Chapter 1

Units and Vectors: Tools for Physics

1.1 The Important Stu
1.1.1 The SI System
Physics is based on measurement. Measurements are made by comparisons to welldened
standards which dene the units for our measurements.
The SI system (popularly known as the metric system) is the one used in physics. Its
unit of length is the meter, its unit of time is the second and its unit of mass is the kilogram.
Other quantities in physics are derived from these. For example the unit of energy is the
joule, dened by 1 J = 1
kgm
2
s
2
.
As a convenience in using the SI system we can associate prexes with the basic units to
represent powers of 10. The most commonly used prexes are given here:
Factor Prex Symbol
10
12
pico- p
10
9
nano- n
10
6
micro-
10
3
milli- m
10
2
centi- c
10
3
kilo- k
10
6
mega- M
10
9
giga- G
Other basic units commonly used in physics are:
Time : 1 minute = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min etc.
Mass : 1 atomic mass unit = 1 u = 1.6605 10
27
kg
1
2 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
1.1.2 Changing Units
In all of our mathematical operations we must always write down the units and we always
treat the unit symbols as multiplicative factors. For example, if me multiply 3.0 kg by 2.0
m
s
we get
(3.0 kg) (2.0
m
s
) = 6.0
kgm
s
We use the same idea in changing the units in which some physical quantity is expressed.
We can multiply the original quantity by a conversion factor, i.e. a ratio of values for
which the numerator is the same thing as the denominator. The conversion factor is then
equal to 1, and so we do not change the original quantity when we multiply by the conversion
factor.
Examples of conversion factors are:
_
1 min
60 s
_ _
100 cm
1 m
_
_
1 yr
365.25 day
_
_
1 m
3.28 ft
_
1.1.3 Density
A quantity which will be encountered in your study of liquids and solids is the density of a
sample. It is usually denoted by and is dened as the ratio of mass to volume:
=
m
V
(1.1)
The SI units of density are
kg
m
3
but you often see it expressed in
g
cm
3
.
1.1.4 Dimensional Analysis
Every equation that we use in physics must have the same type of units on both sides of the
equals sign. Our basic unit types (dimensions) are length (L), time (T) and mass (M).
When we do dimensional analysis we focus on the units of a physics equation without
worrying about the numerical values.
1.1.5 Vectors; Vector Addition
Many of the quantities we encounter in physics have both magnitude (how much) and
direction. These are vector quantities.
We can represent vectors graphically as arrows and then the sum of two vectors is found
(graphically) by joining the head of one to the tail of the other and then connecting head to
tail for the combination, as shown in Fig. 1.1 . The sum of two (or more) vectors is often
called the resultant.
We can add vectors in any order we want: A+B = B+A. We say that vector addition
is commutative.
We express vectors in component form using the unit vectors i, j and k, which each
have magnitude 1 and point along the x, y and z axes of the coordinate system, respectively.
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 3
A
B
A
B
A+B
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.1: Vector addition. (a) shows the vectors A and B to be summed. (b) shows how to perform the
sum graphically.
B
C
A
A
x
B
y
A
y
B
x
C
y
C
x
x
y
Figure 1.2: Addition of vectors by components (in two dimensions).
Any vector can be expressed as a sum of multiples of these basic vectors; for example,
for the vector A we would write:
A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k .
Here we would say that A
x
is the x component of the vector A; likewise for y and z.
In Fig. 1.2 we illustrate how we get the components for a vector which is the sum of two
other vectors. If
A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k and B = B
x
i + B
y
j + B
z
k
then
A+B = (A
x
+ B
x
)i + (A
y
+ B
y
)j + (A
z
+ B
z
)k (1.2)
Once we have found the (Cartesian) component of two vectors, addition is simple; just add
the corresponding components of the two vectors to get the components of the resultant
vector.
When we multiply a vector by a scalar, the scalar multiplies each component; If A is a
vector and n is a scalar, then
cA = cA
x
i + cA
y
j + cA
z
k (1.3)
4 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
In terms of its components, the magnitude (length) of a vector A (which we write as
A) is given by:
A =
_
A
2
x
+ A
2
y
+ A
2
z
(1.4)
Many of our physics problems will be in two dimensions (x and y) and then we can also
represent it in polar form. If A is a twodimensional vector and as the angle that A
makes with the +x axis measured counter-clockwise then we can express this vector in terms
of components A
x
and A
y
or in terms of its magnitude A and the angle . These descriptions
are related by:
A
x
= Acos A
y
= Asin (1.5)
A =
_
A
2
x
+ A
2
y
tan =
A
y
A
x
(1.6)
When we use Eq. 1.6 to nd from A
x
and A
y
we need to be careful because the inverse
tangent operation (as done on a calculator) might give an angle in the wrong quadrant; one
must think about the signs of A
x
and A
y
.
1.1.6 Multiplying Vectors
There are two ways to multiply two vectors together.
The scalar product (or dot product) of the vectors a and b is given by
a b = ab cos (1.7)
where a is the magnitude of a, b is the magnitude of b and is the angle between a and b.
The scalar product is commutative: a b = b a. One can show that a b is related to
the components of a and b by:
a b = a
x
b
x
+ a
y
b
y
+ a
z
b
z
(1.8)
If two vectors are perpendicular then their scalar product is zero.
The vector product (or cross product) of vectors a and b is a vector c whose mag-
nitude is given by
c = ab sin (1.9)
where is the smallest angle between a and b. The direction of c is perpendicular to the
plane containing a and b with its orientation given by the righthand rule. One way
of using the righthand rule is to let the ngers of the right hand bend (in their natural
direction!) from a to b; the direction of the thumb is the direction of c = a b. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1.3.
The vector product is anticommutative: a b = b a.
Relations among the unit vectors for vector products are:
i j = k j k = i k i = j (1.10)
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5
A
B
C
A
B
C
(a)
(b)
f
Figure 1.3: (a) Finding the direction of A B. Fingers of the right hand sweep from A to B in the
shortest and least painful way. The extended thumb points in the direction of C. (b) Vectors A, B and C.
The magnitude of C is C = AB sin.
The vector product of a and b can be computed from the components of these vectors
by:
a b = (a
y
b
z
a
z
b
y
)i + (a
z
b
x
a
x
b
z
)j + (a
x
b
y
a
y
b
x
)k (1.11)
which can be abbreviated by the notation of the determinant:
a b =

