Transient Heat Transfer

Chapter 3: Heat Conduction
Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
3.3 Unsteady State Heat Conduction
1
For many applications, it is necessary to consider the
variation of temperature with time.
In this case, the energy equation for classical heat
conduction, eq. (3.8), should be solved.
If the thermal conductivity is independent from the
temperature, the energy equation is reduced to eq.
(3.10).
3.3 Unsteady State Heat
Conduction
3.3 Unsteady State Heat
Conduction
2
Consider an arbitrarily shaped object with volume V,
surface area A
s
, and a uniform initial temperature of T
i
as
shown in Fig. 3.15. At time t = 0, the arbitrarily shaped
object is exposed to a fluid with temperature of T
and
the convective heat transfer coefficient between the fluid
and the arbitrarily shaped object is h.
3.3.1 Lumped Analysis 3.3.1 Lumped Analysis
T(t)
V
h,
T
A
s
Figure 3.15 Lumped capacitance method
3
The convective heat transfer from the surface is
Similar to what we did for heat transfer from an extended
surface, the heat loss due to surface convection can be
treated as an equivalent heat source
Since the temperature is assumed to be uniform, the
energy equation becomes
(3.188)
which is subject to the following initial condition
(3.189)
( )
s
q hA T T
=
( )
s
hA T T q
q
V V
= =
( )
s
p
hA T T T
c
t V
, 0
i
T T t = =
4
Introducing excess temperature, , eqs. (3.188) and
(3.189) become
(3.190)
(3.191)
Integrating eq. (3.190) and determining the integral
constant using eq. (3.191), the solution becomes
(3.192)
where
(3.193)
is referred to as the thermal time constant.
T T
=
s
p
hA d
dt Vc
=
, 0
i
t = =
/
t
t
i
e

=
p
t
s
Vc
hA
=
5
The cooling process requires transferring heat from the
center of the object to the surface and the heat is further
transferred away from the surface by convection. When
the lamped capacitance method is employed, it is
assumed that the conduction resistance within the object
is negligible compared with the convective thermal
resistance at the surface, therefore, the validity of the
lumped analysis depends on the relative thermal
resistances of conduction and convection. The
conduction thermal resistance can be expressed as
where L
c
is the characteristic length and A
c
is the area of
heat conduction.
c
cond
c
L
R
kA
=
6
The convection thermal resistance at the surface is
Assuming , one can define the Biot number, Bi, as
the ratio of the conduction and convection thermal
resistances
(3.194)
If the characteristic length is chosen as , the
lumped capacitance method is valid when the Biot
number is less than 0.1, or the conduction thermal
resistance is one order of magnitude smaller than the
convection thermal resistance at the surface.
1
conv
s
R
hA
=
s c
A A =
Bi=
cond c
conv
R hL
R k
/
c s
L V A =
7
For the case that the Biot number is greater than 0.1, the
temperature distribution can no longer be treated as
uniform and the knowledge about the temperature
distribution is also of interest. We will now consider the
situation where temperature only varies in one spatial
dimension. Both homogeneous and nonhomogeneous
problem will be considered.
3.3.2 One Dimensional Transient
Systems
3.3.2 One Dimensional Transient
Systems
8
Homogeneous Problems
Figure 3.16 shows a finite slab with thickness of L and a
uniform initial temperature of T
i
. At time t = 0, the left
side of the slab is insulated while the right side of the
slab is exposed to a fluid with temperature of T
. In
contrast to the lumped capacitance method that
assumes uniform temperature, we will present a more
generalized model that takes non-uniform temperature
distribution into account.
h, T
Figure 3.16 Transient conduction in a finite slab

0 x L
a
d
i
a
b
a
t
i
c
9
The energy equation for this one-dimensional transient
conduction problem is
(3.195)
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
(3.196)
(3.197)
(3.198)
This is a nonhomogeneous problem because eq. (3.197) is
not homogeneous. By introducing the excess
temperature, , the problem can be
homogenized, i.e.,
(3.199)
2
2
1
, 0 , 0
T T
x L t
x t

= < < >

0, 0
T
x
x
= =
( ),
T
k h T T x L
x

= =
, 0 , 0
i
T T x L t = < < =
T T
=
2
2
1
, 0 , 0 x L t
x t

= < < >

10
(3.200)
(3.201)
(3.202)
To express our solution in a compact form so that it can be
used for all similar problems, one can define the
following dimensionless variables
(3.203)
and eqs. (3.199) (3.202) will be nondimensionalized as
(3.204)
(3.205)
0, 0 x
x

= =
, k h x L
x
= =
, 0 , 0
i i
T T x L t
= = < < =
2
, , Fo
i
x t
X
L L

= = =
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
X
X

= < < >

0, 0 X
X

= =

11
(3.206)
(3.207)
This problem can be solved using the method of separation
of variables. Assuming that the temperature can be
expressed as
(3.208)
where are functions of X and Fo, respectively, eq.
(3.204) becomes
Since the left hand side is a function of X only and the right-
hand side of the above equation is a function of Fo only,
both sides must be equal to a separation constant, , i.e.,
Bi , X 1
X
= =
1, 0 1, Fo 0 X = < < =
( , Fo) ( ) (Fo) X X =
and
( ) (Fo)
( ) (Fo)
X
X

