransferpaymentstoprovincesforsocialservicesandspentmillionsof regionalprojectstoboosteconomicdevelopmentincertainareas. TheLiberalsthenboughtintotheNationalEnergyProgram,whichaimedto: o Reducetheconsumptionofoil o ToprotectCanadiansfromrisingoilprices o TomakeCanadaselfsufficientinoil TheprogramgavefundingtoCanadianPetroleumcompaniessotheycoulddrillforoilin promisingsites.Theyalsoencouragedcitizenstoswitchtoelectricpower. By1984,oilpriceshadfallenandtheNEPhadbeendismantled THEDEBTCRISIS Socialservicescostmorethantheyhadenvisioned Governmentwasoperatingatadeficit:moremoneywasbeingspentthanearned Thegovernmentcollectedlesstaxeswhenbusinessesfailed,butthenneededtogiveout morewelfareandsoCanadaneededtoborrowmoneyforitsprograms WhenTrudeauleftofficein1984,thefederalgovernmentwas160billiondollarsindebt MULRONEYANDTHEDEBT

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BrianMulroney(ProgressiveConservative)cametopowerin1984,promisingtofix Canadaseconomy. MulroneyplannedtocopyRonaldReagan(theUS)andMargaretThatcher(Britain).He wouldsavemoneybytrimmingsocialprograms. Hewouldcuttaxesandstimulatetheeconomy;however,thisdidnotwork Canadawashitbyrecessionin1990andpeoplelosttheirjobswhiledebtincreased TheConservativeslostin1993inadisastrousdefeat

THELIBERALSANDTHEDEBT
JeanChrtien(Liberal)cameintopowerin1993,withadebtof$466billion Theirsolutionwastoinjectmoneyintotheeconomy;spending6billiondollarsonpublic workssuchasroadrepairsandnewbridges Interestratesshotupin1994however,andFinanceMinisterPaulMartinconcludedthat Canadacouldnolongerafforditsvastnumberofsocialservices Martinbegancuttingfederalgovernmentspending;raisingtuitionfeesandhealthcosts SomeCanadianswenttotheUSfortreatmentastheservicestheyneededwerenot availableinCanada

CANADAANDNEWTECHNOLOGY Canadiansbecameworldtravelersduetotheadvancementofairplanes Satellitesallowedaccesstohundredsoftelevisionstations Satellitesallowedforcheaplongdistancephonecalls Inthe1980s,personalcomputerswereintroduceandbythe21stcentury,overhalfof Canadianshadcomputers

THECANADIANIDENTITY
THEROOTSOFQUEBECNATIONALISM TheDuplessisEra From19361939andagainfrom19441959,QuebecwascontrolledbyPremierMaurice Duplessis(UnionNationale) HewasastrongQuebecnationalistwhothoughtofQuebecasitsownnation HeintroducedanewflagforQuebecfeaturingthefleurdelis TheRomanCatholicChurchbecamethemaindefenderofQuebecculture Religionwasacommonpartofthecurriculum,alongwithlanguagesandphilosophy DuplessisencouragedforeigninvestmentinQuebec Theprovinceguaranteedcheaplabourandpromisedlowtaxes BriberyandcorruptionweretrademarksoftheDuplessisregime TheQuietRevolution AfterDuplessisdiedin1960,JeanLesage(Liberals)cameintopower QuietRevolution:thegroupofchangesbroughtonbyJeanLesageafterDuplessisdied.

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Lesagefirstruledoutcorruption,wages/pensionswereraisedandrestrictionsontrade unionswereremoved Theyalsomodernizedtheprovinceseconomy,politicsandculture Theychangedupthecurriculumtomakeitmorescienceandtechnologyoriented TheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchdeclined TheLiberalswonagaininthe1962election,withtheaimofstrengtheningQuebecsown economy Thegovernmentboughtoutseveralhydrocompaniesandturneditintoaprovincial monopolycalledHydroQuebec TheBirthofSeparatism WithQuebecsnewachievements,theygotangrierattheinjusticesoftheangloCanadians TheonlysolutionseenbymostwasseparationfromCanada YoungradicalsjoinedterroristgroupssuchastheFLQandfoughtinthenameofafree Quebec FrontdelaLiberationduQubec:aterroristgroupwhofoughtforafreeQuebec.They usedfirebombsandexplosivestoattacksymbolsofEnglishpower.MostQuebec nationalistsdisagreedwithsuchtactics. In1967,theQuebeccabinetministerRenLvesquelefttheLiberalPartyandformedthe PartiQubcois,apartyalsoinfavourofQuebecsindependence/separation. OttawasResponse LesterPearsonwasprimeministerinthemidstoftheQuietRevolution HeappointedtheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalismtoinvestigate solutionsfortheFrenchsdiscontent ThecommissionrecommendedtheCanadabecomeofficiallybilingual FrancophonescomplainedaboutthedominanceofBritishsymbols,soPearsonsuggested Canadamakeanewflagandsochosethemapleleaf. CanadiansresentedanewflagbecausetheythoughtPearsonwassimplymakingthe francophoneshappy However,onFebrurary15th,1965,Canadasnewflagwasraisedforthefirsttime TrudeauandQubec TrudeaureplacedPearsonin1968 HepassedtheOfficialLanguagesAct,whichmadeCanadaabilingualcountry Manyembracedthedeclaration,butsomeWesternersfeltFrenchwasbeingforcedon them FrancophoneshoweverfeltthatTrudeauwasnotdoingenough TheywantedspecialstatusforQuebecinConfederation,butTrudeaurefused TheOctoberCrisis October5th1970membersoftheFLQkidnappedJamesCross,aBritishdiplomatfromhis homeinMontreal Inexchangeforhisrelease,theFLQdemandedthereleaseofFLQmembersinprison Thegovernmenthowever,refused October10th,1970TheFLQkidnappedQuebeclabourministerPierreLaporte 37

Trudeau,needingtotakeaction,askedParliamenttoimposetheWarMeasuresAct,which suspendedcivilrightsandhadonlybeenusedduringthefirsttwoworldwars Anyonecouldbearrestedwithoutbeingchargedforanoffense;beingpartoftheFLQwas thenacrime October16thfederaltroopsweresenttopatrolthestreetsofOttawaandMontreal, wherehundredsofproseparatistQuebeckerswerearrested October17ththepolicefoundthestrangledbodyofPierreLapointeinthetrunkofacar Twomonthslater,theMontrealpolicefoundthegroupholdingJamesCrossinaMontreal house InexchangeforCrossssafety,thegroupmembersweregivenasafepassagetoCubawhere theydgetpoliticalasylum. ThosedetainedundertheWarMeasuresActwerereleasedandtheOctoberCrisiswasover

