ABC of Knowledge Management

ABC of Knowledge Management
Freely extracted from the NHS National Library for Health at http://www.library.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement/ by !raud Ser"in #reator: NHS National Library for Health: $nowledge %anagement Specialist Library #ontributor: #aroline &e 'r(n )ublication &ate: *uly +,,-
Table of Contents
1 WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT?.................................................................................... 3
1.1 What is knowled e !ana e!ent?......................................................................................................... 3 1." What is knowled e?............................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Wh# do we need knowled e !ana e!ent?.......................................................................................... 3 1.$ What does knowled e !ana e!ent in%ol%e?........................................................................................ $ 1.& So!e 'te(t)ook* de+initions o+ knowled e !ana e!ent....................................................................... &
" ,-IN.I,LES AND ,-O.ESSES O/ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT..........................................0

".1 -i ht knowled e1 2i ht 3la4e1 2i ht ti!e................................................................................................. "." T#3es o+ knowled e5 e(3li4it and ta4it................................................................................................... ".3 T#3es o+ knowled e5 old and new.......................................................................................................... ".$ Wa#s with knowled e5 4olle4tin and 4onne4tin .................................................................................. ".& Wa#s with knowled e5 3eo3le1 32o4esses and te4hnolo #.................................................................... 0 0 0 6 7
3 GENE-AL .ON.E,TS.................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 A )2ie+ histo2# o+ knowled e !ana e!ent............................................................................................. 8 3." The 'knowled e e4ono!#*................................................................................................................... 19 3.3 Knowled e !ana e!ent in the 3:)li4 se4to2...................................................................................... 19
$ GETTING STA-TED.....................................................................................................................1"
$." KM tool)o( ; in%ento2# o+ tools and te4hni<:es................................................................................... 1$ $.3 A+te2 A4tion -e%iews............................................................................................................................ 1& $.$ .o!!:nities o+ ,2a4ti4e...................................................................................................................... 17 $.& .ond:4tin a knowled e a:dit............................................................................................................. "" $.0 De%elo3in a knowled e !ana e!ent st2ate #.................................................................................. "& $.6 E(it inte2%iews...................................................................................................................................... "8 $.7 Identi+#in and sha2in )est 32a4ti4es.................................................................................................. 31 $.8 Knowled e 4ent2es.............................................................................................................................. 3$ $.19 Knowled e ha2%estin ........................................................................................................................ 30 $.11 ,ee2 assists....................................................................................................................................... 38 $.1" So4ial Netwo2k Anal#sis..................................................................................................................... $" $.13 Sto2#tellin ......................................................................................................................................... $$ $.1$ White ,a es...................................................................................................................................... $7
& DE=ELO,ING THE KM EN=I-ONMENT.....................................................................................&1

&.1 ,eo3le.................................................................................................................................................. &1 &." KM ,2o4esses...................................................................................................................................... &6 &.3 KM Te4hnolo #.................................................................................................................................... &8
0 MEAS>-ING THE E//E.TS O/ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT..............................................0$

0.1 Wh# !eas:2e?..................................................................................................................................... 0$ 0." What to !eas:2e? .o!!on !eas:2e!ent a332oa4hes...................................................................... 0$ 0.3 How to !eas:2e? ................................................................................................................................ 00
6 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT GLOSSA-? O/ TE-MS............................................................07
1 What is knowledge management?
1 WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

$nowledge management is based on the idea that an organisation.s most "aluable resource is the knowledge of its people. /herefore0 the extent to which an organisation performs well0 will depend0 among other things0 on how effecti"ely its people can create new knowledge0 share knowledge around the organisation0 and use that knowledge to best effect. 1f you ha"e read any of the huge array of knowledge management books and articles that are currently a"ailable0 you are possibly feeling slightly bewildered. )erhaps you are wondering whether knowledge management is 2ust the latest fad and hoping that if you ignore it0 it will e"entually go away. Let.s be honest 3 knowledge management is surrounded by a great deal of hype. 'ut if you can put the hype to one side0 you will find that many of the tools0 techni4ues and processes of knowledge management actually make a great deal of common sense0 are already part of what you do0 and can greatly help you in your 2ob.
1.1 What is knowledge management?

%any of us simply do not think in terms of managing knowledge0 but we all do it. 5ach of us is a personal store of knowledge with training0 experiences0 and informal networks of friends and colleagues0 whom we seek out when we want to sol"e a problem or explore an opportunity. 5ssentially0 we get things done and succeed by knowing an answer or knowing someone who does. Fundamentally0 knowledge management is about applying the collecti"e knowledge of the entire workforce to achie"e specific organisational goals. /he aim of knowledge management is not necessarily to manage all knowledge0 2ust the knowledge that is most important to the organisation. 1t is about ensuring that people ha"e the knowledge they need0 where they need it0 when they need it 3 the right knowledge0 in the right place0 at the right time. $nowledge management is unfortunately a misleading term 3 knowledge resides in people.s heads and managing it is not really possible or desirable. 6hat we can do0 and what the ideas behind knowledge management are all about0 is to establish an en"ironment in which people are encouraged to create0 learn0 share0 and use knowledge together for the benefit of the organisation0 the people who work in it0 and the organisation.s customers 7or in the case of the NHS0 patients8.
1.2 What is knowledge?

9cademics ha"e debated the meaning of :knowledge; since the word was in"ented0 but let.s not get into that here. 9 dictionary definition is :the facts0 feelings or experiences known by a person or group of people; 7#ollins 5nglish &ictionary8. $nowledge is deri"ed from information but it is richer and more meaningful than information. 1t includes familiarity0 awareness and understanding gained through experience or study0 and results from making comparisons0 identifying conse4uences0 and making connections. Some experts include wisdom and insight in their definitions of knowledge. 1n organisational terms0 knowledge is generally thought of as being :know how;0 or :applied action;. /he last point is an important one. /oday.s organisations contain a "ast amount of knowledge and the NHS is certainly no exception. Howe"er0 in applying knowledge management principles and practices in our organisation0 knowledge is not our end0 but the means for further action. 6hat we are trying to do is to use our knowledge to get better at doing what we do0 i.e. health care and health care impro"ement.
1.3 Why do we need knowledge management?

$nowledge management is based on the idea that an organisation.s most "aluable resource is the knowledge of its people. /his is not a new idea 3 organisations ha"e been managing :human resources; for years. 6hat is new is the focus on knowledge. /his focus is being dri"en by the accelerated rate of change in today.s organisations and in society as a whole. $nowledge management recognises that today nearly all 2obs in"ol"e :knowledge work; and so all staff are :knowledge workers; to some degree or another 3 meaning that their 2ob depends more on their knowledge than their manual skills. /his means that creating0 sharing and using knowledge are among the most important acti"ities of nearly e"ery person in e"ery organisation. 1t is easy to see the importance of knowledge in the health sector. 9s clinicians0 managers and other practitioners0 we all rely on what we know to do our 2obs effecti"ely. 'ut....
NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library
&o we know e"erything we need to know or are there gaps in our knowledge< =f course there are. %edical ad"ances are being made all the time so there is always new knowledge to be learned. o"ernment policies are constantly e"ol"ing0 as are management practices. /he current modernisation programme re4uires us to let go of what we knew and to learn and apply new knowledge. #hanging doctor>patient relationships are re4uiring us to re"isit our whole approach to the pro"ision of health care. 9nd of course0 e"ery new patient that comes through our door brings a potential new learning opportunity. &o we share what we know< /he NHS is made up of o"er a million indi"iduals in hundreds of organisations0 each of which ha"e their own knowledge. 1s the knowledge of indi"iduals a"ailable to the whole organisation< 1s the knowledge or organisations a"ailable to the whole NHS< Not at present. How many times ha"e we lost "aluable knowledge and expertise when a staff member mo"es on< How many times ha"e we :rein"ented the wheel; when we could ha"e learned from someone else.s experience< How many times ha"e patients suffered as a result of the :postcode lottery;< &o we use what we know to best effect< Not always. 1n the NHS )lan0 the NHS was described as :a ?@A,s infrastructure operating in the +?st century;. #learly our knowledge has not always been applied to best effect0 and we ha"e fallen behind the times. How many times ha"e we had an idea about how a process or an acti"ity could be impro"ed0 but felt we lacked the time or resources to do anything about it< How many times ha"e we had an idea that might help our colleagues0 but we keep 4uiet because our colleagues might not appreciate us :telling them how to do their 2ob;< How many times ha"e we implemented a new initiati"e0 only to find we re"erted back to the :old way; a few months later< )erhaps we ha"e had insights about how our patients; needs could be better met0 but there was no forum for us to share and explore those insights so we 2ust forgot about it. /hese are 2ust a few examples. 9lmost e"erything we do in the NHS is based on our knowledge. 1f we do not constantly update and renew our knowledge0 share our knowledge0 and then use that knowledge to do things differently and better0 then our people0 our organisations0 our patients and the general public will ultimately suffer. 6e know this because it has already happened. 9s /he NHS )lan 7+,,,8 affirms0 in spite of our many achie"ements0 the NHS has failed to keep pace with changes in our society. 6hat can transform that0 along with the current in"estment and modernisation programme0 is harnessing the "ast collecti"e knowledge of the people working in the NHS0 and using it to best effect. /hat is why we need knowledge management.
1.4 What does knowledge management involve?

$nowledge management is essentially about facilitating the processes by which knowledge is created0 shared and used in organisations. 1t is not about setting up a new department or getting in a new computer system. 1t is about making small changes to the way e"eryone in the organisation works. /here are many ways of looking at knowledge management and different organisations will take different approaches. enerally speaking0 creating a knowledge en"ironment usually re4uires changing organisational "alues and culture0 changing people.s beha"iours and work patterns0 and pro"iding people with easy access to each other and to rele"ant information resources. 1n terms of how that is done0 the processes of knowledge management are many and "aried. 9s knowledge management is a relati"ely new concept0 organisations are still finding their way and so there is no single agreed way forward or best practice. /his is a time of much trial and error. Similarly0 to simply copy the practices of another organisation would probably not work because each organisation faces a different set of knowledge management problems and challenges. $nowledge management is essentially about people 3 how they create0 share and use knowledge0 and so no knowledge management tool will work if it is not applied in a manner that is sensiti"e to the ways people think and beha"e. /hat being said0 there are of course a whole raft of options in terms of tools and techni4ues0 many of which are not new. %any of the processes that currently fall under the banner of knowledge management ha"e been around for a long time0 but as part of functions such as training0 human resources0 internal communications0 information technology0 librarianship0 records management and marketing to name a few. 9nd some of those processes can be "ery simple0 such as:
> pro"iding induction packs full of :know how; to new staffB > conducting exit inter"iews when staff lea"e so that their knowledge is not lost to the organisationB > creating databases of all publications produced by an organisation so that staff can access them from
their deskB
> pro"iding ongoing learning so that people can constantly update their knowledgeB > encouraging people with a common interest to network with each otherB > creating electronic filing systems that can be searched in a number of ways0 making the information
much easier to findB other moreB
> redesigning offices to be open plan so that staff and managers are more "isible and talk to each > putting staff directories online so that people can easily find out who does what and where they areB > creating intranets so that staff can access all kinds of organisational information and knowledge that
might otherwise take a great deal of time and energy to find.
1.5 Some textbook definitions of knowledge management

Here are a few definitions:
> :#linical knowledge management means enhancing the identification0 dissemination0 awareness and
application of the results of research rele"ant to clinical practice in health and social care.; *eremy 6yatt
> :/he creation and subse4uent management of an en"ironment0 which encourages knowledge to be
created0 shared0 learnt0 enhanced0 organised and utiliCed for the benefit of the organisation and its customers.; 9bell D =xbrow0 tfpl Ltd0 +,,?
> :$nowledge management is a process that emphasises generating0 capturing and sharing
information know how and integrating these into business practices and decision making for greater organisational benefit.; %aggie Haines0 NHS 9cting &irector of $% to them0 constantly impro"e it0 and make it a"ailable in the most effecti"e manner to those people who need it0 so that they can exploit it creati"ely to add "alue as a normal part of their work.; 'S1.s 9 uide to ood )ractice in $%
> :/he capabilities by which communities within an organisation capture the knowledge that is critical
> :$nowledge is power0 which is why people who had it in the past often tried to make a secret of it.
1n post>capitalism0 power comes from transmitting information to make it producti"e0 not from hiding itE; )eter &rucker know and con"erting personal knowledge into organisational knowledge.; Fankee roup people at the right time for them to impact the bottom line.; 1'%
> :$nowledge management in"ol"es efficiently connecting those who know with those who need to
> :$nowledge management is not about data0 but about getting the right information to the right
> :/he capability of an organiCation to create new knowledge0 disseminate it throughout the
organiCation and embody it in products0 ser"ices and systems.; Nonaka D /akeuchi0 ?@@-
> :$nowledge management is a relati"ely young corporate discipline and a new approach to the
identification0 harnessing and exploitation of collecti"e organisational information0 talents0 expertise and know>how.; =ffice of thee>5n"oy0 +,,+ associated processes of creating0 gathering0 organiCing0 diffusion0 use and exploitation. 1t re4uires turning personal knowledge into corporate knowledge that can be widely shared throughout an organiCation and appropriately applied.; &a"id * Skyrme0 ?@@G
> :$nowledge management is the explicit and systematic management of "ital knowledge and its
"
# $rinciples and processes of knowledge management
! "#INCI"LES AND "#OCESSES O$ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

9 :rough guide; to some of the main general approaches to knowledge management.
2.1
ight knowledge! "ight #la$e! "ight time
Some people mistakenly assume that knowledge management is about capturing all the best practices and knowledge that people possess and storing it in a computer system in the hope that one day it will be useful. 1n fact this is a good example of what knowledge management is not aboutE #onsider this: how often has information or knowledge been pushed at you when you don.t need it 3 paper0 emails0 training0 another irrele"ant meeting< /hen later0 when you do need it0 you "aguely remember seeing something rele"ant but can.t find it. Some sur"eys suggest that professional workers spend ten per cent of their time looking for information they know is somewhere. 9nd if what you want is in people.s heads0 and they.re not always around0 how can you access it when you need it< 6hat if you don.t e"en know whose head it.s in0 or if they.d be willing to share it with you< 1n a nutshell0 good knowledge management is all about getting the right knowledge0 in the right place0 at the right time. /he right knowledge is the knowledge that you need in order to be able to do your 2ob to the best of your ability0 whether that means diagnosing a patient0 making a decision0 booking a referral0 answering a patient.s 4uestion0 administering a treatment0 training a new colleague0 interpreting a piece of research0 using a computer system0 managing a pro2ect0 dealing with suppliers etc. 1nformation and knowledge can usually be found in a whole "ariety of places 3 research papers0 reports and manuals0 databases etc. =ften it will be in people.s heads 3 yours and other people.s. /he right place0 howe"er0 is the point of action or decision 3 the meeting0 the patient helpline0 the hospital bedside0 behind the reception desk and so on. /he right time is when you 7the person or the team doing the work8 need it.
2.2 %y#es of knowledge& ex#li$it and ta$it

$nowledge in organisations is often classified into two types: explicit and tacit. ? 5xplicit knowledge is knowledge that can be captured and written down in documents or databases. 5xamples of explicit knowledge include instruction manuals0 written procedures0 best practices0 lessons learned and research findings. 5xplicit knowledge can be categorised as either structured or unstructured. &ocuments0 databases0 and spreadsheets are examples of structured knowledge0 because the data or information in them is organised in a particular way for future retrie"al. 1n contrast0 e>mails0 images0 training courses0 and audio and "ideo selections are examples of unstructured knowledge because the information they contain is not referenced for retrie"al. + /acit knowledge is the knowledge that people carry in their heads. 1t is much less concrete than explicit knowledge. 1t is more of an :unspoken understanding; about something0 knowledge that is more difficult to write down in a document or a database. 9n example might be0 knowing how to ride a bicycle 3 you know how to do it0 you can do it again and again0 but could you write down instructions for someone to learn to ride a bicycle< /acit knowledge can be difficult to access0 as it is often not known to others. 1n fact0 most people are not aware of the knowledge they themsel"es possess or of its "alue to others. /acit knowledge is considered more "aluable because it pro"ides context for people0 places0 ideas and experiences. 1t generally re4uires extensi"e personal contact and trust to share effecti"ely.
2.3 %y#es of knowledge& old and new

%ost knowledge management strategies generally ha"e one 7or sometimes both8 of two thrusts. /he first is to make better use of the knowledge that already exists within the organisation0 and the second is to create new knowledge. %aking better use of the knowledge that already exists within an organisation 7;old; knowledge8 often begins with :knowing what you know;. Hery often leading managers comment: :if only we knew what we knew;. /oo fre4uently0 people in one part of the organisation rein"ent the wheel or fail to sol"e a problem because the knowledge they need is elsewhere in the organisation but not known or accessible to them. Hence the first knowledge management initiati"e of many companies is that of finding out what they know0 and taking steps to
make that knowledge accessible throughout the organisation. Specific approaches might include conducting a knowledge audit0 mapping the organisation.s knowledge resources and flows0 making tacit knowledge more explicit and putting in place mechanisms to mo"e it more rapidly to where it is needed. #reating new knowledge can e4ually be approached in a number of ways such as through training0 hiring external resources0 bringing different people and their knowledge together to create fresh knowledge and insights0 etc. 1t is also about inno"ation 3 making the transition from ideas to action more effecti"e. %any managers mistakenly belie"e this is about ID& and creati"ity. 1n fact there is no shortage of creati"ity in organisations 3 not 2ust in ID& but e"erywhere. /he real challenge is not to lose these creati"e ideas and to allow them to flow where they can be used. 1n reality0 the distinction between :old; and :new; knowledge is not always that clear. 1nno"ation will often draw on lessons from the past0 particularly those that ha"e been forgotten0 or those that can be put together in new combinations to achie"e new results. Similarly0 the application of 7old8 knowledge almost always in"ol"es some adaptation0 and so in the process of adaptation0 new knowledge is created. 9t the end of the day0 the 4uality of knowledge does not depend on whether it is :old; or :new; but rather whether it is rele"ant. 6hether it is old or new hardly matters. /he 4uestion is: does it work in practice<
2.4 Ways with knowledge& $olle$ting and $onne$ting

$nowledge management programmes tend to ha"e both a :collecting; and a :connecting; dimension. /he collecting dimension in"ol"es linking people with information. 1t relates to the capturing and disseminating of explicit knowledge through information and communication technologies aimed at codifying0 storing and retrie"ing content0 which in principle is continuously updated through computer networks. /hrough such collections of content0 what is learned is made readily accessible to future users. #urrent examples in the NHS include "arious intranets0 the National electronic Library for Health0 the #L1) database0 /he #ochrane Library0 and many more. /his collecting dimension is often the main emphasis of many 5uropean and JS knowledge programmes. Howe"er it has its limitations. 5"en where comprehensi"e collections of materials exist0 effecti"e use may still need knowledgeable and skilled interpretation and subse4uent alignment with the local context to get effecti"e results0 2ust as reading a newspaper article on brain surgery does not 4ualify or enable a reader to conduct brain surgery. 9n organisation that focuses completely on collecting and makes little or no effort at connecting 7see below8 tends to end up with a repository of static documents. /he connecting dimension in"ol"es linking people with people 3 specifically people who need to know with those who do know0 and so enhancing tacit knowledge flow through better human interaction0 so that knowledge is diffused around the organisation and not 2ust held in the heads of a few. #onnecting is necessary because knowledge is embodied in people0 and in the relationships within and between organisations. 1nformation becomes knowledge as it is interpreted in the light of the indi"idual.s understandings of the particular context. 5xamples of connecting initiati"es include skills directories and expert directories 3 searchable online staff directories that gi"e much more detail about who does what and who knows what0 collaborati"e working0 communities of practice 3 networks of people with a common interest0 and "arious :socialisation; acti"ities designed to support knowledge flows. /his connecting dimension tends to be the main emphasis in *apanese knowledge programmes. Howe"er an organisation that focuses entirely on connecting0 with little or no attempt at collecting0 can be "ery inefficient. Such organisations may waste time in :rein"enting wheels;. %ost knowledge management programmes aim at an integrated approach to managing knowledge0 by combining the benefits of both approaches and achie"ing a balance between connecting indi"iduals who need to know with those who do know0 and collecting what is learned as a result of these connections and making that easily accessible to others. For example0 if collected documents are linked to their authors and contain other interacti"e possibilities0 they can become dynamic and hence much more useful.
&
2.5 Ways with knowledge& #eo#le! #"o$esses and te$hnology

=ne popular and widely>used approach is to think of knowledge management in terms of three components0 namely people0 processes and technology:
> )eople:
etting an organisation.s culture 7including "alues and beha"iours8 :right; for knowledge management is typically the most important and yet often the most difficult challenge. $nowledge management is first and foremost a people issue. &oes the culture of your organisation support ongoing learning and knowledge sharing< 9re people moti"ated and rewarded for creating0 sharing and using knowledge< 1s there a culture of openness and mutual respect and support< =r is your organisation "ery hierarchical where :knowledge is power; and so people are reluctant to share< 9re people under constant pressure to act0 with no time for knowledge>seeking or reflection< &o they feel inspired to inno"ate and learn from mistakes0 or is there a strong :blame and shame; culture< way their internal processes are structured0 and sometimes e"en the organisational structure itself. For example0 if an organisation is structured in such a way that different parts of it are competing for resources0 then this will most likely be a barrier to knowledge sharing. Looking at the many aspects of :how things are done around here; in your organisation0 which processes constitute either barriers to0 or enablers of0 knowledge management< How can these processes be adapted0 or what new processes can be introduced0 to support people in creating0 sharing and using knowledge< getting an intranet0 linking people by e>mail0 compiling information databases etc. /echnology is often a crucial enabler of knowledge management 3 it can help connect people with information0 and people with each other0 but it is not the solution. 9nd it is "ital that any technology used :fits; the organisation.s people and processes 3 otherwise it will simply not be used.
> )rocesses: 1n order to impro"e knowledge sharing0 organisations often need to make changes to the
> /echnology: 9 common misconception is that knowledge management is mainly about technology 3
/hese three components are often compared to the legs of a three>legged stool 3 if one is missing0 then the stool will collapse. Howe"er0 one leg is "iewed as being more important than the others 3 people. 9n organisation.s primary focus should be on de"eloping a knowledge>friendly culture and knowledge>friendly beha"iours among its people0 which should be supported by the appropriate processes0 and which may be enabled through technology.
'
(eneral concepts
% GENE#AL CONCE"TS
3.1 ' b"ief histo"y of knowledge management
$nowledge management as a conscious discipline would appear to be somewhere between fi"e and fifteen years old. 1t e"ol"ed from the thinking of academics and pioneers such as )eter &rucker in the ?@G,s0 $arl>5rik S"eiby in the late ?@K,s0 and Nonaka and /akeuchi in the ?@@,s. &uring that time0 economic0 social and technological changes were transforming the way that companies worked. lobalisation emerged and brought new opportunities and increased competition. #ompanies responded by downsiCing0 merging0 ac4uiring0 reengineering and outsourcing. %any streamlined their workforce and boosted their producti"ity and their profits by using ad"ances in computer and network technology. Howe"er their successes in doing so came with a price. %any lost company knowledge as they grew smaller. 9nd many lost company knowledge as they grew bigger 3 they no longer :knew what they knew;. 'y the early ?@@,s a growing body of academics and consultants were talking about knowledge management as :the; new business practice0 and it began to appear in more and more business 2ournals and on conference agendas. 'y the mid>?@@,s0 it became widely acknowledged that the competiti"e ad"antage of some of the world.s leading companies was being car"ed out from those companies. knowledge assets such as competencies0 customer relationships and inno"ations. %anaging knowledge therefore suddenly became a mainstream business ob2ecti"e as other companies sought to follow the market leaders. %any of these companies took the approach of implementing :knowledge management solutions;0 focusing almost entirely on knowledge management technologies. Howe"er they met with limited success0 and so 4uestions began to be asked about whether knowledge management wasn.t simply another fad that looked great on paper0 but in reality did not deli"er. 1n fact for a while0 it looked as if knowledge management was destined to be confined to the :management fad gra"eyard;. Howe"er on closer inspection0 companies realised that it wasn.t the concept of knowledge management that was the problem as such0 but rather the way that they had gone about approaching it. Ieasons for their limited success included:
> /he focus was on the technology rather than the business and its people. > /here was too much hype 3 with consultants and technology "endors cashing in on the latest
management fad. in"estments.
> #ompanies spent too much money 7usually on :sexy; technologies8 with little or no return on their > %ost knowledge management literature was "ery conceptual and lacking in practical ad"ice0 which
led to frustration at the inability to translate the theory into practice 3 :it all makes so much sense but why isn.t it working<;
> $nowledge management was not tied into business processes and ways of working. > 1t was seen as another laborious o"erhead acti"ity or yet another new initiati"e. > 9 lack of incenti"es 3 employees 4uite rightly asked the :what.s in it for me<; 4uestion. > /here wasn.t sufficient senior executi"e le"el buy in.
Fortunately companies are now recognising these early mistakes and are beginning to take a different approach to knowledge management 3 one in which the emphasis is more on people0 beha"iours and ways of working0 than on technology. =f course there are still some sceptics who belie"e that knowledge management is 2ust a fad. 'ut according to a number of company sur"eys0 it would seem that they are in a minority. 9 more popular "iew is that knowledge management may not remain as a distinct discipline0 but rather will become embedded in the way organisations work. /his can be compared to /otal Luality %anagement which was the :in thing; in the ?@K,sB nobody talks about :/L%; any more0 but many of its principles and practices are an integral part of how most organisations operate. 1t looks likely that this could also be the future for knowledge management.
(eneral concepts
3.2 %he knowledge e$onomy

