1

Transformer
Introduction
The transformer is probably one of the most useful electrical devices ever invented. It can
change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This useful
property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents
rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form
of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in construction,
thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%. In this
chapter, we shall study some of the basic properties of transformers.

1.Transformer

A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic
core as shown in Fig 1. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or
primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The
alternating voltage V
1
whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N
1
) and secondary
(N
2
), an alternating e.m.f. E
2
is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E
2

in the secondary causes a secondary current I
2
. Consequently, terminal voltage
V
2
will appear across the load.
If V
2
>V
1
, it is called a step up-transformer.
If V
2
<V
1
, it is called a step-down transformer.


Figure 1

Working

When an alternating voltage V
1
is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is set up in
the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E
1
and E
2
in them
according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E
1
is termed as primary
e.m.f. and e.m.f. E
2
is termed as secondary e.m.f.
2




Note that magnitudes of E
2
and E
1
depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively.

If N
2
>N
1
, then E
2
>E
1
(or V
2
>V
1
) and we get a step-up transformer.
If N
2
<N
1
, then E
2
<E
1
(or V
2
<V
1
) and we get a step-down transformer.

If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E
2
will cause a current I
2
to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to
another with a change in voltage level.

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.
(iv) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losseseddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper lossesin the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage V
1
of frequency f is applied to the primary
as shown in Fig. . The sinusoidal flux produced by the primary can be represented as:

=m sint

When the primary winding is exited by an alternating voltage V
1
, it is circulating alternating
current, producing an alternating flux

3


- Flux

m
- maximum value of flux
N
1
- Number of primary turns
N
2
- Number of secondary turns
F - Frequency of the supply voltage
E
1
- R.m.s value of the primary induced e.m.f
E
2
- R.m.s. value of the secondary induced e.m.f


The instantaneous e.m.f. e
1
induced in the primary is





m




2


1
4]
t


1
2
,
-
m




Sinwave


From faradays law of electromagnetic induction
Average e.m.f per turns =
d
dt


d =change in flux
dt =time required for change in flux

The flux increases from zero value to maximum value m in 1/4f of the time period

That is in 1/4f seconds.

The change of flux that takes place in 1/4f seconds =m-0 =m webers


4



dq
dt
=
dt
1/ 4]
=4f
m
w
b
/sec.

Since flux varies sinusoidally, the R.m.s value of the induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying
the average value with the form factor

Form factor of a sinwave =
R.m.s vaIuc
Avcragc vaIuc
=1.11

R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in one turns =4
m
f x 1.11 Volts.

=4.44
m
f Volts.

R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in primary winding =4.44
m
f N1Volts.

R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in secondary winding =4.44
m
f N2Volts.

The expression of E
1
and E
2
are called e.m.f equation of a transformer


V
1
=E
1
=4.44
m
f N
1
Volts.
V
2
=E
2
=4.44
m
f N
2
Volts.



VOTAGE RATIO

Voltage transformation ratio is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
secondary winding to the e.m.f induced in the primary winding.


L2
L1
=
4.44qmI N2
4.44qmI N1



L2
L1
=
N2
N1
=K


This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is known as voltage
transformation ratio

E
2
=KE
1
where K =
N2
N1

1. If N
2
>N
1
i.e. K>
1
we get E
2
>E
1
then the transformer is called step up transformer.
2. If N
2
<N
1
i.e. K<
1
we get E
2
<E
1
then the transformer is called step down transformer.
5

3. If N
2
=N
1
i.e. K=
1
we get E
2
=E
1
then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
transformer.


CURRENT RATIO

Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I
1
) to the current
flowing through the secondary winding (I
2
)

In an ideal transformer

Apparent input power =Apparent output power.

