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I HC THI NGUYN
I HC KHOA HC

L TH KIM LIN

NH L C BN CA I S

LUN VN THC S TON HC
Chuyn ngnh: Phng php ton s cp

Thi Nguyn, nm 2012
S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.lrc-tnu.edu.vn
Mc lc
Mc lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Li ni u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 Kin thc chun b 5
1.1 a thc trn mt trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Nghim ca a thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Lch s nh l c bn ca i s 11
2.1 Mt s ng gp ban u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 ng gp ca Jean le Rond DAlembert . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 ng gp ca Leonhard Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Joseph-Louis Lagrange v Pierre Simon Laplace . . . . . 20
2.5 ng gp ca Carl Friedrich Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Mt s chng minh nh l c bn ca i s 26
3.1 Chng minh dng cng c i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Chng minh dng cng c gii tch phc . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Chng minh dng cng c tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Phn ph lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1
2
Li cm n
Sau qu trnh nhn ti v nghin cu di s hng dn khoa hc
ca PGS.TS L Th Thanh Nhn, lun vn nh l c bn ca i s
ca ti c hon thnh. C c kt qu ny, l nh s dy bo
ht sc tn tnh v nghim khc ca C. Ti xin by t lng bit n su
sc ti C v gia nh!
Ti cng xin gi li cm n chn thnh n Ban Gim hiu, Phng
o to-Khoa hc-Quan h quc t v Khoa Ton-Tin ca Trng i
hc Khoa hc - i hc Thi Nguyn to iu kin thun li nht
trong sut qu trnh hc tp ti trng cng nh thi gian ti hon thnh
ti ny. S gip nhit tnh v thi thn thin ca cc cn b
thuc Phng o to v Khoa Ton-Tin li trong lng mi chng
ti nhng n tng ht sc tt p.
Ti xin cm n Phng Gio dc v o to huyn Thy Nguyn -
thnh ph Hi Phng v Trng trung hc c s Dng Quan - ni ti
ang cng tc to iu kin cho ti hon thnh kha hc ny.
Ti xin cm n gia nh, bn b ng nghip v cc thnh vin trong
lp cao hc Ton K4B (Kha 2010-2012) quan tm, to iu kin,
ng vin c v ti c th hon thnh nhim v ca mnh.
3
Li ni u
nh l c bn ca i s pht biu rng mi a thc mt bin khc
hng vi h s phc c t nht mt nghim phc. i khi, nh l c
bn ca i s c pht biu di dng: Mi a thc mt bin khc 0
vi h s phc c s nghim phc (mi nghim tnh vi s bi ca n)
ng bng bc ca a thc .
Mc d tn ca nh l l nh l c bn ca i s nhng khng c
mt chng minh thun ty i s no cho nh l ny. Tt c cc chng
minh cho nh l u cn n tnh y ca tp cc s thc, hoc mt
dng tng ng v tnh y , m tnh y li khng l khi nim
i s. Hn na, nh l c bn ca i s khng phi l nn tng ca
i s hin i. Tn ca nh l ny c t ra vo thi im khi m
vic nghin cu i s ch yu l gii phng trnh a thc.
Peter Roth l ngi u tin pht biu gi m nh l c bn ca
i s trong cun sch Arithmetica Phylosophica cng b nm 1608:
Mt a thc bc n vi h s thc c khng qu n nghim. Tip n l
khng nh ca Albert Giard (1595-1632) trong cun sch Linvention
nouvelle en lAlg` ebre xut bn nm 1629: Phng trnh a thc bc
n c n nghim, tr khi phng trnh b khuyt. Nhiu nh ton hc
tin nh l l ng, v do h tin rng mi a thc vi h s thc khc
hng u vit di dng tch ca cc a thc vi h s thc bc mt
hoc hai. Bn cnh li c nhng ngi (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
Nikolaus II Bernoulli) c tm ra nhng a thc bc 4 vi h s thc khng
l tch ca cc a thc bc 1 hoc 2. Tuy nhin, cc phn v d ca h
u c Leonhard Euler phn bc, iu ny cng lm cho cc nh ton
hc thi tin tng tnh ng n ca nh l.
4
Chng minh u tin cho nh l thuc v DAlembert vo nm 1746,
nhng chng minh ny khng hon chnh. Euler 1749 c mt chng
minh ng cho nh l trong trng hp bc ca a thc 6. Cc chng
minh khc c thc hin bi Euler 1749, De Foncenex 1759, Lagrange
1772 v Laplace 1795 u c t nhiu ch cha cht ch. K c chng
minh u tin ca Gauss nm 1799 cng khng y . Mi n nm
1816, Gauss mi a ra mt chng minh chnh xc cho nh l.
Mc tiu ca lun vn l gii thiu lch s nh l c bn ca i s,
trong nhn mnh nhng ng gp quan trng ca DAlembert, Euler
v Gauss, ng thi trnh by mt s chng minh sau ny cho nh l
bng cch s dng cc cng c i s, gii tch phc v tp.
Cc kt qu v thng tin trong lun vn c vit da vo bi bo [Ba]
ca Baltus trn Historia Mathematica 2004, bi bo [Ca] ca J. Carrera
trn Publicions Matematiques 1992, cun sch [MF] ca Miller-File
2003, v c bit l bi bo [Du] ca Dunham 1991. Dunham c
Hi Ton hc M trao gii thng Polya nm 1992 v bi bo ny.
Lun vn gm 3 chng. Chng 1 trnh by kin thc chun b v
a thc. Chng 2 gii thiu lch s nh l c bn ca i s vi nhng
ng gp tiu biu ca mt s nh ton hc. Chng 3 a ra mt s
chng minh cho nh l bng cch s dng cc cng c i s, Gii tch
phc v Tp. Ngoi ra, lun vn cn c Phn ph lc trnh by kin
thc v s phc, m rng trng, trng phn r cng nh hnh nh ca
mt s nh ton hc c ng gp quan trng cho nh l.
Chng 1
Kin thc chun b
Mc ch ca chng ny l nhc li mt s khi nim v kt qu lin
quan n a thc trn mt trng nh php chia vi d, nghim ca a
thc phc v vic trnh by cc kt qu ca cc chng sau.
1.1 a thc trn mt trng
1.1.1. nh ngha. Mt tp K cng vi hai php ton cng v nhn c
gi l trng nu:
(a) Kt hp: a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c v (ab)c = a(bc) vi mi a, b, c K.
(b) Giao hon: a +b = b +a v ab = ba vi mi a, b K.
(c) Phn phi: a(b +c) = ab +ac vi mi a, b, c K.
(d) Tn ti n v 1 K sao cho a1 = 1a = a vi mi a K.
(e) Tn ti phn t 0 K sao cho a + 0 = 0 +a = a vi mi a K.
(g) Mi a K, tn ti phn t i a K sao cho a + (a) = 0.
(h) Mi 0 = a K, tn ti phn t kh nghch a
1
K sao cho
aa
1
= 1 = a
1
a.
Chng hn, Q, R, C l cc trng. Tp Q[
7] = {a+b
7 | a, b Q}
l mt trng. Q[
p] = {a +b
p | a, b Q} l mt trng nu p l s
nguyn t.
5
6
T nay cho n ht chng ny, lun gi thit K l mt trng.
1.1.2. nh ngha. Mt biu thc dng f(x) = a
n
x
n
+. . . +a
0
trong
a
i
K vi mi i c gi l mt a thc ca n x (hay bin x) vi h
s trong K. Nu a
n
= 0 th a
n
c gi l h s cao nht ca f(x) v
s t nhin n c gi l bc ca f(x), k hiu l deg f(x).
Ch rng hai a thc f(x) =

a
i
x
i
v g(x) =

b
i
x
i
l bng nhau
nu v ch nu a
i
= b
i
vi mi i. Ta ch nh ngha bc cho nhng a thc
khc 0, cn ta quy c a thc 0 l khng c bc. K hiu K[x] l tp cc
a thc n x vi h s trong K. Vi f(x) =

