Stroboscope Stroboscopic effect Spectrometer Conoscopy lens (optics) A kaleidoscope Diffraction grating Fraunhofer diffraction Isentropic Caustic Stigmatic

Cyclotron Carcinotron backward wave oscillator Particle accelerator LINAC- linear particle accelerator Betatron particle accelerator A magnifying glass

makes a cyclically moving object appear to be slow moving phenomenon when continous motion is represented by series of instantaneous samples used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum observations of a transparent specimen in a cone of converging rays of light converges or diverges light cylinder with mirrors containing loose, colored objects set of parallel slits used to disperse light used to model the diffraction of waves when the diffraction pattern is viewed at a long distance constant entropy alkaline solution used to neutralize the acid in the discharge water arrangement of two points such that a cone of rays passing through one also passes through the other
device used for accelerating charged particles to high energies

amplifies microwave signals in which the traveling wave produced is reflected backward so as to sustain the wave oscillations. machine that accelerates particles to extremely high energies. Particle accelerators are used to produce beams greatly increases the velocity of charged subatomic particles. uses the electric field induced by a varying magnetic field to accelerate electrons (beta particles) to high speeds in a circular orbit. convex lens 1. A simple convex lens has a focal length that varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light passing through it. When such a lens is used as the objective of a telescope, this effect results in (b) spherical aberration. (d) nothing! The premise is wrong. A convex lens has the same focal length for all wavelengths of light passing through it.

(a) dispersion. (c) chromatic aberration.

2. Suppose that a microscope has an objective whose focal length is 1.00 mm and an eyepiece whose focal length is 25.0 mm. What is the magnification? (b) 625

(a) 25

(c) 0.0400. This device doesnt magnify. It makes the specimen look smaller.

(d) we need more information to calculate the magnification. 3. Suppose that a pane of crown glass, with a refractive index of 1.52, is immersed in water, which has a refractive index of 1.33. A ray of light traveling in the water strikes the glass at 45 relative to the normal and travels through the pane. What angle, relative to the normal, will the ray of light subtend when it leaves the pane and reenters the water? (b) 54

(a) 38

(c) 45 4. Suppose that the numerical aperture of a microscope objective in air is 0.85. The medium between the lens and the specimen is replaced by water, which has a refractive index of 1.33. The numerical aperture of the objective

(a) does not change. (c) decreases to 0.639.

(b) increases to 1.13. (d) cannot be calculated from this information. 5. According to the law of reflection,

(a) a ray of light traveling from a medium having a low refractive index to a medium having a higher refractive index

(b) a ray of light traveling from a medium having a high refractive index to a medium having a lower refractive index is reflected at the boundary.

is reflected at the boundary. (c) a ray of light always reflects from a shiny surface in a direction exactly opposite the direction from which it arrives.

(d) none of the above.

6. A cassegrain-type reflecting telescope has an objective mirror with a diameter of 300 mm and an eyepiece with a focal length of 30 mm. The magnification is (a) 100. (c) 9,000. (b) 10. (d) impossible to calculate from this information.

7. A diverging lens (a) can collimate converging rays of light. (c) is also known as a convex lens. (b) can focus the suns rays to a brilliant point. (d) is ideal for use as the objective in a refracting telescope. 8. Suppose that the speed of red visible light in a certain transparent medium is 270,000 km/s. What, approximately, is the index of refraction for this substance with respect to red light? (a) 0.900 (c) 0.810 (b) 1.11 (d) it cannot be calculated from this information. 9. As the magnification of a telescope is increased, (a) the image resolution decreases in direct proportion. (c) the light-gathering area increases in direct proportion. (b) physical stability becomes more and more important. (d) dimmer and dimmer objects can be seen. 10. What is the critical angle of light rays inside a gem whose

refractive index is 2.4? Assume that the gem is surrounded by air. (a) 25 (c) 67 (b) 65 (d) 90 Light beam will follow a curved path in a gravitational field; in other words, light is bent by gravity. Compton effect the increase in wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, Carnot's theorem a principle in thermodynamics: an engine working in a reversible cycle is at least as efficient as any other engine working between the same limits of temperature The casimir effect is a small attractive force that acts between two close parallel uncharged conducting plates. Couple two forces are not along the same line they create a net torque Conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body 2. No net torque acting on the rigid body A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is neither undergoing linear nor rotational acceleration; however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity. 1 erg = 1 dyne cm = 1 gcm2/s2 Two numerical measures of the inertia of a body: 2. Moment of inertia about a

