Power Systems for the Non Power Engineer

W.O. (Bill) Kennedy, P.Eng., FEIC

Copyright 2004 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Purpose
Give

a basic understanding of how power systems are put together and how they work Concepts will be emphasized Mathematics will be kept to a minimum Mathematics only when necessary

Introduction
Two

parts First part covers power system components Second part covers how the components fit together and work along with some measures of power system performance

A little bit of Physics

Hans

Christian Oerstead discovered the relationship between magnetism and electricity Michael Faraday discovered that a voltage is induced on a wire when its moved in or through a magnetic field James Clerk Maxwell developed the mathematics of electromagnetics

Real and Reactive Power

Real

power does the work Reactive power helps real power do the work Power systems need both or they wont work What is reactive power?

Reactive power
Quarterback can throw a bullet, but not very far For long distances, throws in an arc Real power is the bullet Reactive power is the height of the arc

Reactive Power

Capacitors store energy equal to CV2 Capacitor banks are used to boost or raise voltage Reactors use energy equal to LI2 Motors and fluorescent lights require reactive power

Part 1 - Equipment
Generators Transformers Transmission Loads

Lines

Generators

Generators
Fundamental
E

Law

= N d/dt

Where
High

is the flux Magnetic example

school physics Faraday's discovery motion Maxwell mathematical theory

Generators
Rotor

turns inside of the generator satisfying Faradays Law Voltage induced on the stator follows a sine wave Take advantage of space and put three coils equally spaced, 120o apart

Generators
Three Phase
1.5 1.0
Magnitude

0.5 0.0 -0.5 0 -1.0 -1.5 Degrees 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Phase A
Phase B
Phase C

Motion of rotor induces a voltage on the stator Stator doesnt move and waveform reflects effect of rotor field as it moves inside the machine

Generators
Control
Terminal Speed

voltage

Terminal

voltage controlled by varying the voltage applied to the dc field of the rotor Speed controlled by governor, as load increases, fuel supply increases

Generators
Speed

and frequency (60 Hz) Frequency (f) = n/60 * p/2

Poles

are in pairs, hence divide by 2 Speed in revolutions per minute, whereas frequency in cycles per second, hence divide by 60
Steam

sets high speed, small rotors Hydro sets low speed, big rotors

Generators
Generation by Fuel Type (Alberta)

8% 9%

44%

coal gas renewables import

39%

Fuel sources in Alberta Coal plants west of Edmonton Gas various locations Renewables include water and wind Import from BC and SK

Generators
Generator Capability Curve
1 0.8 0.6 Reactive Power 0.4 0.2 0.25 0.50 Real Power 0.75 1.00

Capability curve Limits

0 0.00 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

Stator heating Rotor heating Stability

Whats required Whats used

Generator Capability Curve

1 0.8 0.6 Reactive Power 0.4 0.2 0.25 0.50 Real Power 0.75 1.00

0 0.00 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

Transformers
Follow

Faradays Law E1=N1d/dt & E2=N2d/dt Flux (d/dt) is constant Therefore voltage change depends on number of turns, and basic equations can be equated with the result: E1/N1 = E2/N2

Transformers

Since conservation of energy must be preserved and voltage varies inversely, current must vary directly I1N1 = I2N2

Transformers

Usual connection for the transmission system is WYE grounded at the high voltage Generators connected DELTA Loads can be both

Transmission lines
Transmission

lines are the highways on which power travels Losses are proportional to the current squared on the line times the resistance Want highest practical voltage to minimize losses As we will see, SIL is an important property of transmission lines

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

Transmission line consists of:

Shunt capacitance Series resistance and inductance Distributed along length of line

Treat as distributed lumped elements Can ignore resistance

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

Load

Close the breaker at sending end Shunt capacitance charges to CV2 Close the breaker at receiving end and feed the load Series inductance uses energy at LI2

Load

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

Equating shunt and series energies CV2 = LI2 Performing the math yields

SIL (power) = V2/SI

Properties of Surge Impedance (SI)

Remains fairly constant over a wide range of voltages Starts around 400 at lower voltages and decreases with bundling to around 225 at 1500 kV Capacitance and inductance also remain constant Using this we can construct the following table

Properties of Transmission Lines

Voltage (kV) 69/72 138/144 230/240 single 230/240 bundled 345 bundled 500 bundled SI () 370 370 340 300 285 250 R (/km) 0.4 0.2 0.07 0.07 0.026 0.018 X (/km) 0.5 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.365 0.345 Charging (kVAr/km) 15 70 225 290 525 1340 SIL (MW) 13/14 50/55 170 180/195 415 990 X/R 1.2 2.5 6 6 14 20

St. Clair Curve

3.25 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 Line Loading (SIL) 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00
30 0 40 0 50 0 60 0 70 0 10 0 20 0 80 0 90 0 10 00

Length (km)

Loads
Three types of load models Constant MVA motors Constant current resistive loads Constant impedance reactor & capacitor banks For power flow use constant MVA For transient studies need a combination and may require frequency

Summary Part 1
Generators

make the product Transformers raise and lower voltage to allow efficient transport of product Transmission lines are the highways Loads are the end user of the product

Dinner Break

Part 2 how the power system works

Fundamental rules Maintain reactive power balance and voltages will be in required range typically +/- 5% of nominal Maintain load/generation balance and frequency or speed remains constant typically 60 Hz +/- 0.02 Hz

Characteristics of power systems

Generation is usually remote from loads Transmission needed to connect generation to load Transformers needed to raise/lower voltage Want as high a voltage as practical for transmission minimizes losses Use load size, generator size and line SIL to get line voltage In Alberta, lines are typically 150 km long At that distance loading 2 times SIL