:9s we enter the +?st century we are mo"ing into a new phase of economic and social de"elopment0 which can usefully be referred to as a :knowledge economy;0 in which knowledge will be a key determining factor in organiCational and economic success or failure. /he most effecti"e organiCations in the knowledge economy will be those which recogniCe and best harness the crucial role that knowledge plays both inside and outside their organisation.; From: $nowledge 5nhanced o"ernment: 9 strategy for the J$ =ffice of the e>5n"oy0 *uly +,,+ /he go"ernment.s ob2ecti"e is to make the J$ one of the world.s leading knowledge economies.
3.3 (nowledge management in the #)bli$ se$to"

1n both the pri"ate and public sectors0 more and more organisations are beginning to take responsibility for managing knowledge as a means to create "alue. 'ut what does :"alue; mean in the context of the public sector< )ublic sector organisations are not usually seeking a competiti"e ad"antage0 so why bother with knowledge management< 1f we go back to our definition of knowledge as :the capacity for effecti"e action; 7see the section 6hat is $%<8 then this probably better describes the expectations of go"ernment and public ser"ices. 5"ery public ser"ice in"ol"es a wide range of relationships between policy makers0 ser"ice pro"iders0 local authorities0 the general public and "arious other interested parties such as "oluntary and community sector organisations0 the pri"ate sector etc. 1f we think about the many interactions within and between these groups0 and their impact on policy and ser"ice pro"ision0 then we begin to see the scope for knowledge management in the public sector. How does one of these "arious parties share an experience and introduce one policy dri"en initiati"e with that of another for the benefit of all concerned< How can e"eryone in"ol"ed ha"e an awareness of the :bigger picture; as well as their own indi"idual standpoints< How can all parties be better prepared to act< 1n recent years there has been a number of go"ernment policies aimed at e4uipping the public sector to function more effecti"ely in an information society. /hese ha"e included:
> our 1nformation 9ge 7H%S=0 ?@@K8 3 the de facto J$ national information policy > open for learning0 open for business 7National
to a national grid for learning
rid for Learning0 ?@@K8 3 establishing a commitment
> modernising go"ernment 7H%S=0 ?@@@8 3 committed go"ernment to modernising public ser"ices so
that all would be capable of being deli"ered by computer by +,,age
> e>go"ernment 7#abinet =ffice0 +,,,8 3 a strategic framework for public ser"ices in the information
'uilding on this0 subse4uent de"elopments ha"e focused on making better use of the tacit knowledge within0 and impro"ing knowledge transfer across0 the public sector. /he =ffice of the e>5n"oy.s J$ 9nnual Ieport +,,, announced the de"elopment of a cross>go"ernment knowledge management system0 focusing on the creation of a $nowledge Network 3 :a unified cross> go"ernment communications infrastructure to enable officials in all go"ernment departments and associated bodies M to communicate electronically with each other and share common0 secure access to databases0 discussion forums0 web>based community sites and :knowledge pools;.; From there0 a new programme of modernisation led by the =ffice of the e>5n"oy known as $nowledge 5nhanced o"ernment 7$5 8 was launched. /he $5 team is working with the ma2or central go"ernment departments in ensuring that there are departmental teams and processes in place to support participation in $5 . /he &epartment of Health is already a key player in these processes.
1*
(eneral concepts
9s part of $5 0 the =ffice of the e>5n"oy has recently considered the de"elopment of a knowledge management policy framework to pro"ide a holistic "iew of knowledge management and recommendations for acti"ity. 5arly proposals ha"e suggested that this framework could be based around ten key areas of acti"ity: ? knowledge capture 3 policies and processes for identifying and capturing explicit and tacit knowledge. + knowledge transfer 3 policies and processes for transferring knowledge among and between its "arious sources and forms. N knowledge retention 3 policies and processes for retaining organisational knowledge0 especially during periods of organisational change. A content management 3 policies and processes for efficiently managing the organisational knowledge base. - knowledge capital 3 policies and processes for measuring and de"eloping the go"ernment.s human and social capital. O enabling communities 3 policies and processes for promoting and supporting knowledge>based community working across and between departments. G supporting a knowledge culture 3 policies and processes to create the necessary cultural changes to embed the knowledge management ethos into working practices. K knowledge partnerships 3 policies and processes for promoting and supporting knowledge partnerships between central go"ernment and key partners such as local go"ernment0 departmental agencies0 non>departmental public bodies0 "oluntary and community organiCations etc. @ supporting key business acti"ities 3 policies and processes to support key business acti"ities in go"ernment such as pro2ect management0 the legislati"e process0 deli"ery monitoring etc. ?, knowledge benchmarking 3 policies and processes for benchmarking current knowledge management capabilities and practices against J$ and international best practice0 and for impro"ing performance. For more information about $nowledge 5nhanced o"ernment and related initiati"es0 see the =ffice of the e> 5n"oy website at http://archi"e.cabinetoffice.go".uk/e>en"oy/index>content.htm.
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& GETTING STA#TED

6ith such a wide range of definitions0 philosophies0 methodologies0 tools and techni4ues0 approaching knowledge management can initially seem 4uite daunting. 1n starting out0 many practitioners tend to offer the following types of ad"ice:
&'1'1 #e()ew *o+, o-t)ons

1t is useful to gain a broad understanding of the "ariety of approaches to knowledge management. Not only are there many alternati"es0 but also some of them differ 4uite widely from others in their methods. 'efore selecting your approach or approaches0 try to explore the many options open to you.
&'1'! Don.t get too /+ng +- on 0t/e best1

/here is no single :right; way to approach knowledge management. $nowledge management methods are as "aried as the organisations in which they are implemented. 5"ery organisation is different and so its approach to knowledge management will need to reflect its own particular circumstances. /here is no :one siCe fits all;. /he :best; approach will be one that works well for your organisation.
&'1'% Kee- )t s)m-le 2 a(o)d ,o34et s3)en3e

/here is still 4uite a lot of confusion about what knowledge management actually is and what it in"ol"es. &on.t add to that confusion by blinding people with rocket science and textbook definitions. et clear on what knowledge management means for your organisation. /hen make the concepts of knowledge management real for others in your organisation. Jse simple definitions and simple language to explore real problems and opportunities. #reate a clear0 tangible picture of the benefits of knowledge management as they relate to your organisation.s specific goals and circumstances.
&'1'& Lea,n w/)le do)ng

9"oid the temptation to wait until you ha"e :mastered; the theory of knowledge management before getting started on the practice. 7/he theory is constantly e"ol"ing0 so the chances are you will ne"er master it8. =ne of the best ways to learn is :on the 2ob;. Fou can learn a great deal from what others ha"e done0 but you will only learn what does and doesn.t work for your organisation when you actually get started and do something.
&'1'5 Celeb,ate w/at *o+.,e al,ead* do)ng

Start from where you are0 with what you ha"e. 1n most organisations there will already be examples of good knowledge management practice 3 except they won.t usually be thought of as knowledge management. Look around your organisation for current acti"ities that might already be related to knowledge management 3 not necessarily big pro2ects or initiati"es0 but simple0 day>to>day ways of doing things. Look for teams or groups that are currently sharing knowledge0 and make connections with these people. Find out how it is benefiting those people and the organisation as a whole. #elebrate and build on these examples of good practice.
&'1'6 Loo4 at *o+, o,gan)sat)on.s goals

i"en that knowledge management is not an end in itself0 but rather a means to achie"ing organisational goals0 then this is a logical place to start. Look at both the long>term goals and short to medium>term ob2ecti"es of your organisation: what are they< How might knowledge management help you to achie"e them< /hen look at what people 3 teams and indi"iduals 3 do in your organisation. 6hat are the ser"ices they pro"ide< 6hat acti"ities and processes do they perform in order to pro"ide those ser"ices< How might they be done better for the benefit of indi"idual staff0 the organisation a whole0 and your patients< 6hat knowledge do people need in order to do their 2obs< 6hat knowledge might they need in order to do them better< How can you ac4uire0 create0 use and share that knowledge to bring that about< 1n what ways are you already doing so< How might you do it better<
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&'1'7 Loo4 fo, needs8 -,oblems and -a)ns

9nother good place to start is with what some managers call :needs0 problems and pains;. /hese are the things that are not working well in your organisation: things that are getting in the way of people doing a good 2ob0 things that irritate people and make their li"es difficult0 things that hamper the 4uality of your ser"ice to patients. /alk to people and start to build up a list of some of the ma2or needs0 problems and pains in your organisation. From there0 you can select one or se"eral of these with which to start0 and look at how you might resol"e it using knowledge management principles and practices. 9 great ad"antage of this approach is that it can allow you to achie"e :4uick wins;. /hese are problems that are generally fairly simple and 4uick to resol"e0 but their resolution has a big impact and the results are clearly "isible. Luick wins can be "ery useful in demonstrating the potential benefits of knowledge management to both managers and staff 3 there is nothing like real results to win people o"er.
&'1'9 Sta,t small

9ttempting to launch an organisation>wide knowledge management programme without building the e"idence first is unfortunately a common mistake0 but one to be a"oided. Some organisations prefer to :dip their toe in the water; with one or two initiati"es before considering a formal knowledge management strategyB others choose not to create a formal strategy at all0 choosing instead to take a more informal or incremental approach. 5ither way0 whether you choose to create a formal knowledge management strategy or not0 a large>scale0 high> cost0 :big bang; roll>out is not recommended. $nowledge management is more an iterati"e process of continuous de"elopment. Hence0 it is far better to gradually introduce a series of practical0 manageable changes. /hen0 as interest de"elops0 you can look to expand your initiati"es.
&'1': Don.t ta4e off w)t/o+t a -)lot

6hen looking to implement any ma2or new initiati"e0 conducting a pilot is essential. 9 pilot in"ol"es :test dri"ing; the initiati"e on a relati"ely small scale in order to learn what works and what doesn.t0 make any necessary changes accordingly0 and gather clear0 demonstrable e"idence about the benefits0 before rolling out the initiati"e on a larger scale. /his means that when you come to roll it out0 you ha"e already made most of your mistakes0 and you ha"e something that has been pro"en to work well in practice. 1n terms of securing resources and support0 this is a whole different proposition to ha"ing an idea in theory.
&'1'1; #emembe, t/e 0b)g t/,ee1< -eo-le8 -,o3esses8 te3/nolog*

1n implementing knowledge management tools and techni4ues0 ne"er forget the importance of creating the right kind of en"ironment. Four organisation.s people0 processes and technology will at all times be acting as either enablers of0 or barriers to0 the effecti"e use of your knowledge management tools. Fou need to identify the barriers and remo"e them0 and build on the enablers. 1f you ha"e already tried to implement something and it hasn.t worked0 this is where you need to look. 1f you are about to implement something0 look before you leap.
&'1'11 T/e +lt)mate a)m< )nst)t+t)onal)sat)on

ranted0 you are 2ust starting out with knowledge management. /his is the beginning of the road. Howe"er it is worth keeping one eye on the horiCon further down that road. 1t is useful to bear in mind that success in knowledge management does not in"ol"e building up a big new department or a whole network of people with :knowledge; in their 2ob title. Fou may need to do these things to some degree in the medium>term. Howe"er the ultimate aim is for knowledge management to be fully :institutionalised;. =r in other words0 so embedded in the way your organisation does things0 so intrinsic in people.s day>to>day ways of working0 that nobody e"en talks about knowledge management any more 3 they 2ust do it. So if you are a knowledge manager0 you will know that you ha"e fully succeeded when you ha"e worked yourself out of a 2obE
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4.2 (* toolbox + invento"y of tools and te$hni,)es

/he following :toolbox; presents some of the most common tools and techni4ues currently used in knowledge management programmes. /he aim is to gi"e an introduction0 to present an o"er"iew of what is in"ol"ed0 and to pro"ide some pointers to further resources. ? 9fter 9ction Ie"iews 799Is8 9 tool pioneered by the JS army and now widely used in a range of organisations to capture lessons learned both during and after an acti"ity or pro2ect. + #ommunities of )ractice 6idely regarded as :the killer $% application.0 communities of practice link people together to de"elop and share knowledge around specific themes0 and are already being established in the NHS. N #onducting a knowledge audit 9 systematic process to identify an organisation.s knowledge needs0 resources and flows0 as a basis for understanding where and how better knowledge management can add "alue. A &e"eloping a knowledge management strategy 9pproaches to de"eloping a formal knowledge management plan that is closely aligned with an organisation.s o"erall strategy and goals. - 5xit inter"iews 9 tool used to capture the knowledge of departing employees. O 1dentifying and sharing best practices 9pproaches to capturing best practices disco"ered in one part of the organisation and sharing them for the benefit of all. G $nowledge centres Similar to libraries but with a broader remit to include connecting people with each other as well as with information in documents and databases. K $nowledge har"esting 9 tool used to capture the knowledge of :experts; and make it a"ailable to others. @ )eer assists 9 tool de"eloped at ')>9moco used to learn from the experiences of others before embarking on an acti"ity or pro2ect. ?, Social network analysis %apping relationships between people0 groups and organisations to understand how these relationships either facilitate or impede knowledge flows. ?? Storytelling Jsing the ancient art of storytelling to share knowledge in a more meaningful and interesting way. ?+ 6hite pages 9 step>up from the usual staff directory0 this is an online resource that allows people to find colleagues with specific knowledge and expertise.
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4.3 'fte" '$tion
eviews
&'%'1 W/at a,e afte, a3t)on ,e()ews

9n after action re"iew 799I8 is a discussion of a pro2ect or an acti"ity that enables the indi"iduals in"ol"ed to learn for themsel"es what happens0 why it happened0 what went well0 what needs impro"ement and what lessons can be learned from the experience. /he spirit of an 99I is one of openness and learning 3 it is not about problem fixing or allocating blame. Lessons learned are not only tacitly shared on the spot by the indi"iduals in"ol"ed0 but can be explicitly documented and shared with a wider audience. 9fter action re"iews were originally de"eloped and are extensi"ely used by the JS 9rmy.
&'%'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

6hat makes after action re"iews so powerful is that they can be applied across a wide spectrum of acti"ities0 from two indi"iduals conducting a fi"e minute 99I at the end of a short meeting to a day>long 99I held by a pro2ect team at the end of a large pro2ect. 9cti"ities suitable for 99Is simply need to ha"e a beginning and an end0 an identifiable purpose and some basis on which performance can be assessed. =ther than that0 there are few limits. Some examples of when to use an 99I are: when you ha"e introduced a new set of procedures or ways of workingB after a busy winter season in which capacity was stretchedB following the introduction of a new computer systemB after a ma2or training acti"ityB after a shift hando"erB following a piece of research or a clinical trialB after performing surgeryB etc. 99Is are excellent for making tacit knowledge explicit during the life of a pro2ect or acti"ity and thus allowing you to capture it. Learning can be captured before a team disbands0 or before people forget what happened and mo"e on to something else. &espite the name 7:after action;80 they do not ha"e to be performed at the end of a pro2ect or acti"ity. Iather0 they can be performed after each identifiable e"ent within a pro2ect or ma2or acti"ity0 thus becoming a li"e learning process in which lessons learned can be immediately applied. 1n fact this is where 99Is can add the greatest "alue. 99Is pro"ide insights into exactly what contributes to the strengths and weaknesses of a pro2ect or acti"ity0 including the performance of each indi"idual in"ol"ed0 of the pro2ect leader0 the team as a whole0 and the "arious processes in"ol"ed. 99Is are also a useful tool for de"eloping your employees0 which they do by pro"iding constructi"e0 directly actionable feedback in a non>threatening way because they are not linked to employee assessment. Similarly0 they gi"es people an opportunity to share their "iews and ideas and to be heard.
&'%'% How do I go abo+t )t

99Is can be grouped into three types: formal0 informal and personal. 9lthough the fundamental approach in"ol"ed in each is essentially the same0 there is some "ariation in how they are conducted. Formal 99Is tend to be conducted at the end of a ma2or pro2ect or e"ent 7learning after doing8. /hey re4uire some preparation and planning0 but are not difficult as they take the form of a simple meeting. /his meeting may take place o"er a couple of hours or a couple of days0 depending on the scale of the pro2ect. Steps and tips for successful formal 99Is include: ? #all the meeting as soon as possible and in"ite the right people 99Is should be conducted as soon as possible after the e"ent. /he reasons are simple 3 memories are fresh0 participants are a"ailable and where appropriate0 learning can be applied immediately. 9s well as the pro2ect manager and the key members of the pro2ect0 it may be useful to in"ite the pro2ect client or sponsor and also members of any pro2ect teams who are about to embark on a similar pro2ect. Howe"er0 be aware that the presence of external people may inhibit some team members.
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+ #reate the right climate /he ideal climate for an 99I is one of trust0 openness and commitment to learning. 99Is are learning e"ents0 not criti4ues0 and so should not be treated as performance e"aluation. /here are no hierarchies in 99Is 3 e"eryone is regarded as an e4ual participant and 2unior members of the team should feel free to comment on the actions of senior members. %ake it clear that the purpose of the meeting is to help future pro2ects run more smoothly by identifying the learning points from this pro2ect. N 9ppoint a facilitator 1deally an 99I should be facilitated. 7#ertainly a formal 99I should be facilitated but informal 99Is and personal 99Is need not be so8. /he main purposes of the facilitator are to help the team to learn by drawing out answers0 insights and pre"iously unspoken issuesB to ensure that e"eryone has an opportunity to contributeB and to help create the right climate and ensure that blame is not brought in. /he facilitator should be someone who was not closely in"ol"ed in the pro2ect0 so that they can remain ob2ecti"e. A Ie"isit the ob2ecti"es and deli"erables of the pro2ect 9sk :what did we set out to do<; and :what did we actually achie"e<;. Fou might like to re"isit the original pro2ect plan at this stage. Fou might also decide to construct a flow chart of what happened0 identifying tasks0 deli"erables and decision points. /his can help you to see which parts of the pro2ect were particularly effecti"e or ineffecti"e. - 9sk :what went well<;. Find out why0 and share learning ad"ice for the future 1t is always a good idea to start with the positi"e points. Here you are looking to build on best practice as well as learning from mistakes. For each point that is made about what went well0 keep asking a :why<; 4uestion. /his will allow you to get to the root of the reason. /hen press participants for specific0 repeatable ad"ice that others could apply in similar situations. O 9sk :what could ha"e gone better<;. Find out what the problems were0 and share learning ad"ice for the future Notice that you are not simply asking :what went wrong<; but rather :what could ha"e gone better<;. /his way you can learn not only from mistakes0 but also from any aspects of the pro2ect that got in the way of deli"ering e"en more. Hence the focus is not on failure0 but on impro"ement. 5"en if no mistakes are made as such there is almost always scope for impro"ement. 9gain0 for each point that is made0 keep asking a :why<; 4uestion to get to the root of the reason. /hen again0 press participants for specific0 repeatable ad"ice that others could apply in similar situations: what would we do differently next time< G 5nsure that e"eryone feels fully heard before lea"ing the meeting 1t is important that participants do not lea"e the meeting feeling that they ha"e not been heard or that things ha"e been left unsaid. 9 useful techni4ue here is to ask them for a numerical rating of the pro2ect: :looking back0 how satisfied are you with the pro2ect: marks out of ten<;. )eople who ha"e said the pro2ect was fine will often still score it an eight0 which enables you to then ask :what would ha"e made it a ten for you<;. K Iecording the 99I 1t is important to ha"e a clear and interesting account of the 99I and its learning points0 both as a reminder to those in"ol"ed and in order to effecti"ely share that learning with others. Fou should aim to include things like: lessons and guidelines for the futureB some background information about the pro2ect to help put these guidelines into a meaningful contextB the names of the people in"ol"ed for future referenceB and any key documents such as pro2ect plans or reports. 'ear in mind who will be using your account and ask yourself if you were to be the next pro2ect leader0 would this account and the lessons in it be of benefit to you< @ Sharing the learning 9s well as distributing your account of the 99I to the pro2ect team0 you need to consider who else could benefit from it. For example0 you may be aware of another team that is about to embark on a similar pro2ect. Fou also need to make your learning more widely a"ailable so that people working on similar pro2ects in the future might also benefitB your document therefore needs to be stored somewhere it can be easily found and accessed by those it could help. /his may be in a library0 or in some kind of knowledge database or on an intranet.
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1nformal 99Is tend to be conducted after a much smaller e"ent such as a meeting or a presentation 7learning after doing80 or a following a specific e"ent during a wider pro2ect or acti"ity 7learning while doing8. /hey re4uire much less preparation and planning and can often be done on the spur of the moment0 as the format is simple and 4uick 3 a :pencil and paper; or flip chart exercise. 1n an open and honest meeting0 usually no longer than half an hour0 each participant in the e"ent answers four simple 4uestions:
> 6hat was supposed to happen< > 6hat actually happened< > 6hy were there differences< > 6hat did we learn<
)ersonal 99Is are a simple matter of personal reflection. For example0 take a few minutes to reflect on something you did yesterday such as a patient consultation0 dealing with a complaint or making a specific telephone call. 9sk yourself the four 99I 4uestions abo"e. 6hat does that tell you about what you could do differently tomorrow<
&'%'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> 1t is worth repeating is that 99Is are learning e"ents0 not criti4ues. 1t is therefore "ital that they are
not treated as performance e"aluation. /he 4uality of an 99I depends on the willingness of participants to be openB this is unlikely to happen if they fear they are going to be assessed or blamed.
> Studies on the learning process show that the less time that elapses between discussing a lesson and
applying it at work0 the more effecti"e the application. /his would suggest that 99Is are most "aluable when used to :learn while doing;.
&'%'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

