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Reading Construction Drawings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Construction drawings are necessary in most spheres of the building industry, as being the best means of conveying detailed and often complex information from the designer to all those concerned with the job. Building tradespeople, especially carpenters and joiners, should be familiar with the basic principles involved in understanding and reading drawings correctly. Mistakes on either side in design or interpretation of the design can be costly, as drawings form a legal part of the contract between architect/client and builder. This applies even on small jobs, where only goodwill may suffer; for this reason, if a non-contractual drawing or sketch is supplied, it should be kept for a period of time after completion of the job, in case any queries should arise.

1.1.1 Retention of Drawings or Sketches

A simple sketch supplied by a client in good faith to a builder or joinery shop for the production of a replacement casement-type window, is shown in Figure 1.1(a). The clients mistake in measuring between plastered reveals is illustrated in Figure 1.1(b). Retention of the sketch protects the rm from the possibility of the clients wrongful accusation. Another important rule is to study the whole drawing carefully and be reasonably familiar with the details before starting work. The details given in this chapter are based on the recommendations laid down by the British Standards Institution, in their latest available publications entitled Construction drawing practice, BS 1192: Part 1: 1984, and BS 1192: Part 3: 1987. BS 1192: Part 5: 1990, which is not referred to here, is a guide for the structuring of computer graphic information.

950

300 F (a) 950 1100

( b)

Figure 1.1 (a) Clients sketch drawing (b) Horizontal section showing clients mistake

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Reading Construction Drawings

500 0 1m 500 2

1:100

5m

1:50 0

250

500

750 1m

250

500

750 2m

250

500

1:20 0

100

300

500

700

900 1m

1:10 0

50

100

200

300

400

500 mm

1:5 0

25

50

75

100

200 mm

Figure 1.2 Common metric scales

1.1.2 Scales Used on Drawings

Parts of metric scale rules, graduated in millimetres, are illustrated in Figure 1.2. Each scale represents a ratio of given units (millimetres) to one unit (one millimetre). Common scales are 1:100, 1:50, 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 and 1:1 1 (full size). For example, scale 1:5 one-fth (5) full size, or 1 mm on the drawing equals 5 mm in reality. Although a scale rule is useful when reading drawings, because of the dimensional instability of paper, preference should always be given to written dimensions found on the drawing.

Figure 1.3 Dimensioning sequence A B C

1.1.3 Correct Expressions of Dimensions

The abbreviated expression, or unit symbol, for metres is a small letter m, and letters mm for millimetres. Symbols are not nalized by a full stop and do not use a letter s 1 for the plural. Confusion occurs when, for example, 32 metres is written as 3.500 mm which means, by virtue 1 of the decimal point in relation to the unit symbol, 32 1 millimetres! To express 32 metres, it should have been written as 3500 mm, 3.5 m, 3.50 m, or 3.500 m. Either one symbol or the other should be used throughout on drawings; they should not be mixed. Normally, whole numbers should indicate millimetres, and decimalized numbers, to three places of decimals, should indicate metres. Contrary to what is taught in schools, the construction industry in the UK does not use centimetres. All references to measurement are made in millimetres and/or metres, i.e. 2 cm should be expressed as 20 mm.

900 200 25 mm. However, if a different sequence is used, it should be consistent throughout.

1.1.5 Dimension Lines and Figures

A dimension line with open arrowheads for basic/ modular (unnished) distances, spaces or components is indicated in Figure 1.4(a). Figure 1.4(b) indicates the more common, preferred dimension lines, with solid arrowheads, for general use in nished work sizes. All dimension gures should be written above and along the line; gures on vertical lines should be written, as shown, to be read from the right-hand side.

1.1.6 Special-purpose Lines

Figure 1.5: Section lines seen on drawings indicate imaginary cutting planes, at a particular point through the drawn object, to be exposed to view. The view is called the section and is lettered AA, BB and so on, according to the number of sections to be exposed. It is important to bear in mind that the arrows indicate the direction of view to be seen on a separate section drawing.