1. No net force acting on the rigid body

1. Mass, which governs its resistance to the action of a force

specified axis, which measures its resistance to the action of a torque about the same axis. Centripetal acceleration caused by constantly change of direction of motion for a object that moves in a circular path the object has an acceleration named centripetal acceleration Centripetal inward 1 (cd/m) = 1 nit (nt) Illumination, lux (lx) = 1 lumen per square meter (lm/m) = 1 metercandle (mc) Luminous intensity, candela (cd) = 1 lumen per steradian (lm/sr) 1 lumen (lm) = 4 pi mean spherical candlepower Centrifugal outward 1 candela = 1 lumen/steradian. 1 lambert (la) = 10000/ (cd/m) 1 flame (flm) = 4 footcandle

Luminous flux, lumen (lm) = 1 candela steradian (ca sr) Photometers are used to measure the intensity of the light produced by an unknown source in terms of a standard source. Huygens' principle

Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The new wave-front is the tangential surface to all of these secondary wavelets. Angular magnification The ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image forme d by an optical instrument to the anglesubtended at the eye by the object being viewed. Achromatic prism deviates light without dispersion. Chromatic prism deviates light with dispersion. Heisenberg's uncertainty The position and momentum of a particle cannot be principle simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision. The wave equation is an important second-order linear partial differential equation for the description of waves Brillouin scattering, occurs when light in a medium interacts with time-dependent optical density variations and changes its energy (frequency) and path.

Rayleigh scattering, elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. Rayleigh scattering, the scattering of sunlight off the molecules of the atmosphere. Brillouin scattering. Scattering of light from acoustic modes Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of a photon by a free charged particle, Rossby waves occur in layers of fluid which are bounded by two planes almost perpendicular to an axis of rotation, but not quite parallel to each other. Love wave a type of seismic surface wave in which particles move with a side-to-side motion perpendicular to the main propagation of the earthquake. Rayleigh wave a type of seismic surface wave that moves with a rolling motion that consists of a combination of particle motion perpendicular and parallel to the main direction of wave propagation. Plasma oscillations, also known as langmuir waves are rapid oscillations of the electron density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals. Inertial waves, also known as inertial oscillations, are a type of mechanical wave possible in rotating fluids. Delta particle a very shortlived hyperon Gamma particle- it is more penetrating than alpha radiation and beta radiation but has less ionizing power and is not deflected in electric or magnetic fields. Alpha particle positively charged nuclear particle, deflected by magnetic and

electric field, shows small penetration and produce great ionization Beta particle deflected by magnetic and electric field, show much greater penetration and produce less ionization Muon - a fundamental subatomic particle that is 207 times heavier than an electron. Meson - a strongly interacting particle that is made up of a quark/antiquark pair and has an even integer spin. Lepton - a class of fermion whose members participate in weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational interactions. All leptons have lepton number 1 Gravitron - a theoretical particle having no mass and no charge that mediates (carries) the gravitational force. The graviton is a boson.

Geiger counter used to count radioactive radiations that will ionize the gas of the counter tube.

