Review of the Related Literature

The review of the related literature in this study focus on several very important topics useful for the conduct of the research such as the previous studies conducted for the same purpose in many countries worldwide, the generally named and established positive and negative effects of quarrying in the environment, and the solutions tried and adopted in the studies which are discussed respectively in the chapter. Quarrying is a global phenomenon which has been a cause of concern even by welldeveloped countries. It has been proven to be of great necessity for various purposes such as for industry, for residential outputs, for commercial buildings as well as for aesthetics. Sand and gravel quarrying activities, according to IBISWorld, principally mines and undertakes basic processing of sand and gravel used for construction aggregate and industrial applications, such as road building, landscaping, snow and ice control and petroleum extraction. The industry also undertakes the extraction and primary processing of clay and refractory products for use in downstream manufacturing applications. The sand and gravel quarry industry has obviously been very useful, not to mention, its economic benefits to operators and commercial establishments. Furthermore, it has provided millions of people the much needed employment. However, just like any other activities created by man, the quarrying activities have created harmful and threatening impacts in the environment and in the lives of people living near or around quarrying sites. An almost similar study on quarrying has discussed some of its effects. In their study on the environmental impact analysis of quarrying activities established on and near a river bed by

using remotely sensed data, they have found that Several serious environmental impacts related to quarrying activities on and near the river, such as vibrations, land degradation, land subsidence and landslides, water pollution, occupational noise pollution, and air pollution, will lead to health-related problems and loss of biodiversity. Quarrying operations can adversely alter pre-existing ecosystems, and change hydrogeological and hydrological regimes. This adverse influence of stone and sand quarrying induces damage in property, depletion of ground water, loss of fertile topsoil, degradation of forests, deterioration in aquatic biodiversity and public health. On the other hand, haphazard quarrying of sand from riverbeds may cause a rapid change in bed configuration in response to the changes in flow. Quarrying basically destroys landscape. This can lead to downstream movement, scouring, or accumulation of sediment while provoking shoreline erosion. When riverbeds are composed of sand, this on-going pattern of erosion and deposition causes meanders to progress slowly downstream in time. (Ozcan, Musaoglu, Seker, 2012) One impact which is to be considered as the greatest threat to biodiversity is siltation which is defined by Wikipedia.org as the pollution of water by fine

particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments, and to the increased accumulation (temporary or permanent) of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable. Siltation is most often caused by soil erosion or sediment spill.

The above-mentioned environmental effects of quarrying were also partly discussed and confirmed in a research prepared by Danilo Israel which revealed that quarrying have potentially significant negative environmental impacts. Mountain quarrying results in the scraping of the upland topsoil and vegetation and the destruction of the aesthetic value of the quarried area. For

river quarrying, the noted effect was the uneven deepening of the riverbeds, and the destruction of the river banks. (http://www.pids.gov.ph)

In fact, in another study conducted by Israel, the authors found that both the quarrying firms and the households believed that they suffered the ill defects of quarrying and that quarrying operators are not doing enough to address the problems.

In light of these environmental effects and the complacency of operators, several movements were made to fight quarrying, especially illegal ones, in the hope that the respective local government unit will respond to the peoples woes.

In answer to the call of protecting the environment, the Philippine legislature has enacted laws on mining and quarrying which are passed to the local government units for implementation. The Philippine Mining Act, also known as, Republic Act No. 7942, is the most widely known law enforced to regulate quarrying activities which also has some reservations over existing mining or quarrying rights acquired prior to the effectivity of the said law. The challenge, therefore, lies in the local government to strictly implement the law.

In an article, however, it seems that the local government is not up to the challenge since the Philippines have long had very easy to obtain Quarry Permits designed for sand and gravel operations to support the construction industry. These permits unlike the former Small Scale Mining Permits that only permitted very limited if any equipment, allow for large scale equipment use things like large bulldozers, backhoes, pay-loaders, dump-trucks, crushers that are not permitted under Small Scale Mining Laws.

It further added, So now the Provinces are rapidly issuing Quarrying Permits, under this guise small scale mining can continue, in fact better than ever, now that heavy equipment can also be used. (Jovica, 2012)

Setting aside the laws, various recommendation also promises good effects for the preservation of the natural resources acquires from sand and gravel quarrying. One of the latest and known plan for the protection of the resources is the quarry operation and rehabilitation process. Quarry rehabilitation includes comprehensive environmental impact assessments and rehabilitation plans cover all aspects of development, operation as well as decommissioning of quarries. As a model, one study has enumerated several objectives to meet the aim of rehabilitating the quarry sites. To quote The objectives of a rehabilitation plan should be based upon the specific characteristics of the extraction site and should reflect: > Legislative requirements in the area these should always be met. > Health and safety considerations. > Environmental and social characteristics of the quarry and surrounding area. > Biodiversity in the area. > Ecosystem services provided within the sites ecological boundaries. > Operating plan for the quarry technical feasibility of rehabilitation objectives will be affected by the manner in which the quarry operates. > Status of the quarrying area of existing operating site. > Characteristics of the deposit (geology and hydrogeology). > Impacts arising from operation of the site. > Post-closure land use plan. (http://wbcsdcement.org)

Most studies conducted aimed to maintain sustainability and majority of these studies have concluded that it can be done through providing access to land use planning, waste product use or reuse of mineral waste and rehabilitation. While quarries can cause significant impact to the environment, with the right planning and management, many of the negative effects can be minimized or controlled and in many cases, there is great opportunity to protect and enhance the environment, such as with the translocation of existing habitats or the creation of new ones.