ThePQinPower ThePartiQuebecoistookpowerin1976 LeaderRenLevesquepromisedtoholdareferendumregardingindependence Bill101,AKAtheCharteroftheFrenchLanguagethisbillmadeFrenchtheonlyofficial languageoftheprovince.ItwasintroducedbyRenLevesqueshortlyafterhegotpower. The1980Referendum Areferendumwasheldin1980todetermineQuebecspoliticalfuture HeproposedthatQuebecbecomeindependentyetmaintaineconomicaltieswithCanada TrudeaupromisedtonegotiateanewConstitutionthatwouldbeanosidewin ThereferendumvotedagainstindependenceandRenLevesqueaccepteddefeat PatriatingtheConstitution TheBritishNorthAmericaActhadbeenCanadasconstitutionsince1867 TheActwasunderBritishjurisdictionhowever,sonochangescouldbemadewithoutBritish approval TrudeauwantedtobringtheConstitutionhometoCanada,aswellasincludeaCharteror RightsandFreedoms Trudeauneededtofirstthinkofanamendingformula,howchangeswouldbemade. OnNovember4th,1981,10premiersmetinOttawaovernightandthoughtoftheKitchen Compromise.9/10premierswereawakenedinthemiddleofthenighttoapprovethedeal. ThepremiersacceptedtheCharterofRights,giventhatanescapeclausewereadded(asin, federal/provincialgovernmentcouldoptoutofcertainclausesintheCharter) Anamendingformulawasalsodecidedupon:changescouldonlybemadewiththe approvalof7/10provincesrepresentinghalfofCanadaspopulation. RenLevesque,whowasstayinginanotherhotel,wasnotincludedintheKitchen Compromise. Hearguedthedeal,butTrudeauacceptedthecompromise Quebecfeltbetrayed OnApril17th,1982,theNewConstitutionActwassignedintolawbyQueenElizabethIIand PrimeMinisterTrudeauandtheCanadianConstitutionhadreturnedtoCanada TheConstitutionDebate 38

By1984,thegreatestconcernofCanadianswastheeconomy Intheelectioncampaignof1984,BrianMulroney(ProgressiveConservative),decidedto appealtotheQuebeckersbypromisingtorepairthedamagedonebytheConstitution MulroneywaselectedandbegannegotiationswhenRenLvesqueretiredandRobert Bourassa(ProFederalistLiberalParty)cameintopower HisgoalwastogetQuebectosigntheconstitution,butotherprovincesalsohaddemands WesternalienationhadbecomeaproblemagainasOttawagaveagovernmentcontractto Bombardier,aMontrealbasedairplanecompanyasopposedtotheWinnipegbasedBristol AerospaceofWinnipeg. TheReformParty:formedin1987togiveavoicetowesternCanada.

TheMeechLakeAccord In1987,PrimeMinisterMulroneycalledthepremierstoaconferenceatMeechLake TheyweretodiscussamendmentstotheConstitution TheyproposedtorecognizeQuebecasadistinctsocietyandgavemorepowertoother provinces ManitobaandNewfoundlandwithheldtheirsupporthoweverandtheAccorddisintegrated inJune1990 BlocQubcois:formedin1990byLucienBouchard,aQuebecmemberofMulroneys cabinet. TheCharlottetownAccord MulroneysgovernmentformedaCitizensForum,acommitteethattravelledacrossthe nationtoheartheviewsofCanadiansontheConstitution Theymadeanewpackageofproposedamendments ThiswastheCharlottetownAccord ItproposedreformingtheSenate,makingitanelectedbodywithequalrepresentationfrom allpartsofthecountry ItalsosupportedAboriginalselfgovernment TheAccordwasputtoanationalreferenduminOctober1992 Despiteseeminglypleasingeveryone,over50%ofvotersrejectedit ThegreatestoppositionwasinBC,wheretheydidntwanttogiveQuebectoomuchpower Thisaccordalsofailed Referendumof1995andAfter TheseparatistPariQubcoiswaselectedonceagaininthe1994provincialelection PremierJacquesParizeaucalledaprovincialreferendumonQuebecsseparation Thenosidewonbyalittleover1% LucienBouchardbecameQuebecpremierattheendofthecenturyandspokeofanew referendum PrimeMinisterJeanChrtienestablishedtheClarityBill,whichsetdowninlawthata substantialyesmajoritywasrequiredbeforeQuebecsindependencecouldbenegotiated TheLiberalswontheQuebecelectionin2000asseparatismdeclined BouchardresignedandthenewPremierbecameBernardLandry AMulticulturalNation 39

FromtheendofWorldWarItothe60s,Canadahadarestrictiveimmigrationpolicy In1962,newregulationsremovedlimitsonAsian,Africanandotherforeignimmigrants In1967,legislationmadeCanadasimmigrationpolicycolourblind Immigrantswerethenchosenbasedoneducationandemploymentprospects In1971,TrudeauintroducedanofficialPolicyofMulticulturalism,whichencouragedthe countrysvariousethnicgroupstoexpresstheircultures. In1976,immigrationregulationschangedagain,allowingimmigrationoffamilymembers withrelativesalreadyinCanada Post60s,moreallowancewasmadeforrefugeesfleeingpersecutionintheirhomelands Inthe80s,Canadabecamemoremulticulturalthanever,withthebiggestincreasebeing fromAsiancountries. SomethoughtthoughthatmulticulturalismwaspreventingCanadafromforminganidentity

AboriginalNations Aboriginalpeoplelivingonreservesgottherighttovotein1960 Theycontinuedtosufferhoweverfrompoorhealthandpoverty TheNationalIndianBrotherhood:formedinthelate1960stolobbyonbehalfofthe Aboriginalpeoplelivingonreserves. TrudeausgovernmentproposedapolicyoutlinedintheWhitePaperof1969.(Adocument putforthfordiscussionthatcouldbepassedintothelaw) TrudeauandChrtien,theIndianAffairsMinister,thoughtthatabolishinganyspecialrights thattheIndianshad(suchasnotpayingtaxes),wouldsolvetheproblem.Thiswouldallow Aboriginalstointegrateintomainstreamsociety. TheAboriginalswerefuriousanddemandedselfgovernment,controlovertheirownaffairs. Theypresentedtheirownpaper:CitizensPlusAKATheRedPaper. EducationalConcerns Thesystemofresidentialschoolswasabandonedin1969 Aboriginalscreatedtheirownschools,teachingtheirownlanguagesandcultures Asparofagovernmentrunboardinghomeprogram,somehighschoolstudentswere senttolivewithfamiliesandattendschoolsincitiessuchasVancouver Thelonelinessdrovesomehomehoweverbeforegraduation Manystudentswereabusedattheschools Thegovernmentapologizedin1998andannounceda$350HealingFund EnvironmentalConcerns IndustrieswereexpandingaroundreservesandAboriginalswereconcernedthiswould affecttheirtraditionalactivities Inthe1970s,theInuit,MtisandIndianBrotherhoodoftheYukon/NorthwestTerritories wantedtohalttheconstructionofoilandnaturalgaspipelinesthatwouldrunthroughtheir land Theydemandedastudytoexaminetheeffectsoftheproject TheBergerCommissionwascreatedforthispurposeandtheysuggestedthatthe constructionofthepipelinesbesuspendedfor10yearspendingenvironmentalstudy.

