Chapter 9

Shaft Design
Transmission shafts transmit torque from one location to another Spindles are short shafts Axles are non-rotating shafts Figure 9.1 is an example of a shaft with several features. It is a shaft for a Caterpillar tractor transmission 1 .

Figure 9.1: Example of a typical shaft design

1 From

Frederick E. Giesecke, Technical Drawing, Chapter 13.

9.1

Shaft Loads

Torsion due to transmitted torque Bending from transverse loads (gears, sprockets, pulleys/sheaves) o * a pulley and a sheave are essentially the same thing Steady or Fluctuating Steady transverse-bending load fully reversing bending stress (fatigue failure)

9.2

Attachments and Stress Concentrations

Steps and shoulders are used to locate attachment (gears, sheaves, sprockets) Keys, snap rings, cross pins (shear pins), tapered pins Use generous radii to reduce stress concentrations Clamp collars Split collar Press ts and shrink ts Bearings may be located by the use of snap rings, but only one bearing is xed Issues - axial location, disassembly, and element phasing (e.g., alignment of gear teeth for timing)

MACHINE DESIGN

An Integrated Approach, 2ed

by Robert L. Norton,

Prentice-Hall 2000

clamp collar key hub bearing press fit step axial clearance frame sprocket FIGURE 9-2
Various Methods to Attach Elements to Shafts

snap ring taper pin

shaft

hub bearing

step

step step press fit frame gear sheave

Figure 9.2: Example of a shaft with various attachments and details

9.3

Shaft Materials

Steel (low to medium-carbon steel) Cast iron Bronze or stainless steel Case hardened steel

9.3.1

Shaft Power

Power is the time rate of change of energy (work). work = Force * distance or Torque * angle, so Power = Torque * angular velocity P wr = T orq (9.1)

9.4

Shaft Loading, Approaches to Analysis

Most general form - A uctuating torque and a uctuating moment, in combination. If there are axial loads, they should be taken to ground as close to the load as possible. Given knowledge of the moments and the torques (i.e., mean and alternating components) Use the Design Steps for Fluctuating Stresses in Section 6.11 in combination with the multiaxial-stress issues addressed in Section 6.12.

9.5

Shaft Stresses
Ma c I Mm c = kf m I

Bending Stress alt mean Torsional Shear Stress Ta r J Tm r = kf sm J = kf s = kf (9.2) (9.3)

alt mean

(9.4) (9.5)

9.5.1

Shaft Failure in Combined Loading

9.6
9.6.1

Shaft Design
General Considerations

1. To minimize both deections and stresses , the shaft length should be kept as short as possible and overhangs minimized. 2. A cantilever beam will have a larger deection than a simply supported (straddle mounted) one for the same length, load, and cross section, so straddle mounting should be used unless a cantilever shaft is dictated by design constraints. (Figure 9-2 shows a situation in which an overhung section is required for serviceability.) 3. A hollow shaft has a better stiness/mass ratio (specic stiness) and higher natural frequencies than a comparably sti or strong solid shaft, but will be more expensive and larger in diameter. 4. Try to locate stress-raisers away from regions of large bending moment if possible and minimize their eects with generous radii and relief. 5. General low carbon steel is just as good as higher strength steels (since deection is typical the design limiting issue). 6. Deections at gears carried on the shaft should not exceed about 0.005 inches and the relative slope between the gears axes should be less than about 0.03 degrees. 3

MACHINE DESIGN

An Integrated Approach, 2ed

by Robert L. Norton,

Prentice-Hall 2000

from ref. 2

from ref. 3

a Se

a Se

from ref. 3

2 m a S +S =1 e ys

a a S +S =1 e es

m Sys
(a) Combined stress fatigue-test data for reversed bending combined with static torsion (from ref. 4)

a Ses
(b) Combined stress fatigue-test data for reversed bending combined with reversed torsion (from ref. 5)

FIGURE 9-3
Results of Fatigue Tests of Steel Specimens Subjected to Combined Bending and Torsion (From Design of Transmission Shafting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, ANSI/ASME Standard B106.1M-1985, with permission)

