Gradually Varied Flows

Surface profiles
Surface profiles
M-Curves
M1, M2, M3
S-Curves
S1,S2,S3
C-Curves
C1, C3
H-Curves
H2, H3
A-Curves
A2, A3
Surface Profiles
Dynamic equation for gradually varied flows :-
Type M Profiles
M1- Profile: This is a backwater curve
and it lies in zone-1 of mild channel.
The given depth can have limiting
value as yyn on u/s
And y on d/s

This profile occurs where the D/S end
of a long mild channel is submerged
in a reservoir to a depth greater than
normal depth of flow in the channel.

Obstructions to flow, such as weirs,
dams, bends etc. produces M1
backwater curves.

These extend to several kms u/s
before merging with the normal
depth
Type M Profiles
M2-Profile: This is a draw
down curve and it lies in Zone-
II of a mild channel.

The given depth can have
limiting value as yyn on u/s
And y yc on d/s

For example, profile at D/S
end of a mild channel having
free over fall, at sudden drop
in the bed of the channel, at
constriction type of transitions
etc.
Type M Profiles
M3-Profile: This profile is a
backwater curve which lies in
Zone III of a mild channel

It starts from the upstream
channel bottom and terminates
with a hydraulic jump at the D/S
end. It occurs when a
supercritical flow enters a mild
channel.

For example: Profile in a stream
below a sluice gate and profile
after the change in bottom slope
from steep to mild.
Type M Profiles
Compare to M1 and M2 profiles, M3 curves are of relatively short length.
Type S Profiles
S1-Profile: This is a backwater
curve, which lies in Zone-1 of a
steep channel.

It begins with a jump at the
U/S and becomes tangent to
the horizontal pool level at the
D/S end.

For example: when flow from
a steep channel is terminated
by a deep pool created by
obstruction, such as dam or
weir.
Type S Profiles
S2-Profile: This is a draw down curve
which lies in Zone-2 of a steep
channel.

It is usually very short and rather like
a transition between a hydraulic drop
and uniform flow. Since it starts U/S
with a vertical slope at the critical
depth and is tangent to the normal-
depth line at the D/S end.

For example, profiles formed at
entrance region of a steep channel
leading from a reservoir, on the D/S
side of an enlargement of channel
section and on the steep slope side
as the channel slope changes from
steep to steeper.
Type S Profiles
S3-Profile: This is a backwater
curve, which lies in Zone-III of
a steep channel.

