UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES

COAL GEOLOGY COURSE

WORKSHOP 1 QUESTIONS 1. What is the difference between macerals and lithotypes? The macerals are the inherant constituents of any coal; these are the organic equivalent of minerals. Based on the Microscopic description of coal, the macerals are the organic units that comprise the coal mass can be identified in all ranks of coal. Essentially macerals are divided into three groups: 1. huminite/vitrinite - woody materials; 2. exinite (liptinite) - spores, resins and cuticles; 3. inertinite - oxidized plant material. The original classification of maceral groups is referred to as the Stopes-Heerlen System given in Table 4.6 The coals may be made up largely of a single maceral or, more usually, associations of macerals. These associations when studied microscopically are called microlithotypes.

The lithotypes are the different macroscopically identifiable layers in coal seams. Stopes (1919) proposed four lithological types (lithotypes) for describing humic coals:

Ing. M.Sc. MARCO ANTONIO ARDILA BARRAGAN

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES I. Vitrain is black, glassy, vitreous material with a bright lustre, occurring as thin bands and is brittle. Vitrain breaks into fine angular fragments and is commonly concentrated in the fine fraction of mined coal. Vitrain is found in most humic coals and usually consists of the microlithotypc vitrite with come vitrinite-nch clarite. Clarain is bright with a silky lustre between vitrain and durain, and occurs in fine laminations. Clarain comprises alternating thin layers often 1 mm. It can include the microlithotypcs vitrite, clarite, durite, fusite and trimacerite. Durain is grey to black with a dull lustre and fractures into rough surfaced fragments. Only lenses thicker than 3-10 mm are referred to as durain. Durain is less common than vitrain and clarain in humic coals, but can occur as extensive layers within a coal seam. Durain is composed of the microlithotypcs durite and trimacerite. Fusain is black, soft, friable and easily disintegrates into a black fibrous powder. Kusain occurs in coals as lenses, usually several millimetres thick, often concentraing in discrete layers in the coal. In most coals, fusain is a minor lithotypc composed of the microlithotypc fusite.

II.

III.

IV.

2. On the microscope, how do you differentiate the macerals inertite, liptinite and vitrinite? Based on microscopic description of coal, is very important to know that vitrine was formed by woody materials; the liptinite was formed by spores, resins and cuticles, and the inertite was formed by oxidized plant material. The origin difference identifies each of these macerals with specific characteristics and properties which are evident on the microscope. Before see a sample on the microscope is very important to note that coal may be made up largely of a single maceral or, more usually, associations of macerals. These associations when studied microscopically are called microlithotypes. In order to distinguish between the different microlithotypes, the International Committee of Coal and Organic Petrology (ICCP), has agreed that a lithotype can only be recorded if it forms a band less than 50 micrometers and a lithotypes are not composed purely of macerals from one or two maceral groups, it must contain 5% of accessory macerals. All microlithotypes may contain amounts of mineral matter, but if this reaches 20% then the microlithotype is referred to as a carbominerite (Taylor et al., 1998). Vitrite comprises 95% of the vitrinite macerals telinite and collinite in bands at least 50 micrometers thick. Vitrinite occurs in coal seams as elongated lenses several millimeters thick. Liptinite layers form thin lenses or bands a few millimeters thick, and have been deposited in water. Concentrations of up to 95% liptinite groups maceral are rare. Inertite microlithotypes contain 95% greater than inertinite macerals, which include inertodetrite, semifusite and fusite. In most coals fusite comprises no more than 5 10% as thin bands and lenses.

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES According to coal petrography, the carboniferous coals have a typically bright lustrous appearance and consist of predominantly vitrite and clarite. According with previous statements, the differences between macerals inertite, liptinite and vitrinite on the microscope, can be set through: The reflectance of the vitrinite is greater than inertite and liptinite, due to their origin components. During coalification three macerals groups become enriched in carbon. The petrographic properties of vitrinite change uniformly with increasing rank. In reflected light the reflectance progressively increases, whereas in transmitted light organic material become opaque and plant structure becomes difficult to recognize. The optical properties of vitrinite have enabled it to be used as an indicator of rank. The geometric form tends to be lenses and bands with very thin thickness, but the thickness is different between macerals.