a
i
x
i
v g(x) =

b
i
x
i
,
nh ngha f(x) + g(x) =

(a
i
b
i
)x
i
v f(x)g(x) =

c
k
x
k
, trong
c
k
=

i+j=k
a
i
b
j
.
Ta d dng kim tra c tnh cht sau i vi bc ca cc a thc.
1.1.3. B . Vi f(x), g(x) K[x] ta lun c
deg(f(x) +g(x)) max{deg f(x), deg g(x)}
deg(f(x).g(x)) = deg f(x) + deg g(x).
nh l sau y, gi l nh l php chia vi d, ng mt vai tr rt
quan trng trong l thuyt a thc.
1.1.4. nh l. Cho f(x), g(x) K[x], trong g(x) = 0. Khi tn
ti duy nht mt cp a thc q(x), r(x) K[x] sao cho
f(x) = g(x)q(x) +r(x), vi r(x) = 0 hoc deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Chng minh. Trc ht ta chng minh tnh duy nht. Gi s
f(x) = g(x)q(x) +r(x) = g(x)q
1
(x) +r
1
(x),
trong r(x), r
1
(x) bng 0 hoc c bc nh hn bc ca g(x). Khi
g(x)(q(x) q
1
(x)) = r
1
(x) r(x).
7
Nu r(x) = r
1
(x) th
deg(r r
1
) = deg
_
g(q q
1
)
_
= deg g + deg(q q
1
).
iu ny mu thun v
deg(r r
1
) max{deg r, deg r
1
} < deg g deg g + deg(q q
1
).
Do vy, r
1
(x) = r(x). Suy ra g(x)(q(x) q
1
(x)) = 0. V g(x) = 0 nn
q(x) q
1
(x) = 0, tc l q(x) = q
1
(x).
By gi ta chng minh s tn ti. Nu deg f(x) < deg g(x) th ta
chn q(x) = 0 v r(x) = f(x). Gi s deg f(x) deg g(x). Vit
f(x) = a
m
x
m
+ . . . + a
0
v g(x) = b
n
x
n
+ . . . + b
0
vi a
m
, b
n
= 0 v
n m. Chn h(x) =
a
m
b
n
x
mn
. t f
1
(x) = f(x) g(x)h(x). Khi
f
1
(x) = 0 hoc f
1
(x) c bc thc s b hn bc ca f(x). Trong trng
hp f
1
(x) = 0, ta tm c d ca php chia f(x) cho g(x) l r(x) = 0
v thng l q(x) = h(x). Nu f
1
(x) = 0 th ta tip tc lm tng t vi
f
1
(x) v ta c a thc f
2
(x). C tip tc qu trnh trn ta c dy a
thc f
1
(x), f
2
(x), . . . , nu chng u khc 0 th chng c bc gim dn.
V th sau hu hn bc ta c mt a thc c bc b hn bc ca g(x)
v chnh l a thc d r(x). Nu mt a thc ca dy bng 0 th d
r(x) = 0. Th vo ri nhm li ta tm c q(x).
Trong nh l trn, q(x) c gi l thng v r(x) c gi l d
ca php chia f(x) cho g(x). Nu d ca php chia f(x) cho g(x) l 0
th tn ti q(x) K[x] sao cho f(x) = g(x)q(x). Trong trng hp ny
ta ni rng f(x) chia ht cho g(x) hay g(x) l c ca f(x).
8
1.2 Nghim ca a thc
1.2.1. nh ngha. Vi mi f(x) = a
n
x
n
+. . . +a
1
x +a
0
K[x] v
l phn t trong mt trng cha K, ta t f() = a
n
n
+. . . +a
1
+a
0
.
Nu f() = 0 th ta ni l nghim ca f(x).
Chng hn, s

2 R l nghim ca a thc x
2
2 Q[x].
1.2.2. H qu. Phn t a K l nghim ca a thc f(x) K[x] nu
v ch nu tn ti a thc g(x) K[x] sao cho f(x) = (x a)g(x).
Chng minh. Chia f(x) cho x a, d hoc bng 0 hoc l mt a thc
bc 0 v bc ca (xa) bng 1. V vy, d l mt phn t r K. Ta c
f(x) = (xa)q(x)+r. Thay x = a vo ng thc ta c r = f(a).
Cho k > 0 l mt s nguyn. Mt phn t a K c gi l mt
nghim bi k ca a thc f(x) K[x] nu f(x) chia ht cho (x a)
k
nhng khng chia ht cho (xa)
k+1
. Nu k = 1 th a c gi l nghim
n. Nu k = 2 th a c gi l nghim kp.
1.2.3. H qu. Phn t a K l nghim bi k ca f(x) K[x] nu v
ch nu f(x) = (x a)
k
g(x) vi g(x) K[x] v g(a) = 0.
Chng minh. Gi s a l nghim bi k ca f(x). V f(x) chia ht cho
(x a)
k
nn f(x) = (x a)
k
g(x) vi g(x) K[x]. Nu g(a) = 0 th
theo H qu 1.2.2 ta c g(x) = (x a)h(x) vi h(x) K[x] v do
f(x) chia ht cho (x a)
k+1
, v l. Vy g(a) = 0. Ngc li, v
f(x) = (x a)
k
g(x) nn f(x) chia ht cho (x a)
k
. Nu f(x) chia ht
cho (x a)
k+1
th f(x) = (x a)
k+1
h(x) vi h(x) K[x]. Do
(x a)
k
g(x) = (x a)
k+1
h(x).
Do K l trng nn g(x) = (xa)h(x). Suy ra g(a) = 0, mu thun.
Vy f(x) khng chia ht cho (x a)
k+1
.
9
1.2.4. H qu. Cho a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
r
K l nhng nghim phn bit ca
f(x) K[x]. Gi s a
i
l nghim bi k
i
ca f(x) vi i = 1, 2, . . . , r. Khi
f(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
(x a
2
)
k
2
. . . (x a
r
)
k
r
u(x), trong u(x) K[x]
v u(a
i
) = 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , r.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng quy np theo r. Trng hp r = 1
c suy ra t H qu 1.2.3. Cho r > 1. Theo gi thit quy np, tn ti
h(x) K[x] sao cho f(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
(x a
2
)
k
2
. . . (x a
r1
)
k
r1
h(x),
trong h(x) K[x] v h(a
i
) = 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , r 1. V a
r
l
nghim ca f(x) nn ta c
0 = f(a
r
) = (a
r
a
1
)
k
1
(a
r
a
2
)
k
2
. . . (a
r
a
r1
)
k
r1
h(a
r
).
Do a
r
= a
i
vi mi i = 1, . . . , r 1 nn h(a
r
) = 0. Gi s h(x) =
(x a
r
)
t
u(x) trong u(x) K[x], u(a
r
) = 0 v t > 0 l mt s
nguyn. V h(a
i
) = 0 nn u(a
i
) = 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , r 1. Do a
r
l nghim bi k
r
ca f(x) nn t k
r
. Hn na, f(x) c s phn tch
f(x) = (x a
r
)
k
r
v(x), trong v(x) K[x] v v(a
r
) = 0. V th ta c
f(x) = (x a
r
)
k
r
v(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
. . . (x a
r1
)
k
r1
(x a
r
)
t
u(x).
Ch rng K l trng, v th gin c c hai v cho (x a
r
)
t
ta c
(x a
r
)
k
r
t
v(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
. . . (x a
r1
)
k
r1
u(x).
Nu t < k
r
th khi thay x = a
r
vo ng thc trn ta c v tri bng 0,
cn v phi khc 0, iu ny l v l. Vy t = k
r
. V th f c phn tch
f(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
. . . (x a
r1
)
k
r1
(x a
r
)
k
r
u(x)
trong u(a
i
) = 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , r.
1.2.5. H qu. Cho 0 = f(x) K[x] l a thc. Khi s nghim ca
f(x), mi nghim tnh vi s bi ca n, khng vt qu bc ca f(x).
10
Chng minh. Gi s a
1
, . . . , a
r
l cc nghim ca f(x) vi s bi ln
lt l k
1
, . . . , k
r
. Theo H qu 1.2.4, tn ti g(x) K[x] sao cho
f(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
(x a
2
)
k
2
. . . (x a
r
)
k
r
g(x).
V th deg f(x) = deg g(x) +
r
i=1
k
i

r
i=1
k
i
, iu cn chng minh.
Chng 2
Lch s nh l c bn ca i s
Mc tiu ca chng ny l trnh by s lc lch s nh l c bn ca
i s, trong nhn mnh nhng ng gp tiu biu ca mt s nh
ton hc, l Jean le Rond DAlembert (c cng b u tin mt chng
minh cho nh l, nhng khng cht ch), Leonhard Euler (cng b mt
chng minh ng cho nh l trong trng hp bc nh hn hoc bng
6), Pierre Simon Laplace (cng b chng minh cho nh l bng cng
c i s, nhng cha y ), v Carl Friedrich Gauss (ngi u tin
cng b mt chng minh hon chnh cho nh l).
2.1 Mt s ng gp ban u
Trong tit ny, chng ti trnh by mt s mc ban u trong vic pht
biu nh l c bn ca i s.
2.1.1. ng gp ca Peter Roth. Cho n nay, kh c th bit c
chnh xc nh l c bn bt u t u. Ngi ta cho rng Peter Roth
(1580-1617) l ngi u tin pht biu gi m nh l, c vit trong
cun sch Arithmetica Phylosophica cng b nm 1608: Mt a thc
bc n vi h s thc c khng qu n nghim. Roth sng v lm vic
c v mt nm 1617, nhng khng ai bit chnh xc ngy mt v
11
12
ni mt ca ng. ng gp ca Roth cng khng my ngi bit n.
Trong lch s Ton hc Anh, rt t tc gi nhc n Roth, ngi ta ch
tm thy mt cun sch ca David Eugene Smith trong c nhng ch
thch v Roth (cun sch ny khng cn bn gc). Tuy nhin, trong
cun Lch s Quc gia Paris, Peter Roth c nhc n nhiu ln vi
mc thi gian 1608-1609, c l trong thi k ny Roth c coi l nh
i s uy tn hng u ca c.
2.1.2. ng gp ca Albert Giard. Albert Giard (1595-1632) l nh
ton hc, m nhc hc ngi Php. ng ch yu lm v lng gic v
l ngi u tin dng k hiu vit tt sin, cos, tan. Mc d Francois
Vite (1540-1603) a ra cc phng trnh bc n vi n nghim nhng
Albert Giard l ngi u tin khng nh s tn ti n nghim ca a
thc bc n. Trong cun sch Linvention nouvelle en lAlg` ebre ca
Giard xut bn nm 1629, ng vit Phng trnh a thc bc n c n
nghim, tr khi phng trnh b khuyt. ng gii ngha cm t phng
trnh khuyt c ngha l phng trnh a thc trong c t nht mt h
s bng 0. ng khng ni n iu kin h s ca a thc l nhng s
thc. Chc chn rng trong nhng lp lun chi tit v iu ny, ng
thc s tin tng khng nh trn vn ng khi phng trnh b khuyt.
Chng hn, ng ch ra rng mc d phng trnh x
4
4x + 3 = 0 l
khuyt (cc h s bc 3 v bc 2 u bng 0) nhng n vn c 4 nghim,
trong mt nghim kp l 1 v hai nghim cn li l 1 + i
2 v
1 i
2.
2.1.3. ng gp ca Rene Descartes. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) l
mt nh khoa hc, nh ton hc ngi Php. ng l cha ca Trit
hc hin i. Thi ca Descartes v c bn nhn bit c nh
l c bn ca i s, nhng cha chng minh c. Descartes khng
13
nh rng mt phng trnh a thc bc n c n nghim, trong mt s
nghim nm trong tp s thc, cn mt s nghim khc ch tn ti trong
s hnh dung ca chng ta. Trong s nhng nghim o c bao gm
cc nghim c dng a + b
1 vi a, b l thc, nhng ng khng bnh

lun v cc nghim khng thc ny.
2.1.4. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz v Nikolaus (II) Bernoulli. Cc
thng tin trong mc ny c tham kho trong bi bo ca J. Carrera
[Ca] ng trn tp ch Publicacions Matemtiques nm 1992. Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) sinh ra Leipziz v mt Hannover (nc
c). Thi ca ng, rt nhiu ngi c gng ph nh hoc chng minh
nh l C bn ca i s. Leibniz ngh n vic tm phn v d cho
nh l ny. Nm 1702, Leibniz cho rng cc a thc dng x
4
+r
4
, trong
r l s thc khc 0, khng th phn tch c thnh tch ca cc a
thc bc 1 hoc bc hai vi h s thc. Lc ng khng nhn ra rng
cn bc hai ca s phc i c th biu din di dng a + bi vi a, b l
cc s thc. Sau Nikolaus Bernoulli (sinh ra Basel - Thy s nm
1687 v mt Basel nm 1759) cng c sai lm tng t, ng khng
nh rng a thc x
4
4x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 4x + 4 khng th phn tch c
thnh tch cc a thc bc nht hoc bc hai. Tuy nhin, vo nm 1742
Nikolaus (II) Bernoulli nhn c mt bc th ca Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783) - mt nh Ton hc v Vt l ca Thy s, trong th ny
Euler khng nh rng a thc m Bernoulli a ra c s phn tch
_
x
2
(2 +)x + 1 +
7 +
__
x
2
(2 )x + 1 +
7
_
trong l mt cn bc hai ca 4 + 2
7. Hn na, Euler cng ch

thch rng cc a thc do Leibniz a ra cng c s phn tch
x
4
+r
4
= (x
2
+
2 rx +r
2
)(x
2
2 rx +r
2
).
14
2.2 ng gp ca Jean le Rond DAlembert
Cc thng tin trong tit ny c tham kho t cc bi bo ca Christopher
Baltus [Ba] v ca J. Carrera [Ca]. Bn lun nghim tc u tin v nh
l c bn ca i s thuc v Jean le Rond DAlembert (1717-1783), mt
nh Ton hc, C hc, Vt l hc, Thin vn hc ngi Php. DAlembert
l ngi u tin cng b chng minh nh l c bn ca i s trong
bi bo [DA] Recherches sur le calcul integral ng trn Histoire de
lAcad. Royale Berlin 1746, v kt qu ny thc s c cng b nm
1748. Nhng chng minh ca ng l mt chng minh khng hon chnh.
Gi s p(x) l a thc vi h s thc. Chng minh ca DAlembert nm
1946 (xem [DA]) v s tn ti nghim ca p(x) c chia lm hai bc.
Bc 1: Tn ti mt im x
0
mun |p(x)| ca p(x) t cc tiu.
Bc 2 (B DAlembert): Nu p(x
0
) = 0 th bt k mt ln cn no
ca x
0
u cha mt im x
1
sao cho |p(x
1
)| < |p(x
0
)|.
R rng, nu Bc 1 v Bc 2 u ng v x
0
l im lm cho |p(x)|
t cc tiu th |p(x
0
)| = 0 v do x
0
l mt nghim ca p(x).
Chng minh ca DAlembert cn hng mt s ch. im yu th
nht l DAlembert cng nhn (khng chng minh) tnh cht trong
Bc 1. Thc t, tnh cht ny c chp nhn mt cch t nhin vo
Th k 18. Tuy nhin mi n u th k 19 (nm 1821), Augustin Louis
Cauchy (1789-1857) - nh ton hc ngi Php, mi a ra mt chng
minh cht ch cho tnh cht ny.
V th, vi DAlembert, Bc 2 mi thc s quan trng. Tuy nhin,
im yu th hai ca DAlembert l trong chng minh kt qu Bc
2, ng s dng mt b m khng chng minh. B c pht
biu nh sau: Vi mi cp s phc (x
0
, y
0
) sao cho y
0
p(x
0
) = 0 tn
ti mt dy tng cc s hu t {q
k
} trong mt ln cn ca y
0
ta c
15
x x
0
=

k0
c
k
[y y
0
]
q
k
. Tuy nhin mi n nm 1851, Pusieux mi
c mt chng minh cht ch cho b ny. im yu th ba l, trong
cc din gii, DAlembert thiu kin thc lp lun v tnh com pc
nhm ch ra tnh hi t phn cui ca chng minh. Mc d vy, cc
tng trong chng minh ca ng cho nh l c bn ca i s vn rt
quan trng.
Cng trong bi bo ca DAlembert nm 1746 (xem [DA]), ng
pht hin ra hai iu quan trng. Th nht, ng ch ra rng rng nu
z = c + d
1 l mt nghim ca p(x) th s phc z = c d
1
cng l mt nghim ca p(x), v v th p(x) lun phn tch c thnh
nhng nhn t bc hai c dng xx + mx + n. iu th hai, c xut
hin cc lp lun trong bi bo ch khng c trnh by c th, l:
Nu thay x bi s phc z = z
1
+ iz
2
vo a thc p(x) th ta c
p(z) = p
1
(z
1
) + ip
2
(z
2
), trong p
1
(x), p
2
(x) l cc a thc vi h s
thc. Do p(z) = 0 nu v ch nu p
1
(z) = 0 v p
2
(z) = 0.
Mt iu rt th v i vi DAlembert v cc nh ton hc ng thi
l nh l c bn ca i s c mt tm quan trng vt ra ngoi lnh
vc i s. Trong bi bo nm 1746 (xem [DA]), lm cho mi ngi
nhn thy tm quan trng ca nh l C bn ca i s, DAlembert
trch cng trnh ca Johann Bernoulli (nm 1703) v s lin quan gia
nh l ny vi mt ch mi php tnh vi tch phn, c bit l lin
quan n k thut ly nguyn hm ca hm hu t m ngy ta ta gi l
k thut tch thng. Ta xt mt v d minh ha iu ny. Gi s ta
cn ly nguyn hm ca mt hm hu t m c t v mu l nhng a
thc vi h s thc, chng hn
28x
3
4x
2
+ 69x 14
3x
4
+ 5x
3
+ 10x
2
+ 20x 8
.
16
DAlembert khng nh rng mu s ca hm hu t c th phn tch
thnh cc nhn t tuyn tnh hoc bc hai (vi h s thc) v t nhng
kh khn trong vic ly nguyn hm c th vt qua. C th, vi hm
hu t trn, mu s c phn tch (3x 1)(x + 2)(x
2
+ 4). Do ta c
th tch hm hu t trn thnh tng
a
3x 1
+
b
x + 2
+
cx +d
x
2
+ 4
.
ng nht cc h s ta c a = 1, b = 7 v c = 2, d = 3. T ta
suy ra nguyn hm ca hm hu t trn l
1
3
ln |3x 1| + 7 ln |x + 2| + ln(x
2
+ 4)
3
2
tan
1
(x/2) +C.
Nh vy, nu nh l c bn ca i s c chng minh th chng ta
c th kt lun rng nguyn hm ca mi hm hu t
P
Q
(vi P v Q
l nhng a thc vi h s thc) lun tn ti v l mt tng ca nhng
nguyn hm dng
_
A
(ax +b)
n
dx hoc
_
Bx +C
(ax
2
+bx +c)
n
dx. T ta
c th tnh c nguyn hm ca cc hm hu t.
2.3 ng gp ca Leonhard Euler
Cc thng tin trong tit ny c tham kho t bi bo ca William
Dunham [Du]. C gng tip theo chng minh nh l c bn ca
i s thuc v Leonhard Euler. Chng minh ca Euler c cng b
trong bi bo Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des equations trn
Mem. Berlin nm 1749, v thc s c pht hnh nm 1751 (xem
[Eu]). Mc d chng minh ca Euler cng khng hon chnh theo mi
ngha, nhng n thit lp c cc kt qu cho trng hp a thc bc
thp v gi cho cc nh ton hc thi tin rng nh l ng trong
trng hp tng qut. Trc , vn c nhiu ngi cho rng nh l c
17
bn ca i s l khng ng. Chng hn, nh trnh by Tit 2.1,
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz v Nikolaus (II) Bernoulli a ra nhng a
thc c th c bc 4 vi h s thc v khng nh rng chng khng th
phn tch c thnh tch cc nhn t bc nht hoc bc hai vi h s
thc. iu ny cng c ngha rng G. Leibniz v N. Bernoulli khng
tin vo tnh ng n ca nh l C bn ca i s. Euler cng l ngi
ch ra c tm quan trng ca nh l i vi vic gii phng trnh vi
phn. C th, nm 1743 Euler bn v phng trnh vi phn thun nht
bc n
0 = Ay +B
dy
dx
+C
d
2
y
d
2
x
+. . . +L
d
n
y
d
n
x
vi A, B, C . . . , L l cc hng s. ng pht hin ra rng nghim tng
qut ca phng trnh ny c dng y = C
1
y
1
+ . . . + C
n
y
n
, trong
y
1
, . . . , y
n
l cc nghim ring v C
1
, . . . , C
n
l cc hng s ty . Thay
y = e
[
_
rdx]
vo phng trnh ta c mt phng trnh a thc n r
A+Br +Cr
2
+. . . +Lr
n
= 0.
Thc t, nghim tng qut ca phng trnh vi phn ph thuc vo s
phn tch ca a thc ny v bn cht nghim ca a thc l thc hay
phc, l nghim n hay nghim bi, v nh vy, n r rng ph thuc
vo nh l c bn ca i s.
Phn tip theo ca tit ny, chng ta xem xt chng minh ca Euler
nm 1749. ng nhanh chng chng minh c mi a thc bc n
vi n 6, c ng n nghim. ng bt u chng minh bng vic xt
a thc bc 4.
2.3.1. B . Vi A, B, C, D l cc s thc, a thc bc bn x
4
+Ax
3
+
Bx
2
+Cx +D lun phn tch c thnh tch ca hai a thc bc hai
vi h s thc.
18
Chng minh. Bc u tin, Euler quan st thy rng nu thay x = y
A
4
vo a thc ta s c mt a thc bc bn ca y khuyt h s bc ba.
Vic lm ny trong nhiu trng hp l c ch. Chng hn, mun phn
tch a thc x
4
+ 4x
3
9x
2
16x + 20, ta thay x = y 4/4, v ta c
a thc y
4
15y
2
+10y +24. Khng kh khn ta tm c s phn tch
y
4
15y
2
+ 10y + 24 = (y
2
y 2)(y
2
+y 12).
Thay li y theo x ta c
x
4
+ 4x
3
9x
2
16x + 20 = (x
2
+x 2)(x
2
+ 3x 10).
Bc tip theo l phn tch a thc x
4
+ Bx
2
+ Cx + D vi B, C, D l
cc s thc. Ta xt hai trng hp.
Trng hp C = 0: Nu B
2
4D 0 th ta c phn tch
x
4
+Bx
2
+D =
_
x
2
+
B
B
2
4D
2
__
x
2
+
B +
B
2
4D
2
_
.
Nu B
2
4D < 0 th D > 0 v 2
D > B. V th ta c phn tch

x
4
+Bx
2
+D =
_
x
2
+
Dx
_
2
D B
__
x
2
+
D+x
_
2
D B
_
.
Trng hp C = 0: Euler thy rng nu c phn tch th n c dng
x
4
+Bx
2
+Cx +D = (x
2
+ux +)(x
2
ux +)
vi u, , l cc s thc no . Vit v phi ca ng thc trn thnh a
thc ti gin ri ng nht cc h s ta c +u
2
= B, uu = C
v = D. V C = 0 nn u = 0. Do , t hai ng thc u ta suy
ra + = B + u
2
v = C/u. V th 2 = B + u
2
+ C/u v
2 = B+u
2
C/u. Do 2D = 4 = (B+u
2
+C/u)(B+u
2
C/u).
Nhn 2 v vi u
2
ri chuyn v ta c u
6
+2Bu
4
+(B
2
4D)u
2
C
2
= 0.
19
y l phng trnh bc 3 i vi u
2
. V th n c mt nghim u
2
l s
thc, nhng cha c g m bo u l s thc. Tuy nhin Euler nhn
thy v tri ca phng trnh trn l mt a thc bc 6. a thc ny v
l mt hm chn nhn gi tr C
2
< 0 khi x = 0 v nhn gi tr tin
ti v cng khi x ln. Do Euler (trc quan) thy rng c mt s
thc u
0
> 0 sao cho u
0
v u
0
l nghim ca a thc bc 6 ny. Thay
vo cc ng thc trn ta tm c
0
v
0
theo u
0
. Do , trong mi
trng hp Euler u thit lp c s tn ti cc s thc u
0
,
0
v
0
tha mn x
4
+Bx
2
+Cx +D = (x
2
+u
0
x +
0
)(x
2
u
0
x +
0
).
Khi chng minh c b trn, Euler ngay lp tc quan st thy a
thc bc 5 c th phn tch c thnh tch ca mt a thc bc nht v
hai a thc bc hai vi h s thc. L do m ng a ra n gin l,
mt a thc bc l, v do mt a thc p(x) bc 5 lun c mt nghim
thc, chng hn x = a, khi p(x) = (x a)q(x) vi q(x) l a thc
bc 4 vi h s thc. Theo b trn, q(x) l tch ca hai a thc bc
hai v do p(x) c s phn tch nh yu cu.
Sau , mt chin lc tng qut ha li t ra trong suy ngh ca
Euler. ng nhn ra rng nu chng minh c s tn ti phn tch cho cc
a thc bc 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . , 2
n
th s chng minh c cho a thc vi bc
ty . Chng hn, phn tch a thc x
12
3x
9
+52x
8
+3x
3
2x+17,
ta c th nhn vi x
4
c a thc bc 16. Gi thit rng a thc bc
16 c s phn tch nh mong mun. Khi ta thu c s phn tch
ca a thc bc 12 ban u bng cch b i 4 nhn t x, x, x v x trong
s phn tch ca a thc bc 16 . V cch lm thng minh in hnh
ca Euler l quy trng hp tng qut v cc trng hp n gin hn.
C th, khi c s phn tch ca a thc bc 4, ng tip tc khng
nh mi a thc bc 8 l tch ca hai a thc bc 4. Ri t , ng
20
chng minh mi a thc bc 16 l tch hai a thc bc 8 v . . . mi a
thc bc 2
n
l tch hai a thc bc 2
n1
. Chin lc ny ca ng dng
nh rt hon ho. Tuy nhin, cc chng minh li c nhiu l hng khng
mong mun. Ngay cho trng hp phn tch a thc bc 8 thnh tch hai
a thc bc 4 th chng minh ca ng khng chnh xc.
2.4 Joseph-Louis Lagrange v Pierre Simon Laplace
Cc thng tin trong mc ny c tham kho trong bi bo ca J. Carrera
[Ca]. Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) l mt nh ton hc ngi Php
sinh ti Italia. Thi , Lagrange c xem l nh khoa hc li lc trong
mi lnh vc lin quan n gii tch, l thuyt s v c hc. Nm 1772,
ng t vn nghin cu chng minh ca Euler cho nh l c bn ca
i s. Bng cc kin thc v hon v trn tp cc nghim, Lagrange
hon chnh mi ch hng trong chng minh ca Euler, tr vic ng vn
phi gi thit mi a thc bc n c ng n nghim trong mt tp no
m ng c th lm vic vi cc nghim ny ging nh lm vic vi cc
phn t c dng a +bi, trong a, b l cc s thc.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) l mt nh ton hc, thin vn hc
ngi Php. Vo nm 1795, Laplace [La] a ra mt chng minh cho
nh l c bn ca i s Mi a thc vi h s thc c bc dng u
cha nhn t bc nht hoc bc hai vi h s thc. y l mt chng
minh hon ton i s, khc hn vi cch tip cn ca Euler - Lagrange
nu trong tit trc, nhng vn cn cha nhiu lp lun khng cht
ch. Th nht, ng phi gi thit a thc bc n c n nghim (mc d
ng khng bit cc nghim c tn ti hay khng). Th hai, ng tha
nhn a thc bc l c nghim thc, iu ny cha c gii thch r
rng trong thi k .
21
Chng minh ca Laplace nh sau: Gi x
1
, . . . , x
n
l cc nghim ca
a thc vi h s thc p(x) = x
n
b
1
x
n1
+ . . . + (1)
n
b
n
c bc
n 1. Vit n = 2
k
q vi q l. Xt a thc q
t
(x) m cc nghim ca
n l x
i
+ x
j
+ tx
i
x
j
vi t R v i < j ty . a thc ny c bc
2
k1
q
vi q
l. Khi Laplace tin hnh chng minh bng quy np

theo k. Vi k = 1 th q
t
(x) l a thc bc l nn c mt nghim thc
x
i
+ x
j
+ tx
i
x
j
R. V t chy trong tp v hn R nn tn ti i < j v
t
1
= t
2
sao cho x
i
+ x
j
+ t
1
x
i
x
j
R v x
i
+ x
j
+ t
2
x
i
x
j
R. Suy ra
x
i
x
j
, x
i
+x
j
R, hay x
2
(x
i
+x
j
)x+x
i
x
j
l nhn t bc hai ca p(x).
Cho k > 1. Vi l do tng t, tn ti i < j sao cho x
i
+ x
j
, x
i
x
j
C.
Suy ra (x
2
(x
i
+ x
j
) + x
i
x
j
)(x
2
(x
i
+x
j
) + x
i
x
j
) l a thc bc 4
vi h s thc, trong ta k hiu z l s phc lin hp ca z. R rng
a thc bc 4 ny l c ca p(x). Do p dng kt qu ca Euler cho
a thc bc 4, a thc (x
2
(x
i
+x
j
) +x
i
x
j
)(x
2
(x
i
+x
j
) +x
i
x
j
) c
th phn tch c thnh tch ca hai a thc bc hai vi h s thc. Do
p(x) c nhn t bc hai vi h s thc.
2.5 ng gp ca Carl Friedrich Gauss
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) l mt nh Ton hc, nh Vt l hc,
a cu hc ngi c. Gauss c xem l nh ton hc thin ti nht
trong thi i ca ng. Ngi u tin chng minh nh l C bn ca
i s thuc v DAlembert, nhng chng minh hp l v hon chnh
u tin cho nh l ny li thuc v Gauss. Trong sut 50 nm, t 1799
n 1849, ng a ra t nht 4 chng minh khc nhau cho nh l c
bn ca i s. Chng minh u tin c vit trong lun n tin s ca
Gauss vo nm 1799, khi ng trn 22 tui, trong c cha ng nhng
ph phn v nhng chng minh trc ca DAlembert v Euler. ng
22
cho rng cc chng minh ny l cha hp l bi v h gi thit trc
rng nghim ca a thc l nhng s phc. Tuy nhin chng minh nm
1799 ca Gauss vn c nhng lp lun cha r (mi n nm 1920 mi
c hon chnh) v bn thn Gauss cng khng tha mn. Nm 1816,
Gauss cng b hai chng minh khc ca nh l, trong chng minh
th nht mang tnh k thut v hu nh dng cng c i s, chng minh
th hai n gin hn v dng cng c gii tch. Nm 1849, trc khi
mt vi nm, Gauss cng b chng minh th t cho nh l v chng
minh ny tng t nh chng minh th nht nm 1799.
Hai chng minh quan trng nht ca Gauss l chng minh th nht
cng b nm 1799 v chng minh th ba nm cng b nm 1816. Di
y, chng ta trnh by tm tt hai chng minh ny.
2.5.1. Tm tt chng minh th nht. Nm 1799, Gauss cng b chng
minh th nht cho nh l c bn ca i s, tuy nhin chng minh ny
cha y . Gauss xt a thc p(x) = x
m
+Ax
m1
+. . . +Lx +m vi
h s thc. Thay x = r(cos + i sin ) vo a thc ri tch phn thc
v phn o:
U = r
m
cos m +Ar
m1
cos(m1) +. . . +Lr cos +M
T = r
m
sinm +Ar
m1
sin(m1) +. . . +Lr sin .
Gauss chng minh trc tip rng U v T ng thi bng 0 nu v
ch nu p(x) l bi ca x r hoc p(x) l bi ca x
2
2xr cos +r
2
.
Tip theo, Gauss coi U = 0 v T = 0 nh nhng ng cong i s
bc m trong h ton cc r v , v trong mt phng vi cc to
(r cos , r sin ). chng minh nh l, Gauss mun ch ra rng tn
ti mt giao im ca hai ng cong ny. tm giao im ca hai
ng cong T = 0 v U = 0, Gauss nghin cu cc giao im ca
hai ng cong ny trong mt ng trn tm l gc ta , bn kinh
23
R v chng minh rng khi R ln, c ng 2m giao im ca ng
trn vi ng cong T = 0 v 2m giao im ca ng trn vi ng
cong U = 0 v mi giao im ca ng trn vi U = 0 nm gia hai
giao im ca ng trn vi T = 0. ch ra iu ny, ngy nay chng
ta thng dng n cc i lng v cng ln, nhng Gauss a ra
mt chng minh rt ti tnh m khng cn dng n khi nim gii hn.
Trong bc tip theo, Gauss ch ra rng 4m im giao ny l thay i
rt t khi R thay i t (theo ngn ng ngy nay chng ta ni chng l
nhng hm lin tc theo bin R, nhng khi nim lin tc thi khng
c ph bin). n y, bng mt chng minh rt trc quan hnh hc,
Gauss kt lun rng tn ti giao im ca hai ng cong nm trong
ng trn. T ng ch ra s tn ti giao im ca hai ng cong
T = 0 v U = 0, nh l c chng minh.
2.5.2. Tm tt chng minh th ba. Nm 1816, Gauss cng b chng
minh th ba cho nh l c bn ca i s. Chng minh ny kh n
gin v l mt chng minh hon chnh. ng xt a thc vi h s thc
p(x) = x
m
+Ax
m1
+. . . +Lx +m. Thay x = r(cos +i sin ) vo a
thc ri tch phn thc v phn o:
u = r
m
cos m +Ar
m1
cos(m1) +. . . +Lr cos +M;
t = r
m
sin m +Ar
m1
sin(m1) +. . . +Lr sin .
Coi u v t nh nhng hm theo . ng gii thiu o hm ca hai hm
(theo bin ) ny nh sau:
t
= mr
m
cos m + (m1)Ar
m1
cos(m1) +. . . +Lr cos ;
u
= mr
m
sin m + (m1)Ar
m1
sin(m1) +. . . +Lr sin .
Xt tt
+uu
nh mt hm theo r. Khi
tt
+uu
= mr
2m
(cos
2
m + sin
2
m) +g(r) = mr
2m
+g(r),
24
trong g(r) l a thc bc thp hn 2m. Do Gauss coi mr
2m
l
thnh phn chnh ca tt
+ uu
. T Gauss kt lun rng khi r ln,

tt
+uu
l dng. Gauss li tip tc gii thiu cc o hm bc hai ca

t v u theo bin , k hiu l t
v u
= m
2
r
m
sin m +. . . +Lr sin ;
u
= m
2
r
m
cos m +. . . +Lr cos .
Nh ch ra trong chng minh th nht, chng t rng p(x) c
nghim phc, ta cn chng minh s tn ti giao im (r cos , r sin)
ca hai ng cong t = 0 v u = 0. Gi s khng tn ti giao im ca
hai ng cong t = 0 v u = 0. Khi u
2
+t
2
> 0 vi mi r v . V
th hm
y =
(t
2
+u
2
)(tt
+uu
) + (tu
ut
)
2
(tt
+uu
)
2
r(t
2
+u
2
)
2
lun nhn gi tr hu hn vi mi r = 0. Tip theo, vi r = R ln
(sao cho tt
+uu
dng) Gauss xt tch phn kp

=
_
360
0
0
_
R
0
ydrd
Ch rng tch phn kp khng ph thuc vo th t ly tch phn.
Trc ht, ly nguyn hm theo ta c
_
yd =
tu
= ut
r(t
2
+u
2
)
. V mi
thnh phn ca hm
tu
= ut
r(t
2
+u
2
)
u cha sin k hoc cos k vi k l s
t nhin nn ta d dng nhn thy
tu
= ut
r(t
2
+u
2
)
c gi tr bng nhau ti
1
= 0 v
2
= 360
0
. Suy ra = 0. Tuy nhin, khi ly nguyn hm
theo r ta li c
_
ydr =
tt
= uu
t
2
+u
2
. Thay r = 0 vo t
v u
ta c
t
(0) = 0 = u
(0). Nhng theo lp lun trn, khi R ln th tt
+ uu
dng. Do ly tch phn t 0 n R ta c l s dng, iu ny

25
l v l. Vy, lun tn ti giao im ca hai ng cong t = 0 v u = 0,
tc l a thc p(x) c nghim.
2.5.3. Kt lun. Vic a ra mt chng minh hon chnh cho nh l
c bn ca i s thch thc cc nh ton hc khong gn 100 nm.
Chng minh c cng b u tin thuc v Jean le Rond DAlembert
nm 1746. Tip theo l chng minh ca Leonhard Euler nm 1749, chng
minh ca Pierre Simon Laplace nm 1795, chng minh ca Carl Friedrich
Gauss nm 1799. Cc chng minh ny d t hay nhiu vn cn nhng lp
lun khng cht ch. Mi n nm 1816, Carl Friedrich Gauss mi a
ra c mt chng minh ti tnh v hon chnh cho nh l (m chng ta
trnh by tm tt trong Mc 2.5.2). Sau , nhiu nh ton hc vn
tip tc a ra cc chng minh khc nhau cho nh l ny. Ngay c Carl
Friedrich Gauss, ch vi nm trc khi mt, nm 1849, ng vn cn a
ra mt chng minh khc cho nh l.
Chng 3
Mt s chng minh nh l c bn ca
i s
Trong chng ny, chng ti trnh by mt s chng minh nh l c bn
ca i s.
3.1 Chng minh dng cng c i s
chng minh nh l, ta cn c cc kt qu sau:
3.1.1. B . Cc pht biu sau l ng
(i) Mi a thc bc l vi h s thc u c mt nghim thc.
(ii) Mi a thc bc hai vi h s phc u c hai nghim phc.
(iii) Nu p(x) l a thc vi h s thc th tn ti mt trng E sao
cho p(x) phn tch c thnh cc nhn t tuyn tnh vi h s trong E.
3.1.2. Ch . (i) Nh tnh lin tc ca hm a thc, ta c tnh cht (i)
trong b trn. V th chng minh nh l c bn ca i s m chng
ta trnh by sau y ch yu dng cng c i s, nhng khng phi l
mt chng minh thun ty i s.
(ii) Trng E cc tiu c tnh cht (iii) ca b trn c gi l
trng phn r ca a thc p(x). S tn ti duy nht (sai khc mt ng
26
27
cu) ca trng phn r ca mt a thc c trnh by trong phn ph
lc cui lun vn ny.
Tip theo chng ta cn chun b mt s kin thc v a thc i xng.
Trong tit ny ta lun gi thit K C l mt trng. Mt biu thc c
dng x
i
1
1
. . . x
i
n
n
c gi l mt n thc ca n bin x
1
, . . . , x
n
vi bc
tng th l i
1
+ . . . + i
n
. Mt biu thc c dng rx
i
1
1
. . . x
i
n
n
vi r K
c gi l mt t ng dng vi n thc x
i
1
1
. . . x
i
n
n
. Hai t c gi
l ng dng nu chng cng ng dng vi mt n thc. Mt a
thc f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) ca n bin x
1
, . . . , x
n
vi h s trong K l mt tng
(i
1
,... ,i
n
)N
n
r
i
1
...i
n
x
i
1
1
. . . x
i
n
n
ca hu hn t khng ng dng.
3.1.3. nh ngha. K hiu S
n
l tp cc song nh t tp {1, 2, . . . , n}
n chnh n. Ta ni f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) l a thc i xng nu
f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = f(x
(1)
, . . . , x
(n)
)
vi mi S
n
.
Chng hn, cc a thc sau y l i xng, gi l cc a thc i
xng s cp.
1
=
n
i=1
x
i
= x
1
+. . . +x
n
2
=

i<j
x
i
x
j
= x
1
x
2
+x
1
x
3
+. . . +x
n1
x
n
. . . . . .
n
= x
1
x
2
. . . x
n
.
Tip theo ta xt quan h th t t in i vi cc n thc: Cho
u = x
a
1
1
. . . x
a
n
n
v v = x
b
1
1
. . . x
b
n
n
, ta nh ngha u < v nu tn ti ch s
i sao cho a
i
< b
i
v a
k
= b
k
vi mi k < i. Vi mi a thc f ta k hiu
28
In(f) l t ln nht trong cc t ca f v gi l t du ca f. D thy
rng In(fg) = In(f) In(g) vi mi f, g.
3.1.4. B . Nu f l a thc i xng th tn ti duy nht a thc
sao cho f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = (
1
, . . . ,
n
).
Chng minh. Gi s In(f) = ax
a
1
1
. . . x
a
n
n
. Cho i 1. Nu ta thay x
i
bi
x
i+1
v thay x
i+1
bi x
i
, cn gi nguyn cc x
k
khc trong a thc f th
t cao nht In(f) ca f tr thnh t ax
a
1
1
. . . x
a
i+1
i
x
a
i
i+1
. . . x
a
n
n
. V f l i
xng nn t ny cng l mt t ca f v do n khng th ln hn
In(f). V th ta c a
i
a
i+1
. Suy ra a
1
. . . a
n
. D thy t du ca
a thc
a
1
a
2
1

a
2
a
3
2
. . .
a
n1
a
n
n1

a
n
n
l x
a
1
1
. . . x
a
n
n
. t
f
1
= f a
a
1
a
2
1

a
2
a
3
2
. . .
a
n1
a
n
n1

a
n
n
.
Khi In(f
1
) < In(f). R rng
a
1
a
2
1

a
2
a
3
2
. . .
a
n1
a
n
n1

a
n
n
l a thc
i xng. V th f
1
l a thc i xng. Gi s In(f
1
) = bx
b
1
1
. . . x
b
n
n
.
Tng t nh chng minh trn ta c b
1
. . . b
n
. Hn na, t du ca
a thc
b
1
b
2
1

b
2
b
3
2
. . .
b
n1
b
n
n1

b
n
n
chnh l x
b
1
1
. . . x
b
n
n
. C tip tc qu
trnh trn, v In(f) > In(f
1
) > . . . nn cc b (b
1
, . . . , b
n
), . . . u tho
mn tnh cht b
i
, . . . a
1
vi mi i = 1, . . . , n. Nhn xt rng ch c
nhiu nht n
a
1
+1
b s t nhin (d
1
, . . . , d
n
) tho mn tnh cht d
i
a
1
vi mi i = 1, . . . , n. Do qa trnh ny phi kt thc sau mt s hu
hn bc. V vy n bc th s no ta c
f
s1
d
d
1
d
2
1

d
2
d
3
2
. . .
d
n1
d
n
n1

d
n
n
= 0.
Do ta c
f = a
a
1
a
2
1

a
2
a
3
2
. . .
a
n1
a
n
n1

a
n
n
+b
b
1
b
2
1

b
2
b
3
2
. . .
b
n1
b
n
n1

b
n
n
+. . . +d
d
1
d
2
1

d
2
d
3
2
. . .
d
n1
d
n
n1

d
n
n
,
29
tc l ta biu din c a thc f di dng mt a thc ca
1
, . . .
n
.
Gi s c hai a thc
1
v
2
khc nhau sao cho
f(X
1
, . . . , X
n
) =
1
(
1
, . . . ,
n
) =
2
(
1
, . . . ,
n
).
t (
1
, . . . ,
n
) =
1
(
1
, . . . ,
n
)
2
(
1
, . . . ,
n
). Khi l a
thc khc khng ca
1
, . . . ,
n
v sau khi thay
1
, . . . ,
n
bi cc biu
thc ca chng qua x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo ta nhn c a thc khng. Chng
ta s ch ra iu ny l v l. R rng nu a
k
1
1
. . . ,
k
n
n
v b
l
1
1
. . . ,
l
n
n
l hai hng t ca (
1
, . . . ,
n
) sao cho (k
1
, . . . , k
n
) = (l
1
, . . . , l
n
) th
khi thay
1
, . . . ,
n
bi cc biu thc ca chng qua x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo hai
hng t ny, ta s nhn c hai a thc ca x
1
, . . . , x
n
m hai t du
ca chng khng ng dng. Vi mi hng t ca (
1
, . . . ,
n
), ta tm
t du ca a thc ca x
1
, . . . , x
n
thu c t hng t ny bng cch
thay
1
, . . . ,
n
bi cc biu thc ca chng qua x
1
, . . . , x
n
. Khi t
du ln nht trong cc t du va tm c s khng ng dng vi bt
c mt t no khc. V vy, sau khi thay
1
, . . . ,
n
bi cc biu thc
ca chng qua x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo a thc (
1
, . . . ,
n
) ta s nhn c a
thc khc khng, mu thun.
3.1.5. H qu. Cho f(x) K[x] l mt a thc mt bin x bc n vi
h s cao nht bng 1. Gi s f c n nghim
1
, . . . ,
n
trong mt m
rng no ca K. Gi thit rng g(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) l a thc i xng.
Khi g(
1
, . . . ,
n
) K.
Chng minh. Theo B 3.1.4, tn ti a thc (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) sao cho
g(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = (
1
, . . . ,
n
). V th
g(
1
, . . . ,
n
) = (
1
(
1
, . . . ,
n
), . . . ,
n
(
1
, . . . ,
n
)).
Theo cng thc Viet ta suy ra
g(
1
, . . . ,
n
) = (a
n1
, a
n2
, . . . , (1)
k
a
nk
, . . . , (1)
n
a
0
).
30
Do a
n1
, a
n2
, . . . , a
0
K nn ta suy ra g(
1
, . . . ,
n
) K.
By gi chng ta c th a ra mt chng minh cho nh l.
3.1.6. nh l c bn ca i s. Cho p(x) l mt a thc vi h s
phc c bc t > 0. Khi p(x) c t nht mt nghim phc.
Chng minh. Trc ht ta khng nh rng ch cn chng minh nh l
cho trng hp a thc vi h s thc l .
Tht vy, gi s p(x) = (a
t
+b
t
i)x
t
+. . . + (a
1
+b
1
i)x + (a
0
+b
0
i).
t p(x) = (a
t
b
t
i)x
t
+. . . + (a
1
b
1
i)x + (a
0
b
0
). Khi
p(x)p(x) = (a
t
x
t
+. . . +a
1
x +a
0
)
2
+ (b
t
x
t
+. . . +b
1
x +b
0
)
2
l mt a thc vi h s thc v nu z = a + b
i
l mt nghim ca
p(x)p(x) th hoc z cng l nghim ca p(x) hoc z = a b
i
l nghim
ca p(x). Bc tip theo l chng minh nh l bng quy np theo n,
trong p(x) l a thc vi h s thc c bc l t = 2
n
(2m+1). Khng
mt tnh tng qut, ta c th gi thit p(x) c h s cao nht bng 1. Cho
n = 0. Khi p(x) c bc 2m+1 l s l. Do theo B 3.1.1(i), p(x)
c nghim thc. Gi s chng minh nh l cho trng hp n < N.
Ta chng minh cho trng hp bc ca a thc p(x) l d = 2
N
(2m+1).
Theo B 3.1.1(ii), tn ti mt trng E sao cho p(x) c s phn tch
p(x) = (x r
1
) . . . (x r
d
) vi r
1
, . . . , r
d
E. t s =
d(d 1)
2
. Vi
mi k = 1, . . . , s + 1, t
q
k
(x) =

1i<jd
(x r
i
r
j
kr
i
r
j
).
Biu din a thc q
k
(x) thnh tng ca cc t khng ng dng. Khi
cc h s ca q
k
(x) l nhng a thc i xng ca cc nghim r
i
. V
cc h s ca p(x) l cc s thc nn theo H qu 3.1.5, cc h s ca
q
k
(x) u l s thc, tc l q
k
(x) l a thc vi h s thc.
31
R rng s cch chn cp (i, j) sao cho 1 i < j d l s cch
chn mt tp con gm 2 phn t i, j t tp {1, . . . , d}. Do bc ca
q
k
(x) l s = d(d1)/2. D thy s = 2
N1
(2m+1)(2
n
(2m+1) 1). V
th, theo gi thit quy np, mi q
k
(x) c mt nghim phc. T cng thc
ca q
k
(x), ta thy rng mi nghim ca q
k
(x) phi c dng r
i
+r
j
+kr
i
r
j
vi i < j no . Nh vy, mi a thc trong s s + 1 a thc q
k
(x)
u c mt nghim phc, mi nghim phc dc tnh theo mt cp i < j
v ch c tt c s cp i < j. Theo Nguyn l nht chim b cu, tn ti
mt cp i < j sao cho c hai s nguyn k
1
= k
2
r
i
+ r
j
+ k
1
r
i
r
j
l
nghim phc ca q
k
1
(x) v r
i
+ r
j
+ k
2
r
i
r
j
l nghim phc ca q
k
2
(x).
t u = r
i
+ r
j
+ k
1
r
i
r
j
v v = r
i
+ r
j
+ k
2
r
i
r
j
. Khi r
i
, r
j
l hai
nghim ca a thc bc hai x
2
+ bx + c, trong b =
k
2
u +k
1
v
k
1
+k
2
v
c =
u v
k
1
k
2
. Theo B 3.1.1(ii), r
i
, r
j
l cc s phc.
3.2 Chng minh dng cng c gii tch phc
Trc ht chng ta nhc li mt s khi nim trong gii tch phc. Mt
hm phc f(z) c gi l gii tch trn mt tp con m M C nu
f(z) l kh vi phc ti mi im trn M. Ta ni f(z) l hm nguyn
nu f(z) l kh vi trn ton b C. Hm phc f(z) c gi l b chn
trn min D C nu tn ti mt s thc dng r sao cho |f(z)| r
vi mi z D.
3.2.1. Chng minh thng qua nh l ca Joseph Liouville
Ta c th dng nh l Joseph Liouville (1847) chng minh nh
l c bn ca i s (xem [MF, Trang 2]). Trc ht, chng ta nhc li
kt qu ny.
3.2.1.1. nh l (Liouville). Nu f(z) l gii tch v b chn trn mt
32
phng phc th f(z) l hm hng.
By gi ta chng minh nh l c bn ca i s.
3.2.1.2. nh l Cho p(z) l mt a thc vi h s phc c bc n > 0.
Khi p(z) c n nghim phc.
Chng minh. Ta ch cn chng minh p(z) c mt nghim phc l .
Tht vy, gi s z
1
l mt nghim ca p(z). Nu n = 1 th p(z) c 1
nghim, kt qu ng vi n = 1. Gi s kt qu ng cho trng hp
bc ca a thc l n 1. Ta chng minh cho trng hp p(z) c bc n.
Bng php chia p(z) cho (z z
0
) ta vit c p(z) = (z z
0
)g(z), trong
g(z) c bc n1. Theo gi thit quy np, g(z) c n1 nghim phc
z
2
, . . . , z
n
. Do p(z) c n nghim phc z
1
, . . . , z
n
.
Gi s p(z) khng c nghim phc. Khi p(z) = 0 vi mi z C.
Ta chng minh p(z) b chn trn C. Vit
p(z) = a
n
z
n
+a
n1
z
n1
+. . . +a
1
z +a
0
.
Trc ht, ta khng nh khi |z| th |p(z)| . Tht vy, ta c
p(z) = z
n
_
a
n
+
a
n1
z
+. . . +
a
0
z
n
_
.
Do
|p(z) = |z
n
||a
n
+
a
n1
z
+. . . +
a
0
z
n
|
V a
n
= 0 nn |z
n
||a
n
| khi |z| . Do |p(z)| khi
|z| , khng nh c chng minh. Theo khng nh trn, ly
0 < r R, r ln c nh, r rng 1/p(z) b chn vi mi z C tha
mn |z| > r. V th 1/p(z) lin tc nn |z| r. V th 1/p(z) b chn
trong min |z| r. Vy, 1/p(z) b chn trn ton b mt phng phc.
V p(z) = 0 vi mi z C nn 1/p(z) xc nh trn C. Do 1/p(z)
kh vi trn C, tc l n gii tch trn C. Theo nh l Liouville, p(z) l
33
hm hng, iu ny l v l vi gi thit bc ca p(z) = n > 0. Vy
p(z) c t nht mt nghim trong C.
3.2.2. Chng minh thng qua nh l Eugene Rouche
chng minh nh l c bn ca i s, ta c th s dng nh l
ca E. Rouche (xem [MF, Trang 3). Trc ht ta nhc li nh l ca
Rouche.
3.2.2.1. nh l (Rouche) Cho min M C vi bin ca M l B(M).
Nu f(z) v h(z) l cc hm gii tch trong v trn min M sao cho
|h(z)| < |f(z)| trn bin B(M) th f(z) v f(z) + h(z) c cng s
nghim trn min M.
3.2.2.2. nh l. Cho p(z) l mt a thc vi h s phc c bc n > 0.
Khi p(z) c n nghim phc.
Chng minh. Cho p(z) = a
n
z
n
+ . . . + a
1
z + a
0
l mt a thc vi h
s phc bc n > 0. Ta cn chng minh p(z) c nghim phc. t
f(z) = a
n
z
n
v
h(z) = p(z) f(z) = a
n1
z
n1
+. . . +a
1
z +a
0
.
Ly s thc r > 0. Trn ng trn |z| = r ta c
|f(z)| = |a
n
z
n
| = |a
n
||z|
n
= |a
n
|r
n
; v
|h(z)| = |a
n1
z
n1
+. . . +a
1
z +a
0
| |a
n1
|r
n1
+. . . +|a
1
|r +|a
0
|. V
|a
n
| = 0 nn ta c th t
K =
|a
n1
| +. . . +|a
1
| +|a
0
|
|a
n
|
.
34
Chn r > max{1, K}. Khi
|h(z)| |a
n1
|r
n1
+. . . +|a
1
|r +|a
0
|
_
|a
n1
| +. . . +|a
1
| +|a
0
|
_
r
n1
< (r|a
n
|)r
n1
= |a
n
|r
n
= |f(z)|.
V th |h(z)| < |f(z)| vi mi z nm trn ng trn tm l gc ta
, bn knh r. Ch rng ng trn |z| = r chnh l bin ca min
M := {z C | |z| r}. R rng f(z) = a
n
z
n
c n nghim phc (thc
ra f(z) c mt nghim z = 0 vi bi n). Do theo nh l Rouche,
p(z) = f(z) +h(z) c n nghim phc.
3.2.3. Chng minh thng qua bn knh hi t
Cho p(z) = a
n
z
n
+ . . . + a
1
z + a
0
l a thc vi h s phc c bc
n dng. Nu a + 0 = 0 th p(z) c nghim z = 0. Do ta c th gi
thit a
0
= 0. t f(z) = 1/p(z). Gi s p(z) = 0 vi mi z C. Khi
lun tn ti khai trin ti mi im ca f(z) thnh chui
f(z) = b
0
+b
1
z +b
2
z
2
+. . .
Trc ht, ta khng nh lun tn ti hai s phc c, r R sao cho
|b
k
| > cr
k
vi nhiu v hn k. Tht vy, r rng 1 = p(z)f(z). ng
nht h s t do ca hai v ta c a
0
b
0
= 1. Suy ra |b
0
| = 1/|a
0
|. Do
lun tn ti c < 1/|a
0
| ta c kt qu vi k
0
= 0. Gi s kt qu
ng cho mt s k, tc l |b
k
| > cr
k
. Ta cn chng minh tn ti mt s
k
tip theo |b
k
| > cr
k
. Gi s iu ny khng ng, tc l k l s
ln nht c tnh cht |b
k
| > cr
k
. Khi h s ca z
n+k
trong p(z)f(z)
l a
0
b
n+k
+a
1
b
n+k1
+. . . +a
n
b
k
, v th ng nht h s ca z
n+k
trong
ng thc 1 = p(z)f(z) ta c
a
0
b
n+k
+a
1
b
n+k1
+. . . +a
n
b
k
= 0.
35
Suy ra a
0
b
n+k
+ a
1
b
n+k1
+ . . . = a
n
b
k
. V mun ca tng cc s
phc khng vt qu tng cc m un ca cc s phc v vi mi
i = 0, . . . , n 1 ta c
|a
i
b
k+ni
| = |a
i
||b
k+ni
| |a
i
|cr
k+ni
.
T ta d dng suy ra
|a
0
|r
n
+|a
1
|r
n1
+. . . +|a
n1
|r |a
n
|.
Nu r min
_
1,
|a
n
|
|a
0
+. . . +|a
n1
|
_
th ta c
|b
k
| =
|a
0
b
k+n
+. . . +a
n1
b
k+1
|
|a
n
|

|a
0
b
k+n
| +. . . +|a
n1
b
k+1
|
|a
n
|
cr
k
vi r nh. iu ny l v l. t z = 1/r. Ta c
|b
k
z
k
| =
|b
k
|
r
k
> c
vi v hn s t nhin k. Do chui b
0
+ b
1
z + b
2
z
2
+ . . . khng hi
t, iu ny l v l. Vy, tn ti z C p(z) = 0.
3.3 Chng minh dng cng c tp
chng minh nh l c bn ca i s, ta c th s dng cng c
tp v nh l ca Charles E. Picard (xem [MF, Trang 3,4). Trc ht
ta nhc li Nguyn l Bolzano - Weierstrasss v dy s trong mt min
b chn (y l mt tnh cht tp).
3.3.1. B . (Nguyn l Bolzano - Weierstrasss). Mi dy {z
n
} cc s
phc trong mt min b chn ca mt phng phc u trch ra c mt
dy con hi t.
Tip theo, ta nhc li nh l ca Picard.
36
3.3.2. B . (nh l Picard). Cho f(z) l mt hm nguyn (tc l f(z)
kh vi trn ton b mt phng phc). Gi s tn ti z
1
= z
2
, z
1
, z
2
C
sao cho f(z) = z
1
, f(z) = z
2
vi mi z C th f(z) l hm hng.
3.3.3. nh l. Cho p(z) l mt a thc vi h s phc c bc n > 0.
Khi p(z) c t nht mt nghim phc.
Chng minh. R rng p(z) l kh vi trn C. Gi s p(z) khng c nghim
phc. Khi p(z) = 0 vi mi z C. t z
1
= 0. Ta c p(z) = z
1
vi
mi z C. Ta s chng minh tn ti im z
2
= z
1
sao cho p(z) = z
2
vi mi z C. Gi s vi mi k N cho trc, tn ti z
k
C sao
cho p(z
k
) = 1/k. Ch rng |p(z)| khi |z| (xem chng
minh nh l Tit 3.1). Do tn ti s thc r dng ln sao cho
|p(z)| > 1 vi mi z / M, trong M l hnh trn tm l gc ta ,
bn knh r. V |p(z
k
)| = 1/k 1 vi mi 0 < k N. Do z
k
M
vi mi k N. Theo Nguyn l Bolzano - Weierstrasss, mi dy s phc
trong mt min b chn u trch ra c mt dy con hi t. Do dy
{z
k
} M v M l min b chn nn tn ti dy con {z
n
i
} {z
k
} sao
cho z
n
i
z
C. Do p(z) l hm lin tc nn
p(z
) = lim
n
i
p(z
n
i
) = lim
n
i
1/n
i
= 0.
iu ny l mu thun vi gi s p(z) khng c nghim phc. Do tn
ti 0 < k N sao cho p(z) = 1/k vi mi z C. Chn z
2
= 1/k. R
rng z
1
= 0 = 1/k = z
2
v p(z) = z
1
, p(z) = z
2
vi mi z C. Theo
nh l Picard, p(z) l hm hng, v l vi gi thit bc ca p(z) = n > 0.
Vy p(z) c t nht mt nghim phc.
37
Phn ph lc
Kin thc ca phn ny khng phi l mc tiu chnh ca lun vn.
Tuy nhin, ngi c tin theo di, chng ti trnh by nhng khi
nim v kt qu nhc n trong Chng 2 nh s phc v cc php
ton, m rng trng, trng phn r, trng ng i s. Ngoi ra,
chng ti cng a vo mc ny nhng thng tin ca mt s nh ton
hc c ng gp cho nh l c bn ca i s.
A. S phc v cc php ton trn trng s phc
4.1.1. nh ngha s phc. S phc l biu thc c dng z = a + bi
trong a, b R v i
2
= 1. Ta gi a l phn thc v b l phn o ca
z. S i c gi l n v o K hiu tp hp cc s phc l C. Nu
a = 0 th z = bi c gi l s thun o, nu b = 0 th z = a l s thc.
Hai s phc c gi l bng nhau nu phn thc v phn o ca chng
tng ng bng nhau, tc l a + bi = c + di khi v ch khi a = c v
b = d. S phc z = a bi c gi l s phc lin hp ca z = a + bi
v c k hiu l z.
D thy z z = a
2
+ b
2
l mt s thc. Ch rng lin hp ca tng
(hiu, tch, thng) bng tng (hiu, tch, thng) ca cc lin hp, tc
l z z
= z z
, z z
= z z
v nu z
= 0 th
z
z
=
z
z
.
4.1.2. Php ton trn s phc. Biu din s phc z = a + bi c gi
l biu din i s ca s phc z. Php cng, tr, nhn v chia cc s
38
phc c thc hin nh sau:
(a +bi) (c +di) = (a +c) (b +d)i;
(a +bi)(c +di) = (ac bd) + (bc +ad)i;
a +bi
c +di
=
(a +bi)(c di)
(c +di)(c di)
=
ac +bd
c
2
+d
2
+
bc ad
c
2
+d
2
i
Tp C cc s phc vi php cng v php nhn lp thnh mt trng
cha trng s thc R, trong mi s thc a c ng nht vi mt
s phc a + 0i.
4.1.3. Biu din hnh hc ca s phc. Trong mt phng vi h trc
ta vung gc xOy, mi s phc z = a+bi c ng nht vi im
Z(a, b). Khi tp s phc lp y mt phng v ta gi l mt phng
phc. Xt gc to bi chiu dng trc honh vi vc t

OZ v gi r
l di ca vc t

OZ, khi
z = a +bi = r(cos +i sin ).
Ta gi r l mun ca s phc z v k hiu l |z|. Gc c gi
l argument ca z v k hiu l arg(z). R rng |z| =

a
2
+b
2
. Biu
din z = r(cos + i sin ) c gi l biu din lng gic ca z.
Ch rng mun ca mt s phc l xc nh duy nht v argument
ca mt s phc l xc nh sai khc mt bi nguyn ln ca 2, tc
l r(cos + i sin ) = r
(cos
+ i sin
) nu v ch nu r = r
v
=
+ 2k vi k Z.
Sau y l mt vi tnh cht ca mun: |z|=|z|; |z
1
|.|z
2
| = |z
1
|.|z
2
|
v do |z
n
| =|z|
n
; |z
1
+z
2
| |z
1
| +|z
2
|.
4.1.4. Ly tha v khai cn s phc. Cho hai s phc di dng lng
gic: z = r(cos + i sin ), z
= r
(cos
+ i sin
). Khi z.z
=
r.r
_
cos(+
) +i sin(+
)
_
v
z
z
=
r
r
_
cos(
) +i sin(
)
_
.
39
T y ta d dng nng ln ly tha bng cng thc sau (gi l cng
thc Moirve):
z
n
= r
n
(cos n +i sin n).
Ch rng mi s phc z = r(cos +i sin ) khc 0 u c ng n cn
bc n, l
k
=
n
r(cos
+k2
n
+i sin
+k2
n
)
vi k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
B. M rng trng, trng phn r
4.2.1. nh ngha. Cho T l mt trng. Gi s K l mt trng cha
T. Khi ta ni T K l mt m rng trng.
4.2.2. V d. (i) Trng Q[
2] l m rng ca trng Q.
(ii) Vi T C l mt trng v C, t
T() =
_
f()
g()
| f(x), g(x) T[x], g() = 0
_
.
Khi T() l trng nh nht cha T v . Ta gi T() l trng m
rng ca T bng cch ghp thm phn t .
(iii) Vi T C l mt trng v A C, k hiu T(A) l tp cc s
nhn c t T v A bi cc php ton cng, tr, nhn v chia cho cc
phn t khc 0. Khi T(A) l trng nh nht cha T v A. Ta gi
T(A) l trng m rng ca T bng cch ghp thm tp A.
4.2.3. nh ngha. Cho T K l mt m rng trng. Khi K
c cu trc l T-khng gian vect. S chiu ca T-khng gian vect K
c gi l bc ca m rng trng T K v c k hiu l [K : T].
Ch rng nu T K L l mt dy cc m rng trng th
[L : T] = [L : K][K : T].
40
4.2.4. nh ngha. Cho T K l mt m rng trng v K. Ta
ni l i s trn T nu c mt a thc 0 = f(x) T[x] nhn lm
nghim. Nu khng i s trn T th ta ni l siu vit trn T.
t T[] = {f() | f(x) T[x]}. Nu l i s trn T th T[]
l mt trng v v th T[] = T(). Khi l siu vit trn T th T[]
khng l trng, trong khi T() lun l trng.
4.2.5. nh ngha. Cho T l mt trng. a thc f(x) T[x] l bt
kh quy trn T nu deg f(x) > 0 v f(x) khng l tch ca hai a thc
c bc b hn.
Di y l cng thc tnh bc ca cc m rng bng cch ghp thm
mt phn t i s.
4.2.6. B . Cho T K l mt m rng trng v K. Gi s
L = T(), trong l i s trn T. Khi tn ti duy nht mt a
thc p(x) T[x] bt kh quy nhn lm nghim v c h s cao nht
bng 1. Gi s deg p = m. Khi [L : T] = m.
4.2.7. nh ngha. Cho T l trng.
(i) Cho f(x) T[x] l a thc bc n. Mt trng K cc tiu cha T
v cha n nghim ca f(x) c gi l trng phn r ca f(x) trn T.
(ii) T l ng i s nu mi a thc mt bin bc n > 0 trn T u
c ng n nghim trong T, mi nghim tnh vi s bi ca n.
4.2.8. Mnh . Cho T l trng. Khi
(i) Mi a thc f(x) T[x] u c mt trng phn r v trng
phn r ca f(x) trn T l xc nh duy nht sai khc mt ng cu.
(ii) Mi trng u cha trong mt trng ng i s.
Theo nh l c bn ca i s, trng C l ng i s v mi a
thc vi h s hu t (thc, phc) u c mt trng phn r trong C.
41
42
43
Kt lun
Lun vn trnh by lch s v mt s chng minh nh l c bn ca
i s. Ni dung chnh ca lun vn l:
Trnh by kin thc chun b v a thc vi h s trn mt trng,
nghim ca a thc phc v cc din gii lin quan trong Chng 2 v
Chng 3 ca lun vn.
Trnh by s lc lch s nh l c bn ca i s, c bit l cc
ng gp quan trng ca mt s nh ton hc: Jean le Rond DAlembert,
Leonhard Euler, Pierre Simon Laplace v Carl Friedrich Gauss.
a ra mt s chng minh quan trng ca nh l c bn ca i
s (dng cng c i s, cng c gii tch phc, cng c t p).
Phn ph lc cha ng mt s khi nim v m rng trng, trng
phn r ca mt a thc, s phc v cc php ton trn trng s phc,
ng thi c hnh nh mt s nh ton hc lin quan n nh l c bn
ca i s.
Ti liu tham kho
[Ba] Christopher Baltus, DAlemberts proof of the fundamental theorem
of algebra, Historia Mathematica, 31 (2004), 414-428.
[Ca] Josep Carrera, The fundamental theorem of algebra before Carl
Friedrich Gauss, Publicacions Matemtiques, 36 (1992), 879-911.
[C] Nguyn T Cng, i s hin i, tp 1, NXB HQGHN, 2001.
[DA] Jean Le Rond DAlembert, Recherches sur le calcul integral, His-
toire de lAcadmie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres, annee
MDCCXLVI, 182-224. Berlin (1746).
[Du] William Dunham, Euler and the Funcdamental Theorem of Algebra,
The College Mathematics Journal, 22(4) (1991), 282-293.
[Eu] Leonhard Euler, Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des qua-
tions, Memoires de lacadmie des sciences de Berlin, 5 (1949),
1752, 222-228.
[La] Pierre Simon Laplace, Lesons de mathmatiques dons lEcole
normale, Oeuvres compltes, 14 (1795), 10-177.
[MF] Steven Miller and Dan File, Fundamental theorem of algebra, Lec-
ture notes from the Reading Classics, Autumn 2003.
44

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I HC THI NGUYN

1 vi a, b l thc, nhng ng khng bnh

7. Hn na, Euler cng ch

1 l mt nghim ca p(x) th s phc z = c d

D > B. V th ta c phn tch

l. Khi Laplace tin hnh chng minh bng quy np

. T Gauss kt lun rng khi r ln,

l dng. Gauss li tip tc gii thiu cc o hm bc hai ca

dng) Gauss xt tch phn kp

(0). Nhng theo lp lun trn, khi R ln th tt

dng. Do ly tch phn t 0 n R ta c l s dng, iu ny

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