Figure 9.3: Shaft failure in combined loading

7. If plain (sleeve) bearings are to be used, the shaft deection across the bearing length should be less than the oil-lm thickness in the bearing. 8. If non-self-aligning rolling element bearings are used, the shafts slope at the bearings should be kept to less than about 0.04 degrees. 9. If axial thrust loads are present, they should be taken to ground through a single thrust bearing per load direction. Do not split axial loads between thrust bearings as thermal expansion of the shaft can overload the bearings. 10. The rst natural frequency of the shaft should be at least three times the highest forcing frequency expected in service, and preferably much more. (A factor of ten times or more is preferred, but this is often dicult to achieve). Designing for Fully Reversed Bending and Steady Torsion ASME Method (ANSI/ASME Standard for Design of Transmission Shafting B106.1M-1985. Uses the elliptical curve of Figure 9-3. Equations 9.5e and 9.6a,b. 9.6 can be applied only for constant torque fully reversed moment. No axial load d=
3

32Saf etyF actor

(kf

Ma 2 3 T m 2 ) + ( ) Sf 4 Sy

(9.6)

More general loading cases require Equation 9.8. See Example 9..

9.6.2

Shaft Deection

Deection is often the more demanding constraint. Many shafts are well within specication for stress but would exhibit too much deection to be appropriate.

9.6.3

Keys and Keyways

gear d T

a b l FIGURE P9-3 bearings are self-aligning so act as simple supports

P9-03.pdf

Shaft Design for Problems 9-6, 9-9. 9-11, and 9-12

Figure 9.4: Shaft with overhung gear Example -Homework Problem 9-2

9.6.4 9.6.5

Splines Interference Fits

Components can be attached to a shaft without a key or spline by using an interference t. There are two methods used to assemble these components: press t shrink (and/or expansion) t The amount of interference is important The analysis of interference follows from the equations for pressure on thick-walled cylinders. A rule of thumb that is used is one to two thousands of diametral interference per unit of shaft diameter, e.g., a shaft of two inch diameter would have 0.004 inches of interference with an attached gear hub. Machinists use a simplied approach to this 1/1000 of interference for each inch of diameter. However, there is a formal approach Standards have been developed for these ts. Metric Preferred Metric Limits and Fits ANSI B4.2-1978. US Customary Preferred Limits and Fits for Cylindrical Parts ANSI B4.1-1967

9.7
9.7.1

Terms related to Fits and Tolerances ANSI B4.2-1978

Denitions

D basic size of the hole d basic size of the shaft u upper deviation l lower deviation F Fundamental deviation D tolerance grade for the hole d tolerance grade for the shaft Tolerance the dierence between the maximum and minimum size limits of the dimensions of a part Natural tolerance a tolerance equal to three standard deviations from the mean Clearance amount of space between an internal and external member Interference the amount of overlap between an internal and external member International Tolerance Grade Numbers (IT) designate groups of tolerances such that the tolerances for a particular IT number have the same relative level of accuracy, i.e., IT 9 Smaller numbers mean tighter tolerances, IT 6 through IT 11 are used for preferred ts. For a 32 mm hole we might use 32H7 The H establishes the fundamental deviation and the number 7 denes a tolerance grade of IT7. The grade number species a tolerance zone. For the mating shaft we might have 32g6
2

9.7.2

Table of Tolerance Grades

Lower and Upper Deviations For shaft letter codes c, d, f, g, and h

2 Shigley

Table E-11, page 1188.

Table 9.1: International Tolerance Grades Basic Sizes All values in mm A<dB 0-3 3-6 6-10 10-18 18-30 30-50 50-80 80-120 120-180 180-250 250-315 315-400 Tolerance Grades IT8 IT9 0.014 0.025 0.018 0.030 0.022 0.036 0.027 0.043 0.033 0.052 0.039 0.062 0.046 0.074 0.054 0.087 0.063 0.100 0.072 0.115 0.081 0.130 0.089 0.140

IT6 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.016 0.019 0.022 0.025 0.029 0.032 0.036

IT7 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.046 0.052 0.057

IT10 0.040 0.048 0.058 0.070 0.084 0.100 0.120 0.140 0.160 0.185 0.210 0.230

IT11 0.060 0.075 0.090 0.110 0.130 0.160 0.190 0.220 0.250 0.290 0.320 0.360

Upper deviation = fundamental deviation Lower deviation = upper deviation tolerance grade For shaft letter codes k, n, p ,s, and u Lower deviation = fundamental deviation Upper deviation = lower deviation + tolerance grade Hole letter code is H Lower deviation = 0 Upper deviation = tolerance grade

9.7.3

Fundamental Deviations for Shafts Metric Series

These are related to the tolerance grades. See the table below. Capital letters always refer to the hole (or bore) and lowercase letters are used for the shaft.