-ooks #hapter ?,: Networking and communities of practice 1n: Learning to fly: practical lessons from one of the world.s leading knowledge companies #ollison #0 )arcell . =xford: #apstone0 +,,? Web.sites )ost>mortem to li"ing practice: 9fter 9ction Ie"iew 9fter 9ction Ie"iews: N Step )rocess )owerpoint presentation on 9fter 9ction Ie"iews 99I #ase Studies Step>by>step guide to writing 99Is J.S. 9rmy #orps of 5ngineers guide to 9fter 9ction Ie"iews &a"id urteen.s 1ntroduction to 9fter 9ction Ie"iews
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4.4 /omm)nities of 0"a$ti$e

&'&'1 W/at a,e 3omm+n)t)es of -,a3t)3e
9 community of practice 7#o)8 is a network of people who share a common interest in a specific area of knowledge or competence and are willing to work and learn together o"er a period of time to de"elop and share that knowledge. 5tienne 6enger is credited with coining the term :community of practice; and he defines them as :groups of people who share a concern0 a set of problems0 or a passion about a topic0 and who deepen their knowledge and expertise by interacting on an ongoing basis.; He also belie"es that learning is a social acti"ity and that people learn best in groups. #ommunities can "ary 4uite widely in their characteristics. Some exist for years while others form around a specific purpose and disband once that purpose has been achie"ed. %embers may be "ery similar e.g. consultant gynaecologists0 or they may be multi>disciplinary0 such as is often the case in communities that are formed around addressing a specific challenge. Some may be small and localised while others will be geographically dispersed :"irtual communities; that communicate primarily by telephone0 e>mail0 online discussion groups and "ideo conferencing0 etc. #ommunities of practice differ from the usual notion of a team or work groups in a number of fundamental ways:
> Holuntary membership
6hereas teams and work groups are formed by management0 membership of a community of practice is "oluntaryB /eams and work groups are formed to focus on a specific ob2ecti"e or acti"ity0 while communities of practice are not necessarilyB they may ha"e some stated goals0 but they are more general and fluidB /eams and work groups are re4uired to deli"er tangible results0 whereas communities of practice are not necessarilyB /eams and work groups are disbanded or reorganised once they ha"e achie"ed their goals0 while communities of practice last as long as their members want them to last.
> Specific focus
> No expectation of tangible results
> 5xistence defined by group members
#ommunities of practice exist in some form in e"ery organisation 3 whether they ha"e been deliberately created and labelled as such or not. /he challenge for knowledge managers is to support them in such a way that they make a positi"e contribution to creating and sharing organisational knowledge. #ommunities of practice are already being established in the NHS0 based around the National Library for Health 7NLH8.
&'&'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

1n her book :/he #omplete 1diot.s uide to $nowledge %anagement; %elissie #lemmons IumiCen calls communities of practice :the killer knowledge management application;. #ommunities of practice:
> pro"ide a "aluable "ehicle for de"eloping0 sharing and managing specialist knowledgeB > a"oid rein"enting the wheelB > cut across departmental boundaries and formal reporting linesB > can be more flexible than traditional reporting unitsB > generate new knowledge in response to problems and opportunitiesB > pro"ide early warning of potential opportunities and threatsB > can be "ehicle for cultural change 7creating a knowledge sharing culture8B > are largely self>organising.
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9s well as the organisational benefits0 communities of practice also pro"ide benefits for indi"idual community members0 including:
> ha"ing access to expert help to expand horiCons0 gain knowledge and seek help in addressing work
challengesB
> members often feel more conscious of0 and confident in0 their own personal knowledgeB > pro"ides a non>threatening forum to explore and test ideas or "alidate courses of actionB > can foster a greater sense of professional commitment and enhance members; professional
reputation.
&'&'% How do I go abo+t )t

/here is a wide range of approaches to creating and de"eloping communities of practice0 and a wide range of resources full of guidelines and pointers. 9s a starting point0 these are a few key areas for consideration: 1etting sta"ted #ommunities of practice are organic and self>organising. 1deally they should emerge naturally. =rganisations that ha"e tried to create communities :from the top down; ha"e often failed. #ommunities can howe"er0 be :seeded;. 9ny area or function of your organisation where knowledge is not e"enly distributed is a potential target for a community of practice. Howe"er0 the impetus for a new community usually comes from the recognition of a special need or problem. From there0 next steps will re"ol"e around: ? &efining the scope 6hat is the domain of knowledge< 9t the heart of e"ery community is a domain of knowledgeB that domain can be either based around a professional discipline or on some specific problems or opportunitiesB + Finding participants 6ho can make a ma2or contribution to this community< 6ho are the sub2ect experts0 and possible co>ordinators0 facilitators0 and librarians and/or knowledge managers< 6ill membership be open or by in"itation only< N 1dentifying common needs and interests 6hat are the core issues within the domain of knowledge< 6hat are members interested in and passionate about< How do they hope to benefit from membership of the community< A #larifying the purpose and terms of reference 6hat are the specific needs or problems that need to be addressed< 6hat is the community setting out to achie"e< How will the community benefit the organisation< 6hat are its "alues and ways of working< How will it be structured0 organised and resourced< 1t can often help to launch a community with a meeting or workshop so that members can meet each other and begin to de"elop relationships0 and also spend some time together exploring and agreeing their purpose0 terms of reference and ways of working. 2evelo#ing and s)staining =nce the initial enthusiasm of the set>up phase has passed0 communities can easily wane and fade away unless they are acti"ely de"eloped and sustained. ? %aintaining members. interest and in"ol"ement /he ongoing success of a community depends on members. continued interest and in"ol"ement. 9 good co>ordinator will be constantly seeking to maintain that using a "ariety of methods. For example:
ensuring that members of "irtual communities meet face to face at least once a year to keep
personal relationships ali"eB
allowing plenty of time for socialising at gatheringsB ensuring that the wider organisation supports members in taking time to participateB moti"ating
and rewarding people for their contributionB
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introducing new and challenging perspecti"es in the sub2ect area from time to time0 either from
within the community or from external experts.
rowing the community 1n the life of any community0 members will come and go0 and there will usually be a need for ongoing recruitment 3 both to replace lost members and to :keep things fresh;. Similarly0 roles and responsibilities will often be rotated between members o"er time. /he ongoing success of the community will be affected by how well new members are welcomed and integrated into it.
N &e"eloping the body of knowledge 9t this stage the community will probably be taking a more proacti"e and formal role in assuming responsibility for the rele"ant body of knowledge0 with typical acti"ities including:
creating knowledge mapsB organising knowledge resourcesB identifying and seeking to fill knowledge gapsB Here0 the roles of librarians and/or knowledge managers will be particularly important.
A %o"ing the agenda forward and adding "alue #ommunities thri"e when they are supported and "alued by the organisation. /his is a :two>way street; so it is important that a community de"elops in alignment with o"erall organisational goals0 rather than to its own agenda. /his will increase the chances of ongoing support from the organisation0 such as:
pro"iding resourcesB recognition and reward of community members and particularly co>ordinatorsB help in remo"ing barriers to community membershipB and in"ol"ement of communities in key management decisions and problem>sol"ing
Howe"er0 at the same time0 care is needed not to :o"er>formalise; or :institutionalise; the community. /los)"e #ommunities can naturally fade away and this is not always a bad thing. Sometimes a natural ending is reached 3 a group of people or a practice reach a natural conclusion. =ther times a community can break up and in its place0 a number of :sub>communities; based around particular specialist sub2ects emerge. 5ither way0 when a community fades it is important to celebrate its life and achie"ements0 and to ensure that the rele"ant body of knowledge is captured and/or transferred.
&'&'& A,e t/e,e an* -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> /he successful culti"ation of communities of practice re4uires a fine balance between gi"ing them
enough support and direction to ensure their "alue0 while at the same time not imposing too much structure and therefore risking losing the informal social relationships that underpin their effecti"eness.
de"eloping the practiceB and0 de"eloping the community.
> Successful communities or practice re4uire a simultaneous focus on two key areas:
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&e"eloping the community in"ol"es a focus on the social structure 3 the sum of the social relationships built up within a community. )articular roles that are important and should be explicitly recognised are:
> Leader 7or coordinator8
recognised in the organisation at large as the spokesperson for this communityB organises and co> ordinates the community.s interactions and acti"itiesB Facilitates the interactions within the community0 e.g. in face>to>face meetings0 and steers the agenda of online interactionsB manages the explicit knowledge resources of the community.
> Facilitator7s8
> Librarian or knowledge manager
Fou might consider pro"iding training and support for these roles0 for example in co>ordination and moderation techni4ues. &e"eloping the practice looks at the community.s inputs and outputs 3 the resources that the community uses and de"elops. /hese resources consist not only of information and knowledge resources such as documents0 databases0 a web>site0 etc. but also the processes and practices within the community. /hese include ways of de"eloping and enhancing the knowledge base such as through peer group re"iews of emerging best practice0 and ways of communicating new knowledge de"eloped within the community to the wider organisation. %any communities are becoming the focal point within their organisations for documenting best practice0 identifying "aluable external resources0 writing case studies0 and de"eloping frameworks0 techni4ues and tools for their particular knowledge domain.
&'&'5 #eso+,3es and ,efe,en3es

-ooks #hapter K: #ommunities of practice 3 the killer application 1n: /he complete idiot.s guide to knowledge management #lemmons IumiCen0 %.7+,,+8 %adison0 61: #6L )ublishing 5nterprises #hapter ?,: Networking and communities of practice 1n: Learning to fly: practical lessons from one of the world.s leading knowledge companies. #ollison #0 )arcell .7+,,?8 =xford: #apstone #ulti"ating communities of practice 6enger 5. 7+,,+8 %assachusetts: Har"ard Jni"ersity )ress '"ti$les $nowledge is the enemy of disease 'rice0 9 and ray0 %. #1L1) Jpdate0 +,,N0 %arch 6orking together 3 communities of practice in family medicine 5ndsley0 S and $irkegaard0 % and Linares 9. Family )ractice %anagement0 +,,-0 *anuary 9 sur"ey of current research on online communities of practice *ohnson0 #%. 1nternet and Higher 5ducation0 +,,?0 A7?8 9 sense of community: the role of #o)s in knowledge management Lelic0 S. $nowledge %anagement0 +,,?0 ?, =ctober #ommunities of practice and organiCational performance Lesser0 5L and Storck0 *. 1'% Systems *ournal0 +,,?0 A,7A8 Web.sites 5tienne 6enger and #ommunities of )ractice %ools etting to G 3 #ulti"ating #ommunities of )ractice: the G Stages of &e"elopment
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4.5 /ond)$ting a knowledge a)dit

&'5'1 W/at )s a 4nowledge a+d)t
/he term :knowledge audit; is in some ways a bit of a misnomer0 since the traditional concept of an audit is to check performance against a standard0 as in financial auditing. 9 knowledge audit0 howe"er0 is a more of a 4ualitati"e e"aluation. 1t is essentially a sound in"estigation into an organisation.s knowledge :health;. 9 typical audit will look at:
> 6hat are the organisation.s knowledge needs< > 6hat knowledge assets or resources does it ha"e and where are they< > 6hat gaps exist in its knowledge< > How does knowledge flow around the organisation< > 6hat blockages are there to that flow e.g. to what extent do its people0 processes and technology
currently support or hamper the effecti"e flow of knowledge<
/he knowledge audit pro"ides an e"idence>based assessment of where the organisation needs to focus its knowledge management efforts. 1t can re"eal the organisation.s knowledge management needs0 strengths0 weaknesses0 opportunities0 threats and risks.
&'5'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

'enefits of a knowledge audit include:
> helping the organisation clearly identify what knowledge is needed to support o"erall organisational
goals and indi"idual and team acti"ities. where impro"ements are needed.
> gi"ing tangible e"idence of the extent to which knowledge is being effecti"ely managed and indicates > pro"iding an e"idence>based account of the knowledge that exists in an organisation0 and how that
knowledge mo"es around in0 and is used by0 that organisation. gaps and duplication.
> presenting a map of what knowledge exists in the organisation0 and where it exists0 re"ealing both > identifying pockets of knowledge that are not currently being used to good ad"antage and therefore
offer untapped potential.
> pro"iding a map of knowledge and communication flows and networks0 re"ealing both examples of
good practice and blockages and barriers to good practice.
> presenting an in"entory of knowledge assets0 allowing them to become more "isible and therefore
more measurable and accountable0 and gi"ing a clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to organisational performance.
> supplying "ital information for the de"elopment of effecti"e knowledge management programmes
and initiati"es that are directly rele"ant to the organisation.s specific knowledge needs and current situation.
Some examples of situations in which a knowledge audit can be beneficial include:

> you are about to embark on creating a knowledge management strategy and so need to establish
exactly :where you are now; decisions
> people are ha"ing difficulty in finding the information and knowledge they need to make key > useful sources of information and knowledge are fre4uently stumbled across by accident > there is duplication of information and knowledge gathering acti"ities across different departments or
teams0 and hence duplication of costs
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> 4uestions are being raised about the "alue of knowledge management systems0 initiati"es or
in"estments enough.
> when findings from research and de"elopment are not making their way into practice 4uickly
&'5'% How do I go abo+t )t

/here are a wide "ariety of approaches to conducting a knowledge audit0 with "arying le"els of co"erage and detail. 9s a general rule0 most knowledge audits will in"ol"e some or all of the following: 3dentifying knowledge needs /he first step in most knowledge audits in"ol"es getting clear about precisely what knowledge the organisation and the people and teams within it need in order to meet their goals and ob2ecti"es. 9 knowledge audit pro"ides a systematic way of finding this out to some le"el of detail. #ommon approaches taken to collating this information include 4uestionnaire>based sur"eys0 inter"iews and facilitated group discussions0 or a combination of these. 1n asking people about knowledge needs0 it is important to pro"ide a point of focus0 as :knowledge; can be seen as being 4uite conceptual and therefore difficult to articulate. /o get around this0 and to ensure that you are concentrating on "ital knowledge0 in"ite people to think about their goals and ob2ecti"es0 and the core processes0 acti"ities and decisions that they perform in the course of their day>to>day work. Fou might ask them to also consider their main problems and challenges0 and how might faster access to better knowledge help them in that regard. 1t is always beneficial to begin a knowledge auditing process with identifying knowledge needs. /his enables you to then use your understanding of these needs to guide the rest of the auditing process0 and therefore be sure that you are focusing on the knowledge that is important to the organisation. 2"awing )# a knowledge invento"y 9 knowledge in"entory is a kind of stock>take to identify and locate knowledge assets or resources throughout the organisation. 1t in"ol"es counting and categorising the organisation.s explicit and tacit knowledge. 1n the case of explicit knowledge0 this will include things like:
> what knowledge we ha"e 3 numbers0 types and categories of documents0 databases0 libraries0
intranet websites0 links and subscriptions to external resources etc.<
> where the knowledge is 3 locations in the organisation0 and in its "arious systems< > organisation and access 3 how are knowledge resources organised0 how easy is it for people to find
and access them<
> purpose0 rele"ance and :4uality; 3 why do these resources exist0 how rele"ant and appropriate are
they for that purpose0 are they of good :4uality; e.g. up>to>date0 reliable0 e"idence>based etc.<
> usage 3 are they actually being used0 by whom0 how often0 what for<
1n the case of tacit knowledge0 the in"entory will focus on people and look at things like:
> 6ho we ha"e 3 numbers and categories of people > 6here they are 3 locations in departments0 teams and buildings > 6hat they do 3 2ob le"els and types > 6hat they know 3 academic and professional 4ualifications0 core knowledge and experience > 6hat they are learning 3 on the 2ob training0 learning and de"elopment.
/he knowledge in"entory gi"es you a snapshot of your knowledge assets or resources. 'y comparing your in"entory with your earlier analysis of knowledge needs0 you can begin to identify gaps in your organisation.s knowledge as well as areas of unnecessary duplication. /his is also explored in greater detail in the next step. 'nalysing knowledge flows 6hile an in"entory of knowledge assets shows what knowledge resources your organisation has0 an analysis of knowledge flows looks at how that knowledge mo"es around the organisation 3 from where it is to where it is
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needed. 1n other words0 how do people find the knowledge they need0 and how do they share the knowledge they ha"e< 9gain0 the knowledge flow analysis looks at both explicit and tacit knowledge0 and at people0 processes and systems: /he relati"e focus in this stage is on people: their attitudes towards0 habits and beha"iours concerning0 and skills in0 knowledge sharing and use. /his will usually re4uire a combination of 4uestionnaire>based sur"eys followed up with indi"idual inter"iews and facilitated group discussions. 1n terms of processes0 you will need to look at how people go about their daily work acti"ities and how knowledge seeking0 sharing and use are 7or are not8 part of those acti"ities. 1n most organisations0 there will be pockets of good knowledge management practice 7though they may not be called knowledge management8. Fou will also need to look at what policies and practices currently affect the flows and usage of information and knowledge0 for example are there existing policies on things like information handling0 records management0 web publishing< 9re their other wider policies and practices that0 while not directly related to knowledge management0 act as enablers or barriers to good knowledge practice< =n the systems side0 some assessment is needed of key capabilities that will be used in any recommended actions or solutions. /his includes the technical infrastructure: information technology systems0 content management0 accessibility and ease of use0 and current actual le"els of use. 1n short0 to what extent do your systems effecti"ely facilitate knowledge flows0 and help to connect people with the information and other people they need. 9n analysis of knowledge flows will allow you to further identify gaps in your organisation.s knowledge and areas of duplicationB it will also highlight examples of good practice that can be built on0 as well as blockages and barriers to knowledge flows and effecti"e use. 1t will show where you need to focus attention in your knowledge management initiati"es in order to get knowledge mo"ing from where it is to where it is needed. /"eating a knowledge ma# 9 knowledge map is a "isual representation of an organisation.s knowledge. /here are two common approaches to knowledge mapping: ? /he first simply maps knowledge resources and assets0 showing what knowledge exists in the organisation and where it can be found + /he second also includes knowledge flows0 showing how that knowledge mo"es around the organisation from where it is to where it is needed. #learly the second approach pro"ides the most complete picture for the knowledge auditor. Howe"er0 the first is also useful0 and in some organisations is made a"ailable to all staff to help people locate the knowledge they need.
&'5'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> 'e clear about your purpose. /he knowledge audit is not a 4uick or simple process0 and so the time
and effort re4uired needs to be 2ustified by a clear purpose and a set of actions that will be taken as a result of what the audit re"eals. an organisation.s knowledge is tacit0 hence beware of focusing too much time and energy on explicit knowledge and not enough on tacit knowledge. audit process is itself a good indicator of the status of your current knowledge management capabilities.
> 6hen conducting a knowledge audit0 bear in mind the widely>accepted statistic that around K,P of
> /he ease or difficulty that you ha"e in gathering and collating the information you need as part of the
> 1f you decide to commission a knowledge audit from external consultants0 be aware that the 4uality
and depth of work that comes under the general banner of :knowledge auditing; "aries 4uite. %any "endors use the term :knowledge audit; to describe what is in fact an information audit 3 which will only look at explicit knowledge. 9uditing tacit knowledge is probably where the greater challenge lies0 and is hence the area in which expert help is likely to be most "aluable.
&'5'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

$now %ap 3 the $nowledge %anagement0 9uditing and %apping %agaCine0 has a range of resources about knowledge auditing a"ailable on their site.
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4.4 2evelo#ing a knowledge management st"ategy

&'6'1 W/at )s a 4nowledge management st,ateg*
9 knowledge management strategy is simply a plan that describes how an organisation will manage its knowledge better for the benefit of that organisation and its stakeholders. 9 good knowledge management strategy is closely aligned with the organisation.s o"erall strategy and ob2ecti"es.

9 good0 clear knowledge management strategy can help to:
> increase awareness and understanding of knowledge management in your organisation > articulate the business case and identify potential benefits > gain senior management commitment > attract resources for implementation > communicate good knowledge management practice > gi"e you a clear0 communicable plan about where you are now0 where you want to go0 and how to
plan to get there
> gi"e you a basis against which to measure your progress