V
1
I
1
=V
2
I
2



I1
I2
=
v2
v1
=
N2
N1
=K




VOLT AMPERE RATING

i) The transformer rating is specified as the products of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii) On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is
generally expressed in KVA (Kilo Volts Amperes rating).


v1
v2
=
I2
I1
=K

V
1
I
1
=V
2
I
2

KVA Rating of a transformer =
v1I1
1000
=
v2I2
1000
(1000 is to convert KVA to VA)

V
1
and V
2
are the V
t
of primary and secondary by using KVA rating we can calculate I
1
and I
2

Full load current and it is safe maximum current.

I
1
Full load current =
KvA Rutng X 1000
v1


I
1
Full load current =
KvA Rutng X 1000
v2


TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

i) Ideal trans former
ii) Practical transformer
6


Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has
(i) No winding resistance
(ii) No leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
(iii) No iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core

Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very powerful
tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers have properties that
approach very close to an ideal transformer.


Figure

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in
Fig. (i). under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When an
alternating voltage V
1
is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current I
m
which
lags behind the applied voltage by 90. This alternating current I
m
produces an alternating flux
which is proportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux links both the windings and
induces e.m.f. E
1
in the primary and e.m.f. E
2
in the secondary. The primary e.m.f. E
1
is, at every
instant, equal to and in opposition to V
1
(Lenzs law). Both e.m.f.s E
1
and E
2
lag behind flux
by 90.However, their magnitudes depend upon the number of primary and secondary turns.

Fig. (2 (ii)) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load. Since flux is
common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor. The primary e.m.f. E
1

and secondary e.m.f. E
2
lag behind the flux by 90. Note that E
1
and E
2
are inphase. But E
1
is
equal to V
1
and 180 out of phase with it.


L2
L1
=
V2
V1
=K


PHASOR DIAGRAM

i) (flux) is reference
ii) I
m
produce and it is in phase with V
1
Leads I
m
by 90
7

iii) E
1
and E
2
are inphase and both opposing supply voltage V
1
, winding is purely
inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90.
iv) The power input to the transformer

P =V
1
I
1
cos (90) (cos90 = 0)
P=0 (ideal transformer)

Practical Transformer on no load

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) Magnetic leakage

(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and
hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron
losses depend upon the supply frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core
etc. It may be noted that magnitude of iron losses is quite small in a practical transformer.

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it immediately
follows that both primary and secondary will have winding resistance. The primary resistance R1
and secondary resistance R
2
act in series with the respective windings as shown in Fig. When
current flows through the windings, there will be power loss as well as a loss in voltage due to
IR drop. This will affect the power factor and E
1
will be less than V
1
while V
2
will be less than
E
2
.













Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as
Shown in Fig. The primary will draw a small current I
0
to supply
(i) the iron losses and
(ii) (ii) a very small amount of copper loss in the primary.
Hence the primary no load current I
0
is not 90 behind the applied voltage V
1
but lags it
by an angle
0
<90 as shown in the phasor diagram.
No load input power, W
0
=V
1
I
0
cos
0


As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig., the no-load primary current I
0

8

(i) The component I
c
in phase with the applied voltage V
1
. This is known as active or working or
iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a very small primary copper loss.
I
c
=I
0
cos
0


The component I
m
lagging behind V
1
by 90 and is known as magnetizing component. It is this
component which produces the mutual flux in the core.

I
m
=I
o
sin
0

Clearly, I
o
is phasor sum of I
m
and I
c,


I
o
=Im
2
+Ic
2


No load P.F., coso =
Ic
Io

The no load primary copper loss (i.e. Io
2
R1) is very small and may be neglected.
Therefore, the no load primary input power is practically equal to the iron loss in the transformer
i.e., No load input power, W
0
=V
1
I
o
cos
o
=Pi =Iron loss



Practical Transformer on Load
2




V
1
V
2
V
1





(i) (ii)
2 2




V1 v1






(III) (iv)
9

Note. At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V
2
=E
2
. On the primary side, the
drops in R
1
and X
1
, due to I
0
are also very small because of the smallness of I
0
. Hence, we can
say that at no load, V
1
=E
1
.