For example, profile below a
sluice with the depth of the
entering flow less than the
normal depth on a steep
slope, profile on steep slope as
the channel slope changes
from steep to milder steep.
Type S Profiles
Type S Profiles
Type C Profiles
C-Profiles: Since, S0 =Sc and yn=yc, these
profiles represent the transition condition
between M and S profiles.
For a wide rectangular channel if Mannings
formula is used, C1 and C3 profiles are used
but when Chezys formula is used, both these
profiles are horizontal lines, since,
dy/dx = S0 for yn = yc
Type C Profiles
C1-Profile: This is a
backwater curve, which
lies in Zone-I of a critical
sloped channel.
For example, profile
formed on the critical
slope side of the channel
having a break in the
bottom slope in which the
critical slope changes to a
mild slope.
Type C Profiles
C2-Profile: This
represents the case of
uniform critical flow.
GVF equation cannot
be used.
Type C Profiles
C3-Profile: This is a back water
curve which lies in Zone-III of a
critical sloped channel.
The U/S end of the curve
starts theoretically from the
channel bottom. At the D/S
end the profile terminates
with a hydraulic jump
Occurs where a super critical
flow enters a critical sloped
channel.
For example, Profile in a
stream below a sluice gate
provided in a critical sloped
channel.
Type H Profiles
H-Profile: A horizontal
channel can be
considered as the lower
limit reached by a mild
slope as its bed slope
becomes flatter.
There is no region 1as
yn
Type H Profiles
H2-Profile: it is a drawdown
curve, which lies in Zone-II
of a horizontal channel.
The U/S end of the H2
profile tends to approach
horizontal line tangentially
while the D/S end of the
profile tends to meet the
C.D.L perpendicularly, thus
ending in a hydraulic drop.
For example, profile at D/S
end of a horizontal channel
having a free over fall.
Type H Profiles
H3-Profile: It is a backwater
curve which lies in Zone-III of a
horizontal channel.
The U/S end of H3 profile
starts theoretically from the
channel bottom while the D/S
end of the profile terminates
with a hydraulic jump occurs
when a supercritical flow
enters a horizontal channel.
For example, profile in a
stream below a sluice gate
provided in a horizontal
channel
Type H Profiles
Type A Profiles
A1-Profiles
A1-Profile is impossible, since the value of yn is not
real.
Adverse slopes are rather rare and A2 and A3 curves
are similar to H2 and H3 curves respectively.
These profiles are of very short length.
Type A Profiles
A2-Profile: It is a draw down
curve which lies in Zone-2 of
an adverse sloped channel.
At the U/S end A2- profile
tends to approach a horizontal
line tangentially, while the D/S
end tends to meet the C.D.L.
perpendicularly, ending in a
hydraulic drop.
For example, profile at the D/S
end of an adverse sloped
channel having a freely
discharging weir.
Type A Profiles
A3-Profile: It is a backwater
curve which lies in Zone-3 of
an adverse sloped channel.
The U/S end of A3 profile
starts theoretically from the
channel bottom while the D/S
end of the profile terminates
with a hydraulic jump occurs
when a super critical flow
enters an adverse sloped
channel.
For example, profile in a
stream below a sluice gate
provided in an adverse sloped
channel.
Control Sections
Control section is defined as a section in which
fixed relationship exists between the discharge and depth of flow.
Well defined sections where the properties are known in prior
Weirs, spillways, sluice gates are some typical examples of structures which
give rise to control sections.
The critical depth is also a control point. However, it is effective in a flow
profile which changes from subcritical to supercritical flow. In the reverse case
of transition from supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a hydraulic jump is
usually formed bypassing the critical depth as a control point.
Any GVF profile will have at least one control section.
In the synthesis of GVF profiles occurring in a serially connected channel
elements, the control sections provide a key to the identification of proper
profile shapes.
It may be noted that subcritical flows have controls in the downstream of flow
(e.g. spillway), while supercritical flows have control sections in the upstream
end of the flow.
In Figs. (a) and (b) for
the M1 profile, the
control section
(indicated by a dark dot
in the figures) is just at
the upstream of the
spillway and sluice gate
respectively.
In Figs. (b and d) for M3
and S3 profiles
respectively, the control
point is at the vena
contracta of the sluice
gate flow.
In subcritical flow reservoir offtakes
(Fig.c), even though the discharge is
governed by the reservoir elevation,
the channel entry section is not
strictly a control section.
The true control section will be at a
downstream location in the channel.
For the situation the critical depth at
the free overflow at the channel end
acts as the downstream control.
For a sudden drop (free overflow)
due to curvature of the streamlines
the critical depth usually occurs at
distance of about 4yc upstream of
the drop.
This distance, being small compared
to GVF lengths, is neglected and it is
usual to perform calculations by
assuming yc to occur at the drop.

For a supercritical canal intake
(Fig.e), the reservoir water
surface falls to the critical
depth at the head of the canal
and then onwards the water
surface follows the S2 curve.
The critical depth occurring at
the upstream end of the
channel is the control for this
flow.
Surface Profile
Procedure to determine Class of surface profile:-
Compute yn and yc for given discharge and plot lines
representing channel bed and CDL and NDL

By comparing yn and yc determine whether the channel slope is
mild, critical, steep adverse or horizontal.

Knowing the normal depth and depth at control section,
determine the type of the surface profile.