/here are many ways to approach the de"elopment of a knowledge management strategy0 as well as many ways of presenting the strategy document itself 3 there is no :one siCe fits all;. Larger organisations will probably need a detailed0 formal strategy document whereas for a smaller organisation something briefer and less formal might be more appropriate. %he st"ategy do$)ment 9s a general guideline0 a strategy of any kind tends to include answers to three key 4uestions: where are we now0 where do we want to be0 and how do we get there< 9 relati"ely brief and informal knowledge management strategy might be structured around these three 4uestions and include things like: ? 6here are we now< 9n assessment of the current situation. How does current knowledge management practice 7or lack of it8 affect the organisation.s ability to meet its goals< How does it affect the effecti"eness of indi"iduals and teams< /o what extent do the organisation.s culture0 processes and systems currently act as enablers of0 or barriers to0 good knowledge management practice< + 6here do we want to be< 9n outline of what knowledge management will do for the organisation. How will it help the organisation and the people in it to meet their ob2ecti"es< 6hat might :good knowledge management practice; look like for this organisation specifically< How will you know when you are there i.e. how will you measure the progress and "alue of your efforts< N How do we get there< &escribing the specific actions that will be taken to get to where you want to be. 9n action plan co"ering the three key elements of people0 processes and technology: what specific knowledge management tools and processes will you useB how will you moti"ate people and realign your organisational culture to a :knowledge friendly; one0 and how will you de"elop the supporting technological infrastructure< 9lso needs to include details of resources re4uired0 deli"erables0 time> scales and responsibilities.
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For the larger organisation re4uiring a more formal and detailed strategy0 &a"id Skyrme 7http://www.skyrme.com/8 suggests the following format:
> 5xecuti"e summary 3 no more than ?>+ pages. > 'ackground 3 gi"ing sufficient context about what initiated this strategy and where this document
fits within the wider context.
> /he case for knowledge management 3 starting with your organisation.s definition of knowledge
management0 then explaining the contribution that better knowledge management will make to your organisation0 based on core organisational ob2ecti"es. experience0 outlining the benefits and explaining how these can be built uponB expose barriers to further progress.
> #urrent knowledge management situation 3 highlight existing knowledge management acti"ities and
> Stakeholders. challenges and knowledge needs 3 summarise the key issues and knowledge needs of
the organisation and rele"ant stakeholders 7e.g. leaders0 staff0 patients0 rele"ant NHS and go"ernment authorities etc.8B include an assessment of the existing 4uality and accessibility of knowledge resources. "ision and mission in one or two sentences eachB this is followed by some key knowledge management ob2ecti"es.
> $nowledge management "ision and strategy o"er"iew 3 it is often useful to encapsulate an inspiring
> &etails of strategy 3 outline the list of acti"ities and pro2ects to be implementedB it is useful to group
these into specific themes or areas of actionB typical themes might include: knowledge management tools and techni4uesB people and cultural aspectsB knowledge management skills de"elopmentB technologyB leadership and go"ernance 7who will own and dri"e the strategy8B communications 7how will the strategy be promoted and rolled out8B and measurement 7how will performance and progress be measured8. and reiterating the benefits.
> 9ction plan 3 gi"e details of deli"erables0 time>scales0 resources and budgets re4uired for all actions0 > &ependencies 3 highlight critical dependencies such as the a"ailability of key personnel0 appro"al of
budgets etc.B also spell out the impact of :doing nothing;. and translate the strategy into action.
> #onclusions/Next Steps 3 a simple outline of what needs to happen next to mo"e the agenda forward > 9ppendices 3 typical appendices might include the findings of a knowledge audit0 some background
material on knowledge management such as definitions0 summaries of any existing knowledge management pro2ects or initiati"es0 etc. 2evelo#ing yo)" st"ategy
1n de"eloping a knowledge management strategy0 "arious practitioners offer a range of tips0 some of which are outlined here: ? Start with your organisation.s strategy and ob2ecti"es /he most important factor in guiding a knowledge management strategy is the organisation.s o"erall strategy and goals. i"en that the whole purpose of knowledge management is to help the organisation to achie"e its goals0 the knowledge management strategy should describe precisely that. 1n order to do that0 you need to understand what your organisational goals are0 and how you are currently performing against them. /alk to key people throughout your organisation about strategy and goals. Look at what "arious departments or functions are doing. &iscuss plans for the future0 and look at factors that influence reaching goals. et a feel for how sub>optimal knowledge management might be currently limiting the organisation in achie"ing its goals0 and how better knowledge management might help it to achie"e them. Look for gaps that could pre"ent the organisation from achie"ing its goals. 9s you talk to people0 be on the look out for the issues that are really causing them problems 3 their :pains;. 9s well as problems0 look for opportunities 3 not only the chance to fix things0 but also the chance to do something new or better. Needs0 problems0 pains and opportunities gi"e you an opening to use knowledge to make a difference.
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9s well as being be an integral part of the wider organisational strategy0 a knowledge management strategy should also be coherent with human resources and information technology strategies. + #onduct a knowledge audit 9 knowledge audit is an in"estigation into an organisation.s knowledge management :health;. 9 typical audit will look at:
6hat are the organisation.s knowledge needs< 6hat knowledge assets or resources does it ha"e and where are they< 6hat gaps exist in its knowledge< How does knowledge flow around the organisation< 6hat blockages are there to that flow< /o what extent do its people0 processes and technology currently support or hamper the
effecti"e knowledge management<
/he knowledge audit can re"eal the organisation.s knowledge management needs0 strengths0 weaknesses0 opportunities0 threats and risks. 1t pro"ides an e"idence>based assessment of where the organisation needs to focus its knowledge management efforts. N /hink about people0 processes and technology 6hen planning your approach to knowledge management0 be sure to address each of the three key aspects of people0 processes and technology. 1t is often said that any knowledge management strategy that does not incorporate all three is destined to fail. A /hink about capturing "ersus connecting 9 key decision in de"eloping your strategy and in selecting knowledge management tools and techni4ues in"ol"es looking at the relati"e focus on explicit and tacit knowledge 3 in other words0 do you want to focus on connecting people with information0 or on connecting people with people< =f course this is not an :either/or; decision and most knowledge management strategies tend to in"ol"e a combination of the twoB the optimal balance between them will depend on your organisational context. - 'alance a long>term "ision with 4uick wins 9 good strategy will reflect a balance between :4uick>wins; and building a sustainable knowledge management capability into the long>term. /he ad"antage of 4uick wins is that they allow people to see immediate benefits0 and therefore they are more likely to gi"e their support. 9s well as seeking a number of 4uick wins0 try not to be o"er>ambitious in the short to medium> term. 9"oid long lists of things to do. Fou cannot change an organisation culture and ingrained work habits o"ernight. )ick a few core acti"ities where you can make a difference0 and prioritise and focus on those. 9t the same time0 do keep your long>term "ision in "iew. O 6hat.s in it for me< aining support and acceptance for your strategy and ultimately embedding knowledge management into the organisation is about winning :hearts and minds;. /hink constantly about addressing the :what.s in it for me<; 4uestion that those whose contribution is needed will in"ariably ask 7and e"en if they don.t ask it in so many words0 you can be fairly sure they are thinking it8. 9lways anticipate that 4uestion from all of those in"ol"ed 3 senior managers0 budget>holders0 middle managers0 staff0 patients0 those departments and functions whose support you will need such as human resources and information technology. 1n answering the :what.s in it for me<; 4uestion0 consider the three key le"els of :me;: myself0 my team/department/function0 and my organisation as a whole. G 'uild the e"idence with pilots /he "ast ma2ority of knowledge management practitioners who ha"e learned from direct experience strongly recommend using a pilot pro2ect as a :test bed; before launching any new knowledge management initiati"es. )ilots ha"e a number of ad"antages: they allow you to test an approach with a small group of users to find what works and what doesn.t0 and to refine your approach and :get it right; before rolling out across the wider organisation. /his means that when rolling out0 you already ha"e e"idence to demonstrate that what you are ad"ocating actually works in practice. Similarly0 your learning and :mistakes; ha"e taken place in a contained en"ironment0 so they will not ha"e a negati"e impact on the organisation as a whole "iew of knowledge management. Fou are
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therefore strongly ad"ised to build pilot pro2ects into your knowledge management strategy before seeking to launch any ma2or new initiati"es.

> 1t is important to define precisely what knowledge management means for your organisation. /here
is no single agreed definition :out there; and gi"en that knowledge management as a concept essentially borrows from a range of other disciplines0 there is a great deal of misunderstanding about what is actually in"ol"ed. )eople from an information management background might ha"e one "iewpointB those working in information technology will tend to ha"e another0 those in human resources another still0 etc. 9 clear and common understanding of what it means in your organisation is therefore essential. can :do; knowledge management. %ore often than not0 knowledge management initiati"es begin before there is a strategy. 1n fact many practitioners acti"ely ad"ocate it0 belie"ing that a strategy only becomes appropriate once knowledge management initiati"es ha"e :had their honeymoon period; and are ready to be formally organised and endorsed. strategies read as if they ha"e come straight from a textbook 7and some probably ha"e8. Four strategy needs to be :real.0 written in the language of your organisation0 and rele"ant to your organisation.s situation. Similarly0 be creati"e in making it interesting and bringing it ali"e.
> &on.t think you ha"e to wait until you ha"e a knowledge management strategy in place before you
> 9 common mistake is a strategy that is too theoretical and :dry;. %any knowledge management
> 9gain0 don.t forget the :what.s in it for me<; 4uestion. #learly demonstrate the benefits of
knowledge management throughout your strategy. How will it reduce costs and time0 impro"e performance0 increase efficiency0 reduce risk0 etc.< Jse real examples.
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4.5 6xit inte"views

&'7'1 W/at a,e e=)t )nte,()ews
/raditionally0 exit inter"iews are conducted with employees lea"ing an organisation. /he purpose of the inter"iew is to pro"ide feedback on why employees are lea"ing0 what they liked or didn.t like about their employment and what areas of the organisation they feel need impro"ement. 5xit inter"iews are one of the most widely used methods of gathering employee feedback0 along with employee satisfaction sur"eys. %ore recently0 the concept of exit inter"iewing has been re"isited and expanded as a knowledge management tool0 as a way of capturing knowledge from lea"ers. Iather than simply capturing human resources information0 the inter"iew also aims to capture knowledge about what it takes to do the 2ob.
&'7'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts of e=)t )nte,()ews

> "ital knowledge is not lost to the organisation when people lea"e > the learning cur"e of new people 2oining the organisation is shortened > they can be done relati"ely 4uickly and inexpensi"ely > they can result in the lea"er ha"ing a more positi"e "iew of the organisation
&one correctly0 exit inter"iews can be a win>win situation for both the organisation and the lea"er. /he organisation gets to retain a portion of the lea"er.s knowledge and make it a"ailable to others0 while the lea"er gets to articulate their uni4ue contributions to the organisation and to :lea"e their mark;.

/raditional exit inter"iews can be conducted in a "ariety of ways: face>to>face0 o"er the telephone0 using a written 4uestionnaire0 or "ia the 1nternet using an exit inter"iew management system. 1n a knowledge>focused exit inter"iew0 a face>to>face inter"iew is needed. Fou will need to think carefully about the information you would like to gather before the inter"iew and start your preparations early. 6hile the traditional exit inter"iew will tend to collect mainly human resources information0 the primary focus of the knowledge>focused inter"iew is on knowledge that would be helpful to the next person who will do the 2ob or to others in the organisation doing similar 2obs. Start planning the hando"er and exit inter"iew as soon as you know a person is lea"ing. 1dentify who in the organisation might benefit from that person.s knowledge and what they will need to know. /hen work out a plan to capture the lea"er.s knowledge during the time remaining before they lea"e. /his should include both explicit knowledge 7knowledge that is already documented such as in files and e>mails0 and knowledge that can be easily documented80 and tacit knowledge 7knowledge that is less easy to capture and that needs to be explained or demonstrated8. 1n the case of explicit knowledge0 make sure the lea"er mo"es rele"ant files 3 both hard copy and electronic 3 into shared folders or a document library. 9sk them to prune and organise these files and to create role and task folders or notes for their successor. For tacit knowledge0 you will need to inter"iew the lea"er face>to>face. )repare for the inter"iew by re"iewing the key tasks the person does based on a 2ob description or annual performance plan. Fou can then use that information as the basis for discussing how they go about those tasks0 what knowledge and skills they need0 any problems or pitfalls to be aware of etc. Find out about their network of contacts and sources of knowledge. 1f possible0 create an o"erlap period between the lea"er and their successor so that a :li"e; hando"er can be done. 6hen conducting exit inter"iews0 think carefully about who will be the inter"iewer. Someone from the Human Iesources &epartment conducts traditional exit inter"iews. Howe"er this need not be the case in the knowledge> focused inter"iew. =ften a peer or a rele"ant sub2ect expert will be most appropriate. ="er and abo"e the ob"ious interpersonal and inter"iewing skills needed0 you will need to consider issues of trust and honesty. For example0 if an employee has had a difficult relationship with a manager or colleague0 that person might not be best placed to conduct the inter"iew. 6hoe"er you select0 make sure they are appropriately skilled and trained.
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> /raditional exit inter"iews are usually only appropriate for employees who "oluntarily resign or retire
rather than those who are fired or made redundant. 1n the case of the knowledge>focused inter"iew0 much will depend on the extent to which the organisation has a culture that encourages knowledge sharing. gather itB the purpose of the inter"iew is not to gather knowledge per se0 but to gather useful knowledge that will actually be used.
> 'e clear about who will use the knowledge gathered and how it will be used0 before you begin to
> /he less you capture knowledge on a regular basis0 the more you need to capture it at exit. Howe"er
you may decide that you could gain more "alue from capturing knowledge at more regular inter"als. For example0 /he )ost =ffice uses exit inter"iews as one part of a series of :cradle>to>gra"e; inter"iews to collect knowledge0 using a method called N5. /he three 5s are 5ntry0 5xpert and 5xit. 5ntry inter"iews allow you to gather knowledge when employees first 2oin the organisation when they ha"e :new eyes; and a fresh perspecti"e0 and also to ask them what they would like to know to help them :get up to speed;. 5xpert inter"iews are conducted as they de"elop skills and become experts in a particular role or field. For more information about this wider approach0 see knowledge har"esting.
&'7'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

Le"erage exit inter"iews to collect key knowledge by )amela Holloway 3 6orkforce %anagement. 7Iegistration re4uired but this is free8 /ips and /echni4ues for 5ffecti"e 5xit 1nter"iews by )amela Holloway. &isappearing knowledge: are exit inter"iews the wit.s end< by &a"id Skyrme 3 1N Jpdate0 +,,?0 No"ember0 No --
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4.7 3dentifying and sha"ing best #"a$ti$es

&'9'1 W/at )s )dent)f*)ng and s/a,)ng best -,a3t)3es
/he sharing of practices is often one of the first things to be carried out in a knowledge management initiati"e. 1n most organisations it is already being done to some degree. /his often begins with common practices such as instruction manuals or :how to; guidelines. /he next step from there is to identify and share best practices. 9 best practice is simply a process or a methodology that represents the most effecti"e way of achie"ing a specific ob2ecti"e. Some people prefer to use the term :good practice; as in reality it is debatable whether there is a single :best; approach 3 and0 of course0 approaches are constantly e"ol"ing and being updated. So0 another way of defining a best practice is one that has been pro"en to work well and produce good results0 and is therefore recommended as a model. %uch of best practice knowledge is tacit 3 held in people.s heads and not always easy to document. /herefore0 most best practice programmes combine two key elements: explicit knowledge such as a best practices database 7connecting people with information80 and methods for sharing tacit knowledge such as communities of practice 7connecting people with people8. /hese two approaches are complementary. 9 database can pro"ide enough information for a potential user of the best practice to find it and decide if it is worth pursuing further. Howe"er0 the best way of sharing best practices is :on the 2ob; and so communities and personal contact with others who ha"e used the best practice is key.

/he essence of identifying and sharing best practices is to learn from others and to re>use knowledge. 5ffecti"e sharing of best practices can help organisations to:
> identify and replace poor practices > raise the performance of poor performers closer to that of the best > a"oid rein"enting the wheel > minimiCe re>work caused by use of poor methods > sa"e costs through better producti"ity and efficiency > impro"e ser"ices to patients
'est practice programmes are most appropriate in organisations where processes are 4uite well de"eloped and where a certain amount of knowledge and experience has been accumulated. /hey are most useful where an organisation has se"eral units or people performing similar tasks but who are widely dispersed and so do not tend to learn from each other through day>to>day contact.

1n :'est )ractices in 'est )ractices;0 &a"id Skyrme recommends a O>step approach to identifying and sharing best practices. /his is summarised here. /he o"erall approach is aimed at documenting the essential features of a best practice0 gi"ing pointers to rele"ant experts in that practice0 deducing general guidelines0 diffusing basic knowledge0 and using sub2ect matter experts to apply and adapt the practices in a new context. /he key steps are as follows: ? 1dentify users. re4uirements /his step may sound ob"ious0 but it is not uncommon for someone gi"en the task of capturing best practices to start by designing a database0 when clearly this is a case of putting the cart before the horse. Start by considering where you can really add "alue. Look at what areas of the organisation need attention because of poor performance or difficult challenges. 6ho can most benefit from better knowledge and understanding of best practices< How will they access and use them<
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+ &isco"er good practices /here are "arious methods of identifying best practices. =ne approach is to look at who is producing excellent results and is therefore likely to be using good practices. Ha"ing disco"ered these people0 you will then need to discern which parts of their o"erall approach or methods being used are rele"ant practices such as sub2ect matter experts0 internal auditors0 consultants and peers. 9 range of alternati"e approaches for identifying best practices can be found within "arious knowledge management tools. /hese include communities of practice0 after action re"iews0 knowledge har"esting and exit inter"iews. &on.t necessarily limit your search to only include practices within your organisationB much can be learned from the practices of other organisations in your field0 or e"en organisations in other industries. N &ocument good practices 'est practice descriptions are usually kept in a database in a standard format. 9 typical template might include the following sections:
/itle: short0 descripti"e titleB this can be accompanied by a short abstract. )rofile: se"eral short sections outlining processes0 function0 author0 keywords0 etc. #ontext: where is this applicable< 6hat problems does it sol"e< Iesources: what resources and skills are needed to carry out the best practice< &escription: what are the processes and steps in"ol"ed< 1mpro"ement measures: are there performance measures associated with this practice< Lessons learned: what pro"es difficult< 6hat would the originators of the practice do differently
if they were to do it again<
Links to resources: experts contact details0 workbooks0 "ideo clips0 articles0 transcripts of re"iew
meetings0 tools and techni4ues used.
/he aim at this stage is not to describe the practice in great detail0 but to gi"e enough information to allow users of the database to decide whether it matches their needs and where they can find further information. 9 key consideration is how you can organiCe and classify the information in your database so that users can readily find what they need. A Halidate best practices 9 practice is only :good; or :best; if there is a demonstrable link between what is practised and the end result. 1n most organisations0 and especially in areas where practices are constantly e"ol"ing0 rigorous cause>and>effect analysis is impracticable. Hence a degree of sub2ecti"e 2udgement is needed as to what constitutes :best;. 9 common approach is to ha"e a panel of re"iewers compromising internal and external sub2ect experts and peers0 who e"aluate a potential best practice against their knowledge of existing practice. 1t is e4ually important to ensure that you seek input and feedback from customers 7i.e. the ultimate beneficiaries0 such as patients8 of the best practices. 1n the context of the NHS0 a further important consideration is that of e"idence>based practice. 6hen identifying and "alidating best practices0 it is important to ensure that these are based on a combination of both on>the>2ob experience and sound research e"idence. - &isseminate and apply 6hile a database of best practices is a useful starting point0 most organisations find it essential to complement this with face>to>face knowledge sharing about those best practices. /his is where the real "alue is added. Not only does it help the recipient dig beneath the explicit knowledge and gain more in depth insights0 but it can also pro"ide a two>benefit in that dialogue between the con"eyor of best practice knowledge and the recipient can enrich the knowledge of both. #ommon ways of sharing best practice knowledge include: communities of practiceB impro"ement groups or 4uality circles in which teams within an organisation meet regularly to discuss ways of impro"ing a processB "isits to other departments or organisations with good performanceB organised learning e"ents such as share fairs or knowledge caf!s0 that bring people together to share specific knowledge and experienceB 2ob secondments or exchangesB etc.
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O &e"elop a supporting infrastructure /o successfully implement a best practice programme0 you need to ensure you ha"e the re4uired infrastructure in place. /his infrastructure is often de"eloped as part of a wider knowledge management strategy. /ypically0 se"eral generic aspects need attention:
/he people to facilitate and dri"e the process through its initial stages0 until it becomes
embedded in the organisation.s ways of working 7e.g. a best practices team0 or a network of best practices co>ordinators8.
/he technical infrastructure for document sharing and databases. /he content management infrastructure to ensure that best practices are documented and
classified electronically in a way that makes them easy to find.

> 5stablishing a programme to identify and share best practice is not generally a :4uick fix; solution for
organisations that are relati"ely new to knowledge management. Setting up the re4uired processes and infrastructure can be 4uite a big task0 unless you already ha"e some aspects of a knowledge management infrastructure in place. /he ease with which good practices emerge and are shared depends on the culture of your organisation. 1f there is a :not in"ented here; culture0 then good practices will be slow to emerge and spread0 as each part of the organisation will defend its own way of doing things rather than learning from0 and shearing with0 others. 6here people are generally encouraged to seek out knowledge and learning0 best practices are more likely to emerge and spread.
> 9s with an knowledge management initiati"e0 don.t forget the importance of moti"ation and culture.
> /ry not to get too prescripti"e about best practices. Iather than putting in rigid rules that say :this is
best practice and you should follow it;0 focus more on encouraging people to de"elop and share best practices "oluntarily. Focus on how they can be used to add "alue. 6ho are the users< 6hat are their issues< 6hat kind of knowledge do they need to perform better< How might they best assimilate that knowledge< databases and people that are under>used and not fulfilling their potential.
> &o not make the mistake of focusing on capturing best practices for the sake of capturing them.
> Fou will need to acti"ely promote your best practice resources. =therwise you may end up with > 'e sure to demonstrate the benefits and the e"idence. Jse case examples to show the benefits of
sharing best practices0 and as far as possible demonstrate how a best practice has contributed to better performance.
> Iemember that best practice is constantly e"ol"ing. /herefore feedback mechanisms must be built in
so that the "alue of existing best practices is constantly assessed0 and feedback used to create further impro"ements. databases of best practices are insufficient. &atabases point to examples and people0 but it is through people that deep knowledge is transferred.
> Iesist the temptation to focus on explicit knowledge 3 it cannot be emphasised enough that
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4.8 (nowledge $ent"es

&':'1 W/at a,e 4nowledge 3ent,es
1n short0 an enhanced "ersion of a library. /he :enhancement; lies in a wider focus on knowledge as well as on information: a knowledge centre typically pro"ides a focus for collecting0 organising and disseminating both knowledge and information. /his does not necessarily mean that the knowledge centre will actually perform all of these acti"ities itself. Iather0 it will create a framework and pro"ide leadership0 co>ordination0 guidance and expertise.
&':'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

9 knowledge centre can bring core knowledge management responsibilities and acti"ities under a single umbrella rather than lea"ing it to dispersed indi"iduals and teams. 5conomies of scale can therefore be achie"ed through:
> a"oiding duplication of effort and resourcesB > pooling expertiseB > achie"ing bulk purchasing discountsB > reusing knowledge and information in a "ariety of contexts.
&':'% How do I go abo+t )t

/he ser"ices that a typical knowledge centre might pro"ide include:
> %aintaining and de"eloping knowledge repositories e.g. the organisation.s intranet0 key information
databases and collections.
> )ro"iding content management ser"ices such as cataloguing0 indexing and de"eloping taxonomies for
electronic knowledge repositories.
> #oordinating the capturing of knowledge from pro2ects and assignments and incorporating it into
knowledge bases such as databases of best practices and/or case studies. organisation.
> 1dentifying and forming links with sources of important knowledge0 both inside and outside the > )ro"iding pointers to people as well as to information 3 connecting people who need help with
people who can pro"ide it0 identifying sub2ect experts0 maintaining a skills database0 connecting people who share similar needs or are working on similar problems0 etc.
> )ro"iding a :one stop shop; for multiple knowledge and information needs. > )ro"iding pointers to resources and/or training in information and knowledge skills.
ood knowledge centres will put as much emphasis on connecting people with people 3 :know>who; 3 as they do on connecting people with information and document collections. /hey will be concerned with :acti"e; not :archi"e; knowledge0 so need to be fully up to speed with what is happening in the organisation including current priorities and work in progress 3 :who is doing what now;. $nowledge centres may also be created for "ery specific goals. For example in the ?@@,s0 consulting firm 5rnst D Foung created three knowledge centres0 each with a distinct remit: ? the #entre for 'usiness 1nno"ation would create new knowledge through research0 + the #entre for 'usiness /echnology would use existing knowledge to create predefined methods and automated tools0 and N the #entre for 'usiness $nowledge would gather and store the firm.s internal and external knowledge and information resources.
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/he ser"ices of the latter included a library0 a call centre for answering consultant re4uests0 and a database of consultant skills. %anagers of the centre also had responsibility for identifying and tracking sub2ect matter experts0 and for organising knowledge networks around each key domain of knowledge within the business. 9nother key task of the centre was to de"elop a knowledge architecture and taxonomy0 in order to specify the categories and terms in which the firm needed to gather and store knowledge. $ey areas of knowledge were represented by :)ower )acks; 3 structured sets of online resources and materials including answers to fre4uently encountered issues.
&':'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

$nowledge centres0 while similar to libraries0 are not the same. 9 knowledge centre is based on the idea that knowledge resides primarily in people rather than in documents or computer systems. Hence in a knowledge centre0 there is a strong emphasis on connecting people with each other0 as well as with information.
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4.19 (nowledge ha"vesting

&'1;'1 W/at )s 4nowledge /a,(est)ng
$nowledge har"esting is an approach that allows the tacit knowledge or know>how of experts and top performers in an organisation to be captured and documented. /his know>how can then be made a"ailable to others in "arious ways such as through training programmes0 manuals0 best practices and knowledge management databases. $nowledge in organisations exists in two forms: explicit knowledge0 which is easily captured and sharedB and tacit knowledge0 which is more experiential and intuiti"e0 and so is less easy to articulate. $nowledge har"esting is about trying to make some of the tacit knowledge more explicit. 1ts aim is to help organisations make better and wider use of their existing knowledge by extracting it from the heads of a few key people and making it a"ailable to a much wider range of people.
&'1;'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

