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Reading and Interpreting Construction Drawings
Reading and Interpreting Construction Drawings
CopyrightJ.N.Ramaswamy,Ph.D.,P.E.www.pdhsite.com
READINGANDINTERPRETINGCONSTRUCTIONDRAWINGS By J.N.Ramaswamy,Ph.D.,P.E.
TABLEOFCONTENTS Page I. Introduction..1 II. ReadingMeasuringTools.3 III. LinesandSymbols.5 IV. OrthographicDrawings.12 V. ScaleReadingandDimensioning18 VI. PlotDrawings23 VII. FoundationDrawings.28 VIII. FramingDrawings.35
IX. PlumbingDrawings..42 X. HVACDrawings46 XI. ElectricalDrawings48 XII. WeldingDrawings.54 LISTOFFIGURES II.1.MeasuringTape3 II.2.RelationshipbetweenInchandMillimeter4 III.1.CommonLines5 III.2.DimensionandExtensionLines6 III.3.BreakLines7 III.4.SectionCuttingLines7 III.5.SectionLines8 III.6.ListofSymbols911 IV.1.ProjectionofOrthographicViews12
IV.2.ObjectwithinaGlassCube.13 IV.3.BlockwithaNotch13 IV.4.OrthographicViewoftheNotchedBlock13 IV.5.SectionalView16 IV.6.DetailsofaCornice17 V.1.ArchitectsScale19 V.2.EngineersScale20 V.3.DimensioningMasonryWalls21 V.4.DimensioningWindowsinMasonryandFrameBuildings21 VI.1.ContourLineswithElevationandGeneralPlotLayout24 VI.2.ContourswithSection..25 VI.3.ContourLineswithDecreasingElevationsTowardtheMiddle25 VI.4.ContourLineswithIncreasingElevationsTowardtheMiddle26 VI.5.ContourLineswithOriginalandFinishedGrade26 VI.6.CommonTopographicSymbols27 VII.1.Footing28 VII.2.WallandFootingPartialFoundationPlan29 VII.3.FoundationWellSection30 VII.4.SectionandPlanofAugerCastPile31 VII.5.SteelHPileFoundation32 VII.6.MonolithicSlabfoundation33 VII.7.SlabfloorWithinFoundationWalls33 VII.8.ThickenedSlabbelowLoadbearingWalls34 VIII.1.FloorFramingComponents35 VIII.2.AdditionalFloorFramingMembers36 VIII.3.DimensioningofExteriorWall37 VIII.4.PlatformFraming38 VIII.5.BalloonFraming38 VIII.6.WallFrameComponents39 VIII.7.LoadbearingPartitions40 VIII.8.ATypicalDoorSchedule40 VIII.9.CommonRoofStyles41 VIII.10.CommonRoofFramingTerms41 IX.1.CommonPlumbingSymbols43 IX.2.WaterDistributionSystem(Isometricview)44 X.1.AirConditioningSymbols46 XI.1.CommonSymbolsonElectricalPlan48 XI.2.TypicalControlWiringDiagram49
XI.3.OnLineDiagram50 XI.4.PanelSchedule51 XI.5.EquipmentSchedule52 XII.1.BasicWeldingSymbol54 XII.2.BasicWeldsymbols55 XII.3.WeldDimensions55 XII.4.ContourSymbols56 XII.5.GrooveSymbols57 XII.6.SpotWeldSymbols57 XII.7.WeldallAroundSymbols58 XII.8.FieldWeldSymbol58 XII.9.MeltthroughSymbol58
I. INTRODUCTION Constructiondrawingsareusedtocommunicatethearchitecturalandengineeringdesignofa constructionproject.Therearetwotypesofconstructiondrawings:(1)Pictorialdrawingsand (2)Orthographicprojections.Pictorialdrawingsarecalledrenderingsandareusedfor presentationsandarenotintendedtoshowconstructiondetails.Orthographicprojectionsare usedinconstructionprojectsandshowdifferentviewsofthesubjectsuchasabuilding.Each viewistakenfromadifferentreferencepointandallowsallthedetailsofastructure.The viewsusedinconstructiondrawingsarethetop,front,side,andback.Thetopviewiscalleda plandrawing.Front.Side,andbackviewsarecalledelevations.Aviewoftheinteriorofthe buildingiscalledsectionorinteriorelevation.Readingconstructiondrawingsisthe gatheringofinformationfromadrawing.Itinvolvestwoprincipalelements:visualizationand interpretation.Visualizationistheabilitytocreateamentalimageofabuildingfromasetof workingdrawings.Astudyofdrawingreadingprinciplesandlearningtosketchwillhelpone visualizeconstructiondrawings.Interpretationistheabilitytounderstandlines,symbols, dimensions,notes,andotherinformationontheworkingdrawings. I.1.Typeofdrawings Drawingsareusuallyarrangedintheapproximateorderofconstruction.Asetofdrawings consistsof:Civil(C1,C2,etc),Structural(S1,S2,etc),Architectural(A1,A2,etc),Electrical (E1,E2,etc),Mechanical(M1,M2,etc),andPlumbing(P1,P2,etc). Civilengineeringdrawings(C)includeplotorsiteplans,utilities,easements,grading,and landscapedetails.Thesiteplancanalsoincludecontourlines,walks,driveways,propertylines, buildingsetbacks,andutilitylocations. Structuraldrawings(S)includefoundation,structuralsteel,buildingsupportsystem,androof framingsystemalongwithsectionsanddetails. Architecturaldrawings(A)includefloorplans,elevations,buildingsections,doorandwindow schedules,androomfinishes.Thefloorplanisanimportantdrawingbecauseitprovidesthe mostimportantinformationandactsasareferenceforthelocationofadditionalsectionsand details.Thefloorplanshowsfloorfinishes,walls,doors,stairways,fireplaces,builtincabinets,