3. What is the difference between mineral matter and ash? The mineral matter is the inorganic fraction made up of a variety of primary and secondary minerals. The ash is the mineral residue remaining after combustion of the coal. The composition and ratio of the two fractions reflects the make-up of the original material, and indicates the coal type. 4. Are coal characteristics determined, by original components or by diagenesis? In accordance with the physical description coal, the composition and character of each coal will be determined by: The nature of the make-up of the origin organic and inorganic accumulations. By the degree of diagenesis it has undergone. The degree of diagenesis or coalification that a coal has undergone by burial and tectonic effects determines the coal rank. The term brown coal is used for low rank coals such as lignite and bituminous coal, and black or hard coal is used for coals of higher rank, the bituminous, semi-anthracite and anthracite coals. The majority of coals are composed of discrete layers of organic material. Such layers may possess different physical and chemical properties it is the relative proportions and petrological characteristics of this layers that determines the character of the coal as a whole, and its usefulness as a mined product. Coals are divisible in two main groups, the humic coals and the sapropelic coals. Humic coals are composed of a diversified mixture of macroscopic plant debris and the typically Ing. M.Sc. MARCO ANTONIO ARDILA BARRAGAN Pgina 3

UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES have a banded appearance. Sapropelic coals are composed of a restricted veriety of microscopic plant debris and have a homogeneous appearance. 5. How do you know that a sample of coal is a coking coal? Coals that are to be used for conventional coke production must have three essential properties: They must be within a specific range in rank for the coking process to occur, that is bituminous coal. They must possess a high proportion of fusible macerals(Vitrinite greater than 40%) to form a strong well fused coke. They must have low levels of certain elements, notably sulfur, phosphorus, and be generally low in mineral matter. Is very important to note that the macerals properties contribute with control variables in making Coke process: In coke production, vitrinite is the maceral group that contributed most to the formation of coke. However, a stronger coke is obtained if the vitrinite is reinforced by inertinite. The liptinite group is characterized by high H/C ratio and therefore produce large amount of gas on heating, all of which contributes to the fluidity and swelling properties of the coal. However, abundant liptinite are relatively resistant to thermal breakdown and remain after vitrinite has become plastic. In the inertinite maceral group, fusinite and semifusinite do not fuse during carbonization due to their insufficient hydrogen content. These macerals are characterized by higher O/C ratios. The inertinite maceral group is thought to have little influence during coke making, although numerous studies on the coking properties of coal suggest that some inertinite is completely fused during the cokemaking process. 6. With a coal rank that is increasing, what happen with water content, volatile matter, methane content and CO2? During coalification processes coal, the most intense biochemical changes occur at very shallow depths in the peat swamps. Equally during the geochemical or metamorphic stage the progressive changes that occur within coals are: an increase in the carbon content, and a decrease in the hydrogen and oxygen content, resulting in a loss of volatiles this together with continued water loss and compaction results in the reduction of the coal volume.

Ing. M.Sc. MARCO ANTONIO ARDILA BARRAGAN

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES Products of such coalification are methane, carbon dioxide and water, but water is quickly lost and the methane to carbon dioxide ratio increases with rank. A detailed account of coalification and its physical and chemical process is given by Taylor et al (1998), who describe the major stages of coalification from peat to meta-anthracite, wich are summarized in table 4.14. The table outlines not only the denoted rank of coal but also the dominant process and physic chemical changes undergone in each stage in order to produce and increase in rank.

7. Classify the coals samples on the table according to the ASTM classification (as received basis and as dry ash-free basis). Add the material used to classify the samples and describe the procedures.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 HM 7,07 9,28 2,47 1,70 4,56 Cz 1,21 5,30 13,83 16,55 30,60 M.V. 40,14 44,09 41,00 36,91 34,07 C.F. 40,69 41,33 42,00 44,87 30,83 P.C. 6148 5613 6800 6711 5064 F.S.I. 0 0 2 3 0 %R o 0,47 0,63 0,56 0,70 0,52 Clas. ASTM

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES The ASTM classification of the sample coals is based on the formulae for calculation of results to Dry Basis and Dry Mineral Matter Free Basis, from table 4.18 of Coal Geology 2nd Edition, Chapter 4 Coal as a Substance.

The Mineral Matter (MM) was determinate applying the North America: original Parr formula: MM=1.80A+0.55S Where: A is equal to Ash as received, and S is the sulfur on the coal. The calculation results must be equal to calculation base of the initial sample as received, as show the table 2 of ASTM Designation: D 3180 89 (Reapproved 1997). Standard Practice for Calculating Coal and Coke Analyses from As-Determined to Different Bases

Source: ASTM Designation: D 3180 89 (Reapproved 1997). Standard Practice for Calculating Coal and Coke Analyses from As-Determined to Different Bases

The results of the ASTM classification of coals samples are shown on the APPENDIX 1. Ing. M.Sc. MARCO ANTONIO ARDILA BARRAGAN Pgina 6

UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES 8. Classify the same coals on the table according to the British Classification (Thomas, 2002). The British classification is made based on a three-figure numeric code to classify bituminous and anthracite coals, used by the British classification system. The first two digits are based on amount of volatile matter in the coal (on d.m.m.f. basis) an the third digit is based on the Gray-King assay value. The Gray-King assay is a coking test of coals; the values range from A, no coking properties at all, to G where the coal coal has retained its volume and forms a well fussed product. If it swells beyond its volume, it is said to have superior coking properties and is further tested and designated coke type G1-G8. Gray-King coke types approximate to free swelling Indexes as follows, Gray-King coke type A-B is equivalent to the Free Swelling Index value 0 - 0.5, C G2 = 1 4, F G4 = 4.5 6, G3 G6 = 6.5 8, and G7 or above = 8.5 9. The results of the BRITISH classification of coals samples are shown on the APPENDIX 2.

9. Describe a channel sampling process? Before to explain the channel sampling process, is very important to know some concepts of coal sampling (Pryor, 1965). The coal is heterogeneous material, include coal and other materials. The samples are the representative fractions of a body of material that are acquired for testing and analysis in order to assess the nature and compositions of the parent body. The samples are collect by approved methods and protect from contaminations and chemical change. Such samples should be differentiated from those materials collect in ways that may not be truly representative of the coal from which they have been collect. Sampling operations can be performed In situ or Ex situ, depending on the information requirements: In situ coal samples are taken from surfaces exposures, exposed coal seams in opencast and underground workings, and for drill cores and cuttings. Ex situ samples are taken from run of mine coal streams, coal transport containers and coal stockpiles. Channel samples. The channel samples are taken In situ; therefore you must be the follow procedures:

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES If the coal to be sampled is a surface exposure, the outcrop must be cleaned and cut back to expose as fresh as section as possible. Ideally the full seam section should be exposed, but in the case of thick coal (especially in stream sections), it may be possible to see only section of the roof and coal immediately bellow, or the floor and coal immediately above. To obtain a full seam section, two or more overlapping channel will need to be cut, and the overlap carefully recorded. The resultant samples will consist of broken coal and will not preserve the lithological sequence. In opencast workings, the complete seams section should be exposed, and is less likely to be weathered than natural surface exposures. In underground workings, the seam will be non-weathered, but the whole seam section may be not always being seen, due to the workings only exposing the selected mining section of the seam. To carry out a channel sample, the coal is normally sampled perpendicular to the bending. A channel of the uniform cross-section is cut manually into the coal seam, and the coal within the cut section is collected on a plastic sheet placed at the base of the channel, as show on figure 5.1a.

Figure 5.1a. Channel sample procedure. Whole seam channel sampling. Most channels are around 1.0 m. across and samples should not be less than 15 Kg/m of coal thickness. Such channel samples will provide a composite quality analysis for the seam that is an analysis of all the coal and mineral matter present in the seam as whole. Although this is suitable for general seam quality assessment, more details analysis of the seam from top to bottom may be required. To achieve this, a channel play sample is taken, which entails a similar procedure as for the whole seam channel sample except that the seam is divided into plies or subsections, as shown in figure 5.1b.

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES

Figure 5.1b. Channel sample procedure. Coal seam play channel sampling.

Coal seam are rarely homogeneous throughout their thickness, most are divisible into distinct lithological section. When the lithological changes, such as clay part in the seam a separate play is designated. Where roof and floor of a seam are exposed, ply samples of a least 0.25 m. of roof material immediately above the seam and 0.25 m. of floor underlying the seam should be include in the samples. This will allow the effects of dilution on coal quality to be assessed. In general the thickness of coal plies should be a minimum of 0.1 m. and a maximum of 1.0 m. In the case of banded coals containing alternating thin (<0.1 m.) layers of bright coal/dull coal/clay, the seams may be sampled as a series of composite plies with the details of the individual layers shown on the record sheet.

Once the outcrop or face is cleaned, a shadow box-cut is made for the total thickness of the exposed coal seam. Once this is completed, the seam is divided into plies, each of which is measured and recorded on a record sheet. The fresh surface is them sampled as a channel cut from top to bottom, cutting and recollecting all material from each play section in turn. Each play sample should be sealed in a strong plastic bag immediately after collection to prevent moisture loss and oxidation.

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES 10. What the problem(s) for describing coals on outcrops and describing coal on cores? Core Samples Core sampling is an integral part of coal exploration and mine development. It has the advantage of producing non-weathered coal including the coal seam floor an roof, and unlike channel samples, core samples preserve the lithological sequence with the coal seam. First, the borehole core has to be cleaned if drilling fluids have been used, and then lithological logged. Following this, the lithological log should be compared with the geophysical log of the borehole to select ply intervals and to check for core losses and any other length discrepancies. Core ply samples are taken in the same way as for surface channel ply samples

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES APPENDIX 1. ASTM classification of coals samples.

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES APPENDIX 2. BRITIHS classification of coals samples.

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UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA Y TECNOLOGICA DE COLOMBIA DOCTORADO EN INGENIERIA Y CIENCIA DE LOS MATERIALES

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