i) When transformer is loaded, the secondary current I
2
is flows through the
secondary winding.
ii) Already I
m
magnetizing current flow in the primary winding fig (i)
iii) The magnitude and phase of I
2
with respect to V
2
is determined by the
characteristics of the load.
a) I
2
inphase with V
2
(resistive load)
b) I
2
lags with V
2
(Inductive load)
c) I
2
leads with V
2
(capacitive load)
iv) Flow of secondary current I
2
produce new Flux
2
fig (ii)
v) is main flux which is produced by the primary to maintain the transformer as
constant manatising component.

vi)
2
opposes the main flux , the total flux in the core reduced. It is called de-
magnetising ampere-turns due to this E
1
reduced.
vii) To maintain the constant primary winding draws more current(I
2
) from the
supply(load component of primary) and produce
2
flux which is oppose
2
(but
in same direction as ), to maintain flux constant flux constant in the core
fig (iii).
viii) The load component current I
2
always neutralizes the changes in the load.
ix) Whatever the load conditions, the net flux passing through the core is
approximately the same as at no-load. An important deduction is that due to the
constancy of core flux at all loads, the core loss is also practically the same under
all load conditions fig (iv).

2
=
2
N
2
I
2
=N
1
I
2
I
2
=
N2
N1
XI
2
=KI
2

PHASOR DIAGRAM

i) Take () flux as reference for all load
ii) The no load I
o
which lags by an angle o. Io =Ic
2
+Im
2
.
iii) The load component I
2
, which is in antiphase with I
2
and phase of I
2
is decided by
the load.
iv) Primary current I
1
is vector sum of I
o
and I
2


I
1
=I
o
+I
2


I
1
=

Io
2
+I2
2

a) If load is Inductive, I
2
lags E
2
by
2
, shown in phasor diagram (a).
b) If load is resistive, I
2
inphase with E
2
shown in phasor diagram (b).
c) If load is capacitive load, I
2
leads E
2
by
2
shown in phasor diagram (c).


10

Note:
For easy understanding at this stage E
2
is assumed equal to V
2
neglecting various drops.






I
1
I
2

Balancing the ampere turns

N
1
I
2
=N
1
I
1
+N
2
I
2



I1
I2
=
N2
N1
=K

EFFECT OF WINDING RESISTANCE

In practical transformer it process its own winding resistance causes power loss and also
the voltage drop.

R
1
primary winding resistance in ohms.
R
2
secondary winding resistance in ohms.

The current flow in primary winding make voltage drop across it is denoted as I
1
R
1
here supply
voltage V
1
has to supply this drop primary induced e.m.f E
1
is the vector difference between V
1
and I
1
R
1


E
1
=V
1
I
1
R
1


Similarly the induced e.m.f in secondary E
2
, The flow of current in secondary winding makes
voltage drop across it and it is denoted as I
2
R
2
here E
2
has to supply this drop.


11

The vector difference between E
2
and I
2
R
2


V
2
=E
2
I
2
R
2

Note:
Assumed as purely resistive drop here.

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

1) It would now be shown that the resistances of the two windings can be transferred to
any one of the two winding.
2) The advantage of concentrating both the resistances in one winding is that it makes
calculations very simple and easy because one has then to work in one winding only.
3) Transfer to any one side either primary or secondary without affecting the
performance of the transformer.

The total copper loss due to both the resistances.

Total copper loss =I
1
R
1
+I
2
R
2

=I
1
[R
1
+
I2
I1
]
=I
1
[R
1
+
1
K
R
2
]
R2
K
is the resistance value of R
2
shifted to primary side and denoted as R
2
.
R
2
is the equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary

R
2
=
R2
K



Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary fig (ii)

R
1e
=R
1
+R
2
=R
1
+
R2
K







R
1
R
2

V1 V2

I1 I2




(i)
12













(ii)













(iii)

Similarly it is possible to refer the equivalent resistance to secondary winding.