andmechanicalequipment.Elevationsareviewsoftheexteriorfeaturesofthebuilding. Usuallyaminimumoffourelevationdrawingsisneededtoshowthedesignofallsidesofthe structure.Sectionsareviewsshowingthebuildingasifitwerecutapart.Theyshowwalls, stairsandotherdetailsnotclearlyshowninotherdrawings.Sectionstakenthroughtheshort dimensionofabuildingareknownastransversesections.Thosetakenthroughthelong dimensionareknownaslongitudinalsections.Detaildrawingsarepreparedforcomplex buildingcomponentsandunusualconstructionsuchasanarch,acornice,astructuralsteel connectionoraretainingwall.Schedulesarelistsofmaterialsneededintheconstruction process.Aschedulenormallyliststheitem,anidentificationmark,size,numberrequired,and anyotherusefulinformation.Differenttypeofschedulesinclude:doorschedules,window schedules,lightingfixtureschedules,androomfinishschedules. TheElectricaldrawings(E)includetheelectricalwiring,lightingplan,reflectedceilingplan,and panelschedules. TheMechanicaldrawings(M)includeheating,ventilating,andairconditioning(HVAC)plans, plumbingplans,sprinklersystems,andscheduleforpipeandfittings,HVACequipment,and plumbingfixtures. Theplumbingplan(P)showsthelayoutforthehotandcoldwatersystems,thesewage disposalsystem,andthelocationofplumbingfixtures. Structuralframingplans(S)maybeincludedinasetofplansfortheframingoftheroof,floors, andvariouselevationorwallsections.
FigureII.1.MeasuringTape
FigureII.2RelationshipbetweenInchandMillimeter
FigureIII.5SectionLines
(Theyareusedinasectionalviewtoshowmaterialthathasbeencutbythe cuttingplaneline.
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FigureIII.6ListofSymbols
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FigureIII.6ListofSymbols
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IV.1.Creatingorthographicdrawings
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FigureIV.2showsanobjectwithinaglasscube.Thecubehassixsidesandiftheobjectis viewedthroughanyofthesides,onlyonefaceoftheobjectwouldbeseen.Eachview throughthesideofthecubewouldcreateoneorthographicview.FigureIV.3showsablock withanotchcutintoonecorner.TheorthographicdrawingoftheblockisshowninFigure IV.4.Referringtothisfiguretheprocedurelistedbelowisfollowedforcreatingan orthographicdrawing. 1. Beginbydrawingthefrontview.Allviewsshouldbedrawntoscale.Selectthe objectspositionsothatmostofthefeaturesarelocatedonthefront,side,andtop. 2. Ateveryedgeandfeatureshownonthefrontview,perpendicularprojectorsare drawnintheverticalandhorizontaldirections.Theseconstructionlinesaredrawn lightly,anderasedwhenthedrawingiscomplete. 3. Drawthetopandsideviews.Theprojectionlinesconnectcommonfeatures betweenviews. 4. Fromthefrontedgeofthetopview,drawahorizontalprojectionline.Drawa verticalprojectionlinefromthefrontedgeofthesideview. 5. Attheintersectionoftheselines,drawalineata450angle.Projectionlinesfor featurescommontothetopandsideviewswillintersectatthisline. IV.2.ConstructiondrawingsForconstructiondrawings,differentviewsofthebuildingsuchas floorplansandelevationsareobtainedusingorthographicprojection. IV.2.1.PlanviewsThetopviewofthebuildingiscalledaplanview.Planviewsaretakenat differentlevelsthroughoutthebuilding.Incomplicatedbuildings,eachfloormayrequire multipleplanviewstoillustrateallconstructiondetails. IV.2.1.1.FloorplanThefloorplanshowsthelayoutofthebuildingandshowswalls,doors, windows,rooms,andstairs.Otheritemssuchasplumbingandelectricalcanalsobeshownif spaceisavailable.Floorplansaredrawnusuallytoscale1/48or1/4=10.Aseparate drawingismadeforeachfloorincludingthebasement. IV.2.1.2.FoundationplanThefoundationplanissimilartothefloorplan,exceptitshowsthe foundationofthebuildingandincludesbasement,foundationwalls,slabs,piers,andfootings. IV.2.1.3.FramingplanFramingplanshowsthelayoutofthestructuralmemberssupportinga floororroof.Aframingplanisoftenincludedforeachfloor.Ifthereisroom,detaildrawings oftheconnectionsbetweenmembersmaybeincluded.