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InQuebec,afterdisputesinthe80sand90s,theCreeoftheNorthmanagedtohaltthe constructionoftwonewphasesoftheJamesBayHydroProject,whichthreatenedtoflood theirterritory

ThePathtoSelfGovernment 1980CanadianAboriginalpeoplesformedtheAssemblyofFirstNationstorepresent themintheirdealingswiththefederalgovernment AboriginalrightswerethenentrenchedintheCharterofRightsandFreedoms BillC31:passedin1985byParliament.ItgavetheAboriginalbandcouncilsthepowerto decidewhohadtherighttoliveonAboriginalreserves Aboriginalsstillwantedselfgovernment,however. Specificclaims:LandclaimspertainingtoareaswheretreatiesbetweenAboriginalpeoples andthefederalgovernmenthadbeensigned.Inthesecases,thegovernmenthadnotkept theirterms. Comprehensiveclaims:LandclaimspertainingtoownershipoflandinpartsofCanada neversurrenderedbythetreaty. TheOkaConfrontation InOka,Quebecduringthesummerof1990,theOkaTownCouncildecidedtoexpandagolf courseintoMohawkterritory(theKanesatakereserve) TheMohawkwarriorsocietystoppedconstructionbyblockadingtheland TheQuebecProvincialPolicewerecalledintoremovetheblock OnJuly11th,1990,thepoliceadvancedontheMohawklines.Gunfirebrokeoutandan officerwaskilled. Atensestandoffensuedandtherewerenightlyviolentconfrontations QuebecPremierRobertBourassacalledintheCanadianForcesforhelpasotherbands persuadedtheMohawkstoendthestandoff Thedisputedlandwaseventuallyboughtbythefederalgovernmentandgivento Kanesatake LandClaimsinBritishColumbia AboriginalnationsneverofficiallygaveupclaimstomostofBC TheRoyalProclamationof1763alsodeclaredthatanylandspurchasedbytheBritish belongedtotheIndians In1887theNisgaabeganassertingtheirlandrights.EvenwhentheIndianActmadeit illegalforthemtoraisefundsforlandclaims,theycontinued. Inthemid1990s,thegovernmentsofCanadaandBCdecidedthatthetimehadcometo settletheNigsaaclaim In1996,theywontherightto8%oftheiroriginalland,ownershipoftheforestsandthe righttotheirownmunicipalgovernment/policinghowevertheNigsaaagreedtopaytaxes. In1998,theSupremeCourtofCanadadefinedAboriginalTitle.ItruledthatAboriginal groupscouldclaimownershipoflandiftheycouldprovetheyhadthelandbeforethe Canadiangovernmentclaimedsovereignty. APowerfulForceforChange Nunavutwascreatedin1999fromthelargesttreatynegotiatedeverinCanada 41

ItgavetheInuitpoliticalcontrolof1.6millionsquarekilometersontheEasternArctic

THEGOVERNMENT
Government:theformaldecisionmakingsystemthatactstoestablishedrulesand procedures. Institutions:Bodiesorgroupsresponsibleforcarryingoutspecificaspectsofthe governmentswork. OurformalmethodsofdecisionmakinghaveEuropeanroots,whobroughttheirformsof governingwiththemtoNorthAmerica Democracy:ruledbythepeople Directdemocracy:Wheneveryeligiblecitizenparticipatesdirectlybyvotinginalldecisions thataffectsociety.ThiswaspracticedinAncientGreece. Representativedemocracy:Whereelectedrepresentativesmakedecisionsonvoters behalf.Example:Canada. Constitutionalmonarchy:Therecognitionofamonarch(kingorqueen)asheadofstate. Canadaisanexampleofone. TheQueendoesntactuallyruleanynationalone.However,theCrownhasultimatepower. InCanadatheCrownisrepresentedbytheGovernorGeneral. CanadianConstitution:Alegaldocumentthatoutlineswhoshouldhavethepowertomake variousdecisions.Itoutlinesthestructureofourgovernmentanddefines/limitsthe governmentspower.Canadaisaconstitutionalmonarchy:thepowersandresponsibilities ofthemonarcharesubjecttothelawsintheConstitution.OriginallycalledtheBritishNorth AmericaAct,afteritsamendmentin1982,ithas3mainparts: o AdescriptionofthepowersofprovinciallegislaturesandParliament o ACharterofRightsandFreedomsthatoutlinesthebasicrightsandresponsibilities ofeveryCanadian o AnamendingformulathatdescribeshowtheConstitutionmaybechangedor altered.Thisformularequires7/10provincestoagreeontheproposal;the7 provincesmustalsomakeupatleastonehalfofthepopulationofCanada TheUnwrittenConstitution:Customs,lawsandstatutestakenfromBritishtraditionthatwe abidebybutarenotwrittenintheConstitution.Forexample:politicalparties. TheNonwithstandingClauseAclauseintheConstitutionthatallowsParliamentorthe legislatureofprovincetoallowanacttostandevenifitcontravenestheCharter. FederalSystemAKAFederalism:anorganizationofregionalgovernments(provinces)acting onbehalfofitsownresidents,withacentralgovernmentresponsibleformattersvitalto thenationasawhole. Alllevelsofgovernmentshavedifferentresponsibilities. SharedResponsibilities Immigration Agriculture HealthCare NaturalResources EnvironmentalIssues ProvincialResponsabilities Education Charities HealthServicesandHospitals Licences Highways

Federal NationalDefense ForeignPolicy AboriginalAffairs PostalServices BankingSystem 42

MarriageandDivorceLaw ProvincialCourtSystem CriminalLaw ProvincialPoliceandPrisons FederalPrisons TheFathersofConfederationassignedallnewareasofdecisionthatdidntexistin1867to thefederalgovernmentasresidualpowers. Thisexplainswhythefederalgovernmentisinchargeoftelevision,computersandfaxes,as thetechnologydidnotexistbackwhentheConfederationwascreate Municipalgovernments:AKAlocalgovernmentsthatprovideessentialserviceslikegarbage disposalandwatersupply.Theyarecontrolledbytheprovincialgovernments. Canadaisdividedintothreebranches:legislative,executiveandjudicial Executivepower:thepowertomakedecisionsandadministerthem. Legislativepower:thepowertomakelaws. Allthreelevelsofgovernmenthavethepowertomake/amendlaws. Judicialpower:thepowertointerpret/administerthelaw. Judicial power is separate from the two other branches of the government to ensure that thegovernmentactswithintheLaw. THEFEDERALGOVERNMENT ParliamentismadeupoftheGovernorGeneral,theHouseofCommonsandtheSenate Parliamentmustmeetatleastonceayearinasessiontopassnewlaws,amendsand debateissuesofconcern TheHouseofCommons:AKAtheLowerHouse.Itistheonlypartofthelegislativebranchthathas electedmembers.ElectionsforseatsintheHousemustoccurevery5yearsunlessanelectioniscalled earlier. Ridings:AKAconstituencies,areasthataredividedroughlyinequalinpopulation(100000 citizens).EachridingisrepresentedbyaMemberofParliament(MP). ThenumberofseatsintheHouseofCommonsdependsonthepopulation DebatesintheHouseofCommonsaredirectedbytheSpeakeroftheHouse,anMPchosen byotherMPschosentoleadthediscussion Memberssitwiththeirparties Theoppositionparties(notinpower)sitoppositethegovernmentparty Theirjobistoscrutinizetheactionsofthegovernment Caucus:Everypoliticalpartyholdsprivatemeetingscalledcaucuses.Here,theydiscuss concernsandopinionsfreely.Onceadecisionisreachedincaucus,itistraditionforallMPs tovoteinfavourofthepartyspositionintheHouseofCommons. Freevote:Whenmembersofthelegislaturevoteaccordingtowhattheywant,asopposed tofollowingapartydecision. TheSenate:AKAtheUpperHouseofParliament.ItisindependentoftheHouseofCommonsandruns itsownaffairs.ItprovidesafinalcheckonthelegislationpassedintheHouseofCommonsandmayalso introducetheirownbillsandpassthem.TheywouldthenneedtosendthebilltotheHouseof 43

Commons,thoughthispracticeisrare.SenatorsareappointedbytheGovernorGeneralby recommendationofthePrimeMinister.Senatorsmust: o BeCanadiancitizens o Beatleast30yearsold/youngerthan75 o BeLivingintheprovince/territorytheyrepresent o Ownatleast$4000ofproperty. Provinceswithgreaterpopulationshavemoresenators Patronage:Arewardgivenforindividualloyaltyorsupport TheExecutiveBranch: GovernorGeneral:Themonarchsrepresentative.Theymustgiveformalassent(agreement)to abillbeforeitbecomesalaw. ThePrimeMinister:TheleaderofthepartywiththemostelectedrepresentativesintheHouse ofCommons.TheymustbeaskedbytheGovernorGeneraltobecomeprimeminister. TheCabinet:Madeupofelectedpartymemberschosenbytheprimeminister.Usuallyeach memberisresponsibleforaparticulardepartment,ie.Defenseorfinance.Cabinetmeetingsare heldinprivateandinthemeetings,theymayexpresstheirviewsfrankly. Cabinetsolidarity:Inpublichowever,cabinetmembersmustshowfullsupportoftheir leader.Thisiscalledcabinetsolidaritysothatthegovernmentappearsunified Partywhip:Onememberofapartythatiselectedtoensurethatmembersarepresent inParliamenttosupportpartybillsandvoteaccordingtotheparty. ThePublicService:AKAthecivilserviceorthebureaucracy.Itisagroupofpermanent employeeswhoperformthebusinessofthegovernmentie.Gatherstats,writedetailsforlaws orcollecttaxes. HowaBillBecomesLaw PrivateMemberssBill:ifthememberintroducingabillisnotpartoftheCabinet.Anymember oftheHouseofCommonsorSenatemayintroduceabill. Procedure: Ideaforbillisdrafted IdeaisexplainedtoCabinet Cabinetapprovesidea Lawyersdraftthebill Cabinetcommitteeexaminesthebill Cabinetandcaucusapprovethebill ThebillisintroducedtotheHouseofCommonsforthefirstreading Secondreading:Thehousedebatesandvotesontheprincipleofthebill. TheParliamentarycommitteeexaminesthebill TheHouseamendsthebill Thirdreading:Usuallylittledebateandvote Ifitpasses,itgoestotheSenate(unlesstheSenateintroducedthebillfirstinwhichcaseitis giventotheHouseofCommons) Senateexamines,debatesandamendsthebill Onceapproved,thebillpassessenate TheGovernorGeneralgivesformalassentandthebillisnowalaw 44

 Provincialgovernments Hasresponsibilitiesineducation,healthandsocialservices,transportationandnegotiation withthefederalgovernment. Thistableshowstherolesinprovincialgovernmentsvs.federalgovernments. FederalGovernment Role Provincial/TerritorialGov. GovernorGeneral Representativeofthemonarchy LieutenantGovernor Leaderofthegovernmentand PrimeMinister Premier partyinpower Ministersresponsiblefor Cabinet Cabniet departmentsaschosenbythe leaderofthegovernment Partoflegislativebranchof LegislativeorNationalAssembly HouseofCommons governmentwhereelected representativesmakeand changelaws Providessobersecondthought Senate [Noequivalent] totheactionsoftheHouseof Commons Civilservice/bureaucracy,non PublicService PublicService electedpeoplewhoconductthe businessofthegovernment LocalGovernments Simplestformisatowncouncil Theleaderofthecouncilmaybecalledmayor,reeve,chairperson,overseerorwarden AboriginalSelfGovernment ManyAboriginalcommunitieshavelocalgovernmentsthatprovideforthepeoplesneeds Theleaderiscalledachief Thechiefmustnegotiatewithhigherlevelsofgovernmentregardinglicenses,accessto highwaysandeducation

THECITIZENANDGOVERNMENT
Elections: AnyCanadiancitizenovertheageof18mayvote Electionsareheldatleastevery5yearsforfederalandprovincialparliaments Municipalelectionsusuallyoccurevery23years WhenthePrimeMinisterdecidestocallanelection,theyasktheGovernorGeneralto dissolveParliament

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PoliticalcampaignsareusuallyexpensiveandthereforetheElectionsExpensesActwas createdin1974.Itlimitedthespendingofcampaignsandevenedouttheplayingfieldfor candidateswithfewerfunds. PublicOpinionPolls:Partiesusuallyseekpublicopinionthroughouttheyearthroughpolls. Onelectionday,pollingstationsaresetupineveryridingusuallyinschoolsorchurches.

TheElectoralSystem: Firstpastthepostsystem:UsedinCanada,whenthepollsclose,thevotesarecountedand thecandidatewiththemostvotesineachridingisannouncedthewinner.Nomajorityis needed.Thissystemaccentuatesregionalism. Proportionalrepresentation:UsedinIsrael,HollandandItalywhereeachpoliticalpartysets outalistofallitscandidates.Voterssupportacandidatebasedontheirpartyandthe numberofseatsapartywinsinlegislatureisbasedonthetotalnumberofvotesitreceives. PolitcalParties: Mostelectedrepresentativesbelongtoapoliticalparty Membersofthesamepartysharethesameideology(groupofbeliefs) Partiesaregenerallydividedbetweenleftwing,centreandrightwing LEFT CENTRE RIGHT Supportchangeinorderto Traditionisimportant,but Traditionisimportant;change improvethewelfareofcitizens. changemustbesupportedif shouldbetreatedwithcaution. mostpeoplewantIt. Governmentsshouldplaylarger Governmentsshouldplayarole Governmentsshouldplayasmall rolesinpeopleslives,especially onlywhenitimprovesthelives role.Privatebusinessesshould ensurethatneedsofcitizensare insocialservice. ofcitizens. met. Lawandorderareimportantto Lawandorderareimportantto Emphasizeslawandorderto encourageandprotecttherights protectsocietyanditstraditions protecttherightsofallcitizens ofindividuals fairlyandequally. Joiningapoliticalparty:mustbe18yearsold NonGovernmentalOrganization(NGO)nonprofitorganizationsthatworktoimprovelivesie.The RedCrossandOxfam. PressureGroups:madeupofpeoplewhoshareacertainviewpointandwanttochange/influencethe governmenttopromotetheirinterest. Institutionalizedpressuregroups:Wellestablishedandhaveformalorganizations. Issueorientedgroups:Lesspermanentandtendtoaccomplishlimitedaims. Governmentoftenseeksadvicefromthesegroups Lobbyist:usedbyinstitutionalizedgroups.Theyarepaidtorepresenttheinterestsofa particulargrouptokeydecisionmakerssuchaspoliticians. 46

Media:Partiesoftenusethemediatopresentaskewedviewofcertainthings.Theyusepropagandato convertcitizenstotheirside. Civildisobedience:theactofintentionallybreakingorrefusingtokeeplawsthatoneconsidersunjust. ThisisaformofprotestusedbyMartinLutherKingandGhandiwhobothultimatelydiedfortheir cause.

CANADASLEGALSYSTEM
RuleofLaw:Thismeanswearegovernedbyafixedsetoflawsthatapplytoallpeople. MagnaCartaisasymbolofthis,signedin1215byKingJohn.Itguaranteedmanyrights forBritishcitizens. HabeusCorpus:Therighttoajudge. CivilLaw:Dealswithrelationshipsbetweenindividualsorgroups,asindisputesoverpropertyor personalrelationships.ThepersonwhohasbeenhurtiscalledthePlaintiffwhereastheaccusedis calledtheDefendant. CriminalLaw:Dealswithmattersthataffectsocietyasawhole.Asthecrimesareagainstsocietyasa whole,thedefenserepresentstheaccusedpersonandthoseaccusingtheaccusedpersonarecalledthe Crownor,thepersecution.Onlythefederalgovernmentcanmakecriminallaws. CriminalCodeofCanada:PassedbyfederalParliamentin1892andcontainsmanycriminallaws. Commonlaw:BasedonthedecisionsofjudgesintheBritishroyalcourts,akaitsbasedonprecedent andthingsthathavehappenedbefore. Statutorylaw:Writtenlawsetdownbylegislature. Qubecscivillawsystemisdifferentfromlegaltraditionandonlyappliestoitsown province.ItisbasedonRomanlaw. TheCharterofRightsandFreedoms Sections7to14oftheCharterofRightsandFreedomsguaranteeCanadianslegalrights Theserightscannotbetakenawaywithoutaproperlegalprocess Indictableoffences:moreseriouscaseshandledbyprovincialsupremecourts. Summaryoffences:usuallylessseriousandhandledbylowercourts. SupremeCourtofCanada:ThehighestcourtforalllegalissuesinCanadasince1949.TheGovernor GeneralontheadviceofthePrimeMinisterappointsthe9members.Theministerofjusticeencourages lawyersandjudgestorecommendsuitablecandidates.3ofthe9justicesmustbefromQubec,3from Ontario,onefromtheMaritimesand2fromtheWesternProvinces.OneischosenbythePrime MinistertobeChiefJustice.In2000,BeverleyMcLachlinwasthefirstwomantoholdthattitle. Penalsystem:Thejudgesentencesthoseconvictedofcrimes.Theymayforcetheoffendertopaya fine,makesomekindofrestitutiontothevictim,performcommunityserviceorgotoprison.Infirst offences,ajudgemayplacetheoffenderonprobation:Asetperiodoftimewheretheymustfollow conditionssetbythecourt. 47

Lifeinprison:Thisisthemaximumsentence.Itmeans25yearswithoutparole. Parole:Therighttoearlyreleaseforgoodbehavior. Prisonersservingsentencesofunder2yearsgotoprovincialprisons Thosewithlongersentencesserveinfederalinstitutions Thereareminimum,mediumormaximumsecurityinstitutions Canadahasoneofthehighestratesofimprisonment(incarceration)intheWesternWorld YouthandtheLaw Beforethe20thcentury,youthgotnospecialtreatmentwhentheybrokethelaw TheYoungOffendersAct:Passedin1984,givinglenienttreatmenttoyoungoffenders YouthCriminalJusticeAct:Passedin2000,representingamovetowardsharsher punishmentsforyouth,especiallythosewhocommittedseriouscrimes Youthbetweentheageof1217whoarechargedwithacrimeareguaranteedthesame legalrightsundertheCharterasanyothercitizen Theygetspecialrightsbecauseoftheiragealso,withtheexceptionofseriouscrime offenders Youthcourt:Specialcourtsespeciallyforyouth,wherethejudgealonehearsthecase.A sentenceiscalledadispositioninyouthcourtandcanvaryfromjailtocommunityservice. Maximumjailtimeforayoungoffenderis5years. InformationTechnologiesandtheLaw Copyrightissue:theillegaldownloadofmusichasbecomeaconflictinNorthAmerica. Technologyassistedcrime:Websiteshavefacilitatedgambling,pornographyandevenhatesites CanadianRadioTelevisionandTelecommunicationsCommission:thebodyresponsiblefor regulatingcommunicationsinCanada.TheCommissiondecidedthatgenerallawsgoverning hatepropagandaandpornographywereenoughtoprotectCanadians. TheCanadianCentreforInformationTechnologySecurity:ajointinitiativeoftheBritish ColumbiaPoliceAcademyandtheJusticeInstituteofBritishColumbia.Theircoalistohelp policedealeffectivelywithtechnologyassistedcrime.

THEERAOFHUMANRIGHTS
Humanrights:Rightsthatareconsideredbasictolifeinanyhumansociety. TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights:ProclaimedattheUnitedNationsGeneral Assemblyin1948.Itisbasedonthebeliefthatallhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalin dignityandrights.ItisnowbindinguponCanadaininternationallaw,andtheUNhasgotten mostcountriestoagreewithitsgeneralprinciples. TheRighttoVote 1947CanadiansofChineseandEastIndiandescentgettherighttovote 1947TheChineseImmigrationActwasalsorepealed,allowingChinesewivesandchildrento joinhusbandsandfatherswhowerealreadyCanadiancitizens.

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 1949JapaneseCanadiansthathadbeenrelocatedduringWWIIwereallowedtoreturnand werealsogiventherighttovote. 1960Aboriginalsobtainedtherighttovote. In1960,DiefenbakerpassedTheCanadianBillofRights ItformallyrecognizedandoutlinedrightsalreadyheldbyCanadiansundercommonlow However,thebillcouldbeamendedlikeanypieceoflegislation THECHARTER FundamentalFreedoms:Section2protectsthefundamentalfreedomsofconscience,religion,thought, belief,expression,peacefulassemblyandassociation. EqualityRights:Section15oftheCharterguaranteesequalitybeforeandunderthelaw.Every individualhasaccesstothecourts.Section15alsoprohibitsanydiscriminationagainstindividualson thebasisorrace,colour,religionoranydisability. TheNotwithstandingClause:Section33oftheCharter,whichgivesthegovernmentanescapeclause. Thisallowsthegovernmenttopassalawevenifthatlawviolatesaspecificfreedomorrightasgivenby theCharter. TheBCHumanRightsCode:ProtectsBritishColumbiansfromdiscriminationofallkinds.Itcovers employment,tenacyandpropertypurchases,accommodation,servicesandfacilitiescustomarily availabletothepublicandhatepropaganda. Femalesoftengetpaidlessforthesameamountofworkthatmendo Inordertoavoidthis,TheCanadianHumanRightsActof1986statesthatitis discriminatorypracticeforanemployertoestablishadifferencebetweenmaleandfemale employees. TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild:Thefirstlegallybindinginternationalagreementtoinclude childrenscivilandpoliticalrights.Itwasadoptedin1989bytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.It statedthatchildrenhadtherighttofreedomofexpression,thatchildrenshouldnotbeseparatedfrom theirparentsunlessitwasintheirbestinterest,thatchildrenshouldhavethehigheststandardofhealth andarighttoeducation. 1979wasconsideredtheInternationalYearoftheChild CanadianCoalitionfortheRightsoftheChild:Anorganizationconsistingofover50organizations, conductingresearchintohowwellCanadafulfillsitsinternationalobligationsforchildrensrights.