Putting it all together

Generators

produce real power (P) Generators produce/consume reactive power (Q) Generator Q for underexcited operation is around half overexcited ability

Putting it all together

Transmission lines consume P in form of losses, typically 5% to 7% of generation Lines produce/consume Q depending on power flow on the line as a fraction of SIL

< SIL VArs flow out of line > SIL VArs flow into line Half from each end, if voltages are equal

Putting it all together

Loads consume P & Q

P required for resistive loads Q required for reactive loads induction motors Synchronous motors can produce/consume Q Use shunt reactor/capacitor banks to produce/absorb Q Primarily for voltage control

Switching and/or load stations

Breakers
Breakers used to connect/disconnect equipment Breakers must be capable of picking up and dropping loads

Breakers
Breakers must be capable of switching unloaded transmission lines Breakers must be capable of interrupting the symmetrical fault plus any dc offset

Power flow
Need

a model of the system Per unit system is best Must have consistent voltage ratios Base impedances on voltage level Most models involve some lumping, i.e. not practical to model every detail However, this depends on the type of study

Power flow

To solve a power flow need to solve for four variables at each bus

Bus voltage V Bus angle Real power P Reactive power Q Load P & Q Generator bus V

However, some variables already known

Solution methods
Four

solution methods

Gauss-Siedel

solves phasor equations Newton-Raphson solve for P & Q by separation of variables dc solves circuit as a dc circuit by treating jX as a resistance Decoupled load flow variant of NewtonRaphson. Separates V &

Solution methods
Solution results Balance generation with load and losses Keep all bus voltages within tolerance +/5% Require a slack or swing bus. Can be a fictitious generator to supply/absorb P & Q Solution achieved when swing bus P & Q equal zero Not practical, therefore minimize swing bus P&Q

Types of studies
Steady

state studies Operations study effect today and tomorrow, usually short time, e.g. up to one month Planning study effect of load and generation three or more years in future Fault study what happened yesterday

Types of studies
Dynamic

studies All of the above: Operations, Planning & Fault Transients what happens as power system moves from one steady state to another Additional studies determine equipment ratings, e.g. breaker duty

Contingencies
Contingencies

robustness Contingency loss of one or more components at a time Costs escalate if system designed for more than two contingencies Example loss of a generator and line or transformer N-G-1

test the system for

Power system example

Go

to example

Power System Performance

Losses

weve ignored losses up to this point Measuring outages

Lines

& Stations Delivery Point measures

Transmission Losses
Transmission Losses
500 400 L o s s e s (M W ) 300 200 100 0 4750 5000 5250 5500 5750 6000 6250 6500 6750 7000 7250 7500 7750 Net Generation to Supply Alberta Load (MW)

Losses are stochastic Simple system losses vary as a square of current Complex system losses display a linear variance

Transmission Losses
Transmission Losses Histogram
500 400 Count 300 200 100 0 197 210 223 236 249 262 275 288 301 314 327 340 353 366 379 392 405 418 Losses (MW) 431

Histogram demonstrates a normal distribution pattern for losses

Transmission losses
Net Gen Net Load 7500 7000 Geenration & Load (MW) 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Hour Losses +3-sigma -3-sigma Ave Losses 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Losses (MW)

Transmission Generation, Load and Losses by Day

Losses on AIES are very linear

Power system performance

Need

measure system performance Measure frequency and duration of outages Reason outages occur infrequently Measures of performance look at all components and causes Usually stated as an average of whole system

Performance
For

Alberta, AESO publishes data to its website on line and terminal outages as an overall average for the voltage class For Delivery Points frequency and duration data also published as a system average For comparison, all Canada data is included for Delivery Points

Performance
Two

types of duration are measured Momentary < 1 minute Sustained > 1 minute Following are examples of charts published on the AESO website

http://www.aeso.ca/transmission/5548.html

Transmission - line
Alberta Interconnected Electric System
Transmission Outage Statistics Summary for Line Related Forced Outages For the Period From 1997 - 2001

Voltage Class (kV)

Kilometer Years (km.a)

Number of Sustained Faults

Frequency per 100 km.a (faults100 km.a)

Total Outage Duration (hours)

Average Outage Duration (hrs/fault)

Unavailability per 100 km.a (%)

Number of Momentary Faults

Frequency per 100 km.a (faults/100 km.a)

69/72 138/144 240 500 Total

9,017 54,417 33,968 1,595 98,997

186 322 235 14 757

2.06 0.59 0.69 0.88 0.76

1,130 2,272 1,159 37 4,598

6.08 7.06 4.93 2.64 6.07

0.14% 0.05% 0.04% 0.03% 0.05%

601 685 320 95 1,701

6.67 1.26 0.94 5.96 1.72

System Average Interruption Frequency

SAIFI-MI 1.6 Frequency 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0 1997 1998 1999 Year 2000 2001 Canada Ice Storm Removed

Alberta

System Average Interruption Duration

SAIDI 400 300 200 100 0 1997 1998 1999 Year 2000 2001 Canada Ice Storm Removed Alberta

Duration (minutes)

Summary Part 2
Power

flow studies model and test the system for robustness yesterday, today and tomorrow N-G-1 is used to test the system for operation today and into the future

Summary Part 2
Losses

are an important part of power system design and operation Higher voltage lines reduce losses However, losses are fixed when the conductor is chosen For a system like Albertas, losses are fairly flat

Summary Part 2
Outages

are measured using frequency and duration techniques Presented as system average numbers Albertas performance not bad when compared to rest of Canada

Thats all folks!

Comments Questions Feedback