=

12
(3.209)
The separation constant can be either a real or a
complex number. The solution of from eq. (3.209) will
be . If is a positive real number, we will have
when , which does not make sense, therefore,
cannot be a positive real number. If is zero, we will
have , and is a linear function of X only. The
final solution for will also be a linear function of X only,
which does not make sense either. It can also be shown
that the separation constant cannot be a complex
number, therefore, the separation variable has to be a
negative real number.
( ) (Fo)
( ) (Fo)
X
X

= =

Fo
e
=

Fo

const =

13
If we represent this negative number by , eqs. (3.209)
can be rewritten as the following two equations
(3.210)
(3.211)
The general solutions of eqs. (3.210) and (3.211) are
(3.212)
(3.213)
where C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
are integral constants.
Substituting eq. (3.208) into eqs. (3.205) and (3.206), the
following boundary conditions of eq. (3.210) are obtained
(3.214)
(3.215)
2
=
2
0
+ =
2
0
+ =
1 2
cos sin C X C X = +
2
Fo
3
C e

=
(0) 0
=
(1) Bi (1)
=
14
Substituting eq. (3.212) into eq. (3.214) yields
Since cannot be zero, C
2
must be zero and eq. (3.215)
becomes
(3.216)
Applying the convection boundary condition, eq. (3.215),
one obtains
(3.217)
where n is an integer.
The dimensionless temperature with eigenvalue can be
obtained by substituting eqs. (3.216) and (3.213) into eq.
(4.208), i.e.,
(3.218)
1 2 2
(0) sin(0) cos(0) 0 C C C
= + = =
1
cos C X =
cot
Bi
n
n
=
n
( )
2
Fo
cos
n
n n n
C X e

=
15
where .
Since the one-dimensional transient heat conduction
problem under consideration is a linear problem, the sum
of different for each value of n also satisfies eqs.
(3.204) (3.206).
(3.219)
Multiplying the above equation by and integrating
the resulting equation in the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
(3.220)
1 3 n
C C C =
n
( )
2
Fo
1
cos
n
n n
n
C X e

=
=
( )
1
1 cos
n n
n
C X
=
=
( )
cos
m
X
1 1
0 0
1
cos( ) cos( ) cos( )
m n m n
n
X dX C X X dX
=
=

16
The integral in the right-hand side of eq. (3.133) can be
evaluated as
(3.221)
Equation (3.217) can be rewritten as
Similarly, for eigenvalue , we have
Combining the above two equations, we have
or
2 2
1
0
sin cos cos sin
,
cos( ) cos( )
sin 2 1
,
2 2
m m n n m n
m n
m n
m
m
m
m n
X X dX
m n

=

| |
+ =
|
Bi tan
n n
=
m
Bi tan
m m
=
tan tan 0
m m n n
=
sin cos cos sin 0
m m n n m n
=
17
therefore, the integral in eq. (3.221) is zero for the case that
, and the right hand side of eq. (3.220) becomes
(3.222)
Substituting eq. (3.222) into eq. (3.220) and evaluating the
integral at the left-hand side of eq. (3.220), we have
i.e.,
Changing notation from m to n, we get
(3.223)
m n
1
0
1
sin 2
cos( ) cos( )
2 2
m m
n m n m
m n
C
C X X dX

=
| |
= +
|
\

sin 2 1
sin
2 2
m m
m m
m m
C

| |
= +
|
\
4sin
2 sin 2
m
m
m m
C

=
+
4sin
2 sin 2
n
n
n n
C

=
+
18
The dimensionless temperature, therefore, becomes
(3.224)
If the Biot number becomes infinite, the convection
boundary condition becomes
(3.225)
which is an isothermal condition at the right-hand side of
the wall. Equation (3.217) becomes
(3.226)
and the eigenvalue is therefore
(3.227)
( )
2
Fo
1
4sin
cos
2 sin 2
n
n
n
n n n
X e

=
=
+
0, X 1 = =
cos 0
n
=
( )
/ 2 , 1, 2, 3,...
n
n n = =
19
The temperature distribution for this case is then
(3.228)
When Fouriers number is greater than 0.2, only the first
term in eq. (3.219) is necessary and the solution
becomes
(3.229)
[ ]
2
( / 2) Fo
1
4sin( / 2)
cos ( / 2)
2( / 2) sin 2( / 2)
n
n
n
n X e
n n
=
+
( )
2
1
Fo
1 1 1
cos C X e

= =
20
Example 3.3
A long cylinder with radius of r
o
and a uniform initial
temperature of T
i
is exposed to a fluid with temperature
of T
. The convective heat transfer coefficient between

the fluid and cylinder is h. Assuming that there is no
internal heat generation and constant thermophysical
properties, obtain the transient temperature distribution
in the cylinder.
21
Solution
Since the temperature changes along the r-direction
only, the energy equation is
(3.230)
(3.231)
(3.232)
(3.233)
Defining the following dimensionless variables
(3.234)
2
2
1 1
, 0 , 0
o
T T T
x r t
r r r t