MicroR meter used to count radioactive radiations. A solid crystal of sodium iodide creates a pulse of light when radiation interacts with it. Bernoulli effect - for horizontal Rolle's theorem states that a real-valued differentiable fluid flow, an increase in the function which attains equal values at two distinct points must velocity of flow will result in a have a point somewhere between them where the first decrease in the static pressure. derivative (the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function) is zero. Drift velocity is the average velocity of a charged particle Ferrimagnetism a property exhibited by materials whose atoms or ions tend to assume an ordered but nonparallel arrangement in zero applied field below a certain characteristic temperature known as the nel temperature. Nel Temperature the temperature at which ferrimagnetic and anti ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic. Ferromagnetic Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Viscosity Of A Fluid - the measure of how resistive the fluid is

to flow. Serves as a mechanics for transforming kinetic energy into thermal energy. Coriolis acceleration - acceleration corresponding to the coriolis force, Acoriolis = -2(angular velocity)(radial velocity) The coriolis force is a fictitious force exerted on a body when it moves in a rotating reference frame. Centrifugal Force - force felt by a body being held at rest in a rotating reference frame Charles theorem - Any general displacement of a rigid body can be represented by a translation plus a rotation Eulerstheorem The general displacement of a rigid body with one point fixed is a rotation about some axis. Varignon's theorem The theorem that the moment of a force is the algebraic sum of the moments of its vector components acting at a common point on the line of action of the force. Friction is the resistive force kinetic friction (the frictional force tending to slow a body in acting between bodies that motion). tends to oppose and damp out motion. static friction (the frictional force opposing placing a body at rest into motion) The study of friction is called tribology. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the measure of the internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid. Poise - the cgs unit of dynamic Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity viscosity, equal to 1 g cm-1 s-1, to density - a quantity in which no force is involved. 1/10 pa s. Stoke - the cgs unit of kinematic viscosity, equal to 1 cm2 s-1. Eotvos - a unit of angular acceleration equal to 10-9 s-2. Nutation - the plane of the moon's orbit about the earth rotates with respect to the

ecliptic with a period of 18.6 years. Precession - the periodic circular motion of the axis of a rotating body due to an external torque. Radius of gyration is a quantity with units of length obtained by dividing the moment of inertia i by the mass of the object m and taking the square root. Rotational stability Consider a rotating body, and determine it principal moments of inertia with . The rotation about c (largest principal axis) is stable, rotation about b (middle principal axis) is unstable, and rotation about a (smallest principal axis) is "mostly" stable. A parameter describing the degree of stability is given by For rotation about the a-axis. Spherical aberration An optical aberration caused blurring of the image produce on a concave mirror due to the convergences of rays John Bardeen american physicist the first person to have won the nobel prize in physics twice Marie Curie famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a nobel prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Linus Pauling the only person to be awarded two unshared nobel prizes. Pauling is also one of only two people to be awarded nobel prizes in different fields, the other being marie curie. For rotation about the c-axis or

Frederick Sanger, british biochemist the first to received twice the nobel prize for chemistry, Paul Dirac formulated the dirac equation, which describes the behaviour of fermions and predicted the existence of antimatter/positron, a positively charged electron Carl david Anderson He is best known for his discovery of thepositron in 1932, Tesla The mks unit of magnetic field strength, equal to 10^4 gauss. Mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force acting through a distance. Chromatic aberration Color distortion in an image produced by a lens, caused by the inability of the lens to bring the various colors of light to focus at a single point.

A force is a push or pull, or, more precisely, "something" that causes a body to accelerate. When there are two objects, a and b, a force is normally thought of as the push or pull of a on b. There are four types of forces. 2. Electromagnetic forces forces caused by the attraction between positive and negative charges. This is the force that holds bonds together. 4. Weak nuclear force - a force that causes unstable atoms to undergo radioactive decay.

Force 1. Gravitational forces - the attraction of any two masses to each other, by a process not yet known.