1.1.4 Sequence of Dimensioning

The recommended dimensioning sequence is illustrated in Figure 1.3. Length should always be given rst, width second and thickness third, for example

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Orthographic Projection
323 (a) (b) 300 200

Figure 1.4 Dimension lines (a) Open arrow-head (unnished) (b) Solid arrow-head (nished)

C A A C B Horizontal sections B

D E D Staggered section

Vertical sections

Figure 1.5 Section lines Figure 1.6 Hidden detail or work to be removed

Figure 1.6: Hidden detail or work to be removed, is indicated by a broken line.

1.300

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.7 Break lines

Figure 1.7(a): End break-lines (zig-zag pattern) indicate that the object is not fully drawn.

Figure 1.7(b): Central break-lines (zig-zag pattern) indicate that the object is not drawn to scale in length.

Figure 1.8 Centre or axial line

Figure 1.8: Centre or axial lines are indicated by a thin dot-dash chain.

1.2.2 First-angle Projection

The box in Figure 1.9(a) is used here as a means of explaining rst-angle projection (F.A.P.). If you can imagine the object shown in Figure 1.9(b) to be suspended in the box, with enough room left for you to walk around it, then by looking squarely at the object from all sides and from above, the views seen would be the ones shown on the surfaces in the background.

1.2 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

1.2.1 Introduction
Orthography is a Latin/Greek-derived word meaning correct spelling or writing. In technical drawing it is used to mean correct drawing; orthographic projection, therefore, refers to a conventional drawing method used to display the three-dimensional views (length, width and height) of objects or arrangements as they will be seen on one plane namely the drawing surface. The recommended methods are known as rstangle (or European) projection for construction drawings, and third-angle (or American) projection for engineering drawings.

1.2.3 Opening the Topless Box

In Figure 1.9(c) the topless box is opened out to give the views as you saw them in the box and as they should be laid out on a drawing. Figure 1.9(d) shows the BS symbol recommended for display on drawings to indicate that rst-angle projection (F.A.P.) has been used. Note that when views are separated onto different drawings, becoming unrelated orthographically, descriptive captions should be used such as plan, front elevation, side elevation, etc.

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Reading Construction Drawings

Vertical planes FE SE.R/H FE SE.L/H RE SE.L/H SE Plan Plan RE Front Side

Horizontal plane

Figure 1.9 (a) Theory of rst-angle orthographic projection (SE side elevation, FE front elevation, RE rear elevation, R/H right-hand side, L/H lefthand side)

Figure 1.9 (b) Example object

Side elevation R/H Vertical planes

Front elevation

Side elevation L/H

Rear elevation

Horizontal plane Plan

Figure 1.9 (c) First-angle projection

Figure 1.9 (d) F.A.P. symbol

Horizontal plane

Vertical planes

Plan

Side elevation L/H

Front elevation

Side elevation R/H

Rear elevation

Figure 1.9 (e) Third-angle projection

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Oblique Projections

1.3 OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS

There are three variations of oblique projections.

Figure 1.9 (f) T.A.P. symbol

1.3.1 Cavalier Projection

Shown in Figure 1.10(b) with front (F) drawn true to shape, and side (S) elevations and plan (P) drawn at 45, to a ratio of 1:1:1. Drawn true to scale by this method, the object tends to look mis-shapen.

1.2.4 Third-angle Projection

This is shown in Figure 1.9(e) for comparison only. This time the box has a top instead of a bottom; the views from the front and rear would be shown on the surface in the background, as before, but the views seen on the sides would be turned around and seen on the surfaces in the foreground; the view from above (plan) would be turned and seen on the surface above. Figure 1.9(f ) shows the BS symbol for third-angle projection (T.A.P.).

1.3.2 Cabinet Projection

Shown in Figure 1.10(c), this is similar to cavalier except that the side and plan projections are only 1 drawn to half scale, i.e. to a ratio of 1:1:2, making the object look more natural.

1.2.5 Pictorial Projections

Figure 1.10: Another form of orthographic projection produces what is known as pictorial projections, which preserve the three-dimensional view of the object. Such views have a limited value in the make-up of actual working drawings, but serve well graphically to illustrate technical notes and explanations.

1.3.3 Planometric Projection

Shown in Figure 1.10(d), this has the plan drawn true to shape, instead of the front view. This comprises verticals, lines on the front at 30 and lines on the side elevation at 60. It is often wrongly referred to as axonometric.