+ = < < >

0, 0 (axisymmetric)
T
r
r
= =
( ),
o
T
k h T T r r
r

= =
, 0 , 0
i o
T T r r t = < < =
2
, , Fo , Bi
o
i o o
hr T T r t
R
T T r r k
= = = =

22
eqs. (3.230) (4.233) will be nondimensionalized as
(3.235)
(3.236)
(3.237)
(3.238)
Assuming that the temperature can be expressed as
(3.239)
and substituting eq. (3.239) into eq. (3.235), one obtains
(3.240)
2
2
1
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
R
R R R

+ = < < >

0, 0 R
R

= =
Bi , R 1
R
= =
1, 0 1, Fo 0 R = < < =
( , Fo) ( ) (Fo) R R =
2
1 1
R
(

+ = =
(

23
which can be rewritten as the following two equations
(3.241)
(3.242)
Equation (3.101) is a Bessels equation of zero order and
has the following general solution
(3.243)
where J
0
and Y
0
are the Bessels function of the first and
second kind, respectively. The general solution of eq.
(3.242) is
(3.244)
where C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
2
1
0
R

+ + =
2
0
+ =
1 0 2 0
( ) ( ) ( ) R C J R C Y R = +
2
Fo
3
C e

=
24
The boundary conditions for eq. (3.241) can be obtained by
substituting eq. (3.239) into eqs. (3.236) and (3.237), i.e.,
(3.245)
(3.246)
The derivative of is
(3.247)
Since , C
2
must be zero. Substituting
eqs. (3.243) and (3.247) into eq. (3.246) and considering
C
2
= 0 we have
(3.248)
where n is an integer.
(0) 0
=
(1) Bi (1)
1 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) R C J R C Y R
=
1 1
(0) 0 and (0) J Y = =
1 0
( ) Bi ( ) 0
n n n
J J + =
25
The dimensionless temperature with eigenvalue is
(3.249)
where .
For a linear problem, the sum of different for each value
of n also satisfies eqs. (3.235) (3.237).
(3.250)
Multiplying the above equation by and integrating
the resulting equation in the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
n
( )
2
Fo
0
n
n n n
C J R e

=
1 3 n
C C C =
n
( )
2
Fo
0
1
n
n n
n
C J R e

=
=
( )
0
1
1
n n
n
C J R
=
=
( )
0 m
RJ R
1 1
0 0 0
0 0
1
( ) ( ) ( )
m n m n
n
RJ R dR C RJ R J R dR
=
=

26
According to the orthogonal property of Bessels function,
the integral on the right-hand side equals zero if
but it is not zero if m = n Therefore, we have
Changing notation from m to n, we get
(3.251)
thus, the dimensionless temperature becomes
(3.252)
m n
1
0
0 1
1 2 2
2
0 1
0
0
( )
( ) 2
( ) ( )
( )
m
m
m
m m m
m
RJ R dR
J
C
J J
RJ R dR
= =
+
1
2 2
0 1
( ) 2
( ) ( )
n
n
n n n
J
C
J J

=
+
( )
2
1 0 Fo
2 2
0 1 1
( )
2
( ) ( )
n
n n
n n n n
J J R
e
J J
=
=
+

27
One-dimensional heat conduction in a spherical coordinate
system can be solved by introducing a new dependent
variable. Consider a sphere with radius of r
o
and a
uniform initial temperature of T
i
. It is exposed to a fluid
with a temperature of T
and the convective heat transfer

coefficient between the fluid and finite slab is h.
Assuming that there is no internal heat generation and
constant thermophysical properties, the governing
equation is
(3.253)
(3.254)
2
2
1 ( ) 1
, 0 , 0
o
rT T
x r t
r r t

= < < >

0, 0 (axisymmetric)
T
r
r
= =

28
(3.255)
(3.256)
By using the same dimensionless variables defined in eq.
(3.234), eqs. (3.253) (3.256) can be
nondimensionalized as
(3.257)
(3.258)
(3.259)
(3.260)
Defining a new dependent variable
(3.261)
( ),
o
T
k h T T r r
r

= =
, 0 , 0
i o
T T r r t = < < =
2
2
1 ( )
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
R
R
R R

= < < >

0, 0 R
R

= =
Bi , R 1
R
= =
1, 0 1, Fo 0 R = < < =
U R =
29
eqs. (3.257) (3.260) become
(3.262)
(3.263)
(3.264)
(3.265)
This problem can be readily solved by using the method of
separation of variables. After the solution is obtained,
one can change the dependent variable back to and
the result is
(3.266)
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
U U
R
R

= < < >

0, 0 R
R

= =
(Bi-1) , R 1
U
R
= =
, 0 1, Fo 0 U R R = < < =
2
Fo
1
4[sin( ) cos( )] 1
sin( )
[2 sin(2 )]
n
n n n
n
n n n n
R e
R

30
where the eigenvalue is the positive root of the following
equation
(3.267)
1 cot Bi
n n
=
31
Nonhomogeneous Problems
The solution of a nonhomogeneous problem can be
obtained by superposition of a particular solution of the
nonhomogeneous problem and the general solution of
the corresponding homogeneous problem.
Consider a finite slab with thickness of L and a uniform
initial temperature of T
i
as shown in Fig. 3.17.
T=T
i
Figure 3.17 Heat conduction under boundary condition of the first kind
0 x L
T=T
0
t = 0
t > 0
t
32
Assuming that there is no internal heat generation in the
slab and the thermophysical properties of the slab are
constants, the energy equation is
(3.268)
(3.269)
(3.270)
(3.271)
By defining the following dimensionless variables
(3.272)
eqs. (3.268) (3.271) will be nondimensionalized as:
2
2
1
, 0 , 0
T T
x L t
x t

= < < >

0
, 0 T T x = =
,
i
T T x L = =
, 0 , 0
i
T T x L t = < < =
2
0
, , Fo
i
i
T T x t
X
T T L L

= = =

33
(3.273)
(3.274)
(3.275)
(3.276)
If the steady state temperature is represented by , it must
satisfy the following equations:
(3.277)
(3.278)
(3.279)
which have the following solution:
(3.280)
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
X
X

= < < >

1, 0 X = =
0, X 1 = =
0, 0 1, Fo 0 X = < < =
s
2
2
0, 0 1
s
X
X

= < <
1, 0
s
X = =
0, X 1
s
= =
1
s
X =
34
To obtain the generation of the problem described by eqs.
(3.273) (3.276), a method of partial solution will be
employed. In this methodology, it is assumed that the
solution of a nonhomogeneous problem can be
expressed as
(3.281)
where represent the solution of a homogeneous
problem. Substituting eqs. (3.273) (3.276) and
considering eqs. (3.277) (3.279), we have
(3.282)
(3.283)
(3.284)
(3.285)
( , Fo) ( ) ( , Fo)
s h
X X X = +
h
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
h h
X
X

= < < >

0, 0
h
X = =
0, X 1
h
= =
1, 0 1, Fo 0
h
X X = < < =
35
which represent a new homogeneous problem. This
problem can be solved using the method of separation of
variables and the result is
(3.286)
The solution of the nonhomogeneous problem thus
becomes
(3.287)
2
( ) Fo
1
2 sin( )
n
h
n
n X
e
n
=
=

2
( ) Fo
1
2 sin( )
1
n
n
n X
X e
n
=
=

36
If the steady-state solution does not exist, we can use the
method of variation of parameter to solve the problem.
Consider a finite slab with thickness of L and a uniform
initial temperature of T
i
. At time t = 0, the left side is
subject to a constant heat flux while the right side of the
slab is adiabatic (see Fig. 3.18).
Figure 3.18 Heat conduction under boundary condition of the second kind
0 x L
adiabatic
37
Assuming that there is no internal heat generation in the
slab and the thermophysical properties of the slab are
constants, the energy equation is
(3.288)
(3.289)
(3.290)
(3.291)
By defining the following dimensionless variables
(3.292)
eqs. (3.268) (3.271) will be nondimensionalized as:
2
2
1
, 0 , 0
T T
x L t
x t

= < < >

0
, 0
T
k q x
x
= =
0,
T
x L
x
= =
, 0 , 0
i
T T x L t = < < =
2
0
, , Fo
/
i
T T x t
X
q L k L L

= = =

38
(3.293)
(3.294)
(3.295)
(3.296)
We will use the method of variation of parameters to solve
this problem. This method requires the following steps:
1. Set up a homogeneous problem by dropping the
nonhomogeneous terms,
2. Solve the homogeneous problem to get eigenvalue
and eigenfunctions
3. Assuming the solution of the original nonhomogeneous
problem has the format of
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
X
X

= < < >

1, 0 X
X

= =
0, 1 X
X

= =
0, 0 1, Fo 0 X = < < =
( )
n
X
n
1
( , Fo) (Fo) ( )
n
n n
n
X A X
=
=

39
4. Solve for A
n
(Fo) using orthogonal property of
5. Obtain an ordinary differential equation (ODE) for A
n
(Fo) and solve for A
n
(Fo) from the ODE
6. Put together the final solution.
We will solve this nonhomogeneous problem be following
the above procedure. The corresponding homogeneous
problem is:
(3.297)
(3.298)
(3.299)
(3.300)
n
2
2
, 0 1, Fo 0
Fo
h h
X
X

= < < >

0, 0
h
X
X

= =
0, 1
h
X
X

= =
0, 0 1, Fo 0
h
X = < < =
40
Assuming the solution of the above homogeneous problem
is
(3.301)
eq. (3.297) becomes
(3.302)
The eigenvalue problem is
(3.303)
(3.304)
(3.305)
Solving eqs. (3.303) (3.305) yields the following
eigenvalues and eigen functions
(3.306)
(3.307)
( ) (Fo)
h
X =
2
( ) (Fo)
( ) (Fo)
X
X