9.7.4

Fit Types

Table 9.3 provides a linguistic description for commonly used references to t types.

9.8

Flywheel Design

One of the biggest issues with regard to ywheels is balancing. Because they are, by intention, devices with large inertias, balancing them to remove eccentric loading and thus lower the loading on bearings and other components is very important. Flywheels develop large stresses at their inter hub connection due to dynamic forces caused by the spinning. These stresses can lead to failure. Careful design is required to avoid catastrophic failure.

9.9

Critical Speeds

There are three types of vibration that are encountered with shafts:

Table 9.2: Fundamental Deviations for Shafts Metric Series basic dimension A<dB 0-3 3-6 6-10 10-14 14-18 18-24 24-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-225 225-250 250-280 280-315 315-355 355-400 Clearance Upper Deviation Letter c d f g -0.060 -0.020 -0.006 -0.002 -0.070 -0.030 -0.010 -0.004 -0.080 -0.040 -0.013 -0.005 -0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006 -0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006 -0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007 -0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007 -0.120 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009 -0.130 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009 -0.140 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010 -0.150 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010 -0.170 -0.120 -0.030 -0.012 -0.180 -0.120 -0.036 -0.012 -0.200 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 -0.210 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 -0.230 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 -0.240 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 -0.260 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 -0.280 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 -0.300 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017 -0.330 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017 -0.360 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018 -0.400 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018 Transition Interference Lower-Deviation Letter k n p s u 0 +0.004 +0.006 +0.014 +0.018 +0.001 +0.008 +0.012 +0.019 +0.023 +0.001 +0.010 +0.015 +0.023 +0.028 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.041 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.048 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.060 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.070 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.053 +0.087 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.059 +0.102 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.071 +0.124 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.079 +0.144 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.092 +0.170 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.100 +0.190 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.108 +0.210 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.122 +0.236 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.130 +0.258 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.140 +0.284 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.158 +0.315 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.170 +0.350 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.190 +0.390 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.208 +0.435

h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Type of t Clearance

Transition

Interference

Table 9.3: Fit Types and their description Reference Description Loose running t For wide commercial tolerances or allowances on external members Free running t Not for use where accuracy is essential, but good for large temperature variations, high running speeds, or heavy journal pressures Close running t For running on accurate machines and for accurate location at moderate speeds and journal pressures Sliding t Where parts are not intended to run freely, but must move and turn freely and locate accurately Locational clearance t Provides snug t for location of station(snug t) ary parts, but can be freely assembled and disassembled Locational transitional t For accurate location, a compromise between clearance and interference Locational transitional t For more accurate location where (wringing t) greater interference is permissible Locational transitional t For parts requiring rigidity and align(tight t) ment with prime accuracy of location but without special bore pressure requirements Medium Drive Fit For ordinary steel parts or shrink ts on light sections, the tightest t usable with cast iron Force Fit Suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or for shrink ts where the heavy pressing forces required are impractical

Symbol H11/c11 H9/d9

H8/f8

H7/g6

H7/h6

H7/k6 H7/n6 H7/p6

H7/s6

H7/u6

Lateral vibration Shaft whirl Torsional vibration

9.10

Couplings

Many applications require us to connect one shaft to another axially. This is done with the use of couplings. Note that the possibility of getting the two shafts perfectly aligned (linearly and angularly) is essentially zero, so couplings are typically designed to accomodate some misalignment. Couplings come in many shapes, sizes, and degrees of misalignment. One type of coupling you might be familiar with is the universal joint, see Figure 9.5. A recent inovation used with front wheel drive is the CV (constant velocity) joint. Another type used widely for connections to electric motors is a exible coupling, see Figure 9.6.

9.11

Summary

While shafting can be purchased as a stock item, most applications require some customization of the layout and dimensioning to accommodate the attachment of components and bearings. Almost all shafts are 9

Figure 9.5: Typical automotive universal joint

Figure 9.6: Small exible couplings

designed for high cycle fatigue (HCF), and are made of steel, since it has an fatigue limit. One is cautioned to applied the shaft diameter design equations presented in Norton (Equation 9.6 & Equation 9.8) properly since specic requirements must be met to apply these equations. Many other factors come into play during the shaft design process. These may include: keyways and keys splines couplings shaft vibrations and balancing ywheels

10