Total copper loss =I
1
R
1
+I
2
R
2
=I
2
[
I1
I2
R
1
+R
2
]

=I
2
[KR
1
+R
2
]
KR1 is primary resistance referred to secondary denoted as R1.

R
1
=KR
1

Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary, denoted as R2e


R
2e
=R
2
+R
1
=R
2
+KR
1



Total copper loss =I
2
R
2e




13


Note:

i) When a resistance is to be transferred from the primary to secondary, it must be
multiplied by K, it must be divided by K while transferred from the secondary to
primary.

High voltage side low current side high resistance side
Low voltage side high current side low resistance side



EFFECT OF LEAKAGE REACTANCE

i) It has been assumed that all the flux linked with primary winding also links the
secondary winding. But, in practice, it is impossible to realize this condition.
ii) However, primary current would produce flux which would not link the secondary
winding. Similarly, current would produce some flux that would not link the
primary winding.
iii) The flux
L1
complete its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around
the core, as shown in fig. This flux is known as primary leakage flux and is
proportional to the primary ampere turns alone because the secondary turns do not
links the magnetic circuit of
L1
. It induces an e.m.f e
L1
in primary but not in
secondary.
iv) The flux
L2
complete its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around
the core , as shown in fig. This flux is known as secondary leakage flux and is
proportional to the secondary ampere turns alone because the primary turns do not
links the magnetic circuit of
L2
. It induces an e.m.f e
L2
in secondary but not in
primary.




eL1 eL2

L1

L2

L1
primary leakage flux

L2
secondary leakage flux
e
L1
self induced e.m.f (primary)
e
L2
self induced e.m.f (secondary)

14



EQUIVALENT LEAKAGE REACTANCE



Similarly to the resistance, the leakage reactance also can be transferred from primary to
secondary. The relation through K remains same for the transfer of reactance as it is studied
earlier for the resistance

X
1
leakage reactance of primary.
X
2
- leakage reactance of secondary.
Then the total leakage reactance referred to primary is X
1e
given by

X
1e
=X
1
+X
2


X
2
=
X2
K

The total leakage reactance referred to secondary is X
2e
given by

X
2e
=X
2
+X
1

X
1
=KX
1


X
1e
=X
1
+X
2

X
2e
=X
2
+X
1




EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE

The transformer winding has both resistance and reactance (R
1
, R
2
, X
1
,X
2
)

Thus we can say that the total impedance of primary winding isZ
1
which is,

Z
1
=R
1
+jX
1
ohms

15

On secondary winding
Z
2
=R
2
+jX
2
ohms







Individual magnitude of Z1 and Z2 are

Z
1
=R1
2
+X1
2

Z
2
=R2
2
+X2
2


Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance also can be referred to any one side



Z
1e
=total equivalent impedance referred to primary

Z
1e
=R
1e
+jX
1e
=Z
1
+Z
2
=Z
1
+
z2
K




Z
2e
=total equivalent impedance referred to secondary.


Z
2e
=R
2e
+jX
2e
=Z
2
+Z
1
=Z
2
+KZ
1


The magnitudes of Z1e and Z2e

Z
1
=R1c
2
+X1c
2

Z
2
=R2c
2
+X2c
2

16



It can be noted that

Z
2e
=KZ
1e
and Z
1e
=
z2c
K



EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

No load equivalent circuit

I
m
=I
o
sin
o
=magnetizing component
I
c
=Io cos
o
=Active component

R
o
=
v1
Ic
, X
o
=
v1
Im





i) I
m
produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X
o
called no load
reactance while I
c
is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to
flow through the resistance R
0

ii) Equivalent resistance is shown in fig.
iii) When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I
2
flows causes
voltage drop across R
2
and X
2
. Due to I
2
, primary draws an additional current.

I
2
=
I2
K

I
1
is the phasor addition of I
o
and I
2
. This I
1
causes the voltage drop across primary
resistance R
1
and reactance X
1



To simplified the circuit the winding is not taken in equivalent circuit while transfer to one side.