HUMANGEOGRAPHY

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POPULATION Demography:thestatisticalstudyofhumanpopulations.
Census:Acompletewayofgatheringinformation,definedasthetotalprocessofcollecting, compilingandpublishingdemographic,economicandsocialdatapertainingtoaparticulartime, toallpersonsinaparticularcountry.Itcomesintheformaquestionnaire.Canadahasdonea majoroneevery10yearssincetheConfederationandalessdetailedoneevery5years. Canadiansarerequiredbylawtofillitout.Censusesareusuallymoreaccurateindeveloped countriesasthereistechnologyavailabletokeepdatacurrent.Indevelopingcountries however,thedataisusuallylessaccurate. ComponentsofPopulationChange:a)howmanypeopleareborn b)howmanydie c)howmanymoveinandoutofanarea AKA:Birthsdeaths+immigrantsemigrants=increase/decreaseinpopulation Crudebirthrate:Numberofbirthsinoneyear,dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000. Crudedeathrate:Numberofdeathsinoneyear,dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000. Naturalincrease:Subractingcrudedeathratefromcrudebirthrate.(Doesnotincludeimmigration!) Exponentialrateofincrease:Imaginethatacouplehasfourchildrenandeachchildgrowsuptohave4 children.Bythe3rdgenerationtheywillhave16descendants.Insteadofaregularrateof1,2,3,4,an exponentialrateincreasesby1,2,4,8,etc. RuleofSeventy:Aconvenientwaytoexpressexponentialpopulationgrowth,usingthelengthoftimeit wouldtakeforapopulationtodoubleinsize.ItstatesthatDoublingTimeisapproximatelyequalto70 dividedbythegrowthrate(inpercent)peryear. MIGRATIONS Immigrationratesrateofpeopleenteringthecountry.Calculatedbynumberofimmigrants dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000. Emigrationratesrateofpeopleleavingthecountry.Calculatedbynumberofemmigrants dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000. NetMigrationRate:ThedifferencebetweentheEmigrationrateandtheImmigrationrate. BirthrateDeathRate+/NetMigrationRate=PopulationGrowthRate Canada,theUSandAustraliaareseveralcountriesinwhichimmigrationisasignificantfactorof populationgrowth.Mostimmigrantsareyoungandgenerallysinglemales,whichgivesthehost countriesayoungerpopulationwhichresultsinahigherbirthrate. Lifeexpectancy:Theaveragenumberofyearsthananindividualisexpectedtolive. Lifeexpectancyisover75todayinCanada,whereasinthe17thcentury,itwaslittleover30. Birthratesbackinthe18thcenturywerehigh,butpopulationgrowthwasslowbecause deathrateswerealsohigh. AfterWorldWarII,theWorldHealthOrganizationandaidprogramsmadeimprovedhealth measuresavailabletoallcountries.Deathratesfell,butbirthrateswerestillhighin developingcountries,explainingtherapidpopulationgrowthinsuchareasoftheworld. 50

TheDemographicTransitionmodel:Showschangesoveraperiodoftimein3elements:birthrates, deathratesandtrendsinoverallpopulationnumbers.Itassumesthatinanycountry,highbirthrates andhighdeathrateswillgraduallyfall.Itassumesthatcountrieswillpassthroughperiodsof industrialization/urbanizationthatreducebirth/deathrates. Agestructure:Agestructureofapopulationhelpsusunderstandwhythingschangewithinapopulation Threeagegroupshavebeendetermined:Childrenupto15,workingadultsfrom1624andadults65+. Dependencyratio:Thethreeagegroupsgiveustheproportionofthepopulationthatisbeing supportedbytheworkingagegroup. Childrenandolderpeopleputpressureonsocietyformedical,educationandotherservices PopulationPyramid:agraphthatshowstheageandsexstructureofapopulation.Ithashorizontalbar graphsformalesandfemalesplacedbacktobackatageintervalsof5years(calledcohorts). Expandingpopulation:Countrieswithhighbirthratesandmany children.(Shownontheleft) Stablepopulation:Birthratesanddeathratesinbalance. Contractingpopulation:Agrowthratebelowreplacementlevel. Canadasbirthrateanddeathratehavebeendroppingsteadily,meaningthepopulationis gettingolder Theincreasingnumberofelderlypeopleputstrainsonsocial/medicalservices Lesschildrentolookafteragingparentsmeansmorelongtermcarefortheelderly ThenumberofimmigrantsenteringCanadaisaroundthe200000mark Moremoneyisnowspentonhandlingrefugeeclaimsthanprocessingregularimmigration Theagingpopulationhasbeendeclaredbythegovernmentasthegreatestfuturechallenge Populationdistribution:thewaypeoplearespacedovertheEarthssurface. Ecumene:permanentlyinhabitedplaces. Approximately35%oftheworldslandisnotgoodforsettlement. Populationdensity:Thenumberofpeopleinagivenarea. Crudedensities:Calculatedbydividingthepopulationofacountrybyitsarea. Nutritionaldensity:howmuchnutritionincaloriescanbeproducedfrotheland. Worldpopulationwillcontinuetogrowinthe21stcentury Agestructureisimportantindealingwithhowfastapopulationwillincrease Developingcountriesarelikelytohaveafasterpopulationincrease 51