i j k
a
x
a
y
a
z
b
x
b
y
b
z

(1.12)
1.2 Worked Examples
1.2.1 Changing Units
1. The Empire State Building is 1472 ft high. Express this height in both meters
and centimeters. [FGT 1-4]
To do the rst unit conversion (feet to meters), we can use the relation (see the Conversion
Factors in the back of this book):
1 m = 3.281 ft
We set up the conversion factor so that ft cancels and leaves meters:
1472 ft = (1472 ft)
_
1 m
3.281 ft
_
= 448.6 m .
So the height can be expressed as 448.6 m. To convert this to centimeters, use:
1 m = 100 cm
6 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
and get:
448.6 m = (448.6 m)
_
100 cm
1 m
_
= 4.486 10
4
cm
The Empire State Building is 4.486 10
4
cm high!
2. A rectangular building lot is 100.0 ft by 150.0 ft. Determine the area of this lot
in m
2
. [Ser4 1-19]
The area of a rectangle is just the product of its length and width so the area of the lot
is
A = (100.0 ft)(150.0 ft) = 1.500 10
4
ft
2
To convert this to units of m
2
we can use the relation
1 m = 3.281 ft
but the conversion factor needs to be applied twice so as to cancel ft
2
and get m
2
. We
write:
1.500 10
4
ft
2
= (1.500 10
4
ft
2
)
_
1 m
3.281 ft
_
2
= 1.393 10
3
m
2
The area of the lot is 1.393 10
3
m
2
.
3. The Earth is approximately a sphere of radius 6.37 10
6
m. (a) What is its
circumference in kilometers? (b) What is its surface area in square kilometers?
(c) What is its volume in cubic kilometers? [HRW5 1-6]
(a) The circumference of the sphere of radius R, i.e. the distance around any great circle
is C = 2R. Using the given value of R we nd:
C = 2R = 2(6.37 10
6
m) = 4.00 10
7
m .
To convert this to kilometers, use the relation 1 km = 10
3
m in a conversion factor:
C = 4.00 10
7
m = (4.00 10
7
m)
_
1 km
10
3
m
_
= 4.00 10
4
km
The circumference of the Earth is 4.00 10
4
km.
(b) The surface area of a sphere of radius R is A = 4R
2
. So we get
A = 4R
2
= 4(6.37 10
6
m)
2
= 5.10 10
14
m
2
Again, use 1 km = 10
3
m but to cancel out the units m
2
and replace them with km
2
it
must be applied twice:
A = 5.10 10
14
m
2
= (5.10 10
14
m
2
)
_
1 km
10
3
m
_
2
= 5.10 10
8
km
2
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7
The surface area of the Earth is 5.10 10
8
km
2
.
(c) The volume of a sphere of radius R is V =
4
3
R
3
. So we get
V =
4
3
R
3
=
4
3
(6.37 10
6
m)
3
= 1.08 10
21
m
3
Again, use 1 km = 10
3
m but to cancel out the units m
3
and replace them with km
3
it
must be applied three times:
V = 1.08 10
21
m
3
= (1.08 10
21
m
3
)
_
1 km
10
3
m
_
3
= 1.08 10
12
km
3
The volume of the Earth is 1.08 10
12
km
3
.
4. Calculate the number of kilometers in 20.0 mi using only the following conver-
sion factors: 1 mi = 5280 ft, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm, 1 m = 100 cm, 1 km = 1000 m.
[HRW5 1-7]
Set up the factors of 1 as follows:
20.0 mi = (20.0 mi)
_
5280 ft
1 mi
_