3. Strong nuclear force - the force that holds the nucleus of an atom together.

contact forces are the forces exerted when two objects touch. They are basically electromagnetic in nature - the electrons on the surface of one object repel the electrons on the surface of the other object, and thus the two objects exert a force on each other. One type of contact force is the normal contact force. This acts perpendicular to the surface

Weight is the force exerted on an object in a gravitational field, and is proportional to the mass of the object and the strength of the gravitational field. The gravitational field strength is roughly constant close to the earth's surface. The weight is due to the attraction between the object and another large body (i.e. The earth). Friction forces are another type of contact force. They are a tangential contact force - they do not act perpendicular to the surfaces in contact, but along them. They occur when one object slides or attempts to slide along another - the sliding motion is resisted by the static object, producing a force on each object. The production of the force is due to small forces between microscopic imperfections in the surfaces.

that a body is sitting on and is of the same magnitude that the body pushes the surface with. This is the force that prevents the body sinking into the surface. For example, a book sitting on a horizontal surface: Drag forces are the forces produced when an object moves through a fluid. They are due to the kinetic energy lost in pushing the fluid out of the way of the object and the frictional force between the fluid and the object.

Centre of mass

Tension is the state that an object is in when two forces are pulling it in opposite directions. One example of this is the rope in a game of tug-of-war. There is tension causes by the two sides both pulling the rope in opposite directions. Compression is the opposite state to tension - the state produced when two forces are squashing an object in the opposite directions. Tension in a wire pulls on both ends towards the middle of the wire - compression pushes away from the centre of the object in both direction. The centre of mass is the same as the centre of gravity. These two terms both mean the point at which the weight of an object acts, or where the mass all appears to be. For objects with 3d symmetry and constant density, the centre of mass is at the centre of the body. For all other objects, there is a centre of mass, but it is not as easy to find. For a lamina, the centre of mass can be found by suspending the lamina from a point and marking the vertical line from the point of suspension. This is repeated for a different point of suspension to find the centre of mass, where the two lines coincide. The gravitational pull of the earth or any other sufficiently large body on an object close to it is called that objects weight. This is found by multiplying the mass of the object by the gravitational field strength, as shown in the equation w = mg. The gravitational field strength of the earth at sea level in britain is 9.81 ms-2 (it is an acceleration, as weight is a force).

Equations of motion

forces are vector quantities, and therefore are represented as

vectors. See previously for notes on resolving vectors. Free-body force diagrams are often used to represent the forces on a particle or body they involve taking the body separately from all the other objects in a situation and representing the forces that exist on it. The forces should be labelled with the object exerting the force, the object that for force is acting on and the nature of the force. 1. Any height on the y-axis represents a velocity

this diagram shows a velocity time graph. The following should be remembered: 2. The gradient of the line represents the acceleration In the equations of motion, the following symbols are used:

3. The area under the graph represents the displacement V= u= x or s = a= t = time final initial velocity velocity displacement acceleration

Looking at a graph representing motion under a constant acceleration:

from the area under the graph, it can be seen clearly that:

looking at the gradient of the graph, it can be seen that:

and

rearranging this we get . Substituting the second equation into the first, we get: These equations can be applied in any situations with constant acceleration. Motion should be resolved into mutually perpendicular directions before the equations are applied. Displacement is a vector quantity - i.e. Has a direction associated with it. This is the distance from a point in a particular direction. The gradient, , as the velocity is equal to the displacement divided by the time. In the same way, on a velocity, time graph, the gradient, . This is because acceleration = velocity / time. The area under the velocity, time graph is displacement. The speeed and acceleration of a body in free fall can be found using light gates or ticker-timers. A light gate consists of a beam of light that is broken by a card attached to a body. The time whilst the beam is broken can be measured, and thus from the length of the card the speed measured ( ). Acceleration can be measured by taking two velocity measurements and dividing by the time between them ( ). A ticker timer places 50 dots on a piece of tape passing through it (attached to the body in case). The length of tape between two points gives the distance moved, and thus the velocity and acceleration can be measured as below. The motion of a projectile can be split up into horizontal and vertical components, and calculations on these two components can then be done seperately. Newton developed three laws that are the basis of much of the modern science of motion. A body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity as long as the forces on it are balanced or zero. Newton's second law:

Free fall

Projectiles

Newton's laws of motion Newton's first law: When this is the case, the body is said to be in equilibrium. This means that there is no net change, in this case in motion.

Acceleration is caused by unbalanced forces, leading to a resultant force in a particular direction. The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and takes place in the same direction as the force. The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force and takes place in the same direction. Using the si system, the constant of proportionality = 1.

This can also be written as:

Linear momentum is defined as p = mv (base units kg m s-1)

For this reason, f = ma. Force = change in momentum/time, therefore, force x time = change in momentum. This change in momentum is called impulse. It is generally stated in ns. It may also be seen as the area under a force, time graph. Newton's third law: The forces must 2. Be opposite in direction 4. Be of the same type. If all these are true, the forces will be a newton's third law pair. Newton i About forces on a single body Concerns any number of forces

Putting this into base units, . This gives the base unit definition for the newton. This shows that the effect of a small force for a large amount of time and a large force for a small amount of time is equal.

When a exerts a force on b, b exerts an equal and opposite force on a. For two forces to be newton's third law pair, the following must be true: 1. Be equal in magnitude. 3. Act on different objects. 5. Act for the same time. Differences between newton i and newton (iii) In any collision, the momentum of the bodies is totally Newton iii transfered. The two bodies put together always have the same momentum as did at the start. is called the principle About a they pair of forces on two This different of the conservation of linear momentum. bodies Always concerns two forces

The forces can be different types. If there are two forces and they are in equilibrium, forces are equal and opposite Only applies when a body is in equilibrium.

Always the same type of force. Forces always equal and opposite

Always applies.

Collisions However, energy may be lost in the collision. If the collision does not lead to a loss in energy, Mechanical energy it is called an elastic collision. The only collision of this type is when one object that is in motion collides with a stationary object of the same mass. Otherwise, there is a loss in energy. This is called an inelastic collision. One very inelastic collision is the collision between two sponge balls. Work is the term used to The base units for work are, therefore, kg m2 s-2. represent energy transfer. Work is the force in the direction of a displacement multiplied by the displacement. If the force is changing constantly, it is the average force in the correct direction. For a constantly changing force where there is no fixed pattern to the changing of the force, then it is the area under a force, displacement graph. In symbols, Example: A car's engine develops a force of 1000 n, and the car moves for 10m. How much work has been done by the car? Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or work is done, expressed as energy / time, or as force in the direction of the velocity multiplied by the velocity. The symbols for this are p= kg m2 s-3. It may also be useful to note that power in an electrical circuit is found by multiplying the current by the

Energy Kinetic energy.

voltage. There are two main types of energy - kinetic energy and potential energy. All other types of energy flow from these two types of energy. Kinetic energy is the energy associated with motion. When a mass is accelerated (by the application of a force), it gains energy. This energy is kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is defined as k.e. = mv.

Example. An object of mass 8 kg is pushed with a force of 50n for Potential energy 2m. What is the velocity of the object? k.e. = mv 100 = (0.8v) v= 100(2 / 8) = 25 v = 5ms-1 Potential energy exists in four Gravitational potential energy. types - one for each type of force. It is energy associated with configuration - the way in which things are arranged. The energy is a consequence of the position of bodies on which forces act. For example, deforming a spring by squeezing it gives it potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is Electromagnetic potential energy. potential energy where the forces that act on the bodies involved are gravitational. It is usually concerned with the separation of two bodies, one of them usually having a very large gravitational force (i.e. The earth). When water in a pumped storage plant is pumped up to the higher lake, it gains gravitational potential energy. When it falls back down to the lower lake again, it looses this gravitational energy but gains in kinetic energy, some of which it then loses to the