If in any reach the supercritical depth has to meet the subcritical
depth, i.e., when the stream of water has to cross the critical
depth line then there will be a hydraulic jump developed in
between



Break in Grades
A channel carrying a gradually varied flow can in general
contain different prismoidal channel cross-sections of
varying hydraulic properties.
There can be a number of control sections at various
locations.
To determine the resulting water surface profile in a given
case, one should be in a position to analyze the effects of
various channel sections and controls connected in series.
Simple cases are illustrated to provide information and
experience to handle more complex cases.
In Fig. (a), a break in grade from a
mild channel to a milder channel is
shown.
It is necessary to first draw the
critical-depth line (CDL) and the
normal-depth line (NDL) for both
slopes.
Since yc does not depend upon the
slope for a taken Q = discharge, the
CDL is at a constant height above the
channel bed in both slopes.
The normal depth y01 for the mild
slope is lower than that of the of the
milder slope (y02).
In this case, y02 acts as a control,
similar to the weir or spillway case
and an M1 backwater curve is
produced in the mild slope channel.

Various combinations of slopes and the resulting GVF profiles are
presented in Figs.
In some situations there can
be more than one possible
profiles.
For example, in Fig. (e), a jump
and S1 profile or an M3 profile
and a jump possible. The
particular curve in this case
depends on the channel and
its flow properties

In the examples indicated the section where the grade changes acts
a control section and this can be classified as a natural control.
It should be noted that even though the bed slope is considered as
the only variable in the above examples, the same type of analysis
would hold good for channel sections in which there is a marked
change in the roughness characteristics with or without change in
the bed slope.
A long reach of unlined canal followed by a lined reach serves as a
typical example for the same.
A change in the channel geometry (the bed width or side slope)
beyond a section while retaining the prismoidal nature in each
reach also leads to a natural control section.
Composite water surface profiles
In real life, a channel may have variable cross section or bottom slope. And
it may have various control sections.
Steps outlined below are followed to sketch the composite water surface
profiles in a series Channel system.
Compute normal and critical depths for each reach of the channel system
based on specified flow rate, roughness coefficient, slope of the reach, and
the channel cross section.
Plot the channel bed, the normal depth line (NDL) and the critical depth line
(CDL) for each reach in the system.
Mark the control sections, both imposed as well as natural controls.
Starting from each control point, sketch the appropriate water surface profile
depending on the zone in which the depth at the control section falls and the
nature of the slope.
If in any reach the supercritical depth has to meet the subcritical depth, i.e.,
when the stream of water has to cross the critical depth line then there will be
a hydraulic jump developed in between.



Problems:-
A rectangular channel with a bottom width of
4.0 m and a bottom slope of 0.0008 has a
discharge of 1.50 m3/sec. In a gradually
varied flow in this channel, the depth at a
certain location is found to be 0.30 m.
assuming n = 0.016, determine the type of
GVF profile.
Problems:-
Question:-
Identify and sketch the GVF profiles in three
mild slopes which could be described as mild,
steeper mild and milder. The three slopes are
in series. The last slope has a sluice gate in the
middle of the reach and the downstream end
of the channel has a free overfall.

Solution:
The longitudinal profile of the channel, critical depth line and normal
depth lines for the various reaches are shown in the Fig. The free
overfall at E is obviously a control. The vena contracta downstream of
the sluice gate at D is another control. Since for subcritical flow the
control is at the downstream end of the channel, the higher of the two
normal depths at C acts as a control for the reach CB, giving rise to an
M1 profile over CB. At B, the normal depth of the channel CB acts as a
control giving rise to an M2 profile over AB. The controls are marked
distinctly in Fig. With these controls the possible flow profiles are: an
M2 profile on channel AB, M1 profile on channel BC, M3 profile and
M2 profile through a jump on the stretch DE.

Problems:-
A trapezoidal channel has three reaches A, B, and C connected
in series with the following physical characteristics. For a
discharge Q = 22.5 m3/sec through this channel, sketch the
resulting water surface profiles. The length of the reaches can
be assumed to be sufficiently long for the GVF profiles to
develop fully.