= =

2
0
+ =
(0) 0
=
(1) 0
=
n
n =
( ) cos( ), 0,1, 2,...
n
X n X n = =
41
Now, let us assume that the solution of the original
nonhomogeneous problem is
(3.308)
Multiplying eq. (3.308) by and integrating the
resulting equation in the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
(3.309)
The integral on the right-hand side of eq. (3.309) can be
evaluated as
(3.310)
thus, eq. (3.309) becomes
(3.311)
( )
0
( , Fo) (Fo) cos
n
n
X A n X
=
=
( )
cos m X
1 1
0 0
1
( , Fo) cos( ) cos( ) cos( )
n
n
X m X dX A m X n X dX
=
=

1
0
0,
cos( ) cos( ) 1/ 2, 0
1, 0
m n
m X n X dX m n
m n

= =
= =
1
0
0
(Fo) ( , Fo) , 0 A X dX m = =

42
(3.312)
Differentiating eq. (3.311) with respect to Fo, one obtains:
(3.313)
Substituting eq. (3.293) into eq. (3.313) and integrating with
respect to X yield
(3.314)
Integrating eq. (3.314) with respect to Fo, we have
(3.315)
When Fo = 0, eq. (3.315) becomes
(3.316)
1
m
0
(Fo) 2 ( , Fo) cos( ) , 0 A X m X dX m =
1
0
0
dFo Fo
dA
dX

=
2
1
0
2
0
1 0
1
dFo
X X
dA
dX
X X X

= =

= = =

1
0 1
0
(Fo) Fo ( , Fo) A C X dX = + =
1
0 1
0
(0) ( , 0) 0 A C X dX = = =

43
thus, we have
(3.317)
Differentiating eq. (3.312) and considering eq. (3.293) yield
(3.318)
Using integration by parts twice, the following ODE is
obtained:
(3.319)
Multiplying eq. (3.319) by an integrating factor , we
have
(3.320)
which can be integrated to get
(3.321)
0
(Fo) Fo A =
2
1 1
m
2
0 0
2 cos( ) 2 cos( )
Fo Fo
dA
m X dX m X dX
d X

= =

2
m
2 ( )
Fo
m
dA
m A
d
=
2
( ) Fo m
e

2 2
( ) Fo ( ) Fo
m
2
Fo
m m
d
A e e
d

(
=

2
( ) Fo
2
2
2
( )
m
m
A C e
m
= +
44
where C
2
is an integral constant that needs to be
determined by an initial condition. For Fo = 0, eq. (3.312)
becomes
(3.322)
Substituting eq. (3.321) into eq. (3.322), one obtains
therefore, we have
Changing m back to n for notation,
(3.323)
1 1
m
0 0
(0) 2 ( , 0)cos( ) 2 cos( ) 0 A X m X dX m X dX = = =

2
2
2
( )
C
m
=
2
( ) Fo
2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
m
m
A e
m m
=
2
( ) Fo
2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
n
n
A e
n n
=
45
Substituting eqs. (3.317) and (3.323) into eq. (3.308), the
solution becomes
(3.324)
When the time (Fourier number) becomes large, the last
term on the right-hand side will become zero and the
solution is represented by the first two terms only. To
simplify eq. (3.324), let us assume the solution at large
Fo can be expressed as
(3.325)
which is referred to as asymptotic solution and it must
satisfy eqs. (3.293) (3.295). Substituting eq. (3.325)
into eqs. (3.293) (3.295), we have
(3.326)
( ) ( )
2
( ) Fo
2 2 2 2
1 1
cos cos
2 2
( , Fo) Fo+
n
n n
n X n X
X e
n n
= =
=

( , Fo) Fo+ ( ) X f X =
( ) 1 f X
=
46
(3.327)
Integrating eq. (3.326) and considering eq. (3.327), we
obtain
(3.328)
where C cannot be determined from eq. (3.327) because
both boundary conditions are for the first order
derivative. To determine C, we can expand f(X) defined
in eq. (3.328) into cosine Fourier series, i.e.
(3.329)
After determining a
0
and a
n
, and considering the f(X) is
identical to the second term on the right-hand side of eq.
(3.324), we have
(3.330)
(0) 1, (1) 0 f f

= =
2
( )
2
X
f X X C = +
2
0
1
( ) cos( )
2
n
n
X
f X X C a a n X
=
= + = +
( )
2
2 2
1
cos
1 2
2 3
n
n X
X
X
n
=
+ =

47
Substituting eq. (3.330) into eq. (3.324), the final solution
becomes
(3.331)
( )
2
2
( ) Fo
2 2
1
cos
1 2
( , Fo) Fo+
2 3
n
n
n X
X
X X e
n
=
= +

48
Transient Heat Conduction in a Semi-Infinite
Body
Consider heat conduction in a semi-infinite body (x > 0)
with an initial temperature of T
i
. The temperature near
the surface of the semi-infinite body will increase
because of the surface temperature change, while the
temperature far from the surface of the semi-infinite body
is not affected and remains at the initial temperature T
i
.
The physical model of the problem is illustrated in Fig.
3.19
T=T
i
Figure 3.19 Heat conduction in a semi-infinite body
0 x
T=T
0
t = 0
49
The governing equation of the heat conduction problem
and the corresponding initial and boundary conditions
are:
(3.332)
(3.333)
(3.334)
(3.335)
which can be solved by using the method of separation of
variables or integral approximate solution.
(3.336)
where L is a characteristic length.
2
2
( ) 1 ( )
0 0
T x t T x t
x t
x t
, ,
= > , >