_
12 in
1 ft
_

_
2.54 cm
1 in
_

_
1 m
100 cm
_

_
1 km
1000 m
_
= 32.2 km
Setting up the factors of 1 in this way, all of the unit symbols cancel except for km
(kilometers) which we keep as the units of the answer.
5. One gallon of paint (volume = 3.78 10
3
m
3
) covers an area of 25.0 m
3
. What
is the thickness of the paint on the wall? [Ser4 1-31]
We will assume that the volume which the paint occupies while its covering the wall is
the same as it has when it is in the can. (There are reasons why this may not be true, but
lets just do this and proceed.)
The paint on the wall covers an area A and has a thickness ; the volume occupied is the
area time the thickness:
V = A .
We have V and A; we just need to solve for :
=
V
A
=
3.78 10
3
m
3
25.0 m
2
= 1.51 10
4
m .
The thickness is 1.51 10
4
m. This quantity can also be expressed as 0.151 mm.
6. A certain brand of house paint claims a coverage of 460
ft
2
gal
. (a) Express this
quantity in square meters per liter. (b) Express this quantity in SI base units. (c)
8 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
What is the inverse of the original quantity, and what is its physical signicance?
[HRW5 1-15]
(a) Use the following relations in forming the conversion factors: 1 m = 3.28 ft and 1000 liter =
264 gal. To get proper cancellation of the units we set it up as:
460
ft
2
gal
= (460
ft
2
gal
)
_
1 m
3.28 ft
_
2

_
264 gal
1000 L
_
= 11.3
m
2
L
(b) Even though the units of the answer to part (a) are based on the metric system, they
are not made from the base units of the SI system, which are m, s, and kg. To make the
complete conversion to SI units we need to use the relation 1 m
3
= 1000 L. Then we get:
11.3
m
2
L
= (11.3
m
2
L
)
_
1000 L
1 m
3
_
= 1.13 10
4
m
1
So the coverage can also be expressed (not so meaningfully, perhaps) as 1.13 10
4
m
1
.
(c) The inverse (reciprocal) of the quantity as it was originally expressed is
_
460
ft
2
gal
_
1
= 2.17 10
3 gal
ft
2
.
Of course when we take the reciprocal the units in the numerator and denominator also
switch places!
Now, the rst expression of the quantity tells us that 460 ft
2
are associated with every
gallon, that is, each gallon will provide 460 ft
2
of coverage. The new expression tells us that
2.1710
3
gal are associated with every ft
2
, that is, to cover one square foot of surface with
paint, one needs 2.17 10
3
gallons of it.
7. Express the speed of light, 3.0 10
8 m
s
in (a) feet per nanosecond and (b)
millimeters per picosecond. [HRW5 1-19]
(a) For this conversion we can use the following facts:
1 m = 3.28 ft and 1 ns = 10
9
s
to get:
3.0 10
8 m
s
= (3.0 10
8 m
s
)
_
3.28 ft
1 m
_

_
10
9
s
1 ns
_
= 0.98
ft
ns
In these new units, the speed of light is 0.98
ft
ns
.
(b) For this conversion we can use:
1 mm = 10
3
m and 1 ps = 10
12
s
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9
and set up the factors as follows:
3.0 10
8 m
s
= (3.0 10
8 m
s
)
_
1 mm
10
3
m
_

_
10
12
s
1 ps
_
= 3.0 10
1 mm
ps
In these new units, the speed of light is 3.0 10
1 mm
ps
.
8. One molecule of water (H
2
O) contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom
of oxygen. A hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.0 u and an atom of oxygen has a
mass of 16 u, approximately. (a) What is the mass in kilograms of one molecule
of water? (b) How many molecules of water are in the worlds oceans, which
have an estimated total mass of 1.4 10
21
kg? [HRW5 1-33]
(a) We are given the masses of the atoms of H and O in atomic mass units; using these
values, one molecule of H
2
O has a mass of
m
H
2
O
= 2(1.0 u) + 16 u = 18 u
Use the relation between u (atomic mass units) and kilograms to convert this to kg:
m
H
2
O
= (18 u)
_
1.6605 10
27
kg
1 u
_
= 3.0 10
26
kg
One water molecule has a mass of 3.0 10
26
kg.
(b) To get the number of molecules in all the oceans, divide the mass of all the oceans
water by the mass of one molecule:
N =
1.4 10
21
kg
3.0 10
26
kg
= 4.7 10
46
.
. . . a large number of molecules!
1.2.2 Density
9. Calculate the density of a solid cube that measures 5.00 cm on each side and
has a mass of 350 g. [Ser4 1-1]
The volume of this cube is
V = (5.00 cm) (5.00 cm) (5.00 cm) = 125 cm
3
So from Eq. 1.1 the density of the cube is
=
m
V
=
350 g
125 cm
3
= 2.80
g
cm
3
10 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
r
2
r
1
Figure 1.4: Crosssection of copper shell in Example 11.
10. The mass of the planet Saturn is 5.64 10
26
kg and its radius is 6.00 10
7
m.
Calculate its density. [Ser4 1-2]
The planet Saturn is roughly a sphere. (But only roughly! Actually its shape is rather
distorted.) Using the formula for the volume of a sphere, we nd the volume of Saturn:
V =
4
3
R
3
=
4
3
(6.00 10
7
m)
3
= 9.05 10
23
m
3
Now using the denition of density we nd:
=
m
V
=
5.64 10
26
kg
9.05 10
23
m
3
= 6.23 10
2 kg
m
3
While this answer is correct, it is useful to express the result in units of
g
cm
3
. Using our
conversion factors in the usual way, we get:
6.23 10
2 kg
m
3
= (6.23 10
2 kg
m
3
)
_
10
3
g
1 kg
_