1.2.6 Isometric Projection

This is probably the most popular pictorial projection used, because of the balanced, three-dimensional effect. Isometric projections consist of vertical lines and base lines drawn at 30, as shown in Figure 1.10(a). The length, width and height of an object thus drawn are to true scale, expressed as the ratio 1:1:1.

1.3.4 Perspective Projections

Figure 1.11: Parallel perspective, shown in Figure 1.11(a) refers to objects drawn to diminish in depth to a vanishing point. Angular perspective, shown in Figure 1.11(b) refers to an object whose elevations are drawn to diminish to two vanishing points. This is of no value in pure technical drawing.

1 30 1

1 30 1

1 45 1

1
1 2

1 1 45 30

1 60

P P S F S F (c) Cabinet P S F S

(a) Isometric

(b) Cavalier

(d) Planometric

Figure 1.10 Pictorial projections (F front, P plan, S side elevation)

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Reading Construction Drawings

VP VP VP
123456789

= Rise of stair = Finished floor level = Centre to centre

1:10

= Rise of ramp = Centre line = Ground level = North point

dia (or ) = Diameter ffl c/c (a) Parallel perspective (b) Angular perspective

C L GL

Figure 1.12 Graphical symbols and representations

Figure 1.11 Perspective projections (VP vanishing point)

1.3.5 Graphical Symbols and Representation

Figure 1.12: Illustrated here are a selection of graphical symbols and representations used on building drawings. Figure 1.13: On more detailed drawings, various materials and elements are identied by such sectional representation as shown here. To help reduce the amount of written information on working drawings, abbreviations are often used. A selection are shown here: BMA bronze metal antique DPC damp-proof course DPM damp-proof membrane

EML expanded metal lathing par planed all round PVA polyvinyl acetate T&G tongue and groove bdg boarding bldg building cpd cupboard hbd hardboard hwd hardwood ms mild steel swd softwood

1.3.6 Window Indication

Figure 1.14: Windows shown on elevational drawings usually display indications as to whether a window is xed (meaning without any opening window or vent)

Brickwork

Topsoil

Blockwork

Stone

Concrete

Hardcore

Plywood

Wood (sawn)

Subsoil

Insulation

Screed/plaster/render

Wood (planed)

Figure 1.13 Sectional representation of materials

W2 Top hung
W8 W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W1

Horizontal pivot

Vertical pivot

Sliding

Fixing

Sliding

Bottom hung

Side hung

W9

Tilt and turn

Figure 1.14 Opening/xed window indication numbered clockwise round the exterior of the building

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Oblique Projections

Sliding door

Single swing Single door double swing

Double doors single swing Double doors double swing

Figure 1.15 Plan view of door indication

or opening (meaning that the window is to open in a particular way, according to the BS indication drawn on the glass area).

1.3.7 Door Indication

Figures 1.15 and 1.16: Doors shown on plan-view drawings are usually shown as a single line with an arrowed arc indicating their opening-direction, as illustrated. Alternatively, the 90 arrowed arc may be replaced by a 45 diagonal line, from the door-jambs edge to the doors leading edge. Figure 1.16 is the indication for revolving doors.

Figure 1.16 Revolving doors

1.3.9 Site Plans

Figure 1.18: Site plans locate the position of buildings in relation to setting-out points, means of access, and the general layout of the site; they also give information on services and drainage, etc.
MH2 G 1.500 MH3 SVP G

1.3.8 Block Plans

Figure 1.17: Block plans shown on construction drawings, usually taken from Ordinance Survey maps, are to identify the site (e.g. No. 1 Woodman Road, as illustrated) and to locate the outline of the building in relation to its surroundings.

No. 1 WOODMAN ROAD

ROAD

G 5.600

1 3

11

1315

MH1 6.250

WOOD

MAN
ROAD

45 47

LOFTS

14

Figure 1.18 Site plan (scale 1:200)

1.3.10 Location Drawings

Figure 1.17 Block plan (scale 1:1250)

These are usually drawn to a scale of 1:50 and are used to portray the basic, general construction of buildings. Other, more detailed, drawings cover all other aspects.

8.750