17














Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Transferring secondary parameter to primary

R
2
=
R2
K
, X
2
=
X2
K
, Z
2
=
z2
K
, E
2
=
L2
K
, I
2
=KI
2
, K =
N2
N1


Note :
High voltage winding low current high impedance
low voltage winding high current low impedance















Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

R
1
=R
1
K, X
1
=KX
1
, E
1
=KE
1


Z
1
=KZ1 , I
1
=
I1
K
, I
o
=
Io
K



18

Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z
1
and Z
2
, the impedances
cannot be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

i) To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R
o
and X
o
to the left of R
1
and X
1
.
ii) By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R
1
and X
1
to I
o
is neglected
due to this circuit because more simple
iii) This equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.













Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary














Simplified equivalent circuit

In this circuit new R
1
and R
2
can be combined to get equivalent circuit referred to primary
R
1e
,similarly X
1
and X
2
can be combined to get X
1e
.



19


R
1e
=R
1
+R
2
=R
1
+
R2
K

X
1e
=X
1
+X
2
=X
1
+
X2
K

Z
1e
=R
1e
+jX
1
E, R
o
=
v1
Ic
, and X
o
=
v1
Im

I
c
=I
o
cos
o
, and I
m
=I
o
sin
o



APPROXIMATE VOLTAGE DROP IN A TRANSFORMER















E
2
=I
2
R
2e
+I
2
X
2e
+V
2
=V
2
+I
2
(R
2e
+jX
2e
), E
2
=V
2
+I
2
Z
2e




Primary parameter is referred to secondary there are no voltage drop in primary. When there is
no load, I
2
=0 and we get no load terminal voltage drop in

V
2o
=E
2
=no load terminal voltage
V
2
=terminal voltage on load











20



FOR LAGGING P.F

i) The current I
2
lags V
2
by angle
2

ii) Take V
2
as reference
iii) I
2
R
2
e is inphase with I
2
while I
2
X
2e
leads I
2
by 90

iv) Draw the circle with O as center and OC as radius cutting extended OA at M. as OA
=V
2
and now OM =E
2
.
v) The total voltage drop is AM =I
2
Z
2e
.
vi) The angle is practically very small and in practice M&N are very close to each
other. Due to this the approximate voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM

AN approximate voltage drop
To find AN by adding AD& DN

AD =AB cos =I
2
R
2e
cos
DN =BL sin =I
2
X
2e
sin
AN =AD +DN =I
2
R
2e
cos
2
+I
2
X
2e
sin
2

Assuming:
2
=
1
=

Approximate voltage drop =I
2
R
2e
cos+I
2
X
2e
sin (referred to secondary)
Similarly:
Approximate voltage drop =I
1
R
1e
cos+I
1
X
1e
sin (referred to primary)












Leading P.F Loading

I
2
leads V
2
by angle
2


Approximate voltage drop =I
2
R
2e
cos - I
2
X
2e
sin (referred to secondary)
Similarly:
Approximate voltage drop =I
1
R
1e
cos - I
1
X
1e
sin (referred to primary)


21

Unity P.F. Load
Cos =1
Sin =0







Approximate voltage drop =I
2
R
2e
(referred to secondary)
Similarly:
Approximate voltage drop =I
1
R
1e
(referred to primary)

Approximate voltage drop =E
2
V
2

=I
2
R
2e
cos I
2
X
2e
sin (referred to secondary)
=I
1
R
1e
cos I
1
X
1e
sin (referred to primary)




VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER

The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference between the no load
secondary voltage (E
2
) and the secondary voltage on load expressed as percentage of no load
voltage.

% R =
L2-v2
v2
x100
The ratio (E2I2)/ I2) is called per unit regulation.