_
1 m
100 cm
_
3
= 0.623
g
cm
3
The average density of Saturn is 0.623
g
cm
3
. Interestingly, this is less than the density of
water.
11. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow spherical shell
with an inner radius of 5.70 cm and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? The density of
copper is 8.93 g/ cm
3
. [Ser4 1-3]
A crosssection of the copper sphere is shown in Fig. 1.4. The outer and inner radii are
noted as r
2
and r
1
, respectively. We must nd the volume of space occupied by the copper
metal ; this volume is the dierence in the volumes of the two spherical surfaces:
V
copper
= V
2
V
1
=
4
3
r
3
2

4
3
r
3
1
=
4
3
(r
3
2
r
3
1
)
With the given values of the radii, we nd:
V
copper
=
4
3
((5.75 cm)
3
(5.70 cm)
3
) = 20.6 cm
3
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 11
Now use the denition of density to nd the mass of the copper contained in the shell:
=
m
copper
V
copper
= m
copper
= V
copper
=
_
8.93
g
cm
3
_
(20.6 cm
3
) = 184 g
184 grams of copper are required to make the spherical shell of the given dimensions.
12. One cubic meter (1.00 m
3
) of aluminum has a mass of 2.70 10
3
kg, and 1.00 m
3
of iron has a mass of 7.86 10
3
kg. Find the radius of a solid aluminum sphere
that will balance a solid iron sphere of radius 2.00 cm on an equalarm balance.
[Ser4 1-39]
In the statement of the problem, we are given the densities of aluminum and iron:

Al
= 2.70 10
3 kg
m
3
and
Fe
= 7.86 10
3 kg
m
3
.
A solid iron sphere of radius R = 2.00 cm = 2.00 10
2
m has a volume
V
Fe
=
4
3
R
3
=
4
3
(2.00 10
2
m)
3
= 3.35 10
5
m
3
so that from M
Fe
=
Fe
V
Fe
we nd the mass of the iron sphere:
M
Fe
=
Fe
V
Fe
=
_
7.86 10
3 kg
m
3
_
(3.35 10
5
m
3
) = 2.63 10
1
kg
If this sphere balances one made from aluminum in an equalarm balance, then they
have the same mass. So M
Al
= 2.63 10
1
kg is the mass of the aluminum sphere. From
M
Al
=
Al
V
Al
we can nd its volume:
V
Al
=
M
Al

Al
=
2.63 10
1
kg
2.70 10
3
kg
m
3
= 9.76 10
5
m
3
Having the volume of the sphere, we can nd its radius:
V
Al
=
4
3
R
3
= R =
_
3V
Al
4
_
1
3
This gives:
R =
_
3(9.76 10
5
m
3
)
4
_1
3
= 2.86 10
2
m = 2.86 cm
The aluminum sphere must have a radius of 2.86 cm to balance the iron sphere.
12 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
1.2.3 Dimensional Analysis
13. The period T of a simple pendulum is measured in time units and is
T = 2

g
.
where is the length of the pendulum and g is the freefall acceleration in units
of length divided by the square of time. Show that this equation is dimensionally
correct. [Ser4 1-14]
The period (T) of a pendulum is the amount of time it takes to makes one full swing
back and forth. It is measured in units of time so its dimensions are represented by T.
On the right side of the equation we have the length , whose dimensions are represented
by L. We are told that g is a length divided by the square of a time so its dimensions must
be L/T
2
. There is a factor of 2 on the right side, but this is a pure number and has no
units. So the dimensions of the right side are:

_
L
_
L
T
2
_
=

T
2
= T
so that the right hand side must also have units of time. Both sides of the equation agree in
their units, which must be true for it to be a valid equation!
14. The volume of an object as a function of time is calculated by V = At
3
+B/t,
where t is time measured in seconds and V is in cubic meters. Determine the
dimension of the constants A and B. [Ser4 1-15]
Both sides of the equation for volume must have the same dimensions, and those must
be the dimensions of volume where are L
3
(SI units of m
3
). Since we can only add terms
with the same dimensions, each of the terms on right side of the equation (At
3
and B/t)
must have the same dimensions, namely L
3
.
Suppose we denote the units of A by [A]. Then our comment about the dimensions of
the rst term gives us:
[A]T
3
= L
3
= [A] =
L
3
T
3
so A has dimensions L
3
/T
3
. In the SI system, it would have units of m
3
/ s
3
.
Suppose we denote the units of B by [B]. Then our comment about the dimensions of
the second term gives us:
[B]
T
= L
3
= [B] = L
3
T
so B has dimensions L
3
T. In the SI system, it would have units of m
3
s.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 13
15. Newtons law of universal gravitation is
F = G
Mm
r
2
Here F is the force of gravity, M and m are masses, and r is a length. Force has
the SI units of kg m/s
2
. What are the SI units of the constant G? [Ser4 1-17]
If we denote the dimensions of F by [F] (and the same for the other quantities) then
then dimensions of the quantities in Newtons Law are:
[M] = M (mass) [m] = M [r] = L [F] :
ML
T
2
What we dont know (yet) is [G], the dimensions of G. Putting the known dimensions into
Newtons Law, we must have:
ML
T
2
= [G]
M M
L
2
since the dimensions must be the same on both sides. Doing some algebra with the dimen-
sions, this gives:
[G] =
_
ML
T
2
_
L
2
M
2
=
L
3
MT
2
so the dimensions of G are L
3
/(MT
2
). In the SI system, G has units of
m
3
kg s
3
16. In quantum mechanics, the fundamental constant called Plancks constant,
h, has dimensions of [ML
2
T
1
]. Construct a quantity with the dimensions of
length from h, a mass m, and c, the speed of light. [FGT 1-54]
The problem suggests that there is some product of powers of h, m and c which has
dimensions of length. If these powers are r, s and t, respectively, then we are looking for
values of r, s and t such that
h
r
m
s
c
t
has dimensions of length.
What are the dimensions of this product, as written? We were given the dimensions of
h, namely [ML
2
T
1
]; the dimensions of m are M, and the dimensions of c are
L
T
= LT
1
(it
is a speed). So the dimensions of h
r
m
s
c
t
are:
[ML
2
T
1
]
r
[M]
s
[LT
1
]
t
= M
r+s
L
2r+t
T
rt
where we have used the laws of combining exponents which we all remember from algebra.
14 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
Now, since this is supposed to have dimensions of length, the power of L must be 1 but
the other powers are zero. This gives the equations:
r + s = 0
2r + t = 1
r t = 0
which is a set of three equations for three unknowns. Easy to solve!
The last of them gives r = t. Substituting this into the second equation gives
2r + t = 2(t) + t = t = 1 = t = 1
Then r = +1 and the rst equation gives us s = 1. With these values, we can condently
say that
h
r
m
s
c
t
= h
1
m
1
c
1
=
h
mc
has units of length.
1.2.4 Vectors; Vector Addition
17. (a) What is the sum in unitvector notation of the two vectors a = 4.0i + 3.0j
and b = 13.0i + 7.0j? (b) What are the magnitude and direction of a +b? [HRW5
3-20]
(a) Summing the corresponding components of vectors a and b we nd:
a +b = (4.0 13.0)i + (3.0 + 7.0)j
= 9.0i + 10.0j
This is the sum of the two vectors is unitvector form.
(b) Using our results from (a), the magnitude of a +b is
|a +b| =
_
(9.0)
2
+ (10.0)
2
= 13.4
and if c = a + b points in a direction as measured from the positive x axis, then the
tangent of is found from
tan =
_
c
y
c
x
_
= 1.11
If we naively take the arctangent using a calculator, we are told:
= tan
1
(1.11) = 48.0

which is not correct because (as shown in Fig. 1.5), with c

x
negative, and c
y
positive, the
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 15
c
x
y
Figure 1.5: Vector c, found in Example 17. With c
x
= 9.0 and c
y
= +10.0, the direction of c is in the
second quadrant.
x
y
b
a
4.0 m
5.0 m
N
E W
S
35
o
Figure 1.6: Vectors a and b as given in Example 18.
correct angle must be in the second quadrant. The calculator was fooled because angles
which dier by multiples of 180

have the same tangent. The direction we really want is

= 48.0

+ 180.0

= 132.0

18. Vector a has magnitude 5.0 m and is directed east. Vector b has magnitude
4.0 m and is directed 35

west of north. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the
direction of a + b? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the direction of b a?
Draw a vector diagram for each combination. [HRW6 3-15]
(a) The vectors are shown in Fig. 1.6. (On the axes are shown the common directions N, S,
E, W and also the x and y axes; North is the positive y direction, East is the positive
x direction, etc.) Expressing the vectors in i, j notation, we have:
a = (5.00 m)i
and
b = (4.00 m) sin 35

+ (4.00 m) cos 35
c
irc
= (2.29 m)i + (3.28 m)j
So if vector c is the sum of vectors a and b then:
c
x
= a
x
+ b
x
= (5.00 m) + (2.29 m) = 2.71 m
c
y
= a
y
+ b
y
= (0.00 m) + (3.28 m) = 3.28 m
16 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
x
y
b
a
N
E W
S
x
y
b
-a
N
E W
S
(a) (b)
c
d
Figure 1.7: (a) Vector diagram showing the addition a + b. (b) Vector diagram showing b a.
The magnitude of c is
c =
_
c
2
x
+ c
2
y
=
_
(2.71 m)
2
+ (3.28 m)
2
= 4.25 m
(b) If the direction of c, as measured counterclockwise from the +x axis is then
tan =
c
y
c
x
=
3.28 m
2.71 m
= 1.211
then the tan
1
operation on a calculator gives
= tan
1
(1.211) = 50.4

and since vector c must lie in the rst quadrant this angle is correct. We note that this angle
is
90.0

50.4

= 39.6

just shy of the +y axis (the North direction). So we can also express the direction by
saying it is 39.6

East of North.
A vector diagram showing a, b and c is given in Fig. 1.7(a).
(c) If the vector d is given by d = b a then the components of d are given by
d
x
= b
x
a
x
= (2.29 m) (5.00 m) = 7.29 m
c
y
= a
y
+ b
y
= (3.28 m) (0.00 m) + (3.28 m) = 3.28 m
The magnitude of c is
d =
_
d
2
x
+ d
2
y
=
_
(7.29 m)
2
+ (3.28 m)
2
= 8.00 m
(d) If the direction of d, as measured counterclockwise from the +x axis is then
tan =
d
y
d
x
=
3.28 m
7.29 m
= 0.450
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 17
y
x
30
o
105
o
a
b
Figure 1.8: Vectors for Example 19.
Naively pushing buttons on the calculator gives
= tan
1
(0.450) = 24.2

which cant be right because from the signs of its components we know that d must lie in the
second quadrant. We need to add 180

to get the correct answer for the tan

1
operation:
= 24.2

+ 180.0

= 156

But we note that this angle is

180

156

= 24

shy of the y axis, so the direction can also be expressed as 24

North of West.
A vector diagram showing a, b and d is given in Fig. 1.7(b).
19. The two vectors a and b in Fig. 1.8 have equal magnitudes of 10.0 m. Find
(a) the x component and (b) the y component of their vector sum r, (c) the
magnitude of r and (d) the angle r makes with the positive direction of the x
axis. [HRW6 3-21]
(a) First, nd the x and y components of the vectors a and b. The vector a makes an angle
of 30

with the +x axis, so its components are

a
x
= a cos 30

= (10.0 m) cos 30

= 8.66 m
a
y
= a sin30

= (10.0 m) sin 30

= 5.00 m
The vector b makes an angle of 135

with the +x axis (30

plus 105

more) so its components

are
b
x
= b cos 135

= (10.0 m) cos 135

= 7.07 m
b
y
= b sin135

= (10.0 m) sin 135

= 7.07 m
Then if r = a +b, the x and y components of the vector r are:
r
x
= a
x
+ b
x
= 8.66 m 7.07 m = 1.59 m
r
y
= a
y
+ b
y
= 5.00 m + 7.07 m = 12.07 m
18 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
A
12.0 m
C
15.0 m
40.0
o
20.0
o
y
x
Figure 1.9: Vectors A and C as described in Example 20.
So the x component of the sum is r
x
= 1.59 m, and. . .
(b) . . . the y component of the sum is r
y
= 12.07 m.
(c) The magnitude of the vector r is
r =
_
r
2
x
+ r
2
y
=
_
(1.59 m)
2
+ (12.07 m)
2
= 12.18 m
(d) To get the direction of the vector r expressed as an angle measured from the +x axis,
we note:
tan =
r
y
r
x
= 7.59
and then take the inverse tangent of 7.59:
= tan
1
(7.59) = 82.5

Since the components of r are both positive, the vector does lie in the rst quadrant so that
the inverse tangent operation has (this time) given the correct answer. So the direction of r
is given by = 82.5

.
20. In the sum A+B = C, vector A has a magnitude of 12.0 m and is angled 40.0

counterclockwise from the +x direction, and vector C has magnitude of 15.0 m

and is angled 20.0

counterclockwise from the x direction. What are (a) the

magnitude and (b) the angle (relative to +x) of B? [HRW6 3-22]
(a) Vectors A and C are diagrammed in Fig. 1.9. From these we can get the components
of A and C (watch the signs on vector C from the odd way that its angle is given!):
A
x
= (12.0 m) cos(40.0

) = 9.19 m A
y
= (12.0 m) sin(40.0

) = 7.71 m
C
x
= (15.0 m) cos(20.0

) = 14.1 m C
y
= (15.0 m) sin(20.0

) = 5.13 m
(Note, the vectors in this problem have units to go along with their magnitudes, namely m
(meters).) Then from the relation A+B = C it follows that B = CA, and from this we
nd the components of B:
B
x
= C
x
A
x
= 14.1 m9.19 m = 23.3 m
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 19
B
y
= C
y
A
y
= 5.13 m7.71 m = 12.8 m
Then we nd the magnitude of vector B:
B =
_
B
2
x
+ B
2
y
=
_
(23.3)
2
+ (12.8)
2
m = 26.6 m
(b) We nd the direction of B from:
tan =
_
B
y
B
x
_
= 0.551
If we naively press the atan button on our calculators to get , we are told:
= tan
1
(0.551) = 28.9

(?)
which cannot be correct because from the components of B (both negative) we know that
vector B lies in the third quadrant. So we need to ad 180

to the naive result to get the

correct answer:
= 28.9

+ 180.0

= 208.9

.
This is the angle of B, measured counterclockwise from the +x axis.
21. If a b = 2c, a +b = 4c and c = 3i + 4j, then what are a and b? [HRW5 3-24]
We notice that if we add the rst two relations together, the vector b will cancel:
(a b) + (a +b) = (2c) + (4c)
which gives:
2a = 6c = a = 3c
and we can use the last of the given equations to substitute for c; we get
a = 3c = 3(3i + 4j) = 9i + 12j
Then we can rearrange the rst of the equations to solve for b:
b = a 2c = (9i + 12j) 2(3i + 4j)
= (9 6)i + (12 8)j
= 3i + 4j
So we have found:
a = 9i + 12j and b = 3i + 4j
22. If A = (6.0i 8.0j) units, B = (8.0i + 3.0j) units, and C = (26.0i + 19.0j) units,
determine a and b so that aA+ bB +C = 0. [Ser4 3-46]
20 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
A
B
C
y
x
45
0
45
0
Figure 1.10: Vectors for Example 23
The condition on the vectors given in the problem:
aA+ bB +C = 0
is a condition on the individual components of the vectors. It implies:
aA
x
+ bB
x
+ C
x
= 0 and aA
y
+ bB
y
+ C
y
= 0 .
So that we have the equations:
6.0a 8.0b + 26.0 = 0
8.0a + 3.0b + 19.0 = = 0
We have two equations for two unknowns so we can nd a and b. The are lots of ways
to do this; one could multiply the rst equation by 4 and the second equation by 3 to get:
24.0a 32.0b + 104.0 = 0
24.0a + 9.0b + 57.0 = = 0
Adding these gives
23.0b + 161 = 0 = b =
161.0
23.0
= 7.0
and then the rst of the original equations gives us a:
6.0a = 8.0b 26.0 = 8.0(7.0) 26.0 = 30.0 = a =
30.0
6.0
= 5.0
and our solution is
a = 7.0 b = 5.0
23. Three vectors are oriented as shown in Fig. 1.10, where |A| = 20.0 units,
|B| = 40.0 units, and |C| = 30.0 units. Find (a) the x and y components of the
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 21
resultant vector and (b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
[Ser4 3-47]
(a) Lets rst put these vectors into unitvector notation:
A = 20.0j
B = (40.0 cos 45