Solution: The normal depths and critical water depths in the various
reaches are calculated as:

Reach A is a mild slope channel as y0A = 2.26 m > yc = 1.32 m and
the flow is subcritical.
Reach B and C are steep slope channels as y0B, y0C < yc and the flow
is supercritical on both reaches.
Reach B is steeper than reach C.
The CDL is drawn at a height of 1.32 m above the bed level and
NDLs are drawn at the calculated y0 values.
The controls are marked in the figure.
Reach A will have an M2 drawdown curve, reach B an S2 drawdown
curve and reach C a rising curve as shown in the figure.
Gradually varying flow computations
Almost all major hydraulic engineering activities in free
surface flows involve the computation of GVF profiles
Considerable computational effort is required in the
analysis of
Determination of the effects of a hydraulic structure on the
channels
Inundation of lands due to dam or weir construction
Estimation of flood zones
GVF Computations
Process of determination of the length of the surface
profile is known as the computation of Gradually Varied
flow
The various available procedures for computing the GVF
profiles are classified as:-
Graphical Integration method
Direct Integration method
Numerical method
Direct Step method
Standard step method
Analysis of GVF profiles
The calculations must proceed upstream in subcritical flows and
downstream in supercritical flows to keep the errors minimum.

The steps need not have the same increment in depth. In fact it is
desirable to decrease the depth increment as the flow profile
approaches the asymptotic value. Calculations are terminated at :
y= (10.01)yn

The accuracy would depend upon number of steps chosen.
1. The Graphical-
integration Method.
This method is to integrate the
dynamic equation of gradually
varied flow by a graphical
procedure.
Consider two channel sections
(Fig. 1a) at distances x
1
and x
2
,
respectively, from a chosen origin
and with corresponding depths of
flow y
1
and y
2
.
The distance along the channel
floor is:


Assume several values of y, and compute the corresponding values
of the right-side member of a gradually-varied-flow equation.

A curve of y against dx/dy is then constructed (Fig. 1b).

According to Eq. (1), it is apparent that the value of x is equal to the
shaded area formed by the curve, the y axis, and the ordinates of
corresponding to y
1
and y
2
. This area can be measured and the
value of x determined.

This method has broad application. It applies to flow in prismatic as
well as non-prismatic channels of any shape and slope. The
procedure is straight forward and easy to follow. It may, however,
become very laborious when applied to actual problems.

Problem
Example A trapezoidal channel having b = 20 ft, m=2,
S
o
= 0.0016, and n = 0.025 carries a discharge of 400
cfs. Compute the backwater profile created by a dam
which backs up the water to a depth of 5 ft
immediately behind the dam. The upstream end of
the profile is assumed at a depth equal to 1% greater
than the normal depth. The energy coefficient =
1.10.

Solution
First of all find y
c
and y
n
by the already
discussed methods.
The critical and normal depths are found to be
y
c
= 2.22 ft and y
n
= 3.36 ft, respectively. Since
y
n
is greater than y, and the flow starts with a
depth (5ft) greater than y
n
, the flow profile is
of the M1type.

The section factor =

The conveyance =



For simplicity, the channel bottom at the site of the dam is chosen
as the origin and the x value in the upstream direction is taken as
positive.
The computation of dx/dy by means of Eq. (1) is given in Table 1 for
various values of y varying from 5ft to 1% greater than y
n
or 3.40 ft.
For instance, when y = 5.00 it, the values in other columns of the
table are
T = 40.00 ft
A = 150.00 ft
2

R = 3.54 ft
R
2/3
= 2.323

Table 1 Computation of the flow profile by graphical integration
Q = 400 cfs n = 0.025 S
o
= 0.0016 y
c
= 2.22 ft y
n
= 3.36 ft
o
= 1.10
Values of y are then plotted against the corresponding values of dx/dy (Fig.
2).
The increments in area are planimetered and listed in the table.

Fig. 2 A curve of y vs dx/dy
According to Eq. (1), the cumulative values of should give the
length x of the flow profile.
Finally, the backwater profile is obtained by plotting y against
x (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 M1 flow profile computed by graphical-integration method
Method of Direct Integration
The differential equation of GVF for a prismoidal channel is
a non linear, first order, ordinary differential equation.
Can be solved using any solving procedure for the
differential equation.
Since this is first order so we require one boundary
condition to solve this differential equation
(mathematically)
In field conditions, control sections can be used as
boundary condition for GVF computation, as there the flow
properties are known in prior.
Chow Method
Based on certain assumptions but applicable with a fair degree of accuracy
to a wide range of field conditions.
By this method, the hydraulic exponents are expressed in terms of the
depth of flow.
Let it be required to find y= f(x) in the depth range y1 to y2. Following two
assumptions are made:-
The conveyance at any depth is given by:
Conveyance at normal depth:
The section factor Z at any depth y is given by:
Section factor at critical depth is given by:

Where,
C
1
and C
2
are coefficients
M is first hydraulic exponent, N is second hydraulic exponent.