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IV.2.1.4.ElectricalplanElectricalplanincludeslocationofreceptacles,switches,andfixtures. Anothertypeofelectricalplan,thereflectedceilingplanincludesceilingmountedlight fixtures. IV2.1.5.PlumbingplanTheplumbingplanshowsheatingandcirculatingequipment,supply andwastesystems,plumbingfixtures,andthespotwherethewaterpipeentersthebuilding. IV.2.1.5.MechanicalplanAmechanicalplanshowstheheating,ventilating,andair conditioningsystem(HVAC)andanymechanicalequipmentandsystemslocatedinthe building. IV.2.2.ElevationsElevationsareorthographic,exteriorviewsofabuildingandshowfeatures suchasthestyleofthebuilding,doors,windows,chimneys,andmoldings.Elevationsare designatedasFront,Right,Left,andRear.Theymaybealsoidentifiedbytheplan directionthattheelevationfacessuchasEastelevationandWestelevationetc.Interior elevationsmaybeprovidedtoshowtheconstructionofaparticularinteriorwallorarea.The basementorfoundationwallsandfootingsareshownwithhiddenlinesonelevations. IV.2.3.SectionsBesidestheplansandelevations,itmaybenecessarytoshowtheinsideof awall,cabinet,orroofstructuretoclarifyconstructionprocedures.Whenthedrawingisan imaginarycutthroughawallorotherfeature,itisknownassectionalvieworsection. Sectionsareprovidedforwalls,cabinets,chimneys,stairs,andotherfeatureswhose constructionisnotshownclearlyontheplanorelevation.FigureIV.5,shownbelow,isan exampleofasectionalviewshowingconstructiondetails.
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FigureIV.5SectionalView
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FigureIV.6DetailsofaCornice
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V. SCALEREADINGANDDIMENSIONING Constructiondrawingsaredrawntoareducedscale(smallerthanactualsize).Thescaleof aparticularplan,elevation,ordetailisindicatedonthesheeteitherinthetitleblockor beneaththedrawingitself.Onadrawing,thescaleisdefinedinthefollowingmanner: SCALE:=10.Thismeansthatalengthonthescaledrawingisequaltoalengthof onefootinreality. V.1.ArchitectsscaleInadditiontoreferringtotherelativesizeatwhichadrawinghas beenmade,thetermscalealsoreferstotheinstrument(ruler)usedtomeasuredistances onadrawing.Themostcommonscaleusedinthiscountryisthearchitectsscale;the engineersscaleisalsoused.Bothmeasureincustomaryunits.Thearchitectsscalecanbe usedtomeasuredistancesonadrawingbymatchingthedrawingscaletotheappropriate scalelistedontheinstrument.Architectsandengineersscalesareavailableinboththree sided(triangular)andflatforms(twosided).Typicalscalesfoundonathreesided architectsscalearelistedonthefollowingtable. ScaleSmallesttickmark 3/323 3/162 1/82 1/41 3/81/2 3/41/4 1/21/4 11/8 11/16 31/16 Thescalemostcommonlyusedforfloorplansinthecustomarymeasurementsystemis
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FigureV.1ArchitectsScale Placethescaleonthedrawingsuchthatoneendofthelineispastthe0markintotheparts ofafootandinchesarea.Next,aligntheotherendofthelinewiththenearestfootmark. Notetheinchesandfractionsbeyondthe0mark,andaddthatmeasurementtothe indicatednumberoffeettofindthedistancerepresentedbytheline.Aproperlyprepared drawingwillincludeallneededdimensions.Scalingadrawingformeasurementsnot providedmustbedonecarefully. V.2.EngineersscaleTheengineersscaleistypicallyusedoncivildrawