Fundamentals of Metal Forming

1. Overview 2. Material Behavior 3. Temperature Effects 4. Strain Rate Effect 5. Friction and Lubrication

Introduction
Metal Forming uses plastic deformation to change the shape of metal workpieces
Materials (metals) plastic deformation External loads Typically compressive
Sometimes Stretch the metal (tensile), bend the metal (tensile and compressive), shear stresses

Shape - die and tools

Classification
Bulk Deformation Sheet Metal Forming High surface area-to-volume ratio
Parts are called stampings Usual tooling: punch and die
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Introduction
F

F v F v F

Bulk Deformation Process

Rolling Forging Extrusion Drawing Bending Drawing Shearing (Stamping)

+ + F

RAM v

Sheet metal forming

Forging Sequence of Part and Die

Material Properties in Forming

Desirable material properties:
Yield strength ? Ductility ? Second phase or Inclusion ?

These properties are affected by temperature:

When work temperature is raised, ductility increases and yield strength decreases while loosing on surface finish and dimension accuracy.

Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
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Theories of Failure
The limit of the stress state on a material
Ductile Materials - Yielding Brittle Materials - Fracture

In a tensile test, Yield or Failure Strength of a material. In a multiaxial state of stress, how do we use Yield or Failure Strength?

Yielding: Ductile Materials

A. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Criterion) In a tension specimen: max = S y
2
The diameter of the Mohr circle =

max

Sy

For Plane Stress: 1 = S y (3=0) 2 = Sy

Sy

1, 2 have same signs.

signs.
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1 2 = S y 1, 2 have opposite

Ductile Materials
B. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises Criterion)

For the three principal stresses;

u=

1 [ 11 + 2 2 + 3 3 ] = 1 12 + 22 + 32 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 ) 2 2E

After taken out the hydrostatic stress (ave=(1+2+3)/3) Now substitute 1, 2 and 3 with ( 1 ave ), ( 2 ave ), ( 3 ave ) 1 + 2 2 [ ] 1 1 2 + 2 For plane stress; ud = 3E 2
ud = 1 + 2 S y in an uniaxial tension test. 3E
In a biaxial case, the same amount of distortion energy 1 + 2 1 + 2 2 Sy 1 1 2 + 2 = 3E 3E

A
1

2 12 1 2 + 2 = Sy2

Plasticity
Flow theory (Classical theory)
The current strain rates depend on the stress.

Deformation theory (Hencky theory)

The total strain is related to the stress. Ideal for nonlinear elasticity Still work for monotonically increasing stresses everywhere in a body

Pressure-independent Hydrostatic pressure does not affect dislocation motion. Bauschinger effect
The different behaviors in tension and compression
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Stress Representation
General 3-D Stress

z xz x xy
Tensor Notation

Plane Stress
z

yz y x

xy

x xy xz 11 12 13 = = xy y yz ij 21 22 23 xz yz z 31 32 33

x xy xy y 0 0

0 0 = ij 0

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Stress Transformation (Plane Stress)

x' = x + y
2 +

x y
2

cos2 + xy sin2

x' y ' = y' =

x' + y ' =

x y
2

sin2 + xy cos2

x + y
2
2 +

x y
2

cos2 xy sin2
x + y
2

x + y

x y
2

cos2 + xy sin2 +

x y
2

cos2 xy sin2 = x + y

x 'y' +

2 x ' y'

x + y x y x y 2 x + y x y = + cos2 + xy sin2 cos2 xy sin2 + sin2 + xy cos2 2 2 2 2 2

2 x y 2 x + y 2 x y = cos2 + xy sin2 + sin2 + xy cos2 + 2 2 2 2 x y 2 x + y 2 x y = cos2 + xy sin2 + sin2 + xy cos2 2 2 2

2 = xy + xy

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Yield function in 3D
Stress Tensor :

[ ]= ['
ij

ij

+m ij

where 'ij = DeviatoricStress Tensor, 1 ( + + 3 ) = Hydrostatic Component of Stress 3 1 2 ij = 1 for i = j

m =

Three Stress Invariants 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 = 0

0 for i j
Three Deviatoric Stress Invariants '3 J1 '2 J 2 ' J 3 = 0

where I1 = x + y + z = 1 + 2 + 3

+ 2 + 2 I 2 = ( x y + y z + x z ) + 2 xy yz zx = ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 3 1 )

where J1 = 0

J 2 = ( '1 '2 + '3 '2 + '3 '1 ) J 3 = 'x ' y 'z

2 2 2 y xz z xy I 3 = x y z + 2 xy yz xz x yz

= 1 2 3

Yield function: f ij = f ( I ) = f (I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) = f ( J 2 , J 3 ) = C

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( )

Example: Stresses in 3D
[ ]
ij

11 21 31 x yx zx = = 22 32 y zy xy 12 13 23 33 xz yz z

x z

To find Principal Stresses:

[ ] =
ij

5 1 1

(5 )(4 )2 (4 ) (4 ) = = (4 )(3 )(6 ) = 0

3 13 2 + 54 72 = 0 1 = 3 MPa, 2 = 4 MPa and 3 = 6 MPa I 1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 13 , I 2 = ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 3 1 ) = (12 + 24 + 18 ) = 54 and 13 I 3 = 1 2 3 = 72

5 1 1 MPa 1 4 0 4 1 0 1 1 n1 =0 4 0 n 2 0 4 n3

Example: Continue
Deviatoric Stress 5 1 1 MPa ij = 1 4 0 1 1 0.67 ' 1 0 . 33 ' 0 1 0 4 0 0.33 ' 13 = 3, 4 & 6MPa 1 (0.33 + ' ) 2 (0.67 ' ) + 2(0.33 + ' ) = 0 1 1 m = (5 + 4 + 4 ) = (3 + 4 + 6) = 4.33MPa 20 1 3 3 (0.33 + ' ) + ' '2 = 0 [ ij ] = [ 'ij + m ij ] 9 3

[ ]

0 0 5 1 1 4.33 0 1 4 0 4 . 33 0 'ij = 0 4.33 1 0 4 0 1 1 0.67 1 0 . 33 0 = 0 0.33 1

0.74 + 2.33 ' '3 = 0 J1 = 0; J 2 = 2.33; J 3 = 0.74

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Presentation of Yield Surface

Max. Shear Stress Theory: f 1, 2,3 = 1 3 = C Maximum Distortion Energy Theory: f ( J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 = k 2 = C 1 2 2 2 f ( 1, 2,3 ) = J 2 = ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = C 6
3 2 f (J 2 , J 3 ) = 4 J 2 27 J 32 36k 2 J 2 + 96k 4 J 2 64k 6 = C

Sy 2

Sy Sy

Sy 2

Max. Shear Stress Theory

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

Based on uniaxial yielding: 1 = , 2 = 3 = 0

f ( 1, 2,3 ) = 1 3 = C Sy = C

f (J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 = C=

1 2 + 2 = C; 6

3 3 For shear: 1 = , 2 = , 3 = 0

2 Sy

f ( 1, 2,3 ) = 2 = C = S y ;

f (J 2 , J 3 ) = J 2 =

Sy 2

1 4 2 + 2 + 2 = C ; 6
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Sy 3

S`Y SY SY

Plasticity
Bauschinger effect

3 2

Isotropic hardening

S<SY 1

( ) = 0 Elastic State: f ( ) < 0 Impossible: f ( ) > 0

Plastic State: f
ij ij ij

Loading: f ( ij ) = C , Unloading: f ( ij ) = C , Neutral:

f ( ij ) = C ,

df = df = df =

f ij > 0 ij f ij < 0 ij f ij = 0 ij
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Isotropic Hardening

Strain Hardening
Kinematics Hardening

Convexity Normality Rule:

d ij = d

f ij

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Combined Hardening

General Hardening

2. Behavior in Metal Forming

The stress-strain relationship beyond elastic range assuming no unloading at anytime and anywhere.

= K n
Flow stress The instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material. Y f = K n Average Flow Stress
Yf =

K n d

K f n 1+ n

Yf

For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature

Ys

Yf

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3. Temperature in Metal Forming

Cold Working Performed at room temperature or slightly above
Near net shape or net shape Better accuracy, closer tolerances & surface finish Strain hardening increases strength and hardness Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in product No heating of work required Higher forces and power required Surfaces must be free of scale and dirt Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
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Warm Working
Performed at above room temperature but below recrystallization temperature 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature)
Lower forces and power than in cold working More intricate work geometries possible Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

Isothermal Forming eliminate surface cooling especially highly alloyed steels and Ti and Ni alloys
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Hot Working
Deformation process at temperatures above recrystallization temperature (0.5Tm) A perfectly plastic material - Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
Lower forces and power required Metals become ductile Strength properties are generally isotropic No work hardening of part part can be subsequently cold formed Lower dimensional accuracy Higher total energy required Poorer surface finish including oxidation (scale), Shorter tool life

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4. Effect of Strain Rate

Sensitive to strain-rate at elevated temperatures v & Strain rate: = h Relationship: Y f = C &m &m A more complete relationship: Y f = A n Evaluation of strain rate is complicated by
Workpart geometry Variations in strain rate on the part

Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some metal forming operations
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Effect of temperature on flow stress

Yf C Yf C
m

Yf

Room Temperature

400C

800C

1200C

1.0

2.0

3.0

&

0.1

10

& 100

0.1

10

100 &

Increasing temperature decreases C & increases m At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible
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5. Friction and Lubrication

Friction retard metal flow and increase power and wear
Categories Cold Working Warm Working Hot Working Temp. Range <0.3Tm 0.3Tm-0.5Tm 0.5Tm-0.75Tm Strain-rate Sensitivity exponent 0<m<0.05 0.05<m<0.1 0.05<m<0.4 Coefficient of Friction 0.1 0.2 0.4-0.5

Lubrication reduce friction & heat, improve surface finish

Choosing a Lubricant Type of operation, reactivity, work materials, cost and ease of applications
Cold working mineral oil, fats, fatty oils, water-based emulsions, soaps and coating Hot working mineral oil, graphite and glass
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