turbines in the system that generate electricity. When close to the earths surface, change in gravitational potential energy=mg h, where m is the mass of the object concerned, g is the gravitational field strength, and h is the change in height of the body concerned. Electromagnetic potential energy is caused by the arrangement of charges into structures that they would rather not be in - i.e. It takes energy to put them there. This energy is converted into electromagnetic potential energy. For example, when a spring is stretched, the bonds in it are distorted, and it gains electromagnetic potential energy. This type of electromagnetic potential energy is also referred to as elastic potential energy. The general form of electromagnetic potential energy is responsible for a vast range of things, including the energy in food, and the ability of batteries to produce energy. The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form into another. The efficiency of a mechanical system is defined as the fraction useful energy out / energy put in, or efficiency = work out / work in. The efficiency of systems varies, but no

Nuclear potential energy causes the potential energy of nuclear fuels.

The molecules in bodies are in a state of constant motion. When they move relative to each other, the electromagnetic potential energy between them changes. These two types of energy re, put together, referred to as internal energy, also known as thermal energy, or heat. When there is an inelastic collision between two objects, the k.e. That is lost is transferred into internal energy. This internal energy is very difficult to tap and therefore is often regarded as lost energy. Circular motion

mechanical system is 100% efficient, as energy is always lost thorough friction between the moving parts. Many systems in nature exhibit circular motion, including pendulums, motors, springs, and the vibration of subatomic particles. When plotted on a graph, circular motion appears in the form of a sine wave.

When working with circular motion, it is convenient to be able to use a unit more allied with reality that the degree. This the radian. A radian is the segment of the circle that is produced when a part of the circumference the length of the radius is (about 6.3) radians in a circle. The adoption of the radian as a unit of angle allows a new concept to be worked with - angular velocity. This is the number of radians that a rotating object turns through in 1 second, and therefore the unit is rad s-1. This is given the symbol different places on the same system have the same angular velocity, but can have different straight line velocities, depending on the radius of the circle that it rotates in (the distance from the centre of the circle to the object.) This

The time period of a rotation (the time that it takes for radians of rotation) is given makes sense, as it is the circumference divided by the straight line velocity of the object. In the same way, the time period can be expressed in terms of angular velocity, as reciprocal, its frequency can be measured. This is in hertz (hz), and is given by the following formulae: Straight line velocity is a vector quantity - it is dependant on Statics - turning force and equilibrium direction as well as speed, and therefore in a system with circular motion, the straight line velocity is changing all the time, i.e. There is an acceleration. This is given by the formulae

needed to change velocity, it follows that there must be a force present. This is the centripetal force - the force towards the centre of the circle, which is given by substituting the equation for the acceleration into newton's second law, giving f=mv2/r. The moment of a force is a measure of the turning force provided by that force. It is quantified as the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot, thus moment = fd. Moment is a vector quantity, as clockwise and anticlockwise moments are possible. The units for moment are n metres, or kg m s-2. This is the same units as those for work done, so by convention, a moment is always referred to in newton metres and energy in joules. A torque is the turning moment caused by a set of two or more forces that tend to cause a rotational acceleration. Again, a torque does not cause any translational acceleration, only rotation. When looking at a statics problem, there are three equations that one can usually write down: 2. That the total force in any other direction (usually vertical) is zero. Unknown forces can usually be found by: 2. Calculating the moments around a point, and thus finding the unknown

A pair of equal and opposite forces that do not act on the same line can cause rotation. This pair of forces is called a couple. They do not cause translational acceleration, as they are equal and opposite, but they do cause rotational acceleration. Thus a body can be in translational equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium.

If a body is in equilibrium, then, there is another condition. Not only must the sum of all forces in any direction be 0, but the sum of the moment turning the body in one direction must equal the sum of the moments turning the body in the opposite direction. The sum of the moments about any point must be zero. This is called the principle of moments. 1. That the total force in any one direction (usually horizontal of vertical) is zero. 3. That the sum of the moments about a point are zero. 1. Resolving horizontal of vertical vectors. A combination of these methods may be needed to find the answer in a situation.

force.