/he ultimate goal of knowledge har"esting is to capture an expert.s decision>making processes with enough clarity that someone else could repeat the same processes and get the same results. $nowledge har"esting can be effecti"ely used in a range of situations such as:
> 6hen an organisation wants to :know what it knows;. > 6hen knowledge and information are needed for a specific0 clearly defined0 purpose. > /o capture the knowledge of employees who are lea"ing the organisation or department. > /o gather knowledge to support a process of change or impro"ement. > /o kick>start a knowledge management programme by 4uickly generating a body of expert
knowledge about a sub2ect and making it a"ailable across the organisation.
> 9s an ongoing practice0 as part of a wider knowledge management strategy.
/he benefits of knowledge har"esting include:

> /he knowledge of a few key indi"iduals is made readily a"ailable to others who need it. > 1ndi"iduals can access experts. knowledge when and where they need it0 without being dependent
on the a"ailability of that expert.
> Hital knowledge is not lost to the organisation when people lea"e. > /he learning cur"e of new people 2oining the organisation is shortened. > /he tangible knowledge assets of the organisation can be increased. > )roducti"ity and efficiency can be impro"ed0 as people can use existing expertise rather than ha"ing
to go through their own trial>and>error experiences.
> 1t can be done relati"ely 4uickly and inexpensi"ely.
&'1;'% How do I go abo+t )t

6hile there is no set formula for knowledge har"esting0 there are some general guidelines that facilitate the process. /hese can be broken down into a number of steps. :o$)s &ecide on what specific knowledge and expertise you want to capture0 and be clear about what the benefits will be. 1t is neither possible nor desirable to capture e"erything that e"eryone knows. Fou need to focus on the knowledge that is most important to the success of your organisation. Start by looking at your organisation.s goals and ob2ecti"es. 6hat do you need to do better0 or continue to do well0 in order to achie"e those ob2ecti"es< How does knowledge support you in doing that<
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5xamples of key knowledge might be:

> knowledge about0 or a relationship with0 a particular type of patient or a supplier > key operational processes > a key system0 technology or piece of e4uipment > a specific illness0 disease or treatment > the organisational culture0 the internal infrastructure0 :how to get things done around here;
;nde"stand yo)" ta"get a)dien$e 1t is important to understand who will be using the knowledge that you are capturing before you start to capture it. /his will help you ensure you capture the right knowledge at the right le"el0 and make it a"ailable in the most appropriate ways. #onsider who will be your target audience0 how many of them there are0 where they are located0 what their needs are 3 what do they need to know about this specific sub2ectB what is their current le"el of knowledge and experience of itB how will they apply the knowledgeB what access to they ha"e to "arious media such as an intranetB etc.< :ind yo)" ex#e"ts 1dentify the experts 3 the people who ha"e the knowledge and know>how you are seeking to capture. 1f you ha"e a staff directory that includes details people.s skills and knowledge then this is a good place to start. =therwise you might look at key documents on a sub2ect and see who authored them0 or ask managers and staff working in the area. 'ear in mind that experts are not necessarily the most senior people in the organisation. =nce you ha"e found your experts0 you can then collate some rele"ant background information about them including 2ob descriptions0 roles and responsibilities0 education and training0 work experience etc. /hoose yo)" ha"veste"s 9n effecti"e har"ester 7inter"iewer8 is crucial. %uch of the success of knowledge har"esting relies on the ability of the inter"iewer to elicit the right knowledge from experts. %aking tacit knowledge explicit can be difficult 3 people often don.t :know what they know; and so helping people to talk about what they know0 and then capturing that effecti"ely0 is a key skill. 1t is generally recommended that you use a trained har"ester 3 whether you hire an external consultant0 or de"elop and train someone in>house. 1n the latter case0 consider people with strong communication0 interpersonal and inter"iewing skills0 such as recruiters0 researchers0 trainers0 counsellors or nurses. <a"vest& inte"view yo)" ex#e"ts /he best way to capture tacit knowledge is using one>to>one0 face>to>face inter"iews with your experts. /he inter"iews will in"ol"e asking them to talk about what they do and to describe specific situations in which they ha"e applied specific know>how. 1nter"iews need to be well prepared in ad"ance0 including drafting a topic guide or a list of 4uestions. 5xamples of 4uestions might include:
> &escribe a time whenM< > 6hat.s the first thing you do< > How do you know to do that< > How do you know when to do it< > 6hat do you do next< 6hy< > 6hat usually happens< > 6hat happens if something else is done< > 6hat would happen ifM< > 6ho else is in"ol"ed< > 6hat are some common mistakes or misconceptions< > 6hat is the most important thing to remember when you.re doing this< > &escribe how you currently help others learn how to do this<
&
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> 6hat are the main obstacles that pre"ent them from achie"ing the same results as you< > 6hat are examples of support materials0 documents0 procedures0 manuals0 research e"idence0 check>
lists that are rele"ant<
> 6hat would make this process easier to understand< > 6hat would make this process easier to achie"e< > 5tc.
1n order to effecti"ely capture the responses0 you will need either a tape recorder or a second person to transcribe the inter"iew. Some practitioners recommend a process in which the har"ester conducts initial inter"iews with experts0 and then presents the results to a group representing the e"entual users of that knowledge. 9ny gaps in what the users need to know0 or in their understanding of what has been captured0 can then be used to form the basis of a second round of expert inter"iewing. /his process of cycling between experts and e"entual users can be in"aluable in ensuring a fit between what is needed and what is being captured. ="ganise! #a$kage and sha"e =nce the knowledge has been gathered it can then be edited0 organised and presented 7or :packaged;8 into a form that meets the needs of its users. /his may be a check>list0 a manual or a set of guidelines etc. that can then be made a"ailable either in hard copy or 7ideally0 assuming your users ha"e easy access to a computer8 in a knowledge database or on the organisation.s intranet. 1n some cases0 the information is loaded into interacti"e software to pro"ide an online tool to help users through rele"ant decision>making processes. For example0 such a system might pro"ide a "ariety of multiple>choice 4uestions that guide the user to define a problem and apply the rele"ant criteria to sol"e it. '##ly! eval)ate and ada#t 1t is important to ensure that the knowledge you ha"e captured is being accessed and applied and that users are getting "alue from it. Fou will also need to consider its "alue o"er time: knowledge har"esting can result in relati"ely static documents that will0 at some point0 become out>of>date and so they will need to be continually refreshed if they are to retain their "alue.
&'1;'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> 'efore embarking on a knowledge har"esting programme0 you need to consider whether your
organisation.s culture is one that encourages knowledge sharing. Successful knowledge gathering and sharing is unlikely to happen if people feel they would be at a disad"antage by sharing their knowledge. For example0 experts may feel that their status or 2ob security depends on keeping their knowledge to themsel"es. For more information about organisational culture0 see )eople. knowledge you ha"e har"ested and that you ha"e the resources to do so. =therwise you could end up with a stock of potentially useful knowledge that is going to waste.
> 'efore you begin0 be sure that you are clear on how you intend to package and make a"ailable the
> Not all tacit knowledge can be made explicit. /here will always be aspects of know>how and
experience that remain tacit. For those aspects0 you will need to apply other knowledge management tools. /he challenge is therefore to determine how much of the tacit knowledge in your organisation can be har"ested and made explicit0 and how much is best approached in another way. documenting tacit knowledge. /heir "iew is that there is greater "alue in connecting people with each other so that they can share their tacit knowledge through :li"e; discussion and collaboration0 and so they fa"our knowledge management tools such as communities of practice0 storytelling0 white pages and expertise directories0 etc. 1n practice0 it is wise to look at a combination of approaches0 and adapt them to the specific needs and circumstances of your organisation.
> Some knowledge management practitioners feel that it is a mistake to focus on capturing and
&'1;'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

$nowledgeHar"esting.org /he website of a JS>based knowledge management consulting firm specialising in knowledge har"esting. /he site has a useful range of training documents concerning knowledge har"esting.
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4.11 0ee" assists

&'11'1 W/at a,e -ee, ass)sts
9 peer assist is simply a process where a team of people who are working on a pro2ect or acti"ity call a meeting or workshop to seek knowledge and insights from people in other teams. 6hile seeking help from peers is certainly not new0 the formal use of this process as a knowledge management tool and the coining of the term :peer assist; were pioneered by 'ritish )etroleum 7')8.

> )eer assists are part of a process of what ') calls :learning before doing;0 in other words gathering
knowledge before embarking on a pro2ect or piece of work0 or when facing a specific problem or challenge within a piece of work. /he benefits of peer assists are therefore 4uickly realised: learning is directly focused on a specific task or problem0 and so it can be applied immediately. to identify possible new lines of en4uiry or approach 3 in short0 reusing existing knowledge and experience rather than ha"ing to rein"ent the wheel. )eer assists also ha"e wider benefits: they promote sharing of learning between teams0 and de"elop strong networks among people. any new0 unfamiliar processes.
> 9 peer assist allows the team in"ol"ed to gain input and insights from people outside the team0 and
> )eer assists are relati"ely simple and inexpensi"e to do: they do not re4uire any special resources or > 1t is worth using a peer assist when a team is facing a challenge0 where the knowledge and
experience of others will really help0 and when the potential benefits outweigh the costs of tra"el.

/here is no single right way to hold a peer assist. /he following is a method that has worked well for '). ? #larify your purpose )eer assists work well when the purpose is clear and you communicate that purpose to participants. &efine the specific problem you are seeking help with0 and be sure that your aim in calling a peer assist is to learn something 7rather than seeking endorsement for a decision you ha"e already made8. + Has the problem already been sol"ed< &o some research to find out who else has already sol"ed or tackled a similar problem. 9lso0 share your peer assist plans with others0 as there may be other teams who are currently tackling a similar problem who could also benefit from participating in the peer assist. N et a facilitator Fou will need a facilitator from outside the team0 to make sure the meeting participants reach their desired outcome. /he facilitator also may or may not record the e"ent: be sure to agree on that before the meeting.
A /iming is important 5nsure that you plan a date for the peer assist that is early enough in your pro2ect to make use of the input you recei"e and to do something different on the basis of what you ha"e learned. 9 fre4uent mistake is to hold the meeting too close to the decision date to make a real impact. #onsider that you might get a different response to the one you expect: will you ha"e time to do anything about it< /he length of a peer assist depends on the complexity of the problem and tends to be somewhere between half a day and two days long.
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- Select the participants =nce you are clear on your purpose0 select participants who ha"e the di"ersity of knowledge0 skills and experiences needed for the peer assist. Six to eight people is a good number. Look :across; the organisation rather than :up; it 3 hierarchies can hamper the free exchange of knowledge whereas peers tend to be much more open with each other and can challenge without feeling threatened. 9"oid the temptation to select :the usual suspects;: if the same experts are selected for peer assists again and again0 you may be limiting the number of fresh ideas and perspecti"es a"ailable to you. Similarly0 seek to select people who will challenge your ways of thinking and working and perhaps offer a different angle0 rather than looking for people who will "alidate your current approach. Fou might consider in"iting people from outside your organisation. O et clear about the deli"erables et clear on what you hope to achie"e during the peer assist and then plan the time to achie"e that. /he deli"erables should comprise options and insights rather than pro"iding an answer. 1t is up to the person or team who called the peer assist to then make the rele"ant decisions0 based on what is learned. )ro"ide the participants with any briefing materials in ad"ance so that they ha"e ade4uate time to prepare.
G 9llow time for socialising 9llow time in your agenda for the teams to get to know one anotherB this might be a dinner the night before or time for coffee at the start of the day. 1t is important to build rapport so that the group can work openly together. K &efine the purpose and set the ground rules 9t the start of the meeting0 ensure that e"eryone is clear about the purpose of the peer assist and their roles within it. /he role of the host team is to listen in order to understand and learn. /he role of the "isiting team is to share knowledge and experience to help resol"e the challenge without adding to the workload. 9gree that where there are areas of contention0 you will focus on the acti"ity rather than the indi"idual people in"ol"ed. @ Start by sharing information and context &i"ide the meeting time roughly into four e4ual parts. &uring the first 4uarter0 the host team will present the context0 history and their future plans regarding the problem or challenge in 4uestion. $eep this part short and sharp 3 you only want to say enough to get the "isiting team started in the right direction. Iemember that the purpose of the peer assist is to learn rather than tell. 6hen communicating the problem or challenge about which you are seeking input0 be prepared for it to be redefined as part of the peer assist process. 1t may be that the problem you ha"e identified is in fact the symptom of a further problem and the peer assist will help you identify the root cause. ?, 5ncourage the "isitors to ask 4uestions and gi"e feedback 1n the second 4uarter0 the "isitors consider what they ha"e heard0 and then begin by discussing what they ha"e heard that has surprised them0 and what they expected to hear but ha"en.t. /he host team should take a back seat at this stage and simply listenB in some cases they may e"en opt to lea"e the room. /he "isitors then consider what else they need to know to address the problem and where might they find that knowledge. 1t may be that they want to make some telephone calls and talk to some other people0 or re4uest some data or reports. Iemember0 they are not seeking to sol"e the problem but to offer some options and insights based on their own knowledge and experience. ?? 9nalyse what you ha"e heard /he third 4uarter of the meeting is for the "isiting team to then analyse and reflect on what they ha"e learned and to examine options. 9gain0 the home team remains largely in the back seatB it might be appropriate to in"ol"e one or two of them0 pro"ided that they continue to listen and learn rather than closing off options or seeking to draw conclusions too early. ?+ )resent the feedback and agree actions 1n the fourth and final 4uarter of the meeting0 the "isiting team presents their feedback to the host team and answers any 4uestions. /he presentation will be along the lines of :what we ha"e learned0 what options we see0 and what has worked elsewhere;. 9s with all feedback0 this should start with the positi"e 3 what has been done well0 and then what options there are to do things differently. 6hen presenting what has worked elsewhere0 presenters should simply tell the story rather than prescribing :you shouldM;
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1n closing0 the person who called the peer assist should acknowledge the contribution of the "isiting team0 and also commit to when he or she will get back with an action list of what the team are going to do differently. Finally0 in"ite the "isiting team to reflect on what they ha"e learned and what they will take away and apply. Learning is ne"er one>way.

> 1n the context of the NHS0 an important consideration is that of e"idence>based practice. 6hen
conducting peer assists0 you will need to ensure that lessons learned are based on a combination of both on>the>2ob experience and sound research e"idence. process went according to plan0 what was different and why0 and what can you learn from that for the next time.
> Fou might wish to carry out an 9fter 9ction Ie"iew following your peer assist to look at whether the
> 6hile the peer assist process is designed to pro"ide input for a specific purpose or pro2ect0 consider
who else might benefit from the lessons learned. 9lways look out for opportunities to share and re> use knowledge and learning.
&'11'5 #eso+,3es and ,efe,en3es

9s the peer assist process was pioneered by ')0 the abo"e information was taken exclusi"ely from the following two key sources. /hese sources easily pro"ide enough information to get started. #ollison0 #hris and )arcell eoff. 7+,,?8 Learning to fly: practical lessons from one of the world.s leading knowledge companies. =xford: #apstone. #hapter O: Learning from your peers. 7/his book as a whole is well worth a read 3 refreshingly low on theory and 2argon0 and high on sound0 practical ad"ice based on pro"en results8. #ollison0 #hris #ollison )arcell0 eoff. Learning before doing: ').s peer assist process. $nowledge %anagement %agaCine0 +,,?0 Holume A0 1ssue ?, 9n article that draws on the information in the chapter O of the abo"e book.
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4.12 So$ial >etwo"k 'nalysis

&'1!'1 W/at )s so3)al netwo,4 anal*s)s
:Social network analysis is the mapping and measuring of relationships and flows between people0 groups0 organisations0 computers or other information/knowledge processing entities.; 7Haldis $rebs0 +,,+8. 1n the context of knowledge management0 social network analysis 7SN98 enables relationships between people to be mapped in order to identity knowledge flows: who do people seek information and knowledge from< 6ho do they share their information and knowledge with< 1n contrast to an organisation chart which shows formal relationships 3 who works where and who reports to whom0 a social network analysis chart shows informal relationships 3 who knows who and who shares information and knowledge with who. 1t therefore allows managers to "isualise and understand the many relationships that can either facilitate or impede knowledge creation and sharing. 'ecause these relationships are normally in"isible0 SN9 is sometimes referred to as an :organisational x>ray; 3 showing the real networks that operate underneath the surface organisational structure.
&'1!'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

=nce social relationships and knowledge flows can be seen0 they can be e"aluated and measured. /he results of social network analyses can be used at the le"el of indi"iduals0 departments or organisations to:
> identify teams and indi"iduals playing central roles 3 thought leaders0 key knowledge brokers0
experts0 etc.B
> identify isolated teams or indi"idualsB > detect information bottlenecksB > spot opportunities for knowledge flow impro"ementsB > accelerate the flow of knowledge and information across functional and organisational boundariesB > impro"e the effecti"eness of formal communication channelsB > target opportunities where increased knowledge flow will ha"e the most impactB > raise awareness of the importance of informal networks.
&'1!'% How do I go abo+t )t

/he process of social network analysis typically in"ol"es the use of 4uestionnaires and/or inter"iews to gather information about the relationships between a defined group or network of people. /he responses gathered are then mapped using a software tool specifically designed for the purpose 7see Iesources and references below for examples8. /his data gathering and analysis process pro"ides a baseline against which you can then plan and prioritise the appropriate changes and inter"entions to impro"e the social connections and knowledge flows within the group or network. $ey stages of the process will typically include:
> 1dentifying the network of people to be analysed 7e.g. team0 work group0 department8. >
athering background information 3 inter"iewing managers and key staff to understand the specific needs and problems.
> #larifying ob2ecti"es0 defining the scope of the analysis and agreeing the le"el of reporting re4uired. > Formulating hypotheses and 4uestions. > &e"eloping the sur"ey methodology and designing the 4uestionnaire. > Sur"eying the indi"iduals in the network to identify the relationships and knowledge flows between
them.
> Jse a software mapping tool to "isually map out the network.
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> Ie"iewing the map and the problems and opportunities highlighted using inter"iews and/or
workshops.
> &esigning and implementing actions to bring about desired changes. > %apping the network again after a suitable period of time.
&'1!'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

1n order for SN9 maps to be meaningful0 it is important to know what information you need to gather in order to build a rele"ant picture of your group or network. ood sur"ey design and 4uestionnaire design are therefore key considerations. Luestions will be typically based on factors such as:
> 6ho knows who and how well< > How well do people know each other.s knowledge and skills< > 6ho or what gi"es people information about xyC< > 6hat resources do people use to find information/feedback/ideas/ad"ice about xyC< > 6hat resources do people use to share information about xyC<
&'1!'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

Hanneman0 Iobert. 1ntroduction to social network methods. 9n online book a"ailable here 1nternational Network for Social Network 9nalysis
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4.13 Sto"ytelling
&'1%'1 W/at )s sto,*tell)ng
:'ack in the mists of time when only the monks and the monarchy could write0 there three ways in which we learnt: first by ha"ing a go at it. 6hen that didn.t work0 or you wanted to impro"e 3 by watching someone who knew how to do it. /hen at the end of the day when the sun had set and it got too dark to see what anyone was doing 3 by listening to that :someone; tell you about the time when they...; 76ea"er 3 raCing 9nimals )ro2ect0 +,,N8 Storytelling is 4uite simply the use of stories in organisations as a communication tool to share knowledge. /raditionally0 organisational communications ha"e had a tendency to be somewhat dry and lacking in inspiration. Storytelling uses a range of techni4ues to engage0 in"ol"e and inspire people0 using language that is more authentic 7e"eryday language as opposed to :textbook buCCword speak;8 and a narrati"e form that people find interesting and fun. Storytelling has of course existed for thousands of years as a means of exchanging information and generating understanding. Similarly0 it has always existed in organisations 3 otherwise known as :the grape"ine;. Howe"er0 as a deliberate tool for sharing knowledge it is 4uite recent but growing "ery rapidly0 to the extent that it is becoming a fa"oured techni4ue among an increasing number of management consultants.
&'1%'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

6hen used effecti"ely0 storytelling offers numerous ad"antages o"er more traditional organisational communication techni4ues:
> Stories communicate ideas holistically0 con"eying a rich yet clear message0 and so they are an
excellent way of communicating complicated ideas and concepts in an easy>to>understand form. Stories therefore allow people to con"ey tacit knowledge that might otherwise be difficult to articulateB in addition0 because stories are told with feeling0 they can allow people to communicate more than they realise they know. hence can increase the likelihood of accurate and meaningful knowledge transfer. principles and impersonal procedures rarely pro"ide.
> Storytelling pro"ides the context in which knowledge arises as well as the knowledge itself0 and > Stories are an excellent "ehicle for learning0 as true learning re4uires interest0 which abstract > Stories are memorable 3 their messages tend to :stick; and they get passed on. > Stories can pro"ide a :li"ing0 breathing; example of how to do something and why it works rather
than telling people what to do0 hence people are more open to their lessons. difference between knowing how to do something and actually doing it8.
> Stories therefore often lead to direct action 3 they can help to close the :knowing>doing gap; 7the > Storytelling can help to make organisational communication more :human; 3 not only do they use
natural day>to>day language0 but they also elicit an emotional response as well as thoughts and actions.
> Stories can nurture a sense of community and help to build relationships. > )eople en2oy sharing stories 3 stories enli"en and entertain.
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&'1%'% W/at 3an sto,)es be +sed fo,

Stories can be used for all manner of purposes in an organisation. &ifferent purposes will tend to re4uire different kinds of stories. Ste"e &enning 7http://www.Ste"e&enning.com8 outlines K possible purposes for using storytelling in organisations: ? Storytelling to ignite organisational change 5xperience has shown that storytelling can be highly effecti"e as a change agent0 e"en in change> resistant organisations. /elling an appropriate story can stimulate people to think acti"ely about the implications of change and to pro2ecting themsel"es into "isions of the future0 enabling them to better understand what it will be like to be doing things in a different way0 rather than being gi"en "ague0 abstract concepts about it. + Storytelling for communications 1n contrast to the con"entional approach which "iews communications as the sending of a message from a communicator to a recipient0 storytelling is based on a more interacti"e "iew of communication. 'ecause the listener imaginati"ely recreates the story in his or her own mind0 the story is not percei"ed as coming from outside0 but rather as something that is part of the listener.s own identity. /he idea becomes the listener.s own. N Storytelling to capture tacit knowledge /acit knowledge can be a multi>layered and multi>dimensional thing and as such it is often difficult to articulate 7for example0 ha"e you e"er tried to explain to someone who can.t swim how to swim0 without actually showing them<8. Stories can pro"ide a way of allowing people to express and share tacit knowledge in rich and meaningful ways0 rather then being forced to articulate it in more :structured; ways that can detract from its "alue. A Storytelling to embody and transfer knowledge Similarly0 a simple story can communicate a complex multi>dimensioned idea0 not simply by transmitting information as a message0 but by acti"ely in"ol"ing the listeners in co>creating that idea. Furthermore0 as a story is told and retold0 it changes0 and so the knowledge embodied in it is constantly being de"eloped and built upon. - Jse of stories for inno"ation /he use of storytelling in inno"ation and knowledge creation can encourage people to mo"e away from linear thinking towards a more multi>dimensional "iew0 to see new connections between things0 and also to marry scientific logic with a more creati"e or intuiti"e approach. O Storytelling to build community /here is something about stories that brings people together and fosters a sense of community. Storytelling is non>hierarchical0 it unlocks feelings and emotions as well as thought processes0 and hence it helps to build relationships and trust. G Storytelling to enhance technology )eople often find it difficult to communicate about technology. Jsers can ha"e trouble articulating their needs and expectations0 while experts can ha"e difficulty :talking in plain 5nglish;. 6here"er there is a gap in language and understanding0 storytelling can pro"ide a bridge0 by communicating the real essence of what each party is trying to get across. K Storytelling for indi"idual growth Storytelling is a skill0 and one that draws on a number of other key skills0 mostly relating to interpersonal communication. /he de"elopment of these skills is an important component of most knowledge management programmes.
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&'1%'& W/at ma4es a 0good1 sto,*