LIVINGSTANDARDS
EachyeartheUNpublishesaHumanDevelopmentReport,rankingitsmembercountries accordingtothreemeasures: o Adultliteracy o Lifeexpectancy o PercapitaGDP(grossdomesticproduct) GrossDomesticProduct:Thetotalvalueofallgoodsandservicesproducedinacountryin oneyear.DividingthisbythepopulationofthecountrygivesyoutheaverageGDPper capita(perperson). Infrastructure:Thingssuchastransportationandcommunicationslinks,electricpowerdistribution systems,schoolsandhospitals. FirstWorldCountries:developedcountries,themostwealthycountries. SecondWorldCountries:Newlyindustrializedcountrieswhoarebuildinguptheirindustriesand infrastructure. ThirdWorldCountries:Developingcountrieswithoutmoderninfrastructureormanyindustries. TheHighlyIndebtedPoorCountries:DevelopingcountriesatthebottomoftheUNHuman DevelopmentIndexwhoareindebttothedevelopednations. Qualityoflifeincludeshealth,levelsofnutrition,lifeexpectancy,literacy,thestatusof womenandchildren,freedomofspeech,economicfreedomandtheenvironment Povertyisalsomeasuredindifferentways o Onemeasuresetstheabsolutepovertylineindevelopingcountriesatlessthana dollarperpersonperday.TheWorldBankestimatesthatwiththis,1.3billion peoplelivebelowthepovertyline. Almost800millionpeopleindevelopingcountriesarestarvingormalnourished Debt:AfterWorldWarII,TheInternationalMonetaryFundandTheWorldBankweresetuptoprovide loanstohelpcountriesimprovetheirlivingstandards.Theyencouragedthecountriestoinvestin projectstoboosteconomicgrowth,howevermanyoftheprojectsfailed.Asthedevelopingcountries couldnotrepaythecompaniesandbeganborrowingfromWesternbanks,theyaccumulatedgross amountsofdebt. Structuraladjustmentprograms:Programsthatrequireindebtedcountriestorestructuretheir economybywelcomingforeigninvestment,increasingexportsandturninggovernmentservicesoverto theprivatesectorinreturnforloansfromtheWorldBankandInternationalMonetaryFund. Multinationalcompanies:Largecompaniesthatoperateinmorethanonecountry,oftenwithalotof politicalpower. Bilateralaid:Assistancefromonegovernmenttoanother. Multilateralaid:Assistancefundedbyanumberofgovernmentsandusuallyinvolveslargescale projects. Tiedaid:Aidgivenwithconditionsattached. CanadasForeignAidProgram: 52

TheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgencyandseveralNGOssupportforeignaid countriesallaroundtheworld

TheCleanWaterCrisis Anestimated1.2billionpeoplearoundtheworldlacksafewater 80%oftheworldsdiseasesarecauseinsomewaybycontaminatedwater Ex.Cholera,typhoid,malaria,leprosyandbilharzias EpidemicssuchasHIV/AIDSandmalariaarestillwidespreadintheworld Pandemic:anepidemicthatoccursoverawidegeographicarea.

URBANIZATION Urbanization:themovementofpeopletocities.
CAUSES: o Mechanization:theuseofmachinerydisplacedworkersinmining,fishingand farming. o Industrialization:Theswitchtoaneconomydependentonmanufacturingindustries encouragedtheconcentrationofmanufacturingsiteswhichbecamedestinations forworkersleavingruralareas. o Technologicalchangeinfuelsources:Theswitchfromfirewoodtocoalandthen petroleummeantenergysuppliescouldbebroughttothecitymucheasier. Urbanareasaregrowing1.5xfasterthantheworldpopulationgrowth Inmigration:Peoplemovingintocities. Squatting:Livingonlandthatyoudonotown. Pushfactors:Factorsthatpushpeopletoleavetheirruralhomes. Pullfactors:Factorsthatattractpeopletomovetothecity.

Site:thephysicalcharacteristicsofthelandonwhichacityisbuilt. Situation:therelationshipbetweenthecityanditssurroundings. Ifsiteandsituationcanaccommodatetherightkindsofactivities,acommunitymaybebuilt However,communitiesmaydieiftheirsite/situationcannotsustainthem Basicactivities:AKAtownformingactivities.Examplesincludeindustries,tourism,militaryfacilitiesand transportation. Nonbasicactivities:AKAtownservingactivitiessuchasgrocerystores,churches,parksandother recreationalfacilities. Themultipliereffect:Whenthecreationofonejobislinkedtoothermultiplejobsbeingcreated somewhereelse.Thisleadstounequalgrowthindifferentcommunities. CITYFORMS Politicalandreligiouscitiesdesignedtoserveimportantreligious/politicalfunctionssuchasa nationalcapitalorholycentre. Organiccities:Citiesthathaveevolvednaturallyinwaysthatfitthephysicallandscape.Urban functionsblendtogether.

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Plannedcities:Designedtokeepurbanfunctionsapart,withseparateareasforhomes,shops andindustries.Thesecitiesarelinkedbytransportation. Transitcities:Madeupofsubcentreslikedtoacitycorethroughtransportationservices.Urban functionsarearrangedalongtransitlinesforquiteadistance. Automobilecities:Citiesthatexpandoutwardsinalldirectionsfromthecitycore.Roadslink urbanfunctionswhichareseparatedinzones.Thesecitiesarelargeandusuallycontainsuburbs. Highdensitylife:Wheremanypeopleliveclosetogether. NorthAmericanshavebegantopreferlivinginsuburbs,whichhavepoppedupinalmost everycityonthecontinent.Carsarenowusedfrequently,pollutingtheenvironmentand requiringthechangingofwaterbodiestomakeroadwaysmoreefficient. Centersofcitiesareusuallythemostdesirablepiecesofland;theyarecalledPeakvalue intersectionsasthecostsarehighest.Landattheseareaswouldguaranteeagreaterchance atsuccessfulbusiness. Lawsestablishwhatuseswillbepermittedoncertainlands OfficialPlan:abroadplanforgrowthanddevelopmentthatisusuallydrawnupbyacity afterlengthyconsultationswithitspeople. ByLaws:Locallawsorrulesthatensurepeoplerespectthelandusezones Sustainablecities:Citiesthatdonotcompromisethequalityoflifeforfuturegenerations. Characteristicsofsuchcitiesincludeaneffectivetransportsystem,aixoflanduses,a varietyofaffordablehousing,aneffectiveinfrastructure,civicamenitiessuchasparksand maximumuseofalternativeenergies. UrbanProblems: EnergyConsumption:Citiesuse80%ofenergy.Alternativesourcesofenergywouldbeideal. Transportation:Mosturbandwellersusecarstocommuteincities,causingmorepollution. Food:Almostallfoodincitiesmustbeimported,resultinginmorepollution. Wastes:NorthAmericansarethemostwastefulpeopleonEarth.Recyclinghasbecome increasinglypopular;howevermoremustbedonetocontroltheamountofwastethatpours intolandfills. Density:Toomanycitieswastespace.Theprocessofinfillingcouldincreasedensitybyrezoning andrebuildingareastoaccommodateahigherpopulation.