E
2
=no load secondary voltage =KV
1

V
2
=secondary voltage on load
The secondary voltage also depends on the power factor of the load

V
2
<E
2
- lagging power factor - +ve Regulation

E
2
<V
2
- leading power factor - -ve Regulation

EXPRESSION FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION



% R =
L2-v2
v2
x100 =
1otuI oItugc dop
v2
x100

22

By using the expression of voltage drop from approximate voltage drop

Total voltage drop =I
2
R
2e
cos I
2
X
2e
sin.


Substitute in above we get

% R =
I2R2e cos I2X2e sin
v2
x100


Note:

+ve sign for lagging power factor
-ve - sign for leading power factor

The regulation can be further expressed in terms of I
1
,
V1
, R
1e
and X
1e


v2
v1
=
I1
I2
=K

V
2
=KV
1
, I
2
=
I1
K
R
1e
=
R2c
K
, X
1e
=
X2c
K


% R =
I1R1e cos I1X1e sin
v2
x100



ZERO VOLTAGE REGULATION

In above regulation we had seen about the positive and negative regulation. But as load
becomes capacitive, V
2
starts increasing as load increases. At a certain leading power factor we
get E
2
=V
2
and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is increased further, E
2
>V
2
and we get
negative regulation.

For zero voltage regulation,

E
2
=V
2

E
2
V
2
=0

V
R
cos V
X
sin =0

V
R
=
I2R2c
v2
=
I1R1c
v1
and V
X
=
I2X2c
v2
=
I1X1c
v1


23

V
R
cos =V
X
sin

tan =
vR
vX


cos =cos{ tan
-1
=
vR
vX
}


Losses in a Transformer

The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;

1. Core or Iron losses
2. Copper losses

These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in
Temperature and (ii) a drop in efficiency.

Core or Iron losses (P
i
)
These consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur in the transformer core due
to the alternating flux. These can be determined by open-circuit test.

Hysteresis loss = k
h
f B
m
1.6
watts /m
3


K
h
hysteresis constant depend on material
f - Frequency
B
m
maximum flux density

Eddy current loss = K
e
f
2
Bm
2
t
2
watts /m
3


K
e
eddy current constant
t - Thickness of the core

Both hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon
(i) maximum flux density Bm in the core
(ii) supply frequency f. Since transformers are connected to constant-frequency,
constant voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses
are practically the same at all loads.

Iron or Core losses, Pi =Hysteresis loss +Eddy current loss =Constant losses (Pi)
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content
Whereas eddy current loss can be reduced by using core of thin laminations.


24

Copper losses (P
cu
)

These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. These can be determined by short-circuit test. The copper loss depends on the
magnitude of the current flowing through the windings.
Total copper loss =I
1
R
1
+I
2
2
R
2
=I
1
2
(R
1
+R
2
) =I
2
2
(R
2
+R
1
)

Total loss =iron loss +copper loss =Pi +Pcu



Efficiency of a Transformer
Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.,
Power output =power input Total losses
Power input =power output +Total losses
=power output +Pi +Pcu

Efficiency =
powc output
powc nput

Efficiency =
powc output
powc nput+P+Pcu

Power output =V
2
I
2
cos, Cos =load power factor
Transformer supplies full load of current I
2
and with terminal voltage V
2

Pcu =copper losses on full load =I
2
2
R
2e

Efficiency =
V2I2 cosq
V2I2 cosq+P+I2R2c

V
2
I
2
=VA rating of a transformer
Efficiency =
(VA ratIng)X cosq
(VA ratIng)X cosq+P+I2R2c


% Efficiency =
(VA ratIng)X cosq
(VA ratIng)X cosq+P+I2R2c
X 100


This is full load efficiency and I
2
=full load current.
We can now find the full-load efficiency of the transformer at any p.f. without actually loading
the transformer.