Larry )rusak 7see Storytelling: passport to the +?st century http://www.creatingthe+?stcentury.org/8 defines A attributes of a good story: ? 5ndurance ood stories endure. /hey may change a little 3 or e"en a lot0 but the key lessons remain the same. /hey also need to be succinct enough for people to remember. + Salience ood stories are rele"ant to their audience0 they ha"e a point0 and they ha"e emotional impact. N Sense>making ood stories explain something0 make sense of something. )erhaps they show you how to beha"e in particular situation0 how to resol"e a problem0 or why something happened the way it did. /hey ha"e a prescripti"e normati"e "alue: do x and y will occur. A #omfort le"el /o be effecti"e0 stories must make sense within the context of the listener.s experience 3 they need to ring true. =ther tips 7from Ste"e &enning 3 http://www.Ste"e&enning.com8 include:
> Fact "ersus fiction
Storytelling can be counter>producti"e when the story told is not true. 9 story can be factually accurate while being authentically untrue and many corporate communications take this form0 particularly those that are told more as a public relations exercise than as a means to promote genuine learning. 1n the written word there is a distance between the speaker and the spoken0 and so in an organisational context0 it can lack some authenticity. )ractitioners ha"e found that oral storytelling has a greater impact than putting stories into booklets or "ideos or online. /his doesn.t mean that written stories can.t achie"e good effects0 but that they work in different kinds of ways. Ste"e &enning reports ha"ing had no success in telling a story along the lines of: :Let me tell you about an organisation that didn.t implement knowledge management and it went bankrupt.; 1n other words0 focus on the positi"e. 9 story needs to be told from the perspecti"e of a single protagonist0 someone who e"eryone in the organisation can instantly understand0 empathise with0 resonate with their dilemma0 and understand what they were going through. 9 story needs to ha"e a certain strangeness or incongruity 3 something that is remarkable and therefore grabs attention. 7:/hat.s remarkable that you could get an answer to a 4uestion like that in such a short time frame;8. 'ut it is ne"ertheless plausible 7email exists0 the web exists8. 9 story needs to embody whate"er it is you are seeking to get across as fully as possible. &on.t lea"e loose ends. 9 story should be as recent as possible 3 older stories can work0 but the fresher the better. :/his happened last week; con"eys a sense of urgency.
> =ral "ersus written stories
> /he :happy ending;
> /he :hero;
> /he :plot;
> 9 beginning0 middle0 and an end
> /iming
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&'1%'5 A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> Storytelling is not a panacea 3 it doesn.t always work. Storytelling can only be as good as the > 5"en when the underlying idea is good0 there are times when storytelling is inappropriate or
underlying idea being con"eyed. 1f that idea is unsound0 storytelling may well re"eal its inade4uacy. ineffecti"e. For example: routine situations in which nothing new0 unexpected or different happenedB or situations that re4uire ob2ecti"ity in reporting. meaning. 9bstract analysis is often easier to understand when seen through the lens of a well>chosen story. ad"ance on a "ariety of similar audiences0 so that you know exactly the effect that the story will ha"e. how you will balance that anecdotal knowledge with e"idence>based knowledge: how will you assess and integrate the knowledge from stories< Howe"er we can all get better at storytelling0 particularly at using stories to achie"e specific effects. Jnderstanding how and why storytelling works and learning what kinds of stories work in different situations0 and what kinds of effects different kinds of stories ha"e0 can enable us to be more adept storytellers in an organisational context.
> Storytelling does not replace analytical thinking. 1t supplements it by helping to gi"e it context and
> /ry to a"oid telling a story for the first time at a high profile0 high>risk occasion. /est the story in
> 6hen using the knowledge contained in the stories of others to support your own decisions0 consider
> 6e are all storytellers and spend much of our li"es telling stories whether we realise it or not.
&'1%'6 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

Ste"e&enning.com http://www.ste"edenning.com Ste"e &enning is widely regarded as one of the main :gurus; of storytelling. His website has a collection of materials on knowledge sharing and storytelling0 and also includes a facility where you can also e>mail Ste"e direct with 4uestions and comments. Storytelling: passport to the +?st century http://www.creatingthe+?stcentury.org/ 9 website in which four leading thinkers on knowledge management explore storytelling. 9n extremely content> rich site0 almost like an online book.
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4.14 White 0ages

&'1&'1 W/at a,e 0w/)te -ages1
9n organisational :white pages; is a tool to help people to find others in their organisation that ha"e the knowledge and expertise they need for a particular task or pro2ect. 1t is like a staff directory0 but rather than simply listing people.s names0 2ob titles0 departments and contact details0 it includes details about their knowledge0 skills0 experience and interests. :6hite pages; are electronic rather than paper>based0 so that users can search it in a "ariety of ways0 2ust like they might perform a search on the 1nternet. :6hite pages; are often also known as experts. directories0 expertise directories0 skills directories or capabilities catalogues.
&'1&'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

9 :white pages; directory is particularly beneficial in organisations that are o"er a certain siCe or that are spread around in different locations0 and so people don.t ha"e the opportunity to get to know each other well. Specific benefits include:
> :6hite pages; are technologically 4uite simple to create > /hey can be extremely effecti"e in helping organisations to :know what they know; > /hey allow people to find the tacit knowledge they need0 by easily finding the people who ha"e it > /hey can underpin all of the organisations "arious initiati"es to connect people with people0 and to
learn from others
> 9 :white pages; is not necessarily aimed at those embarking on a ma2or pro2ect or piece of workB
often the greatest "alue comes from a multitude of simple ten>minute con"ersations in which people ask each other for a 4uick word of ad"ice or a steer in the right direction.
'y way of an example0 can you find an asthma expert who has considerable experience in a specific treatment0 has successfully used that treatment with children under fi"e0 and is currently in or around the 'irmingham area0 all in under a minute< 9 good :white pages; could enable you to do that 7assuming of course that such a person existsE8.
&'1&'% How do I go abo+t )t

-e $lea" abo)t yo)" aims First0 be clear about your aims. Jsing a :white pages; to find people is a means to an end0 not an end in itself. How do you intend for people to use it< For what purposes do you en"isage them using the system to find people< How will they approach and use the system< 1t is "ital to be clear on this before you begin designing any system. /alk to people in your organisation to find out about their needs and "iews. /alk to people in other organisations who ha"e already implemented a :white pages; to find out what you can learn from their experiences. =wne"shi# and on)s =pinions "ary about whether to make indi"iduals. inclusion a :white pages; compulsory or "oluntary0 and similarly whether to create and manage entries centrally or pro"ide a template for indi"iduals to create and update their own entries. =rganisations such as ')>9moco and /exaco who ha"e implemented successful :white pages; strongly fa"our the "oluntary approach in which indi"iduals create their own entries if they so choose. /heir experience would seem to show that ownership needs to be with the people contributing to0 and using0 the system. /his has a number of ad"antages. First0 it creates a sense of personal responsibility for the system which in turn fosters supportB second0 it allows people to present their entries in a way that reflects how they want to be known rather than how the organisation sees themB and hence third0 it helps to create a :li"ing; system that reflects real personalities and therefore encourages personal relationships.
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-alan$e fo"mal with info"mal info"mation 6hile the purpose of a :white pages; is to help people find others with rele"ant knowledge and expertise0 the chances of them actually acting on that information and calling that person will be greatly increased if they feel they :know; them. /his sense of :knowing; or familiarity can be created to some extent by including some personal information and a photograph in people.s entries. 9llow people to be creati"e in how they present themsel"es. For example0 at ') people are encouraged up upload photographs of themsel"es at home or at play 3 perhaps with their children or en2oying their fa"ourite sport 3 rather than using a more sterile passport>style photograph. What to in$l)de #ommon fields found in a :white pages; include:
> Name > *ob title > &epartment or team > 9 brief 2ob description and/or description of what is currently being worked on and what has been
worked on in the past
> Iele"ant professional 4ualifications > 9n uploaded #H > 9reas of knowledge and expertise 7selected from a pre>defined list of sub2ects/termsB people might
also rank their knowledge0 for example from :extensi"e; to :working knowledge; to :basic;8
> %ain areas of interest > $ey contacts 3 both internal and external > %embership of communities of practice or other knowledge networks > )ersonal profile > )hotograph > #ontact information
="ganising ent"ies fo" ease of loading and "et"ieval 1n order to encourage people to create entries0 you will need to make it easy for them. %ost organisations use a simple template into which users enter their information. 1n creating a template0 think not only about ease of entry0 but also about how users will search the system to retrie"e information. Fou will need a common language or taxonomy to describe information in the essential fields0 in particular those relating to knowledge0 expertise0 areas of work and interests. Fou might like to create fixed terms and options for these fields that users can select from a menu or a selection of tick>boxes. /his could also be supplemented with a box for users to enter free text0 perhaps with some suggested terms alongside it to guide their use of language. 1n contrast0 personal information can of course be relati"ely unstructured 3 lea"e scope for more creati"ity and free expression hereE (ee#ing it $)""ent 9 :white pages; must be maintained and kept up>to>date. )eople are constantly mo"ing locations0 changing 2obs0 and adding to their knowledge and skills. 1f your :white pages; is linked with your human resources system0 then 2ob details and contact information can be automatically updated. 9lternati"ely if indi"iduals ha"e sole responsibility for their own entries0 then you might build a reminder process into your system0 whereby an e>mail is sent automatically to remind users who ha"en.t updated their entries since a certain time period0 such as three to six months. Similarly0 be sure to build information about the :white pages; into processes for new 2oiners and lea"ers0 so that new 2oiners know about the system and are encouraged add their entry0 and lea"ers remember to either delete their entry or delegate it to someone else to :own; 7assuming they are happy for people to still contact them after they ha"e left8.
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6n$o)"aging )se Fou will need to acti"ely market your :white pages;. &on.t assume that if you create it0 people will automatically use it. Four marketing efforts will need to encourage both participation and useB the two are inextricably linked as you need a certain amount of submissions for people to see the :white pages; as being worth using. )ossible ideas might include posters0 presence at e"ents such as learning fairs0 nominating champions to promote the :white pages; in "arious parts of the organisation0 or competitions that gi"e priCes to the first departments in which e"eryone is uploaded0 or for those with the best success stories of how using the :white pages; has helped them in their 2ob. 'e sure to focus on the benefits in your marketing efforts 3 people will want to know :what.s in it for me<;.
&'1&'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

> 9 :white pages; need not 2ust include indi"iduals 3 for example you might like to include formal
communities of practice0 pro2ect teams0 etc.
> Similarly0 a :white pages; need not 2ust co"er internal peopleB you can also ha"e a similar system0 or
a section0 for suppliers of "arious types 7e.g. 1/ outsourcing0 consultancy ser"ices0 recruitment agencies0 etc.80 and for other organisations with which you work or collaborate0 both within and outside the NHS.
> Fou can add further "alue to your :white pages; by linking it with other knowledge management
tools0 such as those a"ailable on an intranet. For example you might ha"e collaborati"e working tools or best practice databases that list rele"ant contacts 3 these contact listings can be linked directly into the :white pages; 3 and "ice "ersa. hierarchiesB if some people are considered as experts0 this might make others feel that their knowledge is less "aluable so it may discourage their contribution. :white pages; will comply with rele"ant re4uirements0 and to create a policy on its correct use.
> 'e careful when using the term :expert; 3 it can be 4uite a :political; one and may create
> 'e aware of issues relating to data protection 3 check with your legal department to ensure that your
"*
" +e,eloping the KM en,ironment
5 DE>ELO"ING THE KM EN>I#ONMENT

6hate"er knowledge management tools and techni4ues you use0 they are unlikely to work in isolation 3 they need to be supported by the right kind of en"ironment. /he three key elements of that en"ironment are outlined here0 namely:
> )eople > )rocesses > /echnology
Four organisation.s people0 processes and technology will at all times be acting as either enablers of0 or barriers to0 effecti"e knowledge management. Fou will need to identify the barriers and remo"e them. Fou will probably also need to build on existing enablers and create additional ones. /his is often where the greatest knowledge management challenges lie.
5.1 0eo#le
5'1'1 Int,od+3t)on
=f the three components of knowledge management 3 people0 processes and technology 3 the most important is undoubtedly people. 6hy< 'ecause creating0 sharing and using knowledge is something that is done by people. )rocesses and technology can help to enable and facilitate knowledge management0 but at the end of the day it is people who either do it or don.t do it. 9 number of organisations ha"e learned this through bitter experience. =f those companies that led the way in the early days of knowledge management0 many focused primarily on processes and technology 3 to their cost. Ha"ing made significant in"estments in the latest systems0 they then found that people simply did not use them and so the systems ended up being confined to what became known as :the ;. Since then0 organisations ha"e learned that it is people who :make or break; knowledge management initiati"es.
5'1'! W/* -eo-le don.t want to s/a,e 4nowledge 2 o, do t/e*

/here is a traditional "iew that knowledge sharing is not a natural act and that people need to be coerced or ca2oled into it. 1n fact why not take a few moments right now to think about some of the "alues0 attitudes and beha"iours in your organisation that constitute barriers to seeking0 sharing and using knowledge< For example:
> :$nowledge is power; > :1 don.t ha"e time; > :1."e got too much real work to do; > :/hat.s not my 2ob; > :Fou.re 2ust using other people.s ideas and taking the credit; > :1 want to do things my way; > :/his is how it.s always been done; > :1.d like to help0 but my manager won.t like it if 1 waste time doing things for another team; > :/hat.s not how we do things around here; > :1 don.t trust them; > :9re you telling me how to do my 2ob<; > :1.m already suffering from information o"erload; > :6e.re not allowed to make mistakes0 let alone admit to them0 share them or learn from them; > :&on.t bother others by asking them for help0 work it out for yourself; > :Fou should already know all the answers; > :1t.s 2ust another management fadB if 1 ignore it0 it.ll e"entually go away;
"1
> :6hat.s in it for me<; > :No;
/hese are 2ust a fewE Howe"er it may surprise you to learn that there is also a "iew that knowledge sharing is in fact a "ery natural act and that we are already doing it all the time. 1f you take a few moments to watch people both at work and at play0 you can see the e"idence daily: in corridors0 by the coffee machine0 on the phone0 by e>mail0 at the pub0 etc. 3 people are freely sharing knowledge all the time. Similarly0 knowledge management consultants ha"e reported that in their experience of working with a range of organisations0 people want to share. /hey want to make a "aluable contribution to their organisations0 they like to see their knowledge being used0 they want to help their colleagues0 and they want to learn from others who they trust and respect. So why does the :people; aspect of knowledge management tend to be such a challenge for most organisations< 'ecause our organisational cultures get in the way0 they gi"e rise to0 and reinforce0 beha"iours that inhibit knowledge sharing. %ost of us in the 6estern world ha"e been trained to belie"e in indi"idual effort and competition0 and this from an earlier age than you might realise 3 remember at school how knowledge sharing was called cheating< Since then0 our working en"ironments ha"e largely perpetuated this way of thinking. 6e compete for 2obs0 salaries0 promotions0 recognition0 status0 power0 budgets and resources0 always belie"ing that if someone else has something then there.s less of it left for us. )ut simply0 we ha"e been trained not to share. 9wareness of this is the first step to o"ercoming it. 1t is important to understand that we all carry this kind programming and we all need to take responsibility for unlearning it and rethinking our old philosophies. #ontrary to popular belief0 experience is increasingly showing that people are generally willing to share0 but they need a supporti"e0 encouraging and safe en"ironment in which to do so. Sadly0 most organisational cultures ha"e some way to go before they can claim to pro"ide such an en"ironment.
5'1'% T/e two b)g ma4e,s o, b,ea4e,s< 3+lt+,e and be/a()o+,

5ssentially there are two key aspects of :people; that you will need to address when introducing knowledge management into an organisation: organisational culture and indi"idual beha"iour. /he two are inextricably linked.
5'1'& O,gan)sat)onal 3+lt+,e

5ffecti"e knowledge management re4uires a :knowledge sharing; culture to be successful. 6hat exactly is organisational culture< /he short answer is that culture is :the way we do things around here;. 9 more complete answer is that an organisational culture is a set of "alues0 beliefs0 assumptions and attitudes that are deeply held by the people in an organisation. /hey influence the decisions people make and they ways in which they beha"e. 1n organisations that recognise only indi"idual achie"ement0 people are rewarded for their personal knowledge and ha"e no incenti"e to share it. 1n a knowledge sharing culture0 people can be rewarded for indi"idual achie"ements0 but are also recognised and rewarded for their knowledge sharing and contributions to team efforts. $ey characteristics of a knowledge sharing culture include the following:
> top leadership sees knowledge as a strategic asset and pro"ides incenti"es and support for
knowledge management processesB
> the organisation focuses on the de"elopment and exploitation of its knowledge assetsB > tools and processes for managing knowledge are clearly definedB > knowledge creation0 sharing and use are a natural and recognised part of the organisation.s
processes0 not separate from normal work processesB
> groups within the organisation cooperate instead of compete with each otherB > knowledge is made accessible to e"eryone who can contribute to it or use itB > rewards and performance e"aluations specifically recognise contributions to0 and use of0 the
organisation.s knowledge baseB communication channels and a common technology infrastructure enable and enhance knowledge management acti"ities.
=rganisational cultures run deep: the older and the bigger the organisation0 they deeper they will tend to run. 6hich brings us to the 4uestion: to what extent can we change organisational culture< /here is some debate about this0 but the common "iew is that culture can be changed0 but usually not without a great deal of time and effort. /hink about the last time you tried to change somebody.s mind about 2ust one thing: multiply that by
"#
the number of people in your organisation then add to it the cohesi"e power of shared beliefs0 and you begin to get an idea of the task at hand. 1n other words0 taking on the entire organisational culture at on go is simply not feasible. /he good news is that there is another approach: indi"idual beha"iour.
5'1'5 Ind)()d+al be/a()o+,

1f knowledge management is new to an organisation0 it re4uires changes in indi"idual beha"iour. 1ndi"iduals must be encouraged to incorporate knowledge management acti"ities into their daily routines. /his includes acti"ities relating to seeking out knowledge when they ha"e 4uestions or problems0 finding and using existing knowledge rather than rein"esting the wheel0 sharing their own knowledge0 learning from others. experience and helping others to learn from theirs. 6hile people.s beha"iours are largely a function of the organisational culture0 they are easier to see and to identify as :makers or breakers; 3 enablers or barriers 3 to knowledge sharing. /his is best approached from the context of your current ob2ecti"es0 issues and the day>to>day work of your employees. 'y changing the way people beha"e and by showing them new ways of working that can make their 2obs easier and more successful0 you can not only change their beha"iour0 but also affect the underlying cultural assumptions that dri"e people.s beha"iour in the first place. 1n other words0 people learn best by doing0 rather than being told. =f course for indi"idual beha"iours to change in a sustained way0 there needs to be a conduci"e organisational culture0 which brings us back to the earlier point that the two are inextricably linked.
5'1'6 How do we ma4e t/e 3/anges

9ssuming that people will generally share knowledge if the barriers and disincenti"es to doing so are remo"ed0 then you can seek to bring about lasting changes in both indi"idual beha"iours and organisational culture by:
> focusing on changing indi"idual beha"iours first > understanding the barriers to knowledge sharing and seeking to eliminate them > introducing policies and practices that enable and encourage knowledge sharing > understanding your organisational culture and working within it rather than against it while gradually
working to change it
Here are some approaches and issues to consider:
5'1'7 C+lt+,e 2 wo,4 w)t/ )t w/)le *o+ wo,4 towa,ds 3/ang)ng )t

1f the people in your organisation hold a fundamental belief that asking for help is a sign of weakness0 then immediately launching a peer assist programme might not be the best way forward. 1f people prefer to seek information from other people0 then loading endless documents into knowledge databases is unlikely to work. 9nd if people feel that they are not allowed to make mistakes and that to admit to mistakes might be dangerous0 then you may need to wait until this has started to shift before introducing after action re"iews. 1n other words0 if you pit yourself against the organisational culture0 you are fairly likely to lose. Far better to work within it0 at least initially0 and then seek to change it from the inside. For example0 you might ha"e something you feel is good practice that you want to share0 but people in your organisation ha"e a :not in"ented here; attitude and your good ideas ha"e been ignored in the past. 1nstead of trying to sell your idea0 ask for help to impro"e your practice. Fou may well find that not only do you recei"e plenty of input to help you impro"e it further0 but others are suddenly more interested in finding out more with a "iew to applying it 3 because they ha"e contributed to its de"elopment.
5'1'9 Lead b* e=am-le

9ctions speak louder than words. Nobody likes to be told to change their beha"iour by someone who is clearly not exhibiting that beha"iour themsel"es 3 and rightly so. ood leadership is key. 5"en if leaders are supporters of knowledge management0 they still might need some coaching. $nowledge seeking and sharing beha"iours may well be as new to your leaders as to e"eryone else. /hey need to be shown the way0 and then be seen to be leading the way. For example0 do leaders openly and acti"ely share knowledge about what they are doing0 where the organisation is going0 what their plans for the future are0 how things are financially< &o they gather knowledge from a range of people throughout the organisation as part of their decision>making processes< &o
"
they seek honest input and feedback from both staff and patients< &o they listen0 and where appropriate0 do they act on it< 9s well as leaders0 middle managers are also "ery important in knowledge management. For most people in an organisation0 the person who most affects their day>to>day work is their line manager or super"isor. /hese managers are often e"aluated on how their indi"idual section or department performs which means that the focus of their attention may not be on the bigger picture. Like senior managers0 middle managers will most likely need some coaching to change their beha"iours. Finally0 don.t forget that you0 as a knowledge management change agent0 will need to lead by example too.
5'1': Al)gn ,ewa,ds and ,e3ogn)t)on

9s with any change0 whene"er people are asked to do something differently0 they need a good reason: what.s in it for me< 1f people belie"e they will benefit from sharing knowledge0 either directly or indirectly0 they are more likely to share. 6hen looking at reward and recognition0 remember that different people are moti"ated by different thingsB some by money0 others by status0 some by knowledge0 others by freedom etc. 9 good reward system will recognise this. 1n seeking to create and sustain a knowledge sharing culture0 you will need to address your organisation.s formal rewards that are embedded in your human resources policies and practices including salaries0 bonuses0 promotions etc. %ost organisations. formal reward systems still reward indi"idual effort and knowledge. /o create a culture that supports knowledge creation0 sharing and re>use0 you will need to recognise and reward those beha"iours. Howe"er some practitioners recommend focusing on informal rewards and recognition in the initial stagesB they suggest that seeking to change formal reward structures "ery early on in the process could be damaging as you might lose the support of people who feel threatened. 6hile the first beha"ioural changes are taking place0 people need a safe space to learn and read2ust without being assessed or penalised. 1nformal rewards and incenti"es need not be financial0 nor need they be complicated. 9 number of studies ha"e shown that one of the most effecti"e incenti"es is simple recognition. For example0 you might decide to personalise knowledge: :*ohn 'roadbent.s uide to 6inter #apacity )lanning; or :#amden NHS /rust.s 'ooking )rocess;. /his simple approach can increase the credibility of the knowledge0 thereby increasing its likely use0 and also make those who created and shared it feel "alued and credited. 'e sure that you reward only "aluable knowledge 3 knowledge that is actually used. =rganisations who ha"e offered incenti"es to staff to submit documents to a database or other knowledge system ha"e often ended up with systems full of worthless information that nobody uses. Similarly0 do not 2ust focus on rewarding people who share their knowledge. /his is only part of the knowledge e4uation. 9t the end of the day0 you are seeking to encourage people to use and reuse knowledge0 so reward the user for reusing and building on existing knowledge rather than wasting time and energy rein"enting the wheel.
5'1'1; Ma4e 4nowledge wo,4 -a,t of e(e,*one.s ?ob