)i + (40.0 sin 45

)j = 28.3i + 28.3j
C = (30.0 cos(45

))i + (30.0 sin(45

))j = 21.2i 21.2j

Adding the components together, the resultant (total) vector is:
Resultant = A+B +C
= (28.3 + 21.2)i + (20.0 + 28.3 21.2)j
= 49.5i + 27.1j
So the x component of the resultant vector is 49.5 and the y component of the resultant is
27.1.
(b) If we call the resultant vector R, then the magnitude of R is given by
R =
_
R
2
x
+ R
2
y
=
_
(49.5)
2
+ (27.1)
2
= 56.4
To nd its direction (given by , measured counterclockwise from the x axis), we nd:
tan =
R
y
R
x
=
27.1
49.5
= 0.547
and then taking the inverse tangent gives a possible answer for :
= tan
1
(0.547) = 28.7

.
Is this the right answer for ? Since both components of R are positive, it must lie in the
rst quadrant and so must be between 0

and 90

. So the direction of R is given by 28.7

.
24. A vector B, when added to the vector C = 3.0i +4.0j, yields a resultant vector
that is in the positive y direction and has a magnitude equal to that of C. What
is the magnitude of B? [HRW5 3-26]
If the vector B is denoted by B = B
x
i + B
y
j then the resultant of B and C is
B +C = (B
x
+ 3.0)i + (B
y
+ 4.0)j .
We are told that the resultant points in the positive y direction, so its x component must
be zero. Then:
B
x
+ 3.0 = 0 = B
x
= 3.0 .
22 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
Now, the magnitude of C is
C =
_
C
2
x
+ C
2
y
=
_
(3.0)
2
+ (4.0)
2
= 5.0
so that if the magnitude of B +C is also 5.0 then we get
|B +C| =
_
(0)
2
+ (B
y
+ 4.0)
2
= 5.0 = (B
y
+ 4.0)
2
= 25.0 .
The last equation gives (B
y
+ 4.0) = 5.0 and apparently there are two possible answers
B
y
= +1.0 and B
y
= 9.0
but the second case gives a resultant vector B +C which points in the negative y direction
so we omit it. Then with B
y
= 1.0 we nd the magnitude of B:
B =
_
(B
x
)
2
+ (B
y
)
2
=
_
(3.0)
2
+ (1.0)
2
= 3.2
The magnitude of vector B is 3.2.
1.2.5 Multiplying Vectors
25. Vector A extends from the origin to a point having polar coordinates (7, 70

)
and vector B extends from the origin to a point having polar coordinates (4, 130

).
Find A B. [Ser4 7-13]
We can use Eq. 1.7 to nd A B. We have the magnitudes of the two vectors (namely
A = 7 and B = 4) and the angle between the two is
= 130

70

= 60

.
Then we get:
A B = ABcos = (7)(4) cos 60

= 14
26. Find the angle between A = 5i 3j + 2k and B = 2j 2k. [Ser4 7-20]
Eq. 1.7 allows us to nd the cosine of the angle between two vectors as long as we know
their magnitudes and their dot product. The magnitudes of the vectors A and B are:
A =
_
A
2
x
+ A
2
y
+ A
2
z
=
_
(5)
2
+ (3)
2
+ (2)
2
= 6.164
B =
_
B
2
x
+ B
2
y
+ B
2
z
=
_
(0)
2
+ (2)
2
+ (2)
2
= 2.828
and their dot product is:
A B = A
x
B
x
+ A
y
B
y
+ A
z
B
z
= (5)(0) + (3)(2) + (2)(2) = 2
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 23
Then from Eq. 1.7, if is the angle between A and B, we have
cos =
A B
AB
=
2
(6.164)(2.828)
= 0.114
which then gives
= 83.4

.
27. Two vectors a and b have the components, in arbitrary units, a
x
= 3.2,
a
y
= 1.6, b
x
= 0.50, b
y
= 4.5. (a) Find the angle between the directions of a and
b. (b) Find the components of a vector c that is perpendicular to a, is in the xy
plane and has a magnitude of 5.0 units. [HRW5 3-51]
(a) The scalar product has something to do with the angle between two vectors... if the
angle between a and b is then from Eq. 1.7 we have:
cos =
a b
ab
.
We can compute the righthandside of this equation since we know the components of a
and b. First, nd a b. Using Eq. 1.8 we nd:
a b = a
x
b
x
+ a
y
b
y
= (3.2)(0.50) + (1.6)(4.5)
= 8.8
Now nd the magnitudes of a and b:
a =
_
a
2
x
+ a
2
y
=
_
(3.2)
2
+ (1.6)
2
= 3.6
b =
_
b
2
x
+ b
2
y
=
_
(0.50)
2
+ (4.5)
2
= 4.5
This gives us:
cos =
a b
ab
=
8.8
(3.6)(4.5)
= 0.54
From which we get by:
= cos
1
(0.54) = 57