25

Full load Efficiency =
(FuII Ioad VA ratIng)X cosq
(FuII Ioad VA ratIng)X cosq+P+I2R2c

Also for any load equal to n x full-load,
Corresponding total losses =Pi +n
2
PCu

n =fractional by which load is less than full load =
uctuuI Ioud
]uII Ioud


n =
huI] Ioud
]uIIIoud
=
(
1
2
)
1
=0.5

Corresponding (n) % Efficiency =
n(VA ratIng)X cosq
n(VA ratIng)X cosq+P+nPcu
X 100


Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Voltage and frequency supply to the transformer is constant the efficiency varies with the
load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it loaded further the
efficiency start decreases as shown in fig.









The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I
2m
and maximum
efficiency is denoted as q max
1) condition for maximum efficiency
2) load current at which q max occurs
3) KVA supplied at maximum efficiency
Considering primary side,
Load output =V
1
I
1
cos
1

Copper loss =I
1
2
R
1e
or I
2
2
R
2e

Iron loss =hysteresis +eddy current loss =P
i


26

Efficiency =
V1I1 cosq1-Iosscs
V1I1 cosq1
=
V1I1 cosq1-I1R1c+P
V1I1 cosq1


=1
I1R1c
V1I21cosq1
=
P
V1I1 cosq1

Differentiating both sides with respect to I2, we get


dq
dI2
=0
R1c
V1 cosq1
=
PI
V1I1 cosq1


For q to be maximum,
dq
dI2
=0. Hence, the above equation becomes


R1c
V1 cosq1
=
PI
V1I1 cosq1
or Pi =I
1
2
R
1e


Pcu loss =Pi iron loss
The output current which will make Pcu loss equal to the iron loss. By proper design, it is
possible to make the maximum efficiency occur at any desired load.

Load current I
2m
at maximum efficiency

For q
max
I
2
2
R
2e
=P
i
but I
2
=I
2m

I
2
2m
R
2e
=Pi I
2m
=_
P
R2c

This is the load current at q
max
(I
2
)F.L =full load current


I2m
(I2)F.L
=
1
(I2)FL
_
P
R2c



I2m
(I2)F.L
= _
P
[(I2)F.L]R2c
= _
P
[Pcu]F.L


I
2m
=(I
2
) F.L. _
P
[Pcu]F.L

27


This is the load current at q
max
in terms of full load current


KVA SUPPLIED AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of load current.

KVA at q
max
=I
2m
V
2
=V
2
(I
2
)F.L. X _
P
[Pcu]F.L

KVA at q
max
=(KVA rating) X _
P
[Pcu]F.L



Substituting condition for q
max
in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression for
max
as ,
as Pcu =Pi
% q
max
=
V2 I2m cosq
V2 I2mcosq+2PI
X 100

% q
max

=
KvA ]oq maxcos q
KvA ]oq maxcos q+ 2P


Testing of Transformer

The testing of transformer means to determine efficiency and regulation of a transformer
at any load and at any power factor condition.
There are two methods
i) Direct loading test
ii) Indirect loading test
a. Open circuit test
b. Short circuit test

Load test on transformer

This method is also called as direct loading test on transformer because the load is
directly connected to the transformer. We required various meters to measure the input and
28

output reading while change the load from zero to full load. Fig shows the connection of
transformer for direct load test.


The primary is connected through the variac to change the input voltage as we required. Connect
the meters as shown in the figure




















S.No. Primary side Secondary side
V
1
(v) I
1
(A) W
1
(W) V
2
(V) I
2
(A) W
1
(W)
1 Rated E
2
0 0
2 ..