The gradually-varied-flow equation becomes:

-----------(2)
-----------(3)
This equation can be integrated for the length x of the flow profile.
Since the change in depth of a gradually varied flow is generally
small, the hydraulic exponents may be assumed constant within the
range of the limits of integration.
In a case where the hydraulic exponents are noticeably dependent
on y within the limits of a given reach, the reach should be
subdivided for integration; then the hydraulic exponents in each
subdivided reach may be assumed constant. Integrating Eq. (3),




The first integral on the right side of the above equation is
designated by F(u,N), or ,


which is known as the Chow varied-flow function
-----------(4)
-----------(5)
The second integral in Eq. (4) may also be expressed in the form of
the varied-flow function.











This is a varied-flow function like F(u,N), except that the variables u
and N are replaced by v and J, respectively.

-----------(6)
-----------(7)
-----------(8)
-----------(9)
Using the notation for varied-flow functions, Eq. (4) may be
written as:
----------10)
Equation (10) contains varied-flow functions, and its solution can be
simplified by the use of the varied-flow-function table. This table gives
values of F(u,N) for N ranging from 2.2 to 9.8. Replacing values of u and N
by corresponding values of v and J, this table also gives values of F(v,J).
In computing a flow profile, first the flow in the channel is analyzed, and
the channel is divided into a number of reaches. Then, the length of each
reach is computed by Eq. (10) from known or assumed depths at the ends
of the reach. The procedure of computation is as follows:
Compute the normal depth y
n
and critical depth y
c
from the given data Q
and S
o
.
Determine the hydraulic exponents N and M for an estimate average
depth of flow in the reach under consideration. It is assumed that the
channel section under consideration has approximately constant hydraulic
exponents.
Compute J by

Compute values of at two end sections the reach.

From the varied-flow-function table, find value F(u,N) and F(v,J).
Compute the length of the reach by Eq. (10).

Problem
EXAMPLE: A trapezoidal channel has a bed width B = 5.0m,S
o

= 0.0004, side slope m = 2 horizontal: 1 vertical and n = 0.02.
The normal depth of flow y
n
= 3.0 m. If the channel empties
into a pool at the downstream end and the pool elevation is
1.25 m higher than the canal bed elevation at the
downstream end, calculate and plot the resulting GVF profile.
Assume = 1.0.
The calculations commence from the downstream control depth of
y = 1.69 m and are terminated at y = 2.97 m, i.e. at a value of depth
which is 1 per cent less than y
n
.

In nominating the depths in the first column, it is advantageous if u
values are fixed at values which do not involve interpolation in the
use of tables of varied-flow functions and the corresponding y
values entered in the first column.

If the value of u or v is not explicitly given in the varied-flow
function tables, it will have to be interpolated between two
appropriate neighboring values.

The last column indicates the distance from the downstream end to
the various sections. It can easily be appreciated that the necessary
interpolations in the use of the varied-flow function table not only
make the calculations laborious but are also sources of possible
errors. Another source of error is the fixing of constant values of N
and M for the whole reach.

Step Method
In general a step method is characterized by dividing the channel
into short reaches and carrying the computation step by step from
one end of the reach to other. There is a great variety of step
methods. Some methods appear superior to others in certain
respects, but no one method has been found to be the best in all
applications. The step methods are classified as:
Direct step method
Does not involve any trial and error procedure, and is applicable to a prismatic
channel only.
Standard step method
Involves a trial and error procedure, and is applicable to both the prismatic as
well as non-prismatic channels.