(b) Let the components of the vector c be c

x
and c
y
(we are told that it lies in the xy plane).
If c is perpendicular to a then the dot product of the two vectors must give zero. This tells
us:
a c = a
x
c
x
+ a
y
c
y
= (3.2)c
x
+ (1.6)c
y
= 0
This equation doesnt allow us to solve for the components of c but it does give us:
c
x
=
1.6
3.2
c
y
= 0.50c
y
24 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
Since the vector c has magnitude 5.0, we know that
c =
_
c
2
x
+ c
2
y
= 5.0
Using the previous equation to substitute for c
x
gives:
c =
_
c
2
x
+ c
2
y
=
_
(0.50 c
y
)
2
+ c
2
y
=
_
1.25 c
2
y
= 5.0
Squaring the last line gives
1.25c
2
y
= 25 = c
2
y
= 20. = c
y
= 4.5
One must be careful... there are two possible solutions for c
y
here. If c
y
= 4.5 then we have
c
x
= 0.50 c
y
= (0.50)(4.5) = 2.2
But if c
y
= 4.5 then we have
c
x
= 0.50 c
y
= (0.50)(4.5) = 2.2
So the two possibilities for the vector c are
c
x
= 2.2 c
y
= 4.5
and
c
x
= 2.2 c
y
= 4.5
28. Two vectors are given by A = 3i + 4j and B = 2i + 3j. Find (a) A B and
(b) the angle between A and B. [Ser4 11-7]
(a) Setting up the determinant in Eq. 1.12 (or just using Eq. 1.11 for the cross product) we
nd:
AB =

i j k
3 4 0
2 3 0

= (0 0)i + (0 0)j + ((9) (8))k = 17k

(b) To get the angle between A and B it is easiest to use the dot product and Eq. 1.7. The
magnitudes of A and B are:
A =
_
A
2
x
+ A
2
y
=
_
(3)
2
+ (4)
2
= 5 B =
_
B
2
x
+ B
2
y
=
_
(2)
2
+ (3)
2
= 3.61
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 25
and the dot product of the two vectors is
A B = A
x
B
x
+ A
y
B
y
+ A
z
B
z
= (3)(2) + (4)(3) = 6
so then if is the angle between A and B we get:
cos =
A B
AB
=
6
(5)(3.61)
= 0.333
which gives
= 70.6

.
29. Prove that two vectors must have equal magnitudes if their sum is perpen-
dicular to their dierence. [HRW6 3-23]
Suppose the condition stated in this problem holds for the two vectors a and b. If the
sum a +b is perpendicular to the dierence a b then the dot product of these two vectors
is zero:
(a +b) (a b) = 0
Use the distributive property of the dot product to expand the left side of this equation. We
get:
a a a b +b a b b
But the dot product of a vector with itself gives the magnitude squared:
a a = a
2
x
+ a
2
y
+ a
2
z
= a
2
(likewise b b = b
2
) and the dot product is commutative: a b = b a. Using these facts,
we then have
a
2
a b +a b + b
2
= 0 ,
which gives:
a
2
b
2
= 0 = a
2
= b
2
Since the magnitude of a vector must be a positive number, this implies a = b and so vectors
a and b have the same magnitude.
30. For the following three vectors, what is 3C (2AB) ?
A = 2.00i + 3.00j 4.00k
B = 3.00i + 4.00j + 2.00k C = 7.00i 8.00j
[HRW6 3-36]
26 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS
Actually, from the properties of scalar multiplication we can combine the factors in the
desired vector product to give:
3C (2AB) = 6C (AB) .
Evaluate AB rst:
AB =

i j k
2.0 3.0 4.0
3.0 4.0 2.0

= (6.0 + 16.0)i + (12.0 4.0)j + (8.0 + 9.0)k

= 22.0i + 8.0j + 17.0k
Then:
C (AB) = (7.0)(22.0) (8.0)(8.0) + (0.0)(17.0) = 90
So the answer we want is:
6C (AB) = (6)(90.0) = 540
31. A student claims to have found a vector A such that
(2i 3j + 4k) A = (4i + 3j k) .
Do you believe this claim? Explain. [Ser4 11-8]
Frankly, Ive been in this teaching business so long and Ive grown so cynical that I dont
believe anything any student claims anymore, and this case is no exception. But enough
about me; lets see if we can provide a mathematical answer.
We might try to work out a solution for A, but lets think about some of the basic
properties of the cross product. We know that the cross product of two vectors must be
perpendicular to each of the multiplied vectors. So if the student is telling the truth, it
must be true that (4i + 3j k) is perpendicular to (2i 3j + 4k). Is it?
We can test this by taking the dot product of the two vectors:
(4i + 3j k) (2i 3j + 4k) = (4)(2) + (3)(3) + (1)(4) = 5 .
The dot product does not give zero as it must if the two vectors are perpendicular. So we
have a contradiction. There cant be any vector A for which the relation is true.