PATTERNSINECONOMICDEVELOPMENT
Economicdisparity:Whenmoneyisspentonluxuryitemsfortherichwhileothermembersofsociety arestarvingandstrugglingunderthepovertyline. Economy:thesumofalleconomicactivitiesthattakeplaceinacountry. Economicactivities:Processesthatproducewealthandmaintainqualityoflife. Moneyeconomy:includesallprocessesofproducing/distributing/consuming

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Nonmoneyeconomy:includesforexample,theenvironmentorvolunteerwork (contributingtothemoneysectorinanindirectway) Primaryindustries:Thosethatextractnaturalresourcesfromthephysicalenvironment. Secondaryindustries:Concernedwithmanufacturingandconstruction. Tertiaryindustries:Providesservicestobothbusinessesandindividuals. Agglomeration:Anotherwordforconcentration. Economiccore:Acoreareathatleadstheeconomicgrowthofaregionwhichusuallyhashigherrates ofpayandattractmoreinvestmentmoney. Periphery:Areasonthesidesoftheeconomiccore. RegionalDisparity:Anunevendistributionofwealthandadvantages. Coreandperipherypatternsmeanthateconomicopportunitiesarenotevenlyspread Outmigration:Whenskilledandeducatedpeopleleavetoseekeconomicsuccessinareasthatseemto havemoreopportunities. TraditionalEconomy:Dependslargelyonprimaryindustriessuchasfarming. SubsistenceAgriculture:Atypeofagriculturepracticedinmany3rdWorld/Developingcountrieswhere theyconsumewhattheyproduce,farmingwithlowlevelsoftechnology. DevelopingEconomy:Achangeintheeconomybroughtforthbytechnologicalinnovationsie.The IndustrialRevolution. Industrialized/DevelopedEconomy:Diverseeconomieswithmanyareasofwealthgeneration,where tertiaryindustriesnowemploythemajorityofworkers. Developmentfactors: Availablenaturalresources Stablepoliticalsystem Aliteratepopulation Anopenattitudetowardschangeandprogress Agribusiness:Farminghasbeguntoevolveintoagribusiness,whicharefarmbusinessesownedby corporationscontrolledbyshareholders.Theyproducespecializedproductstomeetindustrialdemands. Computersareintegraltothisbusiness. Averticallyintegratedbusiness:Abusinessthatcontrolsalltheinputsituses. NonrenewableresourcesResourcesthatcanonlybeusedonce,suchaspetroleum.Theyarebeing usedupveryquickly. RenewableResources:Thosethatregenerateovertimesuchasforests. SustainableDevelopment:Aconceptthatrequireseconomiesthatdonotharmtheabilityoffuture generationstosustainthemselves. Scarcity:Economicdecisionsarenowbasedonthis.Thisconceptdealswiththefactthatresourcesare inlimitedsupplyandshouldbeusedinthemostefficientwaypossible. 55

Decentralization:Theprocessofmovingeconomicopportunitiesoutoftheeconomiccoreofanarea andmovingthemouttotheperiphery.Governmentsoftenusecashincentivestoencourage developmentelsewhere.Certaineconomieshaveevenforcedrelocation. SunsetIndustries:Wheneconomicforcesmakesomeindustriesunabletocompete.Duetoachangein conditions,theyarenolongerabletomakeaprofit. Regionaldisparitieshavebecomeagreatproblemanddespiteattemptstomoveeconomic resources,attemptshavebeenineffective Somesaythereisnowaytocombatthisnaturalflowoftheeconomy

ENVIRONMENT Biosphere:Thezoneofearth,waterandairinwhichwelive.

Inthe20thcentury,concernfortheenvironmentbegantoincreaseasthegovernment begantoaskcitizenstoreduceresourceconsumption Agenda21anactionplanproducedbyagatheringofheadsofstatein1992inRiode Janeiro,Braziltolookatwaysofharmonizingeconomicgrowthalongwithasafe environment.Itencouragedthedevelopmentofasustainableworldeconomy,however littleprogresshasbeenseen.

Only3%ofthewaterintheworldisfreshwater Groundwater:Undergroundwater Farmersinthelaterhalfofthe20thcenturybegantousedrillstotapthegroundwaterin aquifiersbeneaththeirland.Thewatersupplyseemedendless.Thewaterinaquifierscome fromwaterseepingthroughthesurfaceofporousrocks(calledpermeablerocks).However, sometimesthewateristrappedinbetweenlayersofimpermeablerock,whichdoesnot allowwatertoseethrough. Surfacewaterssuchaslakesandriversarealsobeingabused Theyareusedfordisposalofsewageandsuchcontaminationruinstheecosystemsofmany naturalareas

HoleintheOzoneLayer: Ozonelayer:AthinlayerofO3thatis1550kmabovetheEarthssurface.Itistheonlygasinthe atmospherethancanblocktheUVraysofthesun. Inthe1980s,itbecameapparentthattheOzonelayerwasthinning Thiswasmostevidentinthenorthernandsouthernpoles,whereholesopenedinthelayers especiallyinthespring Chemicalsdestroythelayer TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramhasbeenworkingtophaseouttheuseof thesechemicals.In1987,allindustrialnationsagreedtocuttheiruseofsuchchemicalsin anagreementcalledTheMontrealProtocol. Gasesintheatmospheretraptheheatenergyfromthesun,causingGlobalWarming,a gradualtemperatureriseduetotheCO2intheatmosphere. EffectsofGlobalWarming 56

Soils

HeatwavesarelinkedtoGlobalWarming Glaciersaremeltingandsealevelsarerising Diseasesappearbecauseofincreasedtemperaturesandtheearlyarrivalofspring Coralreefsarelosingtheircolourasthealgaethatgivethemthecolourcantadaptto warmerweather Permafrost:Thepermanentlyfrozensubsoilthatismelting,causingsinkingshorelinesinthe Arctic. KyotoProtocol:SignedbyCanadain1997,itpromisedtoreducegreenhousegasemissions by6percentby2012.Countriesnotmeetingtheirreductiontargetscouldbuycreditsfrom othercountrieswhohademissionsbelowtheallottedlevels. Alternativesourcesofenergy:Windturbines,solarpanels,tidalpower,etc. Soilisabasicprimaryresource,thebasisofthebiosphereandprovidessurvivalforplant andanimallife Only11%ofthelandonEarthcangrowcropsbutsoilisbeinglostanddegradedaroundthe world Desertification:Landturningintodesert CAUSES:Poorfarmingtechniques,irrigationinaridareashasmadesoilstoosaltytogrow, soilsintropicalcountriesarenutrientpoorandsoilonslopesiswashedaway,potentially turningthelandintoadesert

DependenceonChemicals Theincreasinguseofpesticidesandherbicidescanseepintogroundwaterandstreams Thiskillsinsectsalsoandoffsetsachainreactionwithinecosystems GeneticallyModifiedFoods:Plantsarealteredbysplicingagenefromanotherorganism intothem,makingthemmoreresistanttodiseasesorpests.Theycostlessastheyrequire lesspesticides Thegeneralpublicdisagreedwiththeidea,afraidoflongtermeffectsofgenetically modifiedfoodsandsotheywereremovedfrommanyshelvesandcompaniesallaroundthe world DecliningForests AlmosthalftheforestsonEarthhavebeenclearedorreduced Tropicalrainforestsarestorehousesofbiodiversity:thevarietyoflifeonEarth.Theyalso absorbCO2andgiveoffoxygen.Deforestationcontributesheavilytoglobalwarminginthis way.Italsoimpactswindpatterns,precipitationlevelsandtemperaturesbeyondtheforests themselves. Temperateforests:Canadahas1/3oftheworldsborealconiferousforestandallofthe worldsredandwhitepine,usedforloggingandrecreation.Theforestsarebeingdestroyed andtheAboriginalsworryabouttheirnationaltreasuresbeingthreatened.In1992,the CanadiangovernmentendorsedTheTriCouncilCommitmentonProtectedAreas,which plannedtocompleteanetworkofprotectedareasbytheendof2000. Stewardship:thecarefulmanagementofresourcessotheyaresustainable.

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