The Direct Step Method
It is a simple step method applicable to prismatic channels.
Consider the differential energy equation of GVF:
Writing in finite difference form:

Here Sf,mean = average friction slope in the reach


And between two sections 1 and 2


Here,

f o f o
S S
E
S S
E E
x

A
=

= A
1 2
|
.
|

\
|
+

= = A
2 1
1 2
1 2
2
1
f f o
S S S
E E
x x x
g 2
V
y E
2
o + =
3
4
2 2
f
R
V n
S =
Note that, in either the direct step method or the standard
step method which will be described later, the step
computation should be carried upstream if the flow is
subcritical and downstream if the flow is supercritical. Step
computations carried in the wrong direction tend inevitably
to make the result diverge from the correct flow profile
Problem
A trapezoidal channel having a bed width b = 7 m, side
slope z = 2, bed slope S
o
= 0.0016 and Manning's n = 0.025
carries a discharge of 12.26 m
3
/s. Compute the back water
profile created by a dam which backs up the water to a
depth of 2 m immediately behind the dam by Direct Step
Method. The upstream end of the profile is assumed at a
depth equal to 1 % greater than the normal depth. Assume
the energy coefficient = 1.0.

Solution:
For the given data, following are first calculated:
y
n
= 1.0m
y
c
=0.64m

As y
c
<y
n
, th channel slope is mild.

As the depth of flow behind the dam is 2.0m which is greater that
y
n
, the flow profile occurs in Zone 1 on mild slope, hence the profile
is M1 type.

The flow profile from 2.0m depth onwards is to be computed to an
upstream depth of 1% greater than the normal depth i.e. 1.01m.

The computations are carried out in Tabular form as shown.


col. 1. Depth of flow (m), arbitrarily assigned from 2.00 to 1.01 m.
col. 2. Water area (m
2
), corresponding to the depth y in col. 1.
col.3. Hydraulic radius (m) corresponding to y in col. 1.
col. 4. Four - thirds power of the hydraulic radius.
col. 5. Mean velocity (m/s) obtained by dividing 12.26 m
3
/s by the
water area in col. 2.
col. 6. Velocity head (m) - Energy Coefficient is taken as unity.
col. 7. Specific energy (m) obtained by adding the velocity head in
col. 6 to the depth of flow in col.1.
col. 8. Change of specific energy (m), equal to the difference
between the two consecutive E-values in col. 7.

col. 9. Friction slope S
f
which is equal to where, n = 0.025 and V is
the mean velocity obtained in col. 5.
col. 10. Average friction slope equal to the arithmetic mean of the
friction slopes, considering the two consecutive sections.
col. 11. Difference between the bottom slope S
o
(= 0.0016) and the
average friction slope S
fa
.
col. 12. Length of the reach in between the consecutive steps,
computed by dividing the value of in col 8 by the corresponding
value in col.11.
co1.13. Distance from the section under consideration to the darn
site given by the cumulative sum of the values in col. 12.

Fourth order Runge-Kutta, method
The direct-step method is based on truncation of the Taylor's series
(of specific energy, E) after the linear term and hence is only first
order accurate. In other words, the error in the numerical solution
would vary linearly with the step size, and we may need to use a
very small step size to obtain an acceptable accuracy.
Higher order methods, therefore, have been proposed and the
fourth order Runge-Kutta method, which is probably the most
commonly used method for numerical solution of a first-order
differential equation, is described next.






For prismatic channel, dy/dx is not a function of x. However, we
write it as f(x, y) to elaborate the difficulties associated with the
solution for a nonprismatic channel. The fourth order Runge-Kutta
(R-K) method, starting from a known depth, y
i
, at the location x
i
,
computes the depth, y
i+1
at a distance , computes the depth y
i+1
at a
distance , from x
i
as:

where the k's represent the slope, dy/dx, i.e., f(x, y), at different
locations as follows:

3
2
3 4 2
2 2
o
gA
T Q
1
R A
Q n
S
dx
dy

=
( ) y x f ,
( )
4 3 2 1 i 1 i
k k 2 k 2 k
6
x
y y + + +
A
+ =
+







It may be noted that for prismatic channels, the k's are only
functions of depth and not x
Problem
A trapezoidal channel, with bed width of 20 m and
side slopes of 2H:1V, has a bed slope of 0.0005 and
roughness coefficient of 0.015. Uniform flow occurs
at a flow depth of 3 m. A small dam across the
channel raises the flow depth to 5 m at that section.
How much length upstream of the dam will be
affected by the backwater?
Solution
The discharge in the channel is obtained from Manning's
equation as:


The corresponding critical depth is = 2.05m.
Since the normal depth is more than the critical depth, the
channel has a mild slope and the profile would be M1.
A rough estimate of the backwater profile length is
obtained by dividing the flow depth at the dam by the bed
slope, i.e. =10,000 m.


( )
s m 6 204 0005 0
2 1 2 20
3 2 3 20
015 0
1
Q
3
3
2
2
3
5
2
/ . .
.
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
Use 10 steps of 1000 m each.
Table below shows the computations with = 1000 m and
the required length (where the depth is 1 % more than the
normal depth) is obtained as a little more than 8000 m.

One may do a linear interpolation to obtain the location
where the depth is exactly 3.03 m (computed as 8167 m).
However, since this limit of 1.01 y
n
is itself an
approximation, we can say that the profile length is 8 km
(or 9 km, if we want to be on the safer side).

The Standard Step Method
This method is applicable to both prismatic and non-
prismatic channels. In non-prismatic channels, the
hydraulic elements are no longer independent of the
distance along the channel. Thus, in natural channels, it is
generally necessary to conduct a field survey to collect the
data required at all sections considered in the computation.
The computation is carried on by steps from station to
station where the hydraulic characteristics have been
determined. In such cases the distance between stations is
given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow
at the stations. Such a procedure is usually carried out by
trial and error.

In explaining this method it
is convenient to refer the
position of the water
surface to a horizontal
datum. In Fig. 5,
reproduced here, the
water-surface elevations
above the datum at the
two end sections are:

and

2 1 o 1
z y x S Z + + A =
2 2 2
z y Z + =
The friction loss is,

where the friction slope is taken as the average of the
slopes at the two end sections, or as .

Substituting the above expressions in eq.


the following may be written:



where h
e
is added for the eddy loss, which may be
appreciable in non-prismatic channels.

( ) x S S
2
1
x S h
2 1 f f
A + = A =
f
S
f
S
g 2
V
z y x S
g 2
V
z y x S
2
2
2 2 2 f
2
1
1 2 1 o
o + + + A = o + + + A
e f
2
2
2 2
2
1
1 1
h h
g 2
V
Z
g 2
V
Z + + o + = o +
No rational method of evaluating eddy loss is available. The
eddy loss depends mainly on the velocity head change and
may be expressed as a part of it, or where k is a
coefficient.

For gradually converging and diverging reaches, k = 0 to 0.1
and 0.2, respectively.
For abrupt expansions and contractions, k is about 0.5.
For prismatic and regular channels, the eddy loss is
practically zero or k = 0.
For convenience of computation, h
e
may sometimes be
considered part of the friction loss and Manning's n may be
properly increased in computing h
f
. Then, h
e
is zero in the
computation.

|
|
.
|

\
|
o
g 2
V
k
2
The total heads at two end sections are


Therefore, Eq. becomes


This is the basic equation that defines the procedure of the
standard step method.
The standard step method is best suited to computations
for natural channels.


g 2
V
Z H
2
1
1 1 1
o + =
g 2
V
Z H
2
2
2 2 2
o + =
e f 2 1
h h H H + + =
Problem
A small stream has a cross-section which can be approximated
by a trapezoid. The cross-sectional properties at three
sections are as follows:




Section A is the downstream-most section. For a discharge of
100.0 m
3
/s in the stream, water surface elevation at A was
104.500 m. Estimate the water-surface elevation at the
upstream sections B and C. Assume n = 0.02 and = 1.0 at all
sections.


Solution: The calculations are performed in
Table below. In this k= 0.3 for expansion, so
that:

g 2
V
3 0 h
2
e
A
= .
Col. 14 is obtained by adding col. 12 and 13 to
the value of H at section 1 d/s.







Col. 14 is obtained by adding col. 12 and 13 to the value of
H at section 1 d/s.

( )
(

A
+ +

= A
2
2 2
2
2
67 . 1
1 1
R
x S
F k
H
y
f
E
in the ith trial



y2 is chosen such that HE = HE
| |
e f E
h h H H H + + =
1 2
(

A
+ + =
2
2 2
2
2
67 . 1
) 1 ( 1
R
x S
F k
dy
dH
f
E
Problem
A trapezoidal channel having a bed width b = 7 m, side
slope z = 2, bed slope S
o
= 0.0016 and Manning's n = 0.025
carries a discharge of 12.26 m
3
/s. Compute the back water
profile created by a dam which backs up the water to a
depth of 2 m immediately behind the dam by Standard
Step Method. The upstream end of the profile is assumed
at a depth equal to 1 % greater than the normal depth.
Assume the energy coefficient = 1.0.

Solution: For the given data, following are first calculated:
y
n
= 1.0m, y
c
=0.64m
As y
c
<y
n
, th channel slope is mild.
As the depth of flow behind the dam is 2.0m which is
greater that y
n
, the flow profile occurs in Zone 1 on mild
slope, hence the profile is M1 type.
The flow profile from 2.0m depth onwards is to be
computed to an upstream depth of 1% greater than the
normal depth i.e. 1.01m.
So that basic data becomes:
Q = 12.26m
3
/s; n = 0.025; S
o
= 0.0016; b=7m,
z = 2.00; h
e
= 0 y
n
= 1.0m; y
c
= 0.64m

The computations are carried out in Tabular form.


The step computations, arranged in a tabular form in above
Table are explained as follows:
col. 1 Section identified by station number or the distance
(x) from the first station (m),
col. 2 Water surface elevation at the station: A trial value is
first entered in this column to be verified or rejected on the
basis of the computations made in the remaining columns
of the table. For the first step, this elevation must be given
or can be assumed. Since the elevation of the dam site is
100 m (above M.S.L.) and the depth of water at dam site is
2 m, the elevation of the water surface is 102 m. When the
trial value used in the second step has been verified, it
becomes the basis for the verification of the trial value in
the next step, and so on,

col. 3 Depth of flow in metres corresponding to the water
surface elevation in col. 2 for instance, the depth of flow at
a station is equal to water surface elevation minus the
elevation of the bed,
col. 4 Water area corresponding to y in col. 3,
col. 5 Mean velocity of flow equal to the given discharge
divided by the water area in col. 4.
col. 6 Velocity head corresponding to the velocity in col. 5.
col. 7 Total head computed equal to the sum of Z in col.2
and the velocity head in col. 6,
col. 8 Hydraulic radius, corresponding to y in col.3.

col. 9 Four-thirds power of the hydraulic radius,
col. 10 Friction slope computed using the values of n, V &
R
4/3

coI. 11 Average friction slope through the reach between
the two consecutive sections (in each step): approximately
equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slopes
(computed in col. 10) of this and previous step,
coI. 12 Length of reach between the sections as determined
on the basis of site survey,
col. 13 Friction loss in the reach given by the product of the
values in col. 11 and 12
coI. 14 Evaluation of the total head (m)

The standard step method has an advantage while applying to
natural channels. The water surface elevation at the initial section,
where a flow-profile computation starts, may not be known: and, if
the computation proceeds with an assumed elevation that is
incorrect (for a given discharge) the resulting flow profile will get
more and more correctly adjusted after every step, provided the
computation is carried in the right direction. Therefore, if no
elevation is known within or near the reach under consideration, an
arbitrary elevation may be assumed at a distant location quite far
away (upstream or downstream) from the initial location. By the
time the step computation is carried to the initial section the
assumed elevation would stand corrected to the appropriate value.
Now, a check may be made by performing the same computation
with another assumed elevation at the distant section. The
computed elevation al the initial section would be taken as the
relevant elevation if the second computed value agrees with the
first computed value. The two values usually agree if the distant
location is sufficiently away