0
( ) 0 0 T x t T x t , = = , >
( ) 0
i
T x t T x t , = , >
( ) 0 0
i
T x t T x t , = > , =
0
2
0
, , Fo
i
T T x t
X
T T L L

= = =

50
Eqs. (3.332) (3.335) will be nondimensionalized as
(3.337)
(3.338)
(3.339)
(3.340)
Assuming that the temperature can be expressed as
(3.341)
and substituting eq. (3.341) into eq. (3.337), one obtains
(3.342)
whose general solutions are:
2
2
, 0, Fo 0
Fo
X
X

= > >

0, 0 X = =
1, X =
1, 0, Fo 0 X = > =
( , Fo) ( ) (Fo) X X =
2
( ) (Fo)
( ) (Fo)
X
X

= =

51
(3.343)
(3.344)
where C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
Substituting eq. (3.341) into eq. (3.338), the following
boundary condition of eq. (3.343) is obtained
(3.345)
Substituting eq. (3.343) into eq. (3.345) yields and eq.
(3.343) becomes
(3.346)
solution becomes
(3.347)
1 2
cos sin C X C X = +
2
Fo
3
C e

=
(0) 0
=
2
sin C X =
( )
2
Fo
( )sin C X e

=
52
where . The general solution for the problem can
be obtained by using linear combination of eq. (3.347)
for all possible , i.e.,
(3.348)
Substituting eq. (3.348) into eq. (3.340), one obtains
If we solve the problem by using Laplace transformation,
we have
Comparing the above two equations, an expression of C is
obtained:
2 3
C C C =
( )
2
Fo
0
( )sin C X e d
( )
0
1 ( )sin C X d
=
=
( ) ( )
0 0
2
1 sin sin
X
X X dX d

= =
(

=
(

( )
0
2
( ) sin
X
C X dX
=

=

53
The temperature distribution, eq. (3.348), becomes
which can be rewritten as
Evaluating the integral with respect to yields
thus
(3.349)
( ) ( )
2
Fo
0 0
2
sin sin
X
e X dX X d dX
= =

=

[ ]
2
Fo
0 0
2
cos ( ) cos ( )
X
e X X X X d dX
= =

= +

2
2
Fo
0
( )
cos ( ) exp
4Fo 4Fo
X X
e X X d
=
(
=
(

2
2
Fo
0
( )
cos ( ) exp
4Fo 4Fo
X X
e X X d
=
( +
+ =
(

2 2
0 0
1 ( ) ( )
exp exp
4Fo 4Fo
4 Fo
X X
X X X X
dX dX

= =

( ( +

=
`
( (

)

54
Let us define a new variable
The first integral in eq. (3.349), becomes
Similarly, the second integral can be evaluated by following
a similar procedure:
Substituting the above two equations into eq. (3.349), we
have
4Fo
X X
=
2
2
0 / 4Fo
( )
exp 4Fo exp( )
4Fo
X X
X X
dX d

=
(
=
(

2
2
0 / 4Fo
( )
exp 4Fo exp( )
4Fo
X X
X X
dX d

=
( +
=
(

/ 4Fo
2 2 2
/ 4Fo / 4Fo 0
1 2
exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
X
X X
d d d

(
= =
(

55
which can be written as
(3.350)
where erf in eq. (3.350) is the error function defined as:
(3.351)
Equation (3.350) can also be rewritten as dimensional
form:
(3.352)
The surface heat flux can be obtained by applying the
Fouriers law
(3.353)
erf
4Fo
X
| |
=
|
\
2
0
2
erf ( )
z
z
z e dz
0
0
erf
4
i
T T x
T T
t
| |
=
|
\
0
0
0
( )
( )
i
x
k T T T
q t k
x
t
=

= =

56
Periodic boundary conditions can be encountered in
various applications ranging from heat conduction in a
building during day and night to emerging technologies
such as pulsed laser processing of materials. Let us
reconsider the problem described by eqs. (3.332)
(3.335) but replace eq. (3.333) by
(3.354)
where A is the amplitude of oscillation, is the angular
frequency, and is the phase delay. Introducing excess
temperature , the governing equation and
corresponding boundary and initial conditions become
(3.355)
(3.356)
( ) cos( ), 0 0
i i
T T f t T A t x t = + = + = , >
i
T T =
2
2
( ) 1 ( )
0 0
x t x t
x t
x t

, ,
= > , >

( ) ( ) cos( ) 0 0 x t f t A t x t , = = = , >
57
(3.357)
(3.358)
. Instead of solving eqs. (3.355) (3.358) directly, we will
start with a simpler auxiliary problem defined below:
(3.359)
(3.360)
(3.361)
(3.362)
where in eq. (3.360) is treated as a parameter, rather
than time.
( ) 0 0 x t x t , = , >
( ) 0 0 0 x t x t , = > , =
2
2
( ) 1 ( )
0 0
x t x t
x t
x t
, ,
= > , >

( ) ( ) cos( ) 0 0 x t f A x t , = = = , >
( ) 0 0 x t x t , = , >
( ) 0 0 0 x t x t , = > , =

58
The Duhamels theorem stated that the solution the original
problem is related to the solution of auxiliary problem by
(3.363)
which can rewritten using Leibnizs rule
(3.364)
The second term on the right hand side is
(3.365)
therefore, eq. (3.364) becomes
(3.366)
0
( , ) ( , , )
t
x t x t d
t

=

0
( , ) ( , , ) ( , , )
t
t
x t x t d x t
t

=
=
= +
( , , ) ( , 0, ) 0
t
x t x

=
= =
0
( , ) ( , , )
t
x t x t d
t

59
The solution of the auxiliary problem can be expressed as
(3.367)
The partial derivative appearing in eq. (3.366) can be
evaluated as
(3.368)
Substituting eq. (3.368) into eq. (3.366), the solution of the
original problem becomes
(3.369)
2
/ 4
2 ( )
( , , ) ( ) 1- erf
4
x t
x f
x t f e d
t
(
| |
= =
( |
\

2
3/ 2
( , , ) ( ) exp
4 ( )
4 ( )
x x
x t f
t t
t

(
=
(

2
3/ 2
0
( )
( , ) exp
( ) 4 ( )
4
t
x f x
x t d
t t
=
(
=
(


60
Introducing a new independent variable
eq. (3.369) becomes
(3.370)
For the periodic boundary condition specified in eq. (3.356),
we have
(3.371)
which can be rewritten as
(3.372)
4 ( )
x
t
2
2
2
/ 4
2
( , ) exp( )
4
x t
x
x t f t d
| |
=
|
\
2
2
2
/ 4
2
( , ) cos exp( )
4
x t
A x
x t t d
(
| |
=
( |
\

2
2
2
0
2
/ 4
2
2
0
2
( , ) cos exp( )
4
2
cos exp( )
4
x t
A x
x t t d
A x
t d
(
| |
=
( |
\

(
| |

( |
\


61
Evaluating the first integral on the right hand side of eq.
(3.372) yields
(3.373)
It can be seen that as , the second term will become
zero and the first term represents the steady oscillation.
(3.374)
where represents the amplitude of
oscillation at point x, and in the cosine
function represents the phase delay of oscillation at point
x relative to the oscillation of the surface temperature.
1/ 2 1/ 2
2
/ 4
2
2
0
( , ) exp cos
2 2
2
cos exp( )
4
x t
x t A x t x
A x
t d
( (
| | | |
=
( (
| |
\ \
( (

(
| |

( |
\

t
1/ 2 1/ 2
( , ) exp cos
2 2
s
x t A x t x

( (
| | | |
=
( (
| |
\ \
( (

( )
1/ 2
exp /(2 ) A x
(

( )
1/ 2
/(2 ) x
62
It is useful here to introduce a concept similar to the
thermal boundary layer for convective heat transfer
thermal penetration depth. Assuming the thickness of the
thermal penetration depth at time is the temperature
of the semi-infinite body at will be affected but the
temperature at will remain unchanged (see Fig. 3.20).
According to the definition of the thermal penetration depth,
the temperature at the thermal penetration depth should
satisfy
(3.375)
(3.376)
Integrating eq. (3.332) in the interval (0, ) one obtains
(3.377)
t
,
x >
( )
0 ( )
T x t
x t
x
,
= =
( ) ( )
i
T x t T x t , = =
( )
0
( ) 0
1 ( )
t
x t x
T T T x t
dx
x x t

= =
,
=


63
The right-hand side of eq. (3.377) can be rewritten using
Leibnitzs rule, i.e.,
(3.378)
which represents the energy balance within the thermal
penetration depth.
(t)
T
i
T
0
T
x
Figure 3.20 Heat conduction in a semi-infinite body with constant wall temperature.
0
( ) 0
1
x
x t x
T T d d
Tdx T
x x dt dt
=
= =

(
| |
=
|
(

\


64
Substituting eqs. (3.375) and (3.376) into eq. (3.378) yields
(3.379)
where
(3.380)
Assume that the temperature distribution in the thermal
penetration depth is a third-order polynomial function of
x, i.e.,
(3.381)
where A
0
, A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
and are four constants to be
determined using the boundary conditions.
The surface temperature of the semi-infinite body, T
0
, is not
a function of time t, so
(3.382)
0
( )
i
x
T d
T
x dt

=
( )
0
( ) ( )
t
t T x t dx
= ,
2 3
0 1 2 3
( ) T x t A A x A x A x , = + + +
( )
0 0
T x t
x
t
,
= =

65
(3.383)
Substituting eq. (3.381) into eqs. (3.333), (3.375), (3.376)
and (3.383) yields four equations for the constants in eq.
(3.381) . Solving for the four constants and substituting
the results into eq. (3.381), the temperature distribution
in the thermal penetration depth becomes
(3.384)
where the thermal penetration depth, is still unknown.
2
2
( )
0 0
T x t
x
x
,
= =
3
0
( ) 3 1
1
2 2
i
i
T x t T x x
T T
,
| | | |
= +
| |
\ \
,
66
Substituting eq. (3.384) into eq. (3.379), an ordinary
differential equation for is obtained:
(3.385)
Since the thermal penetration depth equals zero at the
beginning of the heat conduction, eq. (3.385) is subject
to the following initial condition:
(3.386)
The solution of eqs. (3.385) and (3.386) is
(3.387)
which is consistent with the result of scale analysis,
4 0
d
t
dt
= >
0 0 t = =
8 t =
t
67
Consider transient heat conduction in a rectangular bar
with dimensions of 2L
1
2L
2
and an initial temperature of
T
i
(see Fig. 3.21). At time t = 0, the rectangular bar is
immersed into a fluid with temperature T
.
3.3.2 Multidimensional Transient
Heat Conduction Systems
3.3.2 Multidimensional Transient
Heat Conduction Systems
Figure 3.21 Two-dimensional transient heat conduction
L
1
L
1
x
h
1
,T
y
0
h
1
,T
h
2
,T
L
2
h
2
,T
-L
2
68
The energy equation for this problem is
(3.388)
with the following boundary and initial conditions:
(3.389)
(3.390)
(3.391)
(3.392)
(3.393)
2 2
1 2
2 2
, 0 , 0 , 0
T T T
x L y L t
x y t

+ = < < < < >

2
0, 0, 0 , 0
T
x y L t
x
= = < < >
1 2
( ), , 0 , 0
T
k h T T x L y L t
x

= = < < >
1
0, y 0, 0 , 0
T
x L t
y
= = < < >
2 1
( ), y , 0 , 0
T
k h T T L x L t
y

= = < < >
1 2
, 0 , 0 , 0
i
T T x L y L t = < < < < >
69
(3.394)
where both Fo
1
and Fo
2
are Fourier numbers but based on
different characteristic lengths. The dimensional time will
be related to both Fourier numbers, i.e.,
(3.395)
therefore, the right-hand side of eq. (3.388) becomes
(3.396)
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
, , , Fo , Fo
i
T T x y t t
X Y
T T L L L L

= = = = =
1 2
(Fo , Fo ) t t =
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 1 2 2
Fo Fo
( ) ( )
Fo Fo
( )
Fo Fo
i i
i
T
T T T T
t t t t
T T
L L

(

= = +
(

(

= +
(

70
Nondimensionalizing the left-hand side of eq. (3.388) and
considering eq. (3.396), the dimensionless energy
equation of the problem becomes
(3.397)
The boundary and initial conditions, eqs. (3.389) (3.393)
are nondimensionalized as
(3.398)
(3.399)
(3.400)
(3.401)
2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
2 1 2 2
Fo Fo
L L
X L Y L

| | | |

+ = +
| |

\ \
1 2
0, X 0, 0 1, Fo 0, Fo 0 Y
X

= = < < > >
1 1 2
Bi , X 1, 0 1, Fo 0, Fo 0 Y
X
= = < < > >
1 2
0, Y 0, 0 1, Fo 0, Fo 0 X
Y

= = < < > >
2 1 2
Bi , 1, 0 1, Fo 0, Fo 0 Y X
Y
= = < < > >

71
(3.402)
where
(3.403)
are Bio numbers for different surfaces.
The idea of product solution is that the solution of the two-
dimensional problem can be expressed as the product of
two one-dimensional problem, i.e.,
(3.404)
where is the solution of the following problem
(3.405)
(3.406)
1 2
1, 0 1, 0 1, Fo Fo 0 X Y = < < < < = =
1 1 2 2
1 2
Bi , Bi
h L h L
k k
= =
1 2
( , Fo ) ( , Fo ) X Y =
2
2
1
Fo X

=

1
0, X 0, Fo 0
X

= = >

72
(3.407)
(3.408)
and satisfies
(3.409)
(3.410)
(3.411)
(3.412)
It can be demonstrated that eqs. (3.397) (3.402) can be
satisfied by eq. (3.404) if and are solutions of eqs.
(3.405) (3.408) and (3.409) (3.4120), respectively.
The solution of eqs. (3.405) (3.408) is:
(3.413)
1 1
Bi , X 1, Fo 0
X
= = >
1
1, 0 1, Fo 0 X = < < =
2
2
2
Fo Y

=

2
0, 0, Fo 0 Y
Y

= = >
2 2
Bi , 1, Fo 0 Y
Y
= = >
2
1, 0 1, Fo 0 Y = < < =

( )
2
1
Fo
1
4sin
cos
2 sin 2
n
n
n
n n n
X e

=
=
+

73
Where
(3.414)
and the solution of eqs. (3.409) (3.412) is
(3.415)
where
(3.416)
solution of the two-dimensional problem is obtained.
(3.417)
1
cot
Bi
n
n
=
( )
2
2
Fo
1
4sin
cos
2 sin 2
m
n
m
m m m
Y e

=
=
+
2
cot
Bi
m
m
=
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
( Fo Fo )
1 1
16sin sin cos cos
(2 sin 2 )(2 sin 2 )
n m
n m n m
n n m m n m
X Y
e

+
= =
=
+ +

Transient Heat Transfer

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Transient Heat Transfer

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Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

Figure 3.16 Transient conduction in a finite slab

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= = < < >

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= = < < > >

= = < < > >

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