=f all the reasons people ha"e for not sharing knowledge0 not ha"ing time is one of the most common. )eople are too busy with :real work;. $nowledge work needs to be recogniCed as :real work; 3 an integral part of e"eryone.s 2ob. )eople need time to seek out knowledge0 to reflect0 to share what they know0 to change the way they do things based on knowledge and learning recei"ed. /hey need to know that these acti"ities are regarded not only as acceptable0 but important0 by the organisation. 'y making knowledge sharing a formal part of people.s responsibilities0 using it in 2ob descriptions0 and incorporating it into performance appraisal processes0 you can clearly demonstrate the importance of knowledge work and begin to lay the foundations for a real knowledge culture.
5'1'11 De(elo- ,elat)ons/)-s

)eople share things better with people they know and trust. 1f people don.t share personal relationships or mutual trust0 they are unlikely to share knowledge of high "alue. Similarly0 whether or not people seek out and use the knowledge of others depends if they know and trust the source of the knowledge. )eople also generally prefer to learn from their peers than from managers telling them what to do. 9nd studies show that people will more often than not prefer to contact someone they know for information before searching a knowledge database.
"!
6hile you cannot shift an organisational culture to one of openness and mutual trust o"ernight0 you can make significant progress by helping and encouraging indi"iduals and teams to form new and better relationships. 9s organisations get bigger0 people get busier0 and technology creates increasingly :"irtual; ways of communicating with each other 7across the internet0 by e>mail0 "ia "ideo conferencing etc.80 opportunities for de"eloping relationships can seem few and far between 3 unless you make it a deliberate strategy. 6hile early practitioners of knowledge management focused on technology0 the current "iew is that the greatest "alue can be realised by building relationships and connecting people with people0 using tools such as communities of practice0 peer assists0 learning e"ents0 coaching and mentoring0 and others.
5'1'1! Ed+3ate -eo-le abo+t w/at )s )n(ol(ed and s4)ll t/em to do )t

i"en that most of us ha"e not been educated or trained to share0 and therefore0 we simply don.t know how to carry out one of the core acti"ities of knowledge management. 1n many cases people simply don.t realise what they know0 or they don.t realise the "alue of what they know. 5"en if they do0 they may not know with whom to share or how to share what they know. 9s with any other beha"ioural change0 you need to show people clearly what is expected of them and what is in"ol"ed0 and then gi"e them the skills to do it. Fou need to show people what creating0 sharing and using knowledge looks like 3 both in general terms0 and specifically within your organisation. Fou may also need to show them what exactly you mean by :knowledge;. $nowledge can seem "ery conceptual0 at least to begin withB it is not always ob"ious to people what it is they need to know0 what they currently know0 and how that might be useful to others. 1n short0 you need to train people in knowledge management skills. 5ducate them about what knowledge is "aluable0 how to create it0 find it0 e"aluate it0 share it0 use it0 adapt it0 reuse it etc. 5nsure that essential communication skills are also looked at. For example0 knowledge sharing works better if people de"elop acti"e listening skills. 9cti"e listening is where people spend time understanding what the other person really means0 instead of focusing on what their own response will be and 4ueuing up to speak. 9nother important skill in knowledge sharing is gi"ing and recei"ing feedback 3 both positi"e and :negati"e;. #hallenging another person.s beliefs or approaches in a way that causes neither offence nor defence is not always easy0 nor is recei"ing such a challenge. Similarly0 many people feel e4ually intimidated about both gi"ing and recei"ing compliments and praise. Fou will also need to ensure that people ha"e enough information about the context in which they are workingB for example0 to effecti"ely seek and share knowledge0 people need some understanding of organisational strategies and goals0 of the interrelationships between different functions and teams in the organisation0 of what knowledge is most "aluable to the organisation0 and how it can be used to best effect. Start early by building aspects of knowledge work into your organisation.s induction programmes. 7Note: if you don.t ha"e a formal induction programme0 are there informal processes in place to ensure that new recruits get the knowledge they need to learn what they need to know<8. Look at integrating aspects of knowledge work into other general training programmes: people learn and apply learning most effecti"ely when knowledge work is seen as an integral part of their day>to>day 2ob rather than a separate add>on.
5'1'1% Demonst,ate t/e (al+e

1t is important that people understand the benefits of knowledge sharing on a number of le"els: benefits to the organisation0 benefits to patients0 and benefits to them personally. /he more you can clearly demonstrate these benefits0 the more people are likely to be open to change. 'e ready to answer the ine"itable :why should 10 what.s in it for me<; 4uestion. 9 number of studies ha"e shown that by far the most effecti"e incenti"e for producing lasting change is when the process of sharing knowledge is rewarded0 supported0 and celebrated0 by the organisation. 1f this is not the case0 then any artificial rewards and incenti"es will ha"e little effect. 1n other words0 knowledge management should pro"ide intrinsic rewards to the people who use it. For example0 does a particular knowledge system or process enable its users do their 2ob more easily0 more efficiently or more effecti"ely< &oes it help them pro"ide a better ser"ice to their patients< &o people recei"e greater recognition from peers as key contributors and experts< 1s their work faster0 more accurate0 more rewarding< /his is the bottom line: if knowledge management helps people to do their work0 and the organisation.s culture supports it0 then people will most likely adopt itB if it doesn.t0 then they probably won.t. 9nd probably rightly soE
""
/here are many ways to demonstrate and reinforce "alue0 e"en in the early stages when knowledge management is new and the benefits ha"e not yet been fully realised. 9gain0 you can build a knowledge element into training programmes0 using case studies and action>based learning to demonstrate the "alue of good knowledge sharing practices. Storytelling can also be a "ery effecti"e tool here0 as can creating knowledge :champions; or :heroes;.
5'1'1& C,eate 3/am-)ons and /e,oes

9 useful approach to showing people the benefits of knowledge sharing and to encourage them to change their beha"iour is to create :knowledge champions; and/or sub2ect :experts; dotted around the organisation. 5"ery organisation has people who are naturally :knowledge sa""y; 3 that is 2ust their way of doing things: they lo"e to learn and to share what they know with others. Similarly0 e"ery organisation has its :early adopters; 3 those who are first to change their beha"iour and adopt new ways of working. Find these people and celebrate them as :heroes.B publicly recognise and reward their beha"iourB encourage them to tell stories about what they did and what were the benefits. #reate semi>formal roles that recognise this beha"iour as a role model and allow these people to spend some time sharing their approach with0 and inspiring0 others.
5'1'15 Ma4e )t eas*

Finally0 remember that barriers to knowledge sharing are not 2ust related to culture and beha"iour. /here are also barriers that relate to organisational structures and processes0 and to technology. 1f you want people to change their ways of working0 then you need to make it as easy and painless as possible for them. Fou need to identify0 and as far as possible eliminate0 these other barriers. =therwise0 e"en with the best will in the world0 seeking and sharing knowledge may simply be more effort that it is worth for people. 1f technology is slow and unreliable0 if different people use different systems and therefore cannot communicate or share documents easily0 if structures promote hierarchies and internal competition rather than peer relationships and co>operation0 if processes are highly task>oriented rather than people>oriented0 then people will find knowledge sharing a challenge. Similarly0 when seeking to eliminate barriers and to introduce knowledge management tools0 be sure to do so in a way that is integrated with people.s day>to>day working practices. 9 common mistake in knowledge management is to introduce technology and processes and then sit back and wait for people use them 3 :if we build it0 they will come;. 1f systems and processes are created in a way0 which is not integrated with how people actually work0 then they will not be used. 1t is critical to include users in the de"elopment of knowledge tools so that this all too common and costly mistake can be a"oided.
5'1'16 C+lt+,al 3/ange )s not ?+st a 4nowledge management )ss+e

9 final word on seeking to change organisational cultures and indi"idual beha"iours: this is neither 4uick nor easy0 but for effecti"e knowledge management0 it is not optional. Howe"er0 you should not expect knowledge management to carry the full weight of cultural change. #ulture is critical to knowledge management0 but it is e4ually critical in either enabling or disabling most other organisational processes. #ultural change is too big a task for knowledge management to take on alone. 9 better approach is to combine initiati"es and present a common "ision and focus that integrates knowledge management with o"erall organisational learning and performance impro"ement. /his may well be all the more important in the content of the NHS0 where people are already becoming :initiati"e>weary;. /hat being said0 there is currently a tremendous opportunity to align knowledge management with the context of the massi"e transformation currently under way in the form of the ten>year modernisation programme0 set out in the NHS )lan. &eli"ery of the )lan will re4uire change and transformation on a "ast scale and on a number of le"els throughout the NHS. $nowledge management is a natural partner to such transformation0 as it will re4uire ma2or cultural change0 new ways of working0 and a strong focus on knowledge and learning. Strike while the iron is hotE
5'1'17 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

Lelic Simon. :Four sayQ: creating a knowledge sharing culture. 1nside $nowledge0 +,,?0 A7-8
"%
5.2 (* 0"o$esses
5'!'1 Int,od+3t)on
$nowledge management processes are the acti"ities or initiati"es you put in place to enable and facilitate the creation0 sharing and use of knowledge for the benefit of your organisation. )rocesses also refer to your organisation.s general infrastructure and processes 7or :ways of doing things;80 and the extent to which these act as enablers of0 or barriers to0 good knowledge management practice. Hence the :process; component in"ol"es looking at:
> =rganisational processes and infrastructure 3 and whether they currently help or hinder knowledge
managementB
> $nowledge management processes and infrastructure 3 the :process; element of what needs to be
put in place to make knowledge management happen 7as well as people/culture and technology8.
5'!'! O,gan)sat)onal -,o3esses and )nf,ast,+3t+,e

5"ery organisation has a structure and processes0 and these operate on a number of le"els. /he buildings0 in which you work0 and their geographical location0 pro"ide a physical structure. /he way the organisation is di"ided into departments and functions pro"ides another form of structure. How people are organised into hierarchies and the relationships between them pro"ides another. /he way that resources are allocated 3 finances0 technology0 e4uipment0 etc. 3 pro"ides yet another. 5ach of these types and layers of structure will ha"e an impact on how knowledge is created0 shared and used in an organisation. For example:
> &oes e"eryone in your organisation ha"e ready access to a computer< &o they know how to use it< > 1s e"eryone located in the same building or are they dispersed across different buildings or e"en
different towns or regions<
> 6ithin each building0 how is the space organised< 9re people shut off from each other in offices
with closed doors or is the space more open< 9re managers located in the same areas as their teams0 are they "isible and accessible0 or are they hidden away in a pri"ate area< 9re there areas where people can simply :be; together 3 such as a caf!0 or chairs and tables near a coffee machine0 or informal :breakout rooms; 3 in addition to formal office and meeting space< or collaborati"e< How is this sustained0 for example do departments ha"e to compete for resources< =r is there a higher :status; attached to some departments o"er others< command< =r is it a flatter0 more functional structure< &o people.s 2ob titles reflect that hierarchy and imply status0 or do they simply describe what a person does<
> 6hat is the nature of the relationship between "arious departments and functions< 1s it competiti"e
> 1s your organisation "ery hierarchical with lots of layers of management and staff0 and long chains of
> How do people go about their 2obs< 9re there set processes and procedures in place to do particular
2obs that people must follow< =r is there scope for creati"ity and initiati"e< &o these processes include knowledge components< &o people ha"e time to seek and share knowledge and to reflect on it as they go about their work0 or are they always under pressure to get the 2ob done and produce results<
=ften0 the best way to find out whether and how an organisation.s infrastructure and processes are helping or hindering people is to ask them. 'ut before you do0 be aware of the impact of both infrastructure and culture on people.s willingness to tell the truth 3 does your organisation make it safe for them to speak their mind openly<
5'!'% Knowledge management -,o3esses

1n bringing knowledge management into your organisation0 you will need to select and implement a number of processes that will help your organisation to be better at creating0 finding0 ac4uiring0 organising0 sharing and using the knowledge it needs to meet its goals. /here are many such processes0 including for example:
> #onducting knowledge audits to identify knowledge needs0 knowledge resources and knowledge
flows
> #reating knowledge strategies to guide the o"erall approach
"&
> #onnecting people with people to share tacit knowledge using approaches such as communities of
practice or learning e"ents
> #onnecting people with information to share explicit knowledge using approaches such as best
practices databases0 and using content management processes to ensure that explicit knowledge is current0 rele"ant and easily accessible working and learning
> #reating opportunities for people to generate new knowledge0 for example through collaborati"e > 1ntroducing processes to help people seek and use the knowledge of others such as peer assists > /eaching people to share knowledge in ways that inspire people by using storytelling techni4ues > 5ncouraging people to prioritise learning as part of their day>to>day work0 by learning before0 during
and after the tasks and pro2ects they ha"e performed
Fou can find more details of each of these in the $% toolbox. Some knowledge management processes are fairly new to organisations but many are not 3 they are simply being considered from a new perspecti"e0 that of focusing on knowledge. /here is no :perfect; process nor is there a :one siCe that fits all;. Four choice of processes will depend on the nature of your organisation.
5'!'& Knowledge management )nf,ast,+3t+,e

9 knowledge management infrastructure includes the knowledge management processes 7as abo"e8 put in place to ensure good knowledge management practice0 and also the organisational infrastructure that is created to enable these processes 3 the essential management and staff roles and responsibilities that need to be put in place to support the new processes and initiati"es. 1n other words0 the people who will take the lead in dri"ing it all forward and bringing about the necessary changes. /his infrastructure may ha"e a number of le"els0 depending on the siCe and structure of your organisation. For example:
> =wnership and a :home;
6here will knowledge management :li"e; within your organisation< 6ho :owns. it< 6ho is accountable for results< $nowledge management can reside in a range of places in organisations such as within information management0 information technology0 human resources0 training0 corporate uni"ersities0 research and de"elopment0 support ser"ices0 or as a separate function reporting directly to the board. 6hen making this decision0 think not only about practicalities0 but also about what message you are con"eying about knowledge management by the :home; you are gi"ing it0 and also what impact that :home; is likely to ha"e on the direction and de"elopment of your knowledge management efforts. For example0 if knowledge management is part of 1/ 7information technology80 might issues of people and organisational culture take a back seat to technology< =r0 if knowledge management is part of research and de"elopment0 might there be too much focus on creating and finding new knowledge and not enough on reusing the knowledge you already ha"e< /here are no :right; answers here0 but an awareness of these kinds of issues is key. Four knowledge management efforts will need a core team of managers and co>ordinators to lead the way and dri"e the changes 3 to secure budgets and resources0 pro"ide direction0 o"ersee and co> ordinate efforts0 gi"e encouragement and assistance0 and monitor and e"aluate progress and "alue. 9gain0 the nature of your core team will depend largely on the siCe and structure of your organisation. 9 large organisation may need a #hief $nowledge =fficer 7or e4ui"alent8 supported by a network of $nowledge %anagers and perhaps also $nowledge #o>ordinators0 while a smaller organisation may simply need a single $nowledge %anager. %anagement buy>in and support0 especially at senior le"el0 is "ital to any knowledge management programme. Similarly0 the more support you ha"e from the "arious different functions and departments across the organisation0 the better0 as this can greatly speed the adoption of knowledge management. Ha"ing a steering committee with representati"es from "arious functions can also help you to create better solutions: you get input from a range of perspecti"es and types of expertise0 and can also clearly see the :big picture; across the organisation0 allowing you to better prioritise resources and approaches. 1n addition to your core team0 there will also be people throughout the organisation whose 2ob it is
> $nowledge managers and the core team
> Steering committees and senior supporters
> $nowledge brokers and champions
"'
7or part of whose 2ob it is8 to gather and share knowledge on a day>to>day basis. /hese people will already exist in most organisations e"en if there ha"e pre"iously been no deliberate knowledge management efforts. Such people include researchers0 information workers0 librarians0 writers/editors/publishers0 website producers0 help desk ad"isers0 internal communications people0 team secretaries and administrators0 etc.B they might be part of a central ser"ice such as a library or publications department0 or they may be spread throughout the organisation in "arious departments and functions. 5ither way0 you will need to identify these people and bring them on board0 gi"en that they are already acting as :brokers; or :champions; of knowledge and knowledge working.
> Support from outside
Four core team might want to attend some courses or conferences0 do some research and reading0 and make some contacts in other organisations0 to :get up to speed; in knowledge management. 5"en if your core team comprises people with considerable experience in the field0 knowledge management is a rapidly>e"ol"ing discipline and so there are always new de"elopments of which they will need to keep abreast. 9ttendance at e"ents0 contacts with knowledge managers in other organisations0 2ournal subscriptions and 2oining professional membership bodies can all be useful. Fou may also wish to bring in more specific external support in the form of knowledge management consultants for any pro2ects for which you feel you do not ha"e the re4uired expertise in>house.
=b"iously in smaller organisations this infrastructure will be much simpler0 although the same principles will still need to be applied0 albeit in less formal ways. Similarly0 whate"er the siCe of your organisation0 this infrastructure is likely to :thin out; and simplify in the long term0 as knowledge management becomes integrated into the organisation and knowledge management practices become part of :the way we do things around here;. 9s that begins to happen0 dedicated knowledge management roles and functions will probably disappear0 but this will take some time 3 it will not happen o"ernight. 1n the meantime0 you will need to create0 resource and maintain this knowledge management infrastructure to dri"e and support your knowledge management processes.
5.3 (* %e$hnology
5'%'1 IT and 4nowledge management
1n the early days of knowledge management0 there was a strong focus on information technology 71/8. 9s knowledge management became the latest buCCword0 technology "endors were 4uick to spot an opportunity to sell :knowledge management solutions; and many of the companies that led the way in knowledge management were 4uick to buy 3 to their cost. Ha"ing made significant in"estments in the latest systems0 they then found that people simply did not use them and so the systems ended up being confined to what became known as :the knowledge management gra"eyard;. /hese companies learned the hard way that knowledge management is about people0 processes and technology 3 in that order of priority. /hat being said0 technology is an important enabler of many0 if not most0 knowledge management initiati"es. /echnology can support and enable knowledge management in two main ways: ? 1t can pro"ide the means for people to organise0 store and access explicit knowledge and information0 such as in electronic libraries or best practices databases. + 1t can help to connect people with people so that they can share tacit knowledge0 such as through white pages0 groupware or "ideo conferencing. %uch of the early focus on technology was dri"en by an o"er>focus on explicit knowledge 3 on :getting things down; and into high>le"el databases. Howe"er0 gi"en the current "iew that up to K,P of an organisation.s knowledge is always going to be in people.s heads0 there is a growing interest in technologies that support communication and collaboration between people. /echnology adds "alue when it reduces the cost0 time and effort needed for people to share knowledge and information. Howe"er if it is not closely aligned with organisational needs and with people.s ways of working0 or if it results in information o"erload and so people can no longer make sense of it all0 then e"en with the best technology in the world0 you will end up right back at s4uare one: people still cannot easily find the knowledge an information they need. /he importance of this cannot be o"eremphasised.
")
/he reality is that technology can only fulfil some of our needs. 9nd how well it fulfils them depends critically on managing the knowledge behind them 3 content management0 assigning knowledge roles etc. /here are many tools that can help enable indi"iduals and organisations to be more effecti"e at accessing and sharing their knowledge. How well we exploit these opportunities depends more on good knowledge management than on finding the :best; piece of technology. 1n other words0 technology by itself does not create shared knowledge: it needs to be supported by0 and integrated with0 rele"ant people and processes. /om &a"enport0 a prominent author on knowledge management0 is often 4uoted as offering the following rule of thumb: your in"estment in technology in terms of both cost and effort should stay under one third of the total knowledge management effort 3 otherwise you are going wrong somewhere. So0 what kinds of technology are we talking about< /he following is a brief and simply o"er"iew0 aimed at gi"ing the non>technical manager an o"erall idea of some of the knowledge>enabling technologies currently a"ailable.
5'%'! G,o+-wa,e
roupware is a term for software specifically designed for groups of people0 not 2ust indi"iduals. 9s the name suggests0 groupware allows groups of people to share information and to coordinate their acti"ities o"er a computer network. 5xamples of popular proprietary groupware packages are Lotus Notes0 No"ell roup6ise and %icrosoft 5xchange. roupware packages are di"erse in the functions they offer. %ost include a shared database where team members can work on common documents and hold electronic discussions. Some include group schedulers0 calendars and/or e>mail. =thers focus on real>time meeting support. #ombined0 these pieces allow team members to work on a single document0 discuss ideas online0 maintain records0 and prioritise and schedule teamwork and meetings. 9 true groupware package should include se"eral of these functions0 not 2ust one. 1n recent years0 intranets ha"e emerged as cheaper and more open alternati"es to proprietary groupware products so many companies are gi"ing up proprietary groupware in fa"our of intranets.
5'%'% Int,anets
9n intranet is simply a pri"ate 1nternet. 1nternet>type ser"ices are installed onto an organisation.s internal computer network which enables it to then pro"ide web pages and related ser"ices such as e>mail0 discussion boards0 access to shared documents and databases0 and collaboration tools such as shared calendars and pro2ect management tools. 9n intranet can con"ey information in many forms0 not 2ust web pages but documents0 tables0 spreadsheets and imagesB it can host applications and databases. 9bo"e all0 it pro"ides connecti"ity that allows people to collaborate0 where"er they are located. 1ntranets can support knowledge sharing in a "ariety of ways0 including:
> 5ase of access and use: the use of 6orld 6ide 6eb browsers pro"ides a low cost and user>friendly
interface to information and applications.
> Jni"ersal access to information: information can be kept on any :ser"er; on the network0 and can be
accessed from anywhere within the intranet.
> #onnecting people with people: intranets can simplify interaction between people in different
locations through applications such as email and discussion boards. intranet.
> 1nformal networks: publishing information and making contact can be 4uick and informal on an > )ro"iding a :one stop knowledge shop;: an intranet can pro"ide a single access point for internal
information and knowledge0 as well as pro"iding :gateways; to the 1nternet for access to external information resources.
5'%'& Conne3t)ng -eo-le w)t/ -eo-le< 3ollabo,at)(e tools

#ollaborati"e tools are simply electronic tools that support communication and collaboration 3 people working together. 5ssentially they take the form of networked computer software that lets different people coordinate their work acti"ities.
%*
/here are a number of key considerations and characteristics to bear in mind when looking at collaborati"e tools. /hese include:
> /ime
1s the collaboration taking place simultaneously 7e.g. "ideo conferencing8 or at different times 7e.g. email8< 1s the collaboration taking place in the same location or at different locations< How much and what types of information can be con"eyed< For example "ideo conferencing con"eys body language and tone of "oice0 whereas e>mail focuses almost exclusi"ely on the written word and gi"en this lack of context0 can be prone to misinterpretation. How well can the tool help people to connect with each other and form relationships< For example an email has low social presence while a face>to>face meeting has a high social presence. 6hat technology is needed< How comfortable are people with technology< How easy to use is the tool< How much training will people need<
> )lace
> 1nformation richness
> Social presence
> /echnology
1n short0 no one tool is ideal for all situations. #ollaborati"e tools can pro"ide a number of benefits0 such as:
> allowing people to work together in teams0 o"er a network0 irrespecti"e of location or time > enabling the sharing of tacit knowledge between a wide range of people > the ability to access the knowledge of experts where"er they are located > sa"ings on meeting costs 3 tra"el and subsistence0 meeting rooms0 etc.
/he "arious tools can be pro"ided as part of a groupware package0 o"er an intranet0 or in some cases as standalone tools. #ommon collaborati"e tools include the following:
> 5mail
9 simple electronic "ersion of written mail0 and undoubtedly the most widely used collaborati"e tool. %essages are sent "ia an electronic network and attachments can be added such a copies of documents and presentations. 5mail can be used between indi"iduals0 or to broadcast messages to a wider audience. &iscussion boards 7also known as message boards0 bulletin boards or chat rooms8 gi"e people the ability to post and reply to messages in a common area. Sometimes a leader or facilitator will moderate these boards. /heir purpose is to pro"ide an :informal meeting place; a bit like a caf!. )eople can ask for ad"ice and share information around topics of interest. &iscussion boards are often used to support communication within communities of practice. Hideo conferences can either be done using specialiCed "ideo facilities0 or from people.s desktops using computer software. Hideo conferencing works well for situations that re4uire a degree of trust and relationship building0 for discussing issues and exploring ideas0 and in situations where you don.t need a detailed permanent record to be generated automatically. #onsideration needs to be gi"en to the 4uality of the "ideo link0 as many of the benefits can be lost through poor 4uality. 9lso0 be aware that not e"eryone likes0 or feels comfortable with0 "ideo conferencing 9n alternati"e is audio 7telephone8 conferencing0 which tends to work best when participants already know each other. /here are a number of tools that enable work groups and pro2ect teams to share documents and exchange messages across different locations in :real time;. For example0 when a group is working on a shared document0 there needs to be a tool to make the document centrally a"ailable0 allow people to make changes0 synchronise the changes made0 and ensure that the most up>to>date "ersion is clearly a"ailable. Similarly0 remote pro2ect teams can take ad"antage of :electronic whiteboards; to brainstorm together0 generate lists of options0 draw or map concepts "isually to aid understanding0 display and analyse data together etc.
> &iscussion boards
> Hideo conferencing
> )ro2ect support tools
%1
> 6ork flow tools
6ork flow tools are de"eloped to model typical processes that take place in organisations. /hey enable people to work together on shared tasks0 with some of the core process knowledge embedded in the design of the work flow software application. 9n example would be a purchasing or transaction process0 starting with the creation of an order and ending with the supply of goods. 6here se"eral people and a se4uence of documents and processes are in"ol"ed0 automation can help speed up the process and also pro"ide information about what stage the process is at0 at any gi"en time. 5>learning is a rapidly growing field and uses information technology to deli"er learning and training to people electronically at their desktop. /here is a wide "ariety of tools and technologies a"ailable to support e>learning0 many of which include facilities for learners in different locations to work together on assignments0 case studies and pro2ects. 9t the highly sophisticated end of the spectrum0 technologies are emerging that allow the knowledge and expertise of a person in one location to be directly applied in another location in real time. Such technologies allow knowledge to be not only shared0 but applied0 remotely. For example0 in +,,? a pioneering surgical procedure was tested in which two surgeons in New Fork operated on a patient in France0 using 2oysticks and "oice commands to direct three robotic arms in the operating room. /his was the first instance of remote surgery on a human. Similar technologies ha"e already been used 4uite extensi"ely in fields such as engineering.
> 5>learning tools
> Hirtual working tools
5'%'5 Conne3t)ng -eo-le w)t/ )nfo,mat)on< manag)ng 3ontent

6hether you use an intranet or some other form of groupware to network and share documents0 applications and collaborati"e tools across your organisation0 you will need processes in place to ensure that users can easily and 4uickly find the information they need. Fou need to consider content management. /here are three critical aspects of managing content:
> #ollecting the content
1ncluding issues such as: where will the content come fromB who will collate itB how will they find and e"aluate sources to ensure that 4uality and reliability of contentB how will they ensure it meets users. needs both now and in the future0 as needs changeB how will they weed out out>of>date contentB how will you ensure that your content complies with issues such as copyright0 legal liability0 data protection0 and information risk and security< How will the content be organised so that people can easily find what they need0 when they need it< How will content be classified and indexed0 and what terms and language will you use< 6ill you use taxonomies< 9 thesaurus< How will people find and access the information they need< 6hat combination of na"igation tools will you offer them 3 menus0 maps0 search engines< 6hat balance will you strike between :pushing; information to users 7e.g. through alerting ser"ices8 or waiting for users to :pull; information out for themsel"es 7e.g. using search engines8<
> =rganising the content
> Ietrie"ing and using the content
'e aware that while there are a number of content management systems and software packages a"ailable0 an important element is people to manage the contentB this function is often best performed by people with a background in librarianship and information management. Some examples of tools and processes used in content management are:
> /axonomies
9 taxonomy is a hierarchical structure for organising a body of knowledgeB it gi"es a framework for understanding and classifying that knowledge 3 how to group it and how the "arious groups relate to each other. 1n content management0 the purpose of taxonomy is to organise information so that users can more easily na"igate their way through it. /axonomies can be generated either manually or automatically using a software programme. 9 thesaurus is a list of the "arious terms and language that are used to describe a body of knowledge0 and which specifies the relationship between the terms: antonyms and synonyms0
> /hesauri
%#
broader terms and narrower terms0 etc. 1n content management0 the aim of a thesaurus is to enable content to be indexed in a "ariety of ways so that different users who tend to use different terms can still find it.
> Search engines
9 search engine is a piece of software that carries out searches for information across multiple sources. Search engines "ary widely in their le"el of sophistication. Some simply allow users to search for documents that contain a specific word or phrase0 which can lea"e users ha"ing to sift through great deal of irrele"ant information. %ore ad"anced search engines allow users to construct more specific searches0 enabling them to narrow their search and reduce the amount of irrele"ant material retrie"ed. 9 portal is a website or a web page that pro"ides your main point of entry into an intranet or the 1nternet0 and which gathers and integrates information from "arious sources into a single location. )ortals are essentially :personalised gateways; 3 a kind of one>stop>shop for information that is personalised0 either to an organisation.s needs or to indi"idual people.s needs.
> )ortals
/he purpose is to a"oid information o"erload by pro"iding at each person.s desktop access to the specific information and tools they need to do their 2ob0 while filtering out those they don.t need. /hink about your computer desktop for example: you will probably ha"e arranged your applications and files in a way that suits you0 making the ones that you use most the easiest to find. 9 portal does the same thing0 except through an intranet or the 1nternet. =n the 1nternet0 for example0 you may ha"e set up a personalised portal on 9=L0 Fahoo or Freeser"e. )ortals are relati"ely new in organisations0 largely because an effecti"e portal is technically difficult to create0 and so the technology is still e"ol"ing.
5'%'6 Knowledge 3,eat)on te3/nolog)es

9s well as technologies designed to enable the sharing of knowledge0 there is also an increasing number of tools aimed at supporting the creation of knowledge 3 helping to generate information and knowledge from data. 9 few examples are briefly mentioned here for general interest only:
> &ata mining
/ools that analyse data in "ery large databases and look for trends and patterns that can be used to impro"e organisational processes. #omputer>supported interacti"e "isual representations of abstract data to help impro"e understanding. )ro"ide a structure in which alternati"e decisions and the implications of taking those decisions can be displayed and e"aluated. 9 method or series of actions taken to find out why a particular failure or problem exists0 and correcting those causes.
> 1nformation "isualiCation
> &ecision trees
> Ioot cause analysis
5'%'7 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

Four articles by &a"id Skyrme 9ssociates a"ailable online: 1ntranets: sharing organiCational knowledge 1nsights0 No. +etting to grips with groupware 1nsights0 No. G 1s content king< 1N Jpdate No. -@ )ortals: panacea or pig< 1N Jpdate No. AA
% Meas-ring the effects of knowledge management
6 MEAS@#ING THE E$$ECTS O$ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

4.1 Why meas)"e?
%easurement is undoubtedly the least de"eloped aspect of knowledge management0 which is not surprising gi"en the difficulties in defining it let alone measuring it. 1n fact some practitioners feel that measurement is premature at this stage and that trying to measure knowledge before you fully understand how knowledge is created0 shared and used is likely to lead you to focus on the wrong things. 5laborate measurement systems0 they say0 cannot currently be 2ustified because we simply do not yet know enough about the dynamics and impact of knowledge. /hat being said0 in practice0 few organisations ha"e the luxury of being allocated resources to implement something without being re4uired to demonstrate its "alue. 6ithout measurable success0 enthusiasm and support for knowledge management is unlikely to continue. 9nd without measurable success0 you are unlikely to be able to what works and what doesn.t and therefore make an informed 2udgement regarding what to continue doing0 and what to ad2ust.
4.2 What to meas)"e? /ommon meas)"ement a##"oa$hes

/here are a number of approaches that are increasingly being used to measure the "alue of0 and progress in0 knowledge and knowledge management in organisations. Some of the more common approaches are outlined here for the purposes of pro"iding a general o"er"iew.
6'!'1 Meas+,)ng t/e )m-a3t of 4nowledge management on t/e o,gan)sat)on.s -e,fo,man3e

i"en that the whole point of knowledge management is to impro"e the performance of your organisation and to help it to achie"e its ob2ecti"es0 the best and most logical approach is tie>in measurement of knowledge management with your organisation.s o"erall performance measurement systems. /his can be done either at an organisational le"el0 or for indi"idual pro2ects and processes. Howe"er0 one limitation of this approach is that if knowledge management practices are made an integral part of work0 you cannot be sure of the relati"e contribution of those knowledge management practices to the success of a pro2ect or process0 "ersus other factors. 1n "iew of this0 =.&ell and rayson0 in #hapter ?+ of their book :1f only we knew what we knew: the transfer of internal knowledge and best practice 7?@@K8; recommend a two>pronged approach that seeks to measure both outcomes and acti"ities. %easuring outcomes focuses on the extent to which a pro2ect or a process achie"es its stated ob2ecti"es. /he success of the pro2ect or process ser"es as a proxy measure for the success of the knowledge management practices embedded in it. 1n other words0 knowledge management is seen as an integral tool for impro"ing a pro2ect or process0 rather than as a separate thing. For example0 outcomes might be measured in terms of the reduced cost of a process0 impro"ed efficiency0 the reduction in time taken to do it0 the impro"ed 4uality of deli"ery0 etc. %easuring acti"ities then shifts the focus onto the specific knowledge management practices that were applied in the pro2ect or process. 6hat were the specific knowledge management acti"ities behind this practice and what was their effect< 1n measuring acti"ities0 you are looking specifically at things like how often users are accessing0 contributing to0 or using the knowledge resources and practices you ha"e set up. Some of these measures will be 4uantitati"e 7:hard;8 measures such as the number and fre4uency of hits or submissions to an intranet site per employee. Howe"er these measures only gi"e part of the picture 3 they do not tell you why people are doing what they are doing. Hence to complete the picture0 you will also need 4ualitati"e 7:soft;8 measures by asking people about the attitudes and beha"iours behind their acti"ities.
6'!'! T/e balan3ed s3o,e3a,d

9n increasingly popular approach to measuring an organisation.s performance0 and one that is being widely adopted in knowledge management0 is the balanced scorecard. /he ad"antage of this approach in knowledge management terms is that it directly links learning to process performance0 which in turn is linked with o"erall organisational performance. &e"eloped by $aplan and Norton0 the balanced scorecard focuses on linking an organisation.s strategy and ob2ecti"es to measures from four key perspecti"es: financial0 customers0 internal
%!
processes0 and learning and growth. 1n contrast to traditional accounting measures0 the balanced scorecard shifts the focus from purely financial measures to include three key measures of intangible success factors. /hese roughly e4uate to the three components of intellectual capital 3 namely human capital 7learning80 structural capital 7processes80 and customer capital. /he four perspecti"es can be framed as follows: ? Financial How do we look to our :shareholders; 7or go"erning bodies8< + #ustomer How do our patients see us< 9re we meeting their needs and expectations< N 1nternal processes 6hat do we need to do well in order to succeed< 6hat are the critical processes that ha"e the greatest impact on our patients and our financial ob2ecti"es< A Learning and growth How can we de"elop our ability to learn and grow in order to meet our ob2ecti"es in the abo"e three areas< /his knowledge management0 which is about learning and growth0 is measured as an integral and yet distinct part of o"erall organisational performance. /he balanced scorecard approach can be applied to indi"idual initiati"es as well as to a whole organisation.
6'!'% #et+,n on )n(estment A#OIB

%ost initiati"es that re4uire resources will be expected to show a return in in"estment 3 what benefits did we get to 2ustify the costs in"ol"ed 3 and knowledge management in usually no exception. /he problem is that both the costs and the benefits of knowledge management can be notoriously difficult to pin down. 6hile the costs associated with an in"estment in information technology can be relati"ely straightforward to identify0 other costs can be less so0 such as for pro2ects that in"ol"e an amalgam of resources from across the organisation0 or those inherent in challenging an organisation.s culture. =n the benefits side0 how do you measure things like increased knowledge sharing0 faster learning or better decision>making< 9 number of approaches ha"e been de"eloped for showing financial returns on knowledge assets. Such approaches tend to be rather complex0 and therefore are probably more appropriate to organisations that are reasonably ad"anced in their knowledge management efforts0 rather than 2ust starting out.
6'!'& T/e 4nowledge management l)fe 3*3le

Some organisations measure the progress of their knowledge management acti"ities in terms of their maturity 3 how far :down the line; they are in implementing knowledge management practices and ways of working. /he 9merican )roducti"ity and Luality #enter has de"eloped a framework known as Ioad %ap to $nowledge %anagement Iesults: Stages of 1mplementation. /he aim is to pro"ide organisations with a map to guide them from getting started right through to :institutionalising; knowledge management 3 embedding it in the organisation and making it an integral part of the way an organisation works. /he map has fi"e stages: ? et started + &e"elop a strategy N &esign and launch a knowledge management initiati"e A 5xpand and support - 1nstitutionalise knowledge management /here are measures associated with each stage.
6'!'5 Em-lo*ee s+,(e*s

i"en the importance of people in knowledge management0 employee sur"eys can be a useful additional to your measurement toolbox. Sur"eys can be used to assess aspects of organisational culture and the extent to which people.s opinions0 attitudes and beha"iours are0 or are not0 changing. =b"iously such sur"eys measure people.s sub2ecti"e perceptions and these may or may not reflect reality0 but in many ways that can be their "ery benefit0 as people.s perceptions will determine their beha"iours with respect to knowledge management. 1n order to be
%"
effecti"e0 it is "ital that any such sur"eys are carried out by people with the re4uired expertise0 whether that is through in>house capabilities or by hiring external consultants.
6'!'6 Meas+,)ng t/e (al+e of 4nowledge assets

9s well as measuring the progress and "alue of knowledge management initiati"es0 organisations are also de"eloping ways to measure the "alue of their knowledge assets. /he traditional balance sheet is increasingly being regarded as an incomplete measure of an organisation.s worth0 as it does not place a "alue on intangible assets such as knowledge or intellectual capital. 9s already mentioned0 intellectual capital is commonly regarded as ha"ing three components: human capital 7the knowledge and skills of people80 structural capital 7the knowledge inherent in an organisation.s processes and systems80 and customer capital 7customer relationships8. /here are a number of key models for measuring the "alue of intellectual capital. 9mong the best>known are:
> /he Skandia Na"igator and its associated Halue #reation %odel
&e"eloped by Swedish financial ser"ices company Skandia0 this approach uses the metaphor of a house whose roof represents an organisation.s financial assets and whose foundations represent inno"ation and renewal. /he model includes a long list of measures0 which are organised into fi"e categories0 namely: financial0 customer0 process0 renewal and de"elopment0 and human. &e"eloped by knowledge management pioneer $arl 5rik S"eiby0 the monitor categorises intangible assets into human competence0 internal structure and external structure0 with further subdi"isions into indicators of efficiency and utilisation0 stability0 and growth and renewal. =riginally de"eloped in Scandina"ia and 9ustralia by *ohan and Rran Ioos0 the index identifies four categories of intellectual capital: relationship0 human0 infrastructure and inno"ationB it then looks at the relati"e importance of each0 and also at the impact of changes in intellectual capital. 9 model in which users create hierarchies of intangibles to which they assign "alue ratings according to priorities0 then a computer model determines the o"erall "alue rating and tests for areas of risk.
> S"eiby.s 1ntangible 9ssets %onitor
> 1ntellectual #apital Ser"ices. 1#> 1ndex
> )hilip %.)herson.s 1nclusi"e Halue %ethodology 71H%8
4.3 <ow to meas)"e?

%elissie #lemmons IumiCen outlines the following steps in de"eloping measures0 in #hapters ?@>++ of her book :/he complete idiot.s guide to knowledge management 7+,,+8;:
6'%'1 #e()s)t *o+, goals

Four starting point for measuring any knowledge management initiati"e will be the original goals of that initiati"e: what is it that you set out to achie"e< &e"eloping measures will often lead you to get clearer about how you define your goals in the first placeB if your goals are not concrete and clear enough0 then measuring your success or progress against them will be difficult. Hence ensure that your goals define clearly what constitutes success in measurable terms.
6'%'! Know t/e a+d)en3e fo, *o+, meas+,es

1n defining success0 you will often find that different people ha"e different ideas about what constitute success. %anagers who appro"e the allocation of resources will want to know about the returns on their in"estment. Jsers of the knowledge management initiati"e will want to know how it has benefited them and whether their participation has been worthwhile. =ther beneficiaries of the initiati"e0 such as patients0 will want to know how they ha"e gained.
%%
6'%'% Def)ne t/e meas+,es

&efine what exactly you are going to measure0 and what measurement approach or approaches you intend to take. 5nsure that your measures are:
> Halid
/hey actually measure what they are intended to measure rather than something else0 /hey gi"e consistent results /hey gi"e information that can be acted upon if necessary.
> Ieliable
> 9ctionable
6'%'& De3)de w/at data w)ll be 3olle3ted and /ow )t w)ll be 3olle3ted
/his is a process of :putting the meat on the bones; 3 spelling out the details: what data will be collected0 who will collect it0 how0 when0 where0 etc.<
6'%'5 Anal*s)ng and 3omm+n)3at)ng t/e meas+,es

6hen analysing and presenting the results0 be sure to refer back to your original goals and your audience. 9im to present results in a way that answers their 4uestions in a meaningful way0 rather than simply presenting facts and figures.
6'%'6 #e()ew *o+, 3omb)nat)on of meas+,es

%onitor and e"aluate how your measures are working. &e"eloping measures is a process of trial and error 3 don.t necessarily expect to get it right first time. Similarly0 remember that as ob2ecti"es and situations change o"er time0 so will your measures need to. 9dditional pointers emphasised by other practitioners include:
> %easuring for the sake of measuring is a waste of time 3 be sure that you are measuring for a
specific purpose or purposes.
> 'e sure that some kind of action or decision will be taken as a result of your measures > &on.t try to measure e"erythingB instead0 focus on what is important. /rying to measure too much
not only re4uires a great deal of work0 it also tends to dilute the important issues.
> 1f your organisation already has a measurement system in place0 then you can use those measures. > 1f your knowledge management initiati"es work0 then you might assume that this will show up in
your organisation.s other performance measures. =f course there is no guarantee that existing measures are good ones so you might like to look into them0 but there are two ma2or ad"antages to :piggy>backing; on existing measures: first0 they are already accepted practice in the organisation0 and second0 they are most likely measuring things that are important to the organisation.
6'%'7 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

9merican )roducti"ity and Luality #enter 79)L#8 Ioad %ap to $nowledge %anagement Iesults: Stages of 1mplementation /he 'alanced Scorecard #ollaborati"e
%&
& Knowledge management glossary of terms
7 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT GLOSSA#C O$ TE#MS

/he glossary 7go directly to http://libraries.nelh.nhs.uk/knowledgemanagement/default.asp<pageS L=SS9IF8 is arranged in alphabetical order. 6here terms are also known by other names0 or where two or more terms are closely related0 you can click on links from one to the other. 1f there is a term that is not included and you think it should be0 if you feel that a better explanation of a term is needed0 or if you want to suggest an alternati"e explanation0 please0 please contact us.
%'

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ABC of Knowledge Management

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ABC of Knowledge Management

" ,-IN.I,LES AND ,-O.ESSES O/ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT..........................................0

& DE=ELO,ING THE KM EN=I-ONMENT.....................................................................................&1

0 MEAS>-ING THE E//E.TS O/ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT..............................................0$

6 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT GLOSSA-? O/ TE-MS............................................................07

1 What is knowledge management?

1 WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

1.1 What is knowledge management?

1.2 What is knowledge?

1.3 Why do we need knowledge management?

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

1 What is knowledge management?

1.4 What does knowledge management involve?

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

1 What is knowledge management?

much easier to findB other moreB

might otherwise take a great deal of time and energy to find.

1.5 Some textbook definitions of knowledge management

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

# $rinciples and processes of knowledge management

! "#INCI"LES AND "#OCESSES O$ KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

ight knowledge! "ight #la$e! "ight time

2.2 %y#es of knowledge& ex#li$it and ta$it

2.3 %y#es of knowledge& old and new

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

# $rinciples and processes of knowledge management

2.4 Ways with knowledge& $olle$ting and $onne$ting

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

# $rinciples and processes of knowledge management

2.5 Ways with knowledge& #eo#le! #"o$esses and te$hnology

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

management fad. in"estments.

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

3.2 %he knowledge e$onomy

3.3 (nowledge management in the #)bli$ se$to"

to a national grid for learning

rid for Learning0 ?@@K8 3 establishing a commitment

that all would be capable of being deli"ered by computer by +,,age

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

& GETTING STA#TED

&'1'1 #e()ew *o+, o-t)ons

&'1'! Don.t get too /+ng +- on 0t/e best1

&'1'% Kee- )t s)m-le 2 a(o)d ,o34et s3)en3e

&'1'& Lea,n w/)le do)ng

&'1'5 Celeb,ate w/at *o+.,e al,ead* do)ng

&'1'6 Loo4 at *o+, o,gan)sat)on.s goals

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

&'1'7 Loo4 fo, needs8 -,oblems and -a)ns

&'1'9 Sta,t small

&'1': Don.t ta4e off w)t/o+t a -)lot

&'1'1; #emembe, t/e 0b)g t/,ee1< -eo-le8 -,o3esses8 te3/nolog*

&'1'11 T/e +lt)mate a)m< )nst)t+t)onal)sat)on

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

4.2 (* toolbox + invento"y of tools and te$hni,)es

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

4.3 'fte" '$tion

&'%'1 W/at a,e afte, a3t)on ,e()ews

&'%'! W/at a,e t/e benef)ts

&'%'% How do I go abo+t )t

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

NHS National Library for Health: Knowledge Management Specialist Library

&'%'& A,e t/e,e an* ot/e, -o)nts I s/o+ld be awa,e of

&'%'5 Mo,e )nfo,mat)on

&'1'5 Celeb,ate w/at o+.,e al,ead do)ng