I HC THI NGUYN

TRNG I HC KHOA HC
---------------------

NGUYN TH THU NINH

A THC CHIA NG TRN V NG DNG

LUN VN THC S TON HC

Thi Nguyn - Nm 2013

I HC THI NGUYN
TRNG I HC KHOA HC
---------------------

NGUYN TH THU NINH

A THC CHIA NG TRN V NG DNG

Chuyn ngnh: PHNG PHP TON S CP
M s: 60460113

LUN VN THC S TON HC

NGI HNG DN KHOA HC

PGS.TS. L TH THANH NHN

Thi Nguyn - Nm 2013

Mc lc
Mc lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Li ni u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 Kin thc chun b

1.1

S phc v cc php ton trn s phc . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Khi nim a thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Mt s tnh cht c s ca a thc chia ng trn

13

2.1

Cng thc nghch chuyn Mobius . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

2.2

Cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.3

Tnh cht c s ca a thc chia ng trn . . . . . . . .

19

2.4

Mt s ng dng ca a thc chia ng trn . . . . . . .

27

3 Tnh bt kh quy

31

3.1

a thc bt kh quy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

3.2

Tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn . . . . . . .

34

Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

Li cm n
Trc ht, ti xin gi li bit n chn thnh v su sc ti PGS.TS L
Th Thanh Nhn. C dnh nhiu thi gian v tm huyt trong vic hng
dn. Sau qu trnh nhn ti v nghin cu di s hng dn khoa hc
ca C, lun vn \a thc chia ng trn" ca ti c hon thnh.
C c kt qu ny, l nh s nhc nh, n c, dy bo ht sc tn
tnh v nghim khc ca C.
Ti cng xin gi li cm n chn thnh n Ban Gim hiu, Phng o
to-Khoa hc-Quan h quc t v Khoa Ton-Tin ca Trng i hc Khoa
hc - i hc Thi Nguyn to iu kin thun li nht trong sut qu
trnh hc tp ti trng cng nh thi gian ti hon thnh ti ny. S
gip nhit tnh v thi thn thin ca cc cn b thuc Phng o
to v Khoa Ton-Tin li trong lng mi chng ti nhng n tng
ht sc tt p.
Ti xin cm n Phng Gio dc v o to Qun L Chn - thnh ph
Hi Phng v Trng trung hc c s Nguyn B Ngc - ni ti ang cng
tc to iu kin cho ti hon thnh kha hc ny.
Ti xin cm n gia nh, bn b ng nghip v cc thnh vin trong
lp cao hc Ton K5B (Kha 2011-2013) quan tm, to iu kin, ng
vin c v ti c th hon thnh nhim v ca mnh.

Li ni u
Ta bit rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, c ng n cn bc n ca
n v: k = cos 2k
+ i sin 2k
, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Ch rng k l cn
n
n
nguyn thy bc n ca n v nu v ch nu gcd(k, n) = 1. V th c
ng (n) cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v, trong l hm Euler.
Gi k1 , . . . , k(n) l cc cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v. Khi a thc
chia ng trn th n, k hiu l n (x), l a thc bc (n) c cho bi
cng thc n (x) = (x k1 ) . . . (x k(n) ). Mc ch ca lun vn ny l
trnh by mt s kt qu v a thc chia ng trn, nhng ng dng ca
a thc chia ng trn trong mt s bi ton s cp, v chng minh tnh
bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn.
Lun vn gm 3 chng. Cc kin thc chun b v s phc v a thc
c nhc li trong Chng 1. Phn u ca Chng 2 dnh trnh by
mt s tnh cht quan trng ca a thc chia ng trn. Chng ti chng
Y
t rng xn 1 =
d(x) (nh l 2.3.3), v t ta suy ra n (x) c cc
d|n

h s u nguyn (H qu 2.3.5). Hn na, nu x Z v p l mt c

nguyn t ca n (x) th p 1 (mod n) hoc p|n (nh l 2.3.11). Phn
cui Chng 2 trnh by mt s ng dng ca a thc chia ng trn
chng minh li mt nh l ca Dirichlet v gii quyt mt s bi ton thi
hc sinh gii ton quc t lin quan n phng trnh nghim nguyn v
nh gi s c ca mt s t nhin. Chng 3 trnh by mt s phng
php chng minh tnh bt kh quy trn Q ca a thc chia ng trn.
Ch rng a thc bt kh quy ng vai tr quan trng ging nh vai
tr ca s nguyn t trong tp cc s nguyn. Vi n l s nguyn dng,
a thc chia ng trn n (x) l mt a thc bt kh quy c bit, n l

mt c ca xn 1 nhng khng l c ca xk 1 vi mi k < n. Khi

p l s nguyn t, tnh bt kh quy ca p (x) c gii quyt vo u
Th k th 19, c chng minh ln u tin bi C. F. Gauss 1801 [Gau]
vi cch chng minh kh phc tp v di dng. Sau chng minh c
n gin ho i nhiu bi cc nh ton hc L. Kronecker 1845 [K] v F.
G. Eisenstein 1850 [E]. Cn vic chng minh tnh bt kh quy ca n (x)
vi n tu c gii quyt vo khong gia Th k 19, c chng minh
ln u tin bi Kronecker 1854 [K2]. Sau , R. Dedekind 1857 [D] v
mt s nh ton hc khc a ra chng minh n gin hn.
Ni dung ca lun vn c vit da theo cun sch \L thuyt Galois"
ca S. H. Weintraub [W1], bi bo \Elementary Properties of Cyclotomic
Polynomials" ca Y. Ge [Ge] v bi bo \Several proofs of the irreducibility
of the cyclotomic polynomial" ca S. H. Weintraub [W2]. Bn cnh c
tham kho mt s bi bo c in ca C.F. Gauss [Gau], F. G. Eisenstein
[E], L. Kronecker [K] v R. Dedekind [D] v tnh bt kh quy ca n (x).

Chng 1
Kin thc chun b
Trc khi trnh by cc kt qu v a thc chia ng trn Chng 2,
chng ta nhc li kin thc c s v s phc v a thc.

1.1 S phc v cc php ton trn s phc

1.1.1 nh ngha. S phc l mt biu thc c dng z = a + bi trong
a, b R v i2 = 1. Ta gi a l phn thc v b l phn o ca z. S phc
i c gi l n v o. Nu a = 0 th z = bi c gi l s thun o. Nu
b = 0 th z = a l s thc. Tp cc s phc c k hiu l C. S phc
z = a bi c gi l s phc lin hp ca z = a + bi.
1.1.2 Ch . (i) Hai s phc bng nhau nu v ch nu phn thc v phn
o tng ng bng nhau: a + bi = c + di a = c, b = d.
(ii) Nu z = a + bi th z z = a2 + b2 l mt s thc.
(iii) Lin hp ca tng (hiu, tch, thng) bng tng (hiu, tch, thng)
z
z
ca cc lin hp: z z 0 = z z 0 , z z 0 = z z 0 v 0 = 0 vi mi z 0 6= 0.
z
z
Biu din s phc z = a + bi c gi l biu din i s ca z. Cc

php ton trn s phc c thc hin nh sau:

(a + bi) (c + di) = (a + c) (b + d)i;
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac bd) + (bc + ad)i;
a + bi (a + bi)(c di) ac + bd bc ad
=
= 2
+ 2
i
c + di (c + di)(c di)
c + d2
c + d2
Tp C cc s phc vi php cng v php nhn l mt trng cha trng
s thc R, trong mi s thc a c ng nht vi s phc a + 0i.
1.1.3 nh ngha. Trong mt phng P vi h trc ta vung gc xOy,
mi s phc z = a + bi c ng nht vi im Z(a, b). Khi tp s
phc lp y P v ta gi P l mt phng phc. Xt gc to bi chiu

dng trc honh vi vc t OZ v gi r l di ca vc t OZ, khi

z = a + bi = r(cos + i sin ).
Biu din z = r(cos + i sin ) c gi l biu din lng gic ca z. Ta
gi r l mun ca z v k hiu l |z|. Gc c gi l argument ca z
v k hiu l arg(z). Ch rng mun ca mt s phc l xc nh duy
nht v argument ca mt s phc l xc nh sai khc mt bi nguyn ln
ca 2, tc l r(cos + i sin ) = r 0 (cos 0 + i sin 0 ) nu v ch nu r = r 0
v = 0 + 2k vi k Z.

Vi mi s phc z = a + bi, r rng |z| =

a2 + b2 = |z|. Hn na, vi

z1 , z2 C ta c |z1 |.|z2 | = |z1 |.|z2| v |z1 + z2 | 6 |z1 | + |z2|.

1.1.4 Ch . Cho z = r(cos + i sin ) v z 0 = r 0 (cos 0 + i sin 0 ) l hai


s phc. Khi zz 0 = rr 0 cos( + 0 ) + i sin( + 0 ) v nu z 0 6= 0 th


z
r
0
0
cos(

=
)
+
i
sin(

)
. T y ta c th nng ln ly tha
z0
r0
bng cng thc sau (gi l cng thc Moirve):
z n = r n (cos n + i sin n).

1.1.5 nh ngha. S phc u l mt cn bc n ca s phc z nu un = z.

Ch rng mi s phc z = r(cos + i sin ) khc 0 u c ng n
cn bc n, l
k =

r(cos

+ k2
+ k2
+ i sin
), k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
n
n

c bit, c ng n cn bc n ca n v, l
k = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
n
n

1.2 Khi nim a thc

Trong sut tit ny, lun gi thit K l mt trong cc trng C, R, Q.
1.2.1 nh ngha. Mt biu thc dng f (x) = anxn + . . . + a0 trong
ai K vi mi i c gi l mt a thc ca n x (hay bin x) vi h
s trong K. Nu an 6= 0 th an c gi l h s cao nht ca f (x) v s
t nhin n c gi l bc ca f (x), k hiu l deg f (x). Nu an = 1 th
f (x) c gi l a thc dng chun (monic polynomial).
Ch rng hai a thc f (x) =

ai xi v g(x) =

bi xi l bng nhau

nu v ch nu ai = bi vi mi i. Ta ch nh ngha bc cho nhng a thc

khc 0, cn ta quy c a thc 0 l khng c bc. K hiu K[x] l tp cc
P
P i
a thc n x vi h s trong K. Vi f (x) =
ai xi v g(x) =
bi x ,
P
P
nh ngha f (x) + g(x) = (ai + bi )xi v f (x)g(x) =
ck xk , trong
P
ck =
i+j=k ai bj . R rng nu f (x) 6= 0 v f (x)g(x) = f (x)h(x) th
g(x) = h(x). Hn na ta c
deg(f (x) + g(x)) 6 max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}
deg f (x)g(x) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).

1.2.2 nh ngha. Cho f (x), g(x) K[x]. Nu f (x) = q(x)g(x) vi

q(x) K[x] th ta ni rng g(x) l c ca f (x) hay f (x) l bi ca g(x)
v ta vit g(x)|f (x). Tp cc bi ca g(x) c k hiu l (g).
Ta c ngay cc tnh cht n gin sau y.
1.2.3 B . Cc pht biu sau l ng.
(i) Vi a K v k l s t nhin ta c (x a)|(xk ak ).
(ii) Nu f (x) K[x] v a K th tn ti q(x) K[x] sao cho
f (x) = q(x)(x a) + f (a).
nh l sau y, gi l nh l chia vi d, ng mt vai tr rt quan
trng trong l thuyt a thc.
1.2.4 nh l. Cho f (x), g(x) K[x], trong g(x) 6= 0. Khi tn ti
duy nht mt cp a thc q(x), r(x) K[x] sao cho
f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x), vi r(x) = 0 hoc deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Chng minh. Trc ht ta chng minh tnh duy nht. Gi s
f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) = g(x)q1(x) + r1 (x),
trong r(x), r1 (x) bng 0 hoc c bc nh hn bc ca g(x). Khi
g(x)(q(x) q1 (x)) = r1 (x) r(x).
Nu r(x) 6= r1 (x) th


deg(r r1 ) = deg g(q q1 ) = deg g + deg(q q1 ).
iu ny mu thun v
deg(r r1 ) 6 max{deg r, deg r1 } < deg g 6 deg g + deg(q q1 ).

Do vy, r1 (x) = r(x). Suy ra g(x)(q(x) q1 (x)) = 0. V g(x) 6= 0 nn

q(x) q1(x) = 0, tc l q(x) = q1(x).
By gi ta chng minh s tn ti. Nu deg f (x) < deg g(x) th ta chn
q(x) = 0 v r(x) = f (x). Gi s deg f (x) deg g(x). Vit f (x) =
am xm + . . . + a0 v g(x) = bn xn + . . . + b0 vi am , bn 6= 0 v n 6 m. Chn
am mn
h(x) =
x
. t f1(x) = f (x) g(x)h(x). Khi f1 (x) = 0 hoc
bn
f1(x) c bc thc s b hn bc ca f (x). Trong trng hp f1(x) = 0,
ta tm c d ca php chia f (x) cho g(x) l r(x) = 0 v thng l
q(x) = h(x). Nu f1(x) 6= 0 th ta tip tc lm tng t vi f1(x) v
ta c a thc f2 (x). C tip tc qu trnh trn ta c dy a thc
f1(x), f2 (x), . . ., nu chng u khc 0 th chng c bc gim dn. V th
sau hu hn bc ta c mt a thc c bc b hn bc ca g(x) v
chnh l a thc d r(x). Nu mt a thc ca dy bng 0 th d r(x) = 0.
Th vo ri nhm li ta tm c q(x).
Trong nh l trn, q(x) c gi l thng v r(x) c gi l d ca
php chia f (x) cho g(x). Nu d ca php chia f (x) cho g(x) l 0 th tn
ti q(x) K[x] sao cho f (x) = g(x)q(x). Trong trng hp ny ta ni
rng f (x) chia ht cho g(x) hay g(x) l c ca f (x).
1.2.5 nh ngha. Vi mi f (x) = an xn + . . . + a1x + a0 K[x] v C,
t f () = an n + . . . + a1 + a0. Nu f () = 0 th ta ni l mt nghim
ca a thc f (x) hay l nghim ca phng trnh f (x) = 0.
1.2.6 H qu. Phn t a K l nghim ca a thc f (x) K[x] nu v
ch nu tn ti a thc g(x) K[x] sao cho f (x) = (x a)g(x).
Gi s a K. Ta ni a l nghim bi k ca f (x) nu f (x) chia ht cho
(x a)k nhng f (x) khng chia ht cho (x a)k+1 . Nu k = 1 th a c
gi l nghim n. Nu k = 2 th a c gi l nghim kp.

10

T H qu trn ta c kt qu sau y.
1.2.7 H qu. Cho a1 , a2, . . . , ar K l nhng nghim phn bit ca
f (x) K[x]. Gi s ai l nghim bi ki ca f (x) vi i = 1, 2, . . . , r. Khi
f (x) = (x a1 )k1 (x a2 )k2 . . . (x ar )kr u(x), trong u(x) K[x] v
u(ai ) 6= 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , r.
1.2.8 H qu. Cho 0 6= f (x) K[x] l a thc. Khi s nghim ca
f (x), mi nghim tnh vi s bi ca n, khng vt qu bc ca f (x).
Chng minh. Gi s a1, . . . , ar l cc nghim ca f (x) vi s bi ln lt
l k1 , . . . , kr . Theo H qu 1.2.7, tn ti g(x) K[x] sao cho
f (x) = (x a1)k1 (x a2 )k2 . . . (x ar )kr g(x).
V th deg f (x) = deg g(x) +

r
P

ki

i=1

r
P

ki , iu cn chng minh.

i=1

1.2.9 H qu. Cho f (x), g(x) K[x], trong deg f, deg g 6 n. Nu

f (x) v g(x) c gi tr bng nhau ti n + 1 phn t khc nhau ca K th
f (x) = g(x).
Chng minh. t h(x) = f (x) g(x). Theo gi thit, h(x) c t nht n + 1
nghim phn bit. Nu h(x) 6= 0 th
deg h(x) 6 max{deg f (x), deg g(x)} 6 n.
V th, theo H qu 1.2.8, h(x) c nhiu nht n nghim. iu ny l v l.
Vy h(x) = 0 v do f (x) = g(x).
1.2.10 nh ngha. Mt a thc dng chun d(x) K[x] c gi l c
chung ln nht ca f (x), g(x) K[x] nu d(x) l mt c chung ca f (x)
v g(x), v nu h(x) l mt c chung ca f (x) v g(x) th h(x) l c ca
d(x). Ta k hiu c chung ln nht ca f (x) v g(x) l gcd(f (x), g(x)).
Nu gcd(f (x), g(x)) = 1 th ta ni f (x) v g(x) l nguyn t cng nhau.

11

Vi 0 6= d(x) K[x], k hiu d (x) = d(x)/an trong an l h s cao

nht ca d(x). Ch rng d (x) l a thc dng chun. tm c chung
ln nht ta c thut ton sau:
1.2.11 Mnh . (Thut ton Euclid tm c chung ln nht). Gi s
f, g K[x] v g 6= 0. Khi tn ti mt s t nhin k sao cho khi thc
hin lin tip cc php chia ta c

f = gq + r, r 6= 0, degr < deg g

g = rq1 + r1 , r1 6= 0, deg r1 < deg r

r = r q + r , r 6= 0, deg r < deg r

1 2

......

rk2 = rk1 qk + rk , rk 6= 0, deg rk < deg rk1

r
=r q .
k1

k k+1

Trong trng hp ny, rk l c chung ln nht ca f v g.

Chng minh. Chia f cho g ta c d r. Nu r 6= 0 th chia g cho r
ta c d r1 . Nu r1 6= 0 th chia r cho r1 ta c d r2 . Qu trnh
trn phi dng sau mt s hu hn bc v dy gim cc s t nhin
deg g > deg r > deg r1 > . . . khng th ko di v hn. Xt t ng thc
cui ngc tr ln ta suy ra rk l mt c chung ca f v g. Gi s t(x)
l mt c chung ca f v g. Xt t ng thc trn cng tr xung ta suy
ra t(x) l c ca rk (x). V th rk l c chung ln nht ca f v g.
1.2.12 H qu. Gi s f (x), g(x) K[x] v d(x) = gcd(f (x), g(x)). Khi
tn ti u(x), v(x) K[x] sao cho
d(x) = f (x)u(x) + g(x)v(x).
Chng minh. Trong cc php chia lin tip thut ton Euclid tm c
chung ln nht, d(x) = rk (x) = rk (x)/an , trong an l h s cao nht

12

ca rk (x). t u1 (x) = 1, v1 (x) = qk (x), t ng thc gip cui ta c

d(x) =

1
rk2 (x)u1 (x) + rk1 (x)v1 (x) .
an

Thay rk1 (x) t ng thc trc gip cui ta c

rk1 (x) = rk3 (x) rk2 (x)qk1 (x).


1
rk3 (x)u2 (x) + rk2 (x)v2 (x) , trong u2 (x) =
an
v1 (x) v v2 (x) = u1 (x) v1 (x)qk1 (x). C tip tc i t di ln n ng

V th ta c d(x) =

thc u tin ta c kt qu.

1.2.13 H qu. Cho p(x), f (x), g(x) K[x]. Nu gcd(p(x), f (x)) = 1 v
p(x)|f (x)g(x) th p(x)|g(x).
Chng minh. Theo gi thit, 1 = p(x)a(x) + f (x)b(x). Suy ra
g(x) = p(x)a(x)g(x) + f (x)b(x)g(x).
Do p(x) l c ca a thc v phi nn p(x)|g(x).

Chng 2
Mt s tnh cht c s ca a thc chia
ng trn
2.1 Cng thc nghch chuyn Mobius
2.1.1 nh ngha. Hm Mobius : Z+ {1, 0, 1} c nh ngha nh
sau: t (1) = 1. Cho n > 1. Nu d2 khng l c ca n vi mi s
t nhin d > 1 th ta t (n) = (1)k , trong k l s cc c nguyn
t ca n. Nu c s t nhin d > 1 sao cho d2 l c ca n th ta t
(n) = 0.
T nh ngha trn ta c (6) = (1)2 = 1, (9) = 0, (12) = 0. Hin
nhin l hm nhn, tc l (mn) = (m)(n) vi mi s nguyn dng
m, n nguyn t cng nhau. Sau y l mt s tnh cht ca hm Mobius.
2.1.2 Mnh . Cho n l s nguyn dng. Khi
P
a) Nu n = 1 th (d) = 1.
d|n
P
b) Nu n 2 th (d) = 0.
d|n

Chng minh. a) Vi n = 1 th c dng duy nht ca n l 1. Do , theo

P
nh ngha hm Mobius ta c (d) = (1) = 1.
d|n

13

14

b) Cho n 2. Ta t T l tch tt c cc s nguyn t p l c ca

Q
n, tc l T = p. Ch rng nu q l c ca n c cha tha s bnh
p|n

phng th (q) = 0. Do ta c th b nhng ch s q nh th ra khi

tng. Do ta c

(d) =

d|n

(d).

d|T

Gi p l mt c nguyn t bt k ca T . Ch rng mi c ca T l
mt c d ca T /p hoc l pd vi d l c ca T /p. V th, t tnh cht
hm nhn ca ta c
X
X
X
(d) =
((d) + (pd)) =
((d) + (p)(d))
d|T

d| Tp

d| Tp

X
((d) + (1)1 (d))
d| Tp

X
((d) (d)) = 0.
d| Tp

Ta c iu phi chng minh.

Mt kt qu quen bit trong s hc ni rng nu f l hm nhn th
P
F (n) = f (d). T Mnh 2.1.2, ta c mt kt qu quan trng ca hm
d|n

Mobius, l cng thc nghch chuyn hm Mobius sau y.

2.1.3 Mnh . K hiu Z+ l tp cc s nguyn dng. Cho hai hm
P
F, f : Z+ Z+ sao cho F (n) = f (d). Khi ta c
d|n

f (n) =

(d)F (n/d).

d|n

Chng minh. Theo gi thit ta c


X
X
X
(d)F (n/d) =
(d) f (t) .
d|n

d|n

t| nd

15

V mi c t ca n/d u l c ca n nn ta c
X
X
X
X
(d)
f (t) =
f (t)
(d).
d|n

t| nd

d|n, t| nd

t|n

D thy rng vi hai c t v d ca n ta c d l c ca n/t khi v ch khi

t l c ca n/d. Do vy ta c
X
X
X
X
f (t)
(d) =
f (t)
(d).
t|n

d|n, t| nd

t|n

d| nt

Theo mnh 2.1.2, nu n/t = 1 tc l t = n th

P
(d) = 0. V vy ta c
n/t 2 th
d| nt

f (t)

t|n

(d) = 1 v nu

d| nt

(d) = f (n) ,

d| nt

mnh c chng minh.

2.1.4 Mnh . Gi s F, f : Z+ Z+ l hai hm tha mn iu kin
Y
Y
F (n) =
f (d). Khi ta c f (n) =
F (n/d)(d) .
d|n

d|n

Chng minh. Chng minh ca mnh ny tng t nh chng minh ca

Mnh 2.1.3, trong mi tng c thay bng tch v mi php nhn
lin quan n hm c thay bi ly tha ca hm .
Gi s t l c ca n/d. Theo gi thit ta c F (n/d) =

f (t). Suy ra

t| nd

F (n/d)(d) =

d|n

Y
d|n

Y
t| nd

(d)

f (t)

V mi c t ca n/d u l c ca n nn ta c

(d)
P
Y
Y Y
Y
n (d)
(d)

F (n/d)
=
f (t)
=
f (t) d|n,t| d
.
d|n

d|n

t| nd

t|n

16

Ch rng nu d v t u l c ca n th d l c ca n/t khi v ch khi

t l c ca n/d. Do vy ta c

(d)
P
P
Y
Y Y
Y
Y
n (d)
(d)
d|n,t| n (d)

d
F (n/d)
=
f (t)
=
f (t)
=
f (t) d| t
.
d|n

d|n

t| nd

t|n

t|n

V th theo Mnh 2.1.2, nu n/t = 1 tc l t = n th

P
(d) = 0. Do
nu n/t 2 th

(d) = 1, v

d| nt

d| nt

F (n/d)(d) =

d|n

Y
d|n

f (t)

t| nd
P

f (t)

t|n

(d)

d|n,t| n
d

f (t)

d| n
t

(d)

(d)

= f (n) ,

t|n

mnh c chng minh.

2.2 Cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v

2.2.1 nh ngha. Cho n l mt s nguyn dng v  l mt cn bc n
ca n v. Khi s nguyn dng nh nht k sao cho k = 1 c gi
l cp ca  v c k hiu l ord().
2.2.2 V d. Cc cn bc 4 ca n v l 1, 1, i, i. Cp ca 1 l 1, cp
ca 1 l 2, cp ca i l 4, cp ca i l 4.
2.2.3 B . Cho n l s nguyn dng v  l cn bc n ca n v. Khi
k = 1 nu v ch nu ord() l c ca k, vi mi s nguyn k. c
bit cp ca  lun l c ca n.

17

Chng minh. t d = ord(). Gi s k = 1. Ta cn chng minh d l c

ca k. Theo nh l chia vi d ta c k = dq + r, trong q, r Z v
0 6 r < d. Suy ra
1 = k = qd+r = (d)q .r = r .
V d l s nguyn dng b nht c tnh cht d = 1 nn ta c r = 0. Do
d l c ca k. Ngc li, gi s d l c ca k. Ta cn chng minh
k = 1. Vit k = dq, trong q Z. Ta c k = (d)q = 1.
2.2.4 H qu. Cho n l s nguyn dng v  l mt cn bc n ca n
v. Gi s d = ord(). Khi k = t nu v ch nu k t(mod d) vi mi
s nguyn k, t.
Chng minh. Cho k = t. Cn chng minh k t chia ht cho r. Ta c
kt = 1. Theo B 2.2.3, k t l bi ca d. Ngc li, nu k t l bi
ca d th kt = 1 v do k = d .
2.2.5 nh ngha. Cho n l s nguyn dng v  l mt cn bc n ca n
v. Khi  c gi l cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v nu ord() = n.
2.2.6 V d. a) Cc cn bc 3 ca n v l

1 i 3
1 i 3
, 2 =
.
0 = 1, 1 = +
2
2
2
2
Ta c ord(0) = 1, ord(1) = 3, ord(2 ) = 3. V th cc cn nguyn thy
bc 3 ca n v l 1 v 2.
b) Trong cc cn bc 4 ca n v: 1, 1, i, i, cc s i, i l cc cn
nguyn thy bc 4 ca n v.
2.2.7 Ch . Nu  l mt cn bc n ca n v v d = ord() th  l cn
nguyn thu bc d ca n v.

18

2.2.8 B . Cho  l cn nguyn thu bc n ca n v. Khi tp cc

cn bc n ca n v l {, 2, 3 , . . . , n }.
Chng minh. Vi mi s dng k ta c (k )n = 1. V th k l mt cn bc
n ca n v. Theo nh ngha cn nguyn thu bc n ca n v, nhng
s , 2, 3 , . . . , n l i mt khc nhau. Ch rng c ng n cn bc n
ca ca n v, v th ta c iu phi chng minh.
2.2.9 B . Cho n, k l hai s nguyn dng v  l mt cn nguyn thu
bc n ca n v. Khi k l mt cn nguyn thu bc n ca n v khi
v ch khi gcd(k, n) = 1
Chng minh. t d = ord(k ). Khi (k )d = 1, tc l kd = 1. Do  l
cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v nn theo B 2.2.3, ord() = n l c
ca kd. Nu gcd(k, n) = 1 th n phi l c ca d. Theo B 2.2.3, d
lun l c ca n. D d = n, tc l k l cn nguyn thu bc n ca
n v.
n
n
< n v (k ) gcd(k,n) = 1.
gcd(k, n)
k
Do vy d < n, tc l  khng l cn nguyn thu bc n ca n v.

Ngc li, gi s gcd(k, n) 6= 1. Khi

2.2.10 nh ngha. Hm Euler : N+ N c nh ngha nh sau:

(1) = 1. Cho n > 1. Khi (n) l s cc s t nhin nh hn n v
nguyn t cng nhau vi n.
Chng hn, (2) = 1, (3) = 2, (4) = 2, (5) = 4, (6) = 2.
2.2.11 H qu. Cho n l s nguyn dng. Khi c ng (n) cn
nguyn thy bc n ca n v.
+ i sin 2k
, trong k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
Chng minh. t k = cos 2k
n
n
Ta ch cn chng k l cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v nu v ch nu

19

gcd(k, n) = 1 vi mi k = 0, . . . , n 1. Gi s k l cn nguyn thy bc

n ca n v. Khi ord(k ) = n. Gi s gcd(k, n) = d > 1. Ta c
n/d

k

= (cos

2k n/d
2k
2k
2k
+ i sin
) = cos
+ i sin
= 1.
n
n
d
d

iu ny l v l. Vy d = 1. Ngc li, cho gcd(k, n) = 1. Gi t l cp

ca k , tc t l s nguyn dng b nht tk = 1. Ta c
tk = cos

2kt
2kt
+ i sin
= 1.
n
n

2kt
= m2 vi m l mt s nguyn. Do kt l bi ca n. V
n
gcd(k, n) = 1 nn t l bi ca n. Suy ra t = n, tc l ord(k ) = n.

Suy ra

2.2.12 V d. Do (3) = 2, c 2 cn nguyn thu bc 3 ca n v, l

1
1
3
3
1 = + i ; 2 = i .
2
2
2
2
C (4) = 2 cn nguyn thu bc 4 ca n v l i v i.

2.3 Tnh cht c s ca a thc chia ng trn

2.3.1 nh ngha. Cho n l s nguyn dng. a thc chia ng trn th
n l a thc dng chun (tc l c h s cao nht bng 1) v c ng (n)
nghim l cc cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v. Ta k hiu a thc chia
ng trn th n l n (x). Nh vy n (x) c bc (n) v
Y
n (x) =
(x ).
n =1
ord()=n

2.3.2 V d. Cc cn bc 3 ca n v l
k = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, 1, 2.
3
3

20

1
1
3
3
Cc cn nguyn thu bc 3 ca n v l 1 = + i ; 2 = i .
2
2
2
2
Do a thc chia ng trn th ba l

1
1
3
3
3 (x) = (x + ( i ))(x + ( + i )) = x2 + x + 1.
2
2
2
2
Cc cn bc 4 ca n v l
k = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4
4

Cc cn nguyn thu bc 4 ca n v l 1 = i v 3 = i. a thc chia

ng trn th t l
4 (x) = (x i)(x + i) = x2 + 1.
2.3.3 nh l. Cho n l s nguyn dng. Khi
Y
n
x 1=
d (x).
d|n

Chng minh. chng minh ng thc trn, ta ch cn chng minh hai a

Q
thc xn 1 v d|n d (x) u c dng chun, u khng c nghim bi,
v c cng tp nghim. Theo nh ngha, mi d (x) l mt a thc dng
chun. V th a thc pha bn phi c dng chun. Do hai a thc
hai v u c dng chun. Ch rng mt a thc c nghim bi nu v
ch nu a thc v o hm ca n phi c nghim chung. V th xn 1
khng c nghim bi (cc nghim ca xn 1 u khc 0, trong khi o
hm ca n l nxn1 ch c duy nht nghim bng 0). Vi mi c d ca
n, cc nghim ca d (x) u l nghim ca xd 1 v do n khng c
nghim bi. Gi s d v d0 l hai c khc nhau ca n. Khi mi nghim
ca d (x) c cp l d, trong khi mi nghim ca d0 (x) c cp l d0 .
Q
V th, cc nghim ca a thc d|n d (x) u l nghim n. Gi s  l
nghim ca xn 1. Gi d l cp ca . Khi d = 1 v d l s nguyn

21

dng b nht c tnh cht ny. V th  l cn nguyn thu bc d ca n

v. Suy ra  l nghim ca a thc ca d (x). Ngc li, cho d l c ca
n v  l nghim ca d (x). Khi d = 1. Suy ra n = 1 tc  l nghim
ca a thc xn 1.
2.3.4 B . Gi s f (x) = xm + am1 xm1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 v g(x) =
xn + bn1 xn1 + . . . + b1 x + b0 l hai a thc vi h s hu t. Nu cc h
s ca f g u l s nguyn th cc h s ca f v g cng nguyn.
Chng minh. Bng cch quy ng mu s, ta c th chn c m v n l
hai s nguyn dng nh nht tt c cc h s ca hai a thc mf (x) v
ng(x) l cc s nguyn. t Ai = mai vi i = 0, . . . , m 1 v Bi = nbi
vi i = 0, . . . , n 1. t Am = m v Bn = n. Khi
mnf (x)g(x) = Am Bn xm+n + ... + A0B0 .
Do f (x)g(x) Z[x] nn tt c cc h s ca mnf (x)g(x) u chia ht cho
mn. Gi s rng mn > 1. Gi p l mt c nguyn t ca mn. Khi
tn ti mt s nguyn i {0, ..., m} sao cho p khng l c ca h s Ai
ca mf . Tht vy, nu p khng l c ca m th p khng l c ca h
s cao nht Am ca mf ; cn nu p l c ca m th p l c ca Ai vi
m
Ai
= ai Z, iu ny l mu thun vi gi
mi i {0, ..., m} v do
p
p
thit m l s nguyn dng nh nht c tnh cht cc h s ca mf u l
s nguyn. Tng t, tn ti mt s nguyn j 0, ..., n sao cho p khng
l c ca h s Bj ca a thc ng. Gi i0 v j0 tng ng l s nguyn
ln nht trong cc s i v j tha mn tnh cht p khng l c ca Ai v
p khng l c ca Bj . Khi h s ca xi0 +j0 trong a thc mnf (x)g(x)
l Ai0 Bj0 + pt trong t l s nguyn. R rng h s ny n khng l bi
ca p. V cc h s ca f g u nguyn nn cc h s ca mnfg u chia
ht cho mn v do u chia ht cho p, iu ny l v l. Vy mn = 1.
Suy ra f, g c cc h s u nguyn.

22

2.3.5 H qu. Vi mi s nguyn dng n, cc h s ca a thc chia

ng trn n (x) u l s nguyn, tc l n (x) Z[x].
Chng minh. Ta chng minh h qu ny bng phng php quy np theo
n. Khng nh ny ng vi n = 1 v 1 (x) = x 1. Gi s khng nh
trn ng vi mi k < n. Khi t nh l 2.3.3 ta c c:
xn 1
n (x) = Q
.
d (x)
t f (x) = n (x) v g(x) =

d|n,d6=n

d (x) . Theo gi thit quy np, cc h

d|n,d6=n

s ca a thc d (x) u l s nguyn vi mi c d ca n vi d 6= n.

Do g(x) c cc h s u nguyn. Suy ra f (x) c cc h s hu t. V
xn 1 = f (x)g(x) l a thc vi h s nguyn, trong f (x) v g(x) c
h s cao nht bng 1 v c cc h s u nguyn nn theo B 2.3.4,
cc a thc f v g u c h s nguyn. c bit f (x) = n (x) c cc h
s u l s nguyn.
2.3.6 H qu. Cho n l s nguyn dng. Khi
Y n

(d)
n (x) =
xd 1
.
d|n

Chng minh. Kt qu ny suy ra ngay t cc Mnh 2.1.4 v 2.3.3.

Tht vy, vi mi s t nhin x, t Fx , fx : Z+ Z+ l cc hm xc
nh bi Fx (n) = xn 1 v fx (n) = n (x). Theo nh l 2.3.3 ta c

(d)
Q
Q
Fx(n) = d|n fx (d). Do theo nh l 2.1.4 ta c fx (n) = Fx nd
.
d|n

Ngha l vi mi s t nhin x ta c
Y n

(d)
n (x) =
xd 1
.
d|n

Nh vy, hai a thc hai v ca ng thc trn c bc l (n) v nhn

gi tr bng nhau ti mi s t nhin x. Li ch thm rng hai a thc

23

ny c bc (n) nn nhn gi tr bng nhau ti khng qu (n) im. Do

chng l hai a thc bng nhau.
2.3.7 B . Cho p l s nguyn t v n l s nguyn dng. Khi
a) Nu p|n th pn (x) = n (xp ).

n (xp )
.
b) Nu p khng l c ca n th pn (x) =
n (x)
Chng minh. Trc ht, gi s p|n. K hiu Ip,n l tp cc c d ca pn
sao cho d khng l c ca n. Theo H qu 2.3.6 ta c
(d)
Y  pn
pn (x) =
xd 1
d|pn





Y
Y pn
(d)
(d)
pn

xd 1
xd 1
=
d|n

= n (x )

Y 

dIp,n

pn
d

(d)

dIp,n

Ly d Ip,n. Khi d|pn v d khng l c ca n. Vit d = pk m, n = pt l

vi m, l khng chia ht cho p. V d|pn nn pk m|pt+1 l. Suy ra k t + 1 v
m|l. Do d khng l c ca n v m|l nn k > t. Do p|n nn t > 0. Suy ra

(d)
Q
pn
k 2, tc l p2 |d nn (d) = 0. Do vy
= 1 v do
xd 1
dIp,n
p

pn (x) = n (x ) .
Ngc li, gi s p khng l c ca n. Theo H qu 2.3.6 ta c:




Y  pn
Y  pn
Y  pn
(d)
(d)
(pd)

pn (x) =
=
xd 1
xd 1
x pd 1
d|pn

d|n

d|n



Y n
Y pn
(d)

(d)

=
xd 1
xd 1
d|n

d|n

n (x )
.
n (x)

24

T y ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.

2.3.8 H qu. Cho p l s nguyn
 tk v n, k l cc s nguyn dng.
a) Nu p|n th pk n (x) = n xp .
 
k
n xp

.
b) Nu p khng l c ca n th pk n (x) =
n xpk1
Chng minh. Theo B 2.3.7, ta c
 2
 k1 
p
x
= ... = pn xp
.
(x ) =
(x) =
 k1 
 k
p
V th, cng theo B 2.3.7, nu p|n th pn x
= n xp v nu
 k
 k1 
n xp

, h qu c chng
p khng l c ca n th pn xp
=
n xpk1
minh.
pk n

pk1n

pk2n

Cho f (x) = an xn +. . .+a1x +a0 v g(x) = bn xn +. . .+b1x +b0 Z[x].

Nu ai bi (mod p), vi mi i = 0, 1, . . . , n th ta ni f (x) v g(x) ng
d vi nhau theo modulo p v ta vit f (x) g(x) (mod p).
2.3.9 B . Cho p l s nguyn t v k 2 l mt s t nhin. Gi
s a thc xn 1 c nghim bi k modulo p, ngha l tn ti a Z v
f (x) Z[x] sao cho xn 1 (x a)k f (x) (mod p). Khi p|n.
Chng minh. R rng p khng l c ca a. Thay y = x a, ta c:
(y + a)n 1 y k f (y + a) (mod p).
So snh cc h s, chng ta thy rng cc h s bc nht ca y v bn
phi l bng 0. Theo nh l nh thc, h s bc nht ca y v bn tri l
bng nan1. Chnh v vy ta c nan1 0(modp), do p|nan1 . Nhng
p khng l c ca a nn p khng l c ca an1 , v vy p|n. B
c chng minh.

25

2.3.10 H qu. Cho n l s nguyn dng v d < n l mt c ca n. Cho

x l s nguyn. Gi s rng p l mt c nguyn t chung ca n (x) v
d (x). Khi p|n.
Chng minh. Theo nh l 2.3.3 ta c X n 1 =

t|n t (X).

Do d|n v

n > d nn X n 1 chia ht cho n (x)d (x). Do n (x) = 0 (mod p) theo

gi thit nn n (X) (X x)f (X) (mod p). Chng minh tng t ta
c d (X) (X x)g(X) (mod p). Suy ra X n 1 nhn x lm nghim
bi k 2. Do theo B 2.3.9 ta c p|n.
2.3.11 nh l. Cho n l s nguyn dng v x Z. Gi s p l mt c
nguyn t ca n (x). Khi p 1 (mod n) hoc p|n
Chng minh. Gi s p l mt c nguyn t ca n (x). Do p|n (x) v
n (x)|xn 1 nn p|xn 1. Do p khng l c ca x. V th theo
nh l Fermat b ta c xp1 1 (mod p). Do ta c th chn c
s nguyn dng k b nht tho mn xk 1 (mod p). V p|xn 1
ta suy ra xn 1 (mod p). Vit n = kq + r vi 0 6 r < k. Khi
1 xn = (xk )q xr xr (mod p). T cch chn k ta c r = 0. Do
k|n. Vit p 1 = kt + s, trong 0 6 s < k. Khi 1 xp1 =
(xk )t xs xs (mod p). T cch chn k ta c s = 0, tc l k|(p 1).
Nu k = n th n|p 1. Do p 1 (mod n). Gi s k < n. V
Q
0 xk 1 =
d (x) (mod p) nn tn ti mt c d ca k sao cho
d|k

p|d (x). Do d|k, k|n v d < n nn theo H qu 2.3.10 ta c p|n.

2.3.12 H qu. Cho p l mt s nguyn t v x Z. Gi s q l c
nguyn t ca 1 + x + ... + xp1 . Khi q 1 (mod p) hoc q = p.
Chng minh. Ta c
1 + x + ... + x

p1

xp 1 xp 1
=
.
=
x1
1 (x)

26

Ch rng trong cc cn bc p ca n v
k = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, . . . , p 1,
p
p

cc cn k vi (k, p) = 1 l cc cn nguyn thu. V p l s nguyn t nn

(k, p) = 1 vi mi k = 1, . . . , p 1. Do , k vi k = 1, . . . p 1 l cc
cn nguyn thy bc p ca n v. V th
p (x) =

p1
Y
k=1

xp 1
.
(x k ) =
x1

Suy ra xp 1 = p (x)(x 1) v do 1 + x + ... + xp1 = p (x) . Theo

gi thit ta c q|p (x). V th p dng nh l 2.3.11 ta c q 1 (mod p)
hoc q|p, tc l q 1 (mod p) hoc q = p (do p, q l nguyn t).
2.3.13 B . Cho a v b l hai s nguyn dng v x Z. Khi


 gcd(a,b)

a
b
1 .
gcd x 1, x 1 = x


Chng minh. t T = gcd xa 1, xb 1 v t = gcd(a, b). T gi thit
xt 1|xa 1 v xt 1|xb 1 ta suy ra xt 1|T. R rng, gcd(x, T ) = 1.
V th x(T ) 1 (mod T ), trong l hm Euler. Do tn ti s
nguyn dng d b nht sao cho xd 1 (mod T ). Do T |xd 1. V
xa xb 1 (modT ) nn ta c d|a v d|b. Do d|t. V vy xd 1|xt 1.
V th T |xt 1. Suy ra T = |xt 1| , ta c kt qu.
2.3.14 nh l. Cho a v b l hai s nguyn dng v tn ti mt s nguyn
a
x sao cho gcd (a (x) , b (x)) > 1. Khi l lu tha vi s m nguyn
b
a
k
ca mt s nguyn t, ngha l = p vi p l s nguyn t v k l mt
b
s nguyn.
Chng minh. V gcd (a (x) , b (x)) > 1 nn tn ti mt c nguyn t
a
chung p ca a (x) v b (x). Ta chng minh rng phi l mt lu tha
b

27

ca p. Vit a = p A v b = p B vi , l cc s nguyn khng m v

A, B l cc s nguyn dng khng chia ht cho p. Ta s ch ra rng A = B.
Tht vy, v p|a (x) v a (x)|xa 1 nn p|xa 1, do p khng l c ca
x. Trc tin ta chng minh p|A (x) . iu ny l hin nhin
nu = 0.

A xp
(modp) .
Nu > 1 th theo H qu 2.3.8 ta c 0 a (x) =
p1 )

(x
a

V th A xp 0 (modp). Nhng xp x.xp 1 v t p 1 chia ht

cho p 1 nn theo cng thc Hm Euler ta suy ra c xp

nn x.xp

1 (modp)

x.1 (modp) v do xp x (modp). V vy

0 A xp A (x) (modp) .

V vy p|A (x). Tng t chng minh, ta cng c c kt qu p|B (x).

Khng mt tnh tng qut, ta c th gi thit A > B. t t = gcd(A, B).
Khi t < A. V p|A (x) v A (x) |xA 1, p|B (x) v B (x) |xB 1 nn




p| gcd xA 1, xB 1 . Theo B 2.3.13 ta c gcd xA 1, xB 1 =
Q
|xt 1|, v th p|xt 1. Suy ra 0 xt 1 = d (x) (modp), do tn
d|t

ti mt c d ca t sao cho p|d (x). V d|t, t|A, d < A v p|A (x), nn

theo H qu 2.3.10 ta c p|A, iu ny l mu thun vi iu gi s ban
a
u p khng l c ca A. Do A = B, v vy = p .
b

2.4 Mt s ng dng ca a thc chia ng trn

Mt ng dng ph bin ca a thc chia ng trn l chng minh nh
l Dirichlet
2.4.1 nh l. (Dirichlet). Cho n l s nguyn dng. Khi tn ti v s
s nguyn t p sao cho p 1 (modn)
Chng minh. Vi n = 1, kt qu hin nhin ng. Cho n > 1. Gi s ch
tn ti hu hn s nguyn t p sao cho p 1 (modn). t T1 l tch ca

28

cc s nguyn t p c tnh cht p 1( mod n) v T2 l tch ca tt c

cc c nguyn t ca n. t T = T1 T2 . Do n > 1 nn T 2 > 1 v v


th T > 1. t k l mt s nguyn dng ln sao cho n T k > 1
(vi n (X) l a thc dng chun c bc (n) 1 nn k tn ti). Ly q


l mt c nguyn t ca n T k . V q l c ca T kn 1 nn q khng
l c ca T , v th q khng l c ca T1 v q khng l c ca T2 nn
q 6 1 (modn) v q khng l c ca n. iu ny l mu thun vi nh
l 2.3.11.
Mt ng dng khc rt hay ca a thc chia ng trn l gii quyt
cc bi tp trong cc thi hc sinh gii Quc t.
2.4.2 Bi ton. ( thi hc sinh gii Quc t 2002) Gi s p1 , p2 , ..., pn l
cc s nguyn t phn bit ln hn 3. Chng minh rng 2p1 p2 ...pn + 1 c t
nht 4n c.
gii quyt bi ton 2.4.2, ta s chng minh mt bi ton tng qut
hn. C th, vi gi thit nh trong bi ton 2.4.2 ta chng minh c
n1

2p1p2 ...pn + 1 c t nht 22

n1

c. R rng 22

> 4n (khi n ln). Do

Bi tp 2.4.2 l trng hp c bit ca bi ton sau:

2.4.3 Bi ton. t p1 , p2 , ..., pn l cc s nguyn t phn bit ln hn 3.
n1

Chng minh rng 2p1 p2...pn + 1 c t nht 22

c.

Chng minh. Ta chng minh rng 2p1 p2...pn + 1 c t nht 2n1 c i mt

nguyn t cng nhau v do ta suy ra 2p1 p2 ...pn + 1 c t nht 2n1 c
nguyn t phn bit. Theo nh l 2.3.3 ta c:
(2p1p2 ...pn 1) (2p1 p2...pn + 1) = 22p1 p2...pn 1 =

Y
d|2p1p2...pn

d (2)

29

t A = {d | d l c ca 2p1 . . . pn } v
B = {d A | d l c ca p1 . . . pn }
C = {2d | d l c ca p1 . . . pn }.
Ta thy B C = A v B C = . Do

Y
Y
Y
d (2) =
d (2)
d|2p1p2 ...pn

d|p1p2 ...pn

d (2)

dB

k|p1p2...pn

d (2)

p1 p2...pn

Do vy
2p1p2 ...pn + 1 =

2k (2)

d (2)

dC

d|p1...pn

= (2

2d0 (2)

2d0|p1...pn

1)

Y
k|p1p2...pn

2k (2) .

2k (2).

k|p1p2...pn

Do c bao nhiu c ca p1 . . . pn th tch v bn phi ca ng

thc trn c by nhiu nhn t. Ch rng mi c m ca p1 . . . pn l tch
ca cc phn t trong mt tp con ca tp {p1 , . . . , pn }. V th, s cc c
ca p1 . . . pn chnh l s tp con ca tp {p1 , . . . , pn }. V tp ny c 2n tp
con nn p1 . . . pn c 2n c khc nhau, mi c u l tch ca hu hn s
nguyn t phn bit trong tp {p1 , . . . , pn }.
Gi E l tp cc c d ca p1 . . . pn sao cho d l tch ca mt s chn
tha s nguyn t v F l tp cc c d ca p1 . . . pn sao cho d l tch ca
mt s l tha s nguyn t. Khi E v F c s phn t nh nhau, mi
tp c 2n1 phn t. Cho a 6= b, a, b E. Gi s a (2) v b (2) khng
a
nguyn t cng nhau. Theo nh l 2.3.14 ta suy ra l lu tha nguyn
b

30

ca mt s nguyn t. Nhng v a v b u l tch ca mt s chn tha s

nguyn t phn bit nn iu ny l khng th. V th a (2) v b (2) l
hai c nguyn t cng nhau ca 2p1 p2...pn + 1 vi mi a, b E vi a 6= b.
Do E c 2n1 phn t nn ta c kt qu.
2.4.4 Bi ton. ( thi hc sinh gii Quc t 2006) Tm tt c cc cp s
nguyn (x, y) tho mn phng trnh
x7 1
= y 5 1.
x1
Li gii: Phng trnh cho tng ng vi
1 + x + ... + x6 = (y 1)(1 + y + ... + y 4 ).
T H qu 2.3.12 ta bit rng mi c nguyn t p ca 1 + x + ... + x6 u
tho mn p = 7 hoc p 1 (mod 7). Nu p nguyn t v p|1 + x + ... + x6
th p = 7 hoc p 1 (mod 7) (Theo H qu 2.3.12). Ly d l mt c ca
1 + x + ... + x6 . Vit d = p1 1 . . . pk r vi pi l s nguyn t, i N. Do
d|1+x+...+x6 nn pi |1+x+...+x6. Do pi = 7 hoc pi 1 (mod 7) vi
mi i = 1, . . . , k. Suy ra d chia ht cho 7 hoc d 1 (mod 7), tc l tt c
cc c ca 1+x+...+x6 hoc chia ht cho 7, hoc ng d 1 modulo 7. Nh
vy, (y 1) 0 (mod 7) hoc (y 1) 1 (mod 7). l y 1 (mod 7)
hoc y 2 (mod 7). Nu y 1 (mod 7) th 1 + y + ... + y 4 5 (mod 7)
v do 1 + y + ... + y 4 l c ca 1 + x + ... + x6 nhng khng ng d vi
0 (mod 7) v khng ng d vi 1 (mod 7). iu ny l mu thun. Nu
y 2 (mod 7) th 1 +y +...+y4 31 3 (mod 7) v do 1 +y +...+y4
khng ng d vi 0 hoc 1 theo (mod 7). iu ny cng mu thun. Do
vy, phng trnh ny khng c nghim nguyn.

Chng 3
Tnh bt kh quy
3.1 a thc bt kh quy
Cho K l trng con ca trng s phc C (chng hn Q, R, C)
3.1.1 nh ngha. Mt a thc f (x) K[x] c gi l bt kh quy nu
deg f (x) > 0 v f (x) khng phn tch c thnh tch ca hai a thc c
bc b hn. Nu deg f (x) > 0 v f (x) l tch ca hai a thc c bc b
hn th ta ni f (x) l kh quy.
3.1.2 V d. Cho f (x) K[x] v a K. Khi
(i) Nu deg f (x) = 1 th f (x) lun bt kh quy.
(ii) f (x) l bt kh quy nu v ch nu f (x + a) l bt kh quy.
(iii) Nu deg f (x) > 1 v f (x) c nghim trong K th f (x) kh quy.
(iv) Nu deg f (x) l 2 hoc 3 th f (x) l bt kh quy nu v ch nu n
khng c nghim trong K.
Tip theo, chng ta nh ngha khi nim a thc bt kh quy ca mt
phn t i s. Trc ht, ta cn kt qu sau.
3.1.3 nh ngha. Cho a C. Ta ni a l phn t i s trn K nu tn
ti mt a thc 0 6= f (x) K[x] nhn a lm nghim. Nu a khng i s
trn K th ta ni a l siu vit trn K.
31

32

3.1.4 nh l. Cho a C l phn t i s trn K. Khi tn ti duy

nht mt a thc p(x) K[x] bt kh quy dng chun nhn a lm nghim,
v mi a thc g(x) K[x] nhn a lm nghim u l bi ca p(x).
Chng minh. V a l nghim ca mt a thc khc 0 vi h s trong K
nn chn c a thc khc 0 vi h s trong K c bc b nht nhn a
lm nghim. Gi p(x) K[x] l dng chun ca a thc ny. Khi
a l nghim ca p(x). Ta chng minh p(x) bt kh quy. Gi s p(x)
khng bt kh quy. Khi p(x) phn tch c thnh tch ca hai a
thc trong K[x] vi bc b hn, v do mt trong hai a thc ny phi
nhn a lm nghim, iu ny l mu thun vi cch chn p(x). Gi s
g(x) K[x] nhn a lm nghim. Nu p(x) khng l c ca g(x) th v
p(x) bt kh quy nn gcd(g(x), p(x)) = 1, do 1 = p(x)q(x) + g(x)h(x)
vi q(x), h(x) K[x]. Thay x = a vo c hai v ta c 1 = 0, iu ny l
v l. Vy g(x) chia ht cho p(x). Gi s q(x) K[x] cng l a thc bt
kh quy dng chun nhn a lm nghim. Theo chng minh trn, q(x) l bi
ca p(x). Vit q(x) = p(x)k(x). V q(x) bt kh quy nn k(x) = b K.
Do q(x) = bp(x). ng nht h s cao nht ca hai v vi ch rng
q(x) v p(x) u c dng chun, ta suy ra b = 1. V th p(x) = q(x).
3.1.5 nh ngha. a thc p(x) K[x] bt kh quy dng chun xc nh
nh trong mnh trn c gi l a thc bt kh quy ca a.
3.1.6 V d. a thc x3 7 Q[x] l a thc bt kh quy ca

3
7 R;

a thc x2 + 1 R[x] l a thc bt kh quy ca i C.

Tip theo, nh l c bn ca S hc ni rng mi s t nhin ln hn
1 u phn tch c thnh tch cc tha s nguyn t v s phn tch ny
l duy nht nu khng k n th t cc tha s. Kt qu sau y l mt
s tng t ca nh l ny i vi a thc.

33

3.1.7 nh l. Mi a thc dng chun bc dng c th phn tch c

thnh tch cc a thc bt kh quy dng chun v s phn tch ny l duy
nht nu khng k n th t cc phn t.
Chng minh. Trc ht, chng ta chng minh s tn ti phn tch bng quy
np theo bc ca a thc. Gi s f (x) K[x] l a thc dng chun bc
d > 0. Nu d = 1 th f (x) l bt kh quy nn s phn tch bt kh quy
ca f (x) l f (x) = f (x), kt qu ng cho trng hp d = 1. Cho d > 1
v gi s kt qu ng cho cc a thc c bc nh hn d. Nu f (x) bt
kh quy th f (x) c s phn tch bt kh quy l f (x) = f (x). V th ta
gi thit f (x) khng bt kh quy. Khi f (x) = g(x)h(x) vi g(x), h(x)
u c bc b hn bc ca f (x). t g (x) = g(x)/ak vi ak l h s cao
nht ca g(x). Khi ta c f (x) = g (x)(ak h(x)). ng nht h s cao
nht hai v ta c 1 = ak bt , trong bt l h s cao nht ca h(x). t
h(x) = ak h(x). Khi f (x) = g (x)h(x) vi g (x), h(x) l cc a thc
dng chun c bc nh hn d. Theo gi thit quy np, g (x) v h(x) phn
tch c thnh tch cc a thc bt kh quy dng chun. V th f (x) phn
tch c thnh tch ca hu hn a thc bt kh quy dng chun.
By gi ta chng minh tnh duy nht ca phn tch. Gi s f (x) c hai s
phn tch thnh nhn t bt kh quy dng chun f (x) = p1 (x)p2 (x)...pn (x) =
q1(x)q2 (x)...qm (x). Ta chng minh bng quy np theo n rng n = m v sau
mt php hon v ta c pi (x) = qi (x) vi mi i = 1, ..., n. Cho n = 1. Khi
ta c p1 (x) = q1 (x)q2 (x)...qm (x). Suy ra
p1 (x)|q1(x)q2(x)...qm (x).
Do p1 (x) l bt kh quy nn p1 (x) l c ca mt nhn t qi (x) no
. Khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi thit p1 (x)|q1(x). Biu din
q1(x) = p1 (x)t1 (x). V q1 (x) bt kh quy nn t1 (x) = a K. ng
nht h s cao nht ca hai v ca ng thc q1 (x) = ap1 (x) vi ch

34

rng p1 (x) v q1(x) l dng chun, ta c 1 = 1.a. Suy ra a = 1 v do

p1 (x) = q1 (x). Nu m > 1 th 1 = q2 (x)...qm (x), iu ny l v l. Vy kt
qu ng cho n = 1.
Cho n > 1. V p1 (x)|q1(x)q2(x)...qm (x) v p1 (x) l bt kh quy nn
khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi thit p1 (x)|q1 (x). Li do q1(x) l
bt kh quy v p1 (x), q1 (x) u c dng chun nn tng t nh lp lun
trn ta c p1 (x) = q1(x). Gin c c hai v cho p1 (x) ta c
p2 (x)p3 (x)...pn (x) = q2(x)q3 (x)...qm (x).
Theo gi thit quy np ta c n 1 = m 1 v bng vic nh s li cc
nhn t qi (x) ta suy ra pi (x) = qi (x) vi mi i = 2, ..., n.

3.2 Tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn

a thc chia ng trn n (x) lun l a thc bt kh quy vi mi s
nguyn dng n. y l mt kt qu c s ca l thuyt s. Chng minh
tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn c mt lch s kh di.
Vi n nguyn t, tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn n (x)
ln u tin c chng minh bi C. F. Gauss [Gau] nm 1801. Hn 40
nm sau, nm 1845, L. Kronecker [K] a ra mt chng minh n gin
hn. Ngay sau , T. Schonemann [Sch] nm 1846 v F. Eidenstein [E] nm
1850 a ra hai chng minh n gin hn na. Cho n by gi, chng
minh ca Eidenstein [E] vn l chng minh chun mc nht. Vi n ty
(khng nht thit nguyn t), tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn
n (x) ln u tin c chng minh bi L. Kronecker [K2] vo nm 1854.
Cc chng minh n gin hn c a ra bi R. Dedekind [D] nm 1857,
E. Landau nm 1929 v I. Schur nm 1929. Cho n nay, chng minh ca
Dedekind [D] vn l chng minh chun mc nht.

35

Mc ch ca tit ny l a ra mt s chng minh c in cho tnh bt

kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn n (x) khi n nguyn t. Do gii hn
v khun kh mt lun vn thc s nn tc gi lun vn xin php khng
trnh by chng minh tnh bt kh quy cho a thc chia ng trn n (x)
khi n bt k.
Nhc li rng mt a thc f (x1 , . . . , xk ) c gi l a thc i xng
nu f (x1 , . . . , xk ) = f (x(1) , . . . , x(k) ) vi mi hon v ca tp hp k
phn t {1, 2, . . . , k}. Chng hn, x2 + 3xy + y 2 l a thc i xng, 2x3 +
2y 3 + 2z 3 + xyz + xy + xz + yz l a thc i xng. Vi n bin x1 , . . . , xn ,
cc a thc sau l i xng v ta gi l cc a thc i xng c bn
1 =

n
X

xi = x1 + . . . + xn

i=1

2 =

xi xj = x1 x2 + . . . + x1 xn + x2 x3 + . . . + xn1 xn

16i<j6n

......
n = x1 . . . xn .
B sau y, cn gi l \nh l c bn ca a thc i xng" l mt kt
qu quan trng v a thc i xng.
3.2.1 B . K hiu A = Z hoc A = Q. Cho f (x1 , . . . , xn ) l a thc
i xng vi h s trong A. Khi tn ti a thc g(x1 , . . . , xn ) vi cc
h s trong A sao cho f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g(1, . . . , n ).
3.2.2 nh l. Cho p l s nguyn t. Khi a thc chia ng trn
p (x) l bt kh quy.
Chng minh. (Chng minh ca Gauss nm 1801) Vi p = 2 ta c 2 (x) =
x + 1 l a thc bt kh quy. Gi s p l s nguyn t l. Trc tin, t
f (x) l mt a thc dng chun bt k vi h s hu t c cc nghim

36

r1 , . . . , rm , ta c f (x) = (x r1 ) . . . (x rm ). Gi g(x) l a thc dng

chun m cc nghim l cc lu tha bc k ca cc nghim ca f (x). Khi
k
g(x) = (x r1k ) . . . (x rm
). V th cc h s ca g(x) l cc a thc
k
i xng ca r1k , . . . , rm
v do cc h s ca g(x) cng l cc a thc

i xng ca r1 , . . . , rm . Theo cng thc Viet, mi a thc i xng c

bn ca r1 , . . . , rm u c biu din theo cc h s ca f (x) thng qua
cc php ton cng, tr, nhn, chia (cho phn t khc 0). V th, theo B
3.2.1, cc h s ca g(x) c biu din theo cc h s ca f (x) thng
qua cc php ton cng, tr, nhn, chia. V tng, hiu, tch, thng ca hai
s hu t li l s hu t nn cc h s ca g(x) u l s hu t.
Tip theo, gi (x1 , x2 , ...) l mt a thc vi h s nguyn v  l mt
cn nguyn thu bc p ca n v. Thay xi = ki vi i = 1, . . . , ta c
(k1 , k2 , ...) = A0 + A1  + ... + Ap1 p1
vi A0 , ..., Ap1 l cc s nguyn no . V th vi mi t ta c
(tk1 , tk2 , ...) = A0 + A1t + ... + Ap1 (p1)t .
c bit, ta c (1, 1, ...) = (pk1 , pk2 , ...) = A0 + A1 + ... + Ap1 v
(k1 , k2 , ...) + (2k1 , 2k2 , ...) + ... + (pk1 , pk2 , ...) = pA0 , v do tng
ny chia ht cho p.
By gi ta chng minh p (x) bt kh quy. Gi s p (x) khng bt
kh quy. Khi p (x) = f (x)g(x) vi f (x) v g(x) l cc a thc
dng chun bc dng v c h s hu t. t deg f (x) = d. V f (x)
v g(x) c h s cao nht bng 1 v tch p (x) = f (x)g(x) l a thc
vi h s nguyn nn theo B 2.3.4 ta suy ra f (x), g(x) Z[x]. Vit
f (x) = xd + ad1xd1 + ... + a1 x + a0 . K hiu l tp cc cn nguyn thu
bc p ca n v, F l tp cc nghim ca f (x) v G l tp cc nghim
ca g(x). Khi F G = v F G = . K hiu F 0 l tp cc nghch

37

o ca cc phn t ca F v G0 l tp cc nghch o cc phn t ca G.

Khi , tng t ta c F 0 G0 = v F 0 G0 = . K hiu f (x) l a
thc dng chun m cc nghim ca n l cc phn t ca F 0 . Khi

 
 

1
a1
ad1

d
d1
x
x+
.
f (x) = x +
+ ... +
a0
a0
a0
Ta xt 4 trng hp sau:
(i) Trng hp 1: F 0 = F . Khi f (x) = f (x). Trong trng hp ny,
cc nghim ca f (x) xut hin thnh tng cp vi nhau, do f (x) l tch
ca d/2 nhn t, mi nhn t c dng (x )(x 1) = x2 (+1)x +1,
ch rng x2 ( + 1 )x + 1 l s dng vi mi s thc x. K hiu Fk l
tp cc lu tha bc k ca cc phn t ca F v fk (x) l a thc dng chun
m cc nghim ca n l cc phn t ca Fk vi mi k = 1, . . . , p 1.
Khi fk (x) cng c tnh cht ging nh tnh cht ca f (x), ngha l
n l tch ca nhng a thc ca bin x m mi a thc u nhn gi tr
dng vi mi s thc x. t qk = fk (1) vi k = 1, ..., p 1. Khi
q1, ..., qp1 l cc s hu t dng. Theo lp lun trn, mi a thc fk (x)
u c cc h s nguyn, v th q1 , ..., qp1 l cc s nguyn dng. Nu
(x1 , ..., xd ) = (1 x1 )...(1 xd ) th qk = (k1 , ..., kd ) vi k = 1, ..., p 1.
Ch rng F = {1, ..., d } v (p1, ..., pd ) = (1, ..., 1) = 0, do t ng
thc th hai trn ta thy rng q1 + ... + qp1 chia ht cho p. Nhn xt
rng f1 (x)...fp1 (x) = p (x)d v mi cn nguyn thu bc p ca n v l
nghim bi d ca a thc v bn tri ca ng thc ny. Do khi thay
x = 1 ta c c q1 , ..., qp1 = pd . V p l s nguyn t v d < p 1 nn
trong cc s nguyn q1 , ..., qp1 , lun tn ti g s (vi g > 0) bng 1 v cc
s cn li u l lu tha ca p, tc l q1 + ... + qp1 g(modp). Ch
rng 1 < 0 < g < p nn q1 + ... + qp1 chc chn khng chia ht cho p,
iu ny l mu thun vi khng nh q1 + ... + qp1 chia ht cho p trn.
(ii) Trng hp 2: F 6= F 0 v T = F F 0 6= . Gi t(x) l a thc dng

38

chun m nghim ca n l cc phn t ca T . Khi t(x) l c chung

ln nht ca f (x) v f (x). Do , vi lp lun ca trng hp 1 ta suy ra
t(x) c t nht mt h s khng l s hu t. V f (x) v f (x) l cc a
thc c cc h s hu t nn theo thut ton tm c chung ln nht, t(x)
phi c h s hu t. iu ny l mu thun.
(iii) Trng hp 3: G G0 6= . Lp lun tng t nh trong trng hp
1 hoc trng hp 2 i vi g(x) ta cng tm ra mu thun tng t.
(iv) Trng hp 4: g = F 0 v F = G0 . Khi ta c
p (x) = f (x)f 0 (x)
= (xd + ad1 xd1 + ... + a1x + a0)(xd +

a1 d1
ad1
1
x
+ ... +
x + ).
a0
a0
a0

Thay x = 1 vo ta c c a0 p = (1 + ad1 + ... + a0 )2. Ch rng f (x)

c cc h s nguyn. V vy a0 = 1, iu ny l v l.
Chng minh. (Chng minh ca Kronecker nm 1845). Trc tin chng ta
chng minh B sau: Cho f (x) l mt a thc bt k vi h s nguyn
v  l cn nguyn thu bc p ca n v. Khi f ()...f(p1 ) v f (1) l
hai s nguyn v
f ()...f(p1 ) f (1)p1 (modp).
chng minh tch f ()...f(p1 ) l mt s nguyn, ta quan st thy rng
f ()...f(p1) l mt a thc i xng ca {, ..., p1 }. K hiu r(x) l
a thc dng chun c cc nghim {, ..., p1 }. Khi , theo B 3.2.1,
f ()...f(p1) l mt a thc h s nguyn theo cc h s ca a thc r(x).
Ch rng r(x) chnh l a thc chia ng trn
r(x) = p (x) = xp1 + ... + 1.
By gi ta chng minh ng d thc trn. t g(x) = f (x)...f(xp1 ) =
P
Pp1 i
n
A
x
v
xt
tng
i=0 g( ). Biu thc th nht ca g(x) cho gi tr
n n

39

l tng f (1)p1 + (p 1)f () . . . f (p1 ), trong khi biu thc th hai
P
ca g(x) cho gi tr n An p vi tng chy trn cc bi n ca p. Do
f (1)p1 + (p 1)f () . . . f (p1 ) 0(modp), B c trc tip suy ra.
By gi gi s rng p (x) khng bt kh quy. Khi p (x) = f (x)g(x)
l tch ca hai a thc c bc dng. Ch rng c hai a thc f (x) v
g(x) u c h s nguyn. V th p = p (1) = f (1)g(1) v do mt
trong hai tha s f (1) hoc g(1) phi bng 1. Gi s rng f (1) = 1.
V k l mt nghim ca p (x) vi mi k nn f (k ) = 0 vi k 0( modp).
Mt khc ta li c f (1)p1 1(modp), iu ny mu thun.
Chng minh. (Chng minh ca Schonemann nm 1846) Chng ta c th
kim tra c tiu chun bt kh quy sau y: Cho f (x) Z[x] l a
thc bc k. Nu tn ti s nguyn t p v s nguyn a sao cho f (x) =
(x a)k + pg(x) vi g(x) Z[x] tha mn g(a) khng chia ht cho p,
p!
th f (x) l a thc bt kh quy trn Q. K hiu Cpi =
l s t
(p i)!i!
hp chp i ca p phn t. V p l s nguyn t nn Cpi l bi ca p vi
mi i = 1, . . . , p 1. V th ta c xp 1 (x 1)p (modp). Suy ra
xp 1
(x 1)p1 (modp). V vy th p (x) = xp1 + . . . + 1.
p (x) =
x1
Do p (1) = p v v th p (x) tho mn gi thit ca tiu chun bt kh
quy trn.
Chng minh. (Chng minh ca Eisenstein nm 1850). Chng ta c th kim
tra c tiu chun bt kh quy sau y, gi l tiu chun Eisenstein. Cho
f (x) = ck xk + . . . + c0 Z[x] l mt a thc v p l s nguyn t sao cho
h s cao nht ck khng chia ht cho p, cc h s khc ck1 , . . . , c0 u
chia ht cho p v h s t do c0 khng chia ht cho p2 . Khi f (x) l a
thc bt kh quy trn Q. By gi ta p dng tiu chun ny chng minh
tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia ng trn p (x). R rng a thc ny

40

l bt kh quy khi v ch khi p (x + 1) l bt kh quy. Ta c

(x + 1)p 1
= xp1 + ap2 xp2 + ... + a1 x + p.
p (x + 1) =
x
R rng cc h s ca p (x+1) tha mn gi thit ca tiu chun Eidenstein
i vi s nguyn t p ny. V th p (x) bt kh quy trn Q.
3.2.3 Ch . Tiu chun bt kh quy ca Schonemann v cch chng minh
ca Schonemann v tnh bt kh quy ca a thc p (x) by gi t c nh
n, cn tiu chun bt kh quy ca Eisenstein v cch chng minh ca
Eisenstein v tnh bt kh quy ca a thc p (x) rt ni ting, tr thnh
chng minh chun mc cho n tn ngy nay. Nhng trong thc t th tiu
chun v cch chng minh ca c hai ng l tng ng nhau. Khng
nh ny c D. A. Cox a ra trong mt hi ngh nm 2011 v Ton hc
v Lch s Ton.

41

Kt lun
Trong lun vn ny, chng ti trnh by cc ni dung sau y v a
thc chia ng trn:
- Trnh by khi nim a thc chia ng trn n (x) v mt s tnh
cht c s ca a thc chia ng trn. Chng ti chng minh cng thc
Y
d (x) v t suy ra n (x) Z[x], ng thi ch ra rng nu
xn 1 =
d|n

x Z v p l mt c nguyn t ca n (x) th p 1 (mod n) hoc p|n.

- Trnh by mt s ng dng ca a thc chia ng trn. Chng ti s
dng cc tnh cht ca a thc chia dng trn chng minh mt nh
l ca Dirichlet v gii quyt mt s bi ton thi hc sinh gii ton quc
t lin quan n phng trnh nghim nguyn v nh gi s c ca mt
s t nhin.
- a ra mt s phng php xt tnh bt kh quy ca a thc chia
ng trn p (x) vi p l s nguyn t nh phng php ca Gauss 1801,
phng php ca Kronecker nm 1845, phng php ca Schonemann nm
1846, v phng php ca Eisenstein nm 1850.

Ti liu tham kho

[D] R. Dedekind, Beweis fur die Irreduktibilitat der Kreisteilungsgleichung, J. reine angew. Math., 54 (1857), 27-30
[E] F. G. Eisenstein, Uber die Irreductibilitat und einige andere Eigenschaften der Gleichung, von welcher die Theilung der ganzen Lemniscate abhangt, J. reine angew. Math., 39 (1850), 160-179.
[Gau] C. F. Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, Leipzig 1801 (Bn dch
sang ting c bi H. Maser, xut bn bi AMS 2006).
[Ge] Y. Ge, Elementary Properties of Cyclotomic Polynomials, Preprint
(PDF from drchristiansalas.org.uk, from it-hiroshima.ac.jp)
[K] L. Kronecker, Beweis dass fur jede Primzahl p die Gleichung 1 + x +
. . . + xp1 = 0 irreductibel ist, J. reine angew. Math., 29 (1845), 280.
[K2] L. Kronecker, Memoire sur les facteures irreductibles de L'expression
xn 1, J. Math. Pure et Appls, 19 (1854), 177-192.
[Sc] A. Schinzel, Polynomials with special regards to reducibility, Cambridge University Press (2000).
[Sch] T. Schoenemann, Von denjenigen Moduln welche potenzen von
primzahlen sind, J. reine angew. Math., 32 (1846), 93-105.
[W1] S. H. Weintraub, Galois Theory, Springer Verlag, New York (2009),
second edition.
[W2] S. H. Weintraub, Several proofs of the irreducibility of the cyclotomic
polynomial, Preprint (PDF from lehigh.edu.)

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