The load is varied from no load to full load in desired steps. All the time, keep primary
voltage V
1
constant at its rated value with help of variac and tabulated the reading

The first reading is to be noted on no load for which I
2
=0 A and W
2
=0W

Calculation
From the observed reading
W
1
=input power to the transformer
W
2
=output power delivered to the load
29


% q =
w2
w1
X 100

The first reading is no load so V2 = E2
The regulation can be obtained as


% R =
L2-v2
v2
X 100


The graph of % q and % R on each load against load current I
L
is plotted as shown in fig










Efficiency and regulation characteristics

Advantages:
1) This test enables us to determine the efficiency of the transformer accurately at any
load.
2) The results are accurate as load is directly used
Disadvantages:
1) There are large power losses during the test
2) Load not avail in lab while test conduct for large transformer

Open-Circuit or No-Load Test

This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and parameters R
0
and
X
0
of the transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually low-voltage
winding) while the secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage V
1
is measured
by the voltmeter, the no load current I
0
by ammeter and no-load input power W
0
by wattmeter as
shown in Fig. As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore, normal iron losses
will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses and small copper
loss in the primary. Since no-load current I
0
is very small (usually 2-10 % of rated current). Cu
30

losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared with iron losses. Hence,
wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the transformer. It is reminded that iron
losses are the same at all loads. Fig.













Iron losses, Pi =Wattmeter reading =W0
No load current =Ammeter reading =I0
Applied voltage =Voltmeter reading =V1
Input power, W0 =V1 I0 cos 0
No - load p.f., cos =
wo
vo Io
=no load power factor

I
m
=I
o
sin
o
=magnetizing component
I
c
= I
o
cos
o
=Active component

R
o
=
vo
Ic
, X
o
=
vo
Im


V
o
(volts) I
o
(amperes) W
o
(watts)
Rated




Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and parameters R0 and
X0 of the transformer.







31

Short-Circuit or Impedance Test

This test is conducted to determine R
1e
(or R
2e
), X
1e
(or X
2e
) and full-load copper losses
of the transformer. In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-circuited by
a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the primary as shown in Fig. The low
input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage V
SC
, full-load current I
1
flows in the primary.
Then I
2
in the secondary also has full-load value since I
1
/I
2
=N
2
/N
1
. Under such conditions, the
copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load.

There is no output from the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore, input power is
all loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss. It is because iron loss in the core is negligibly
small since the voltage V
SC
is very small. Hence, the wattmeter will practically register the full-
load copper losses in the transformer windings.

























Full load Cu loss, PC =Wattmeter reading =W
sc

Applied voltage =Voltmeter reading =V
SC

F.L. primary current =Ammeter reading =I
1


Pcu =I
1
2
R
1
+I
1
2
R
2
=I
1
2
R
1e
, R
1e
=
Pcu
I1

Where R1e is the total resistance of transformer referred to primary.

32

Total impedance referred to primary, Z1e =

Z1c R1c ,
short circuit P.F, cos =
Pcu
vsc I1
Thus short-circuit lest gives full-load Cu loss, R1e and X1e.

Why Transformer Rating in kVA

An important factor in the design and operation of electrical machines is the relation
between the life of the insulation and operating temperature of the machine. Therefore,
temperature rise resulting from the losses is a determining factor in the rating of a machine. We
know that copper loss in a transformer depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage.
Therefore, the total loss in a transformer depends on the volt-ampere product only and not on the
phase angle between voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor. For this
reason, the rating of a transformer is in kVA and not kW.

All-Day (or Energy) Efficiency
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to
the input power i.e.

Commercial efficiency =
Output powcr
Input powcr


There are certain types of transformers whose performance cannot be judged by this
efficiency. For instance, distribution transformers used for supplying lighting loads have their
primaries energized all the 24 hours in a day but the secondarys supply little or no load during
the major portion of the day. It means that a constant loss (i.e., iron loss) occurs during the whole
day but copper loss occurs only when the transformer is loaded and would depend upon the
magnitude of load. Consequently, the copper loss varies considerably during the day and the
commercial efficiency of such transformers will vary from a low value (or even zero) to a high
value when the load is high. The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of
energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours). This is known as all-day or energy
efficiency.
The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour period is known
as all-day efficiency i.e.

all
-day =
kWh Input In 24 hours
kWh output In 24 hours



All-day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose primaries are never
open-circuited but the secondary carry little or no load much of the time during the day. In the
design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce the iron losses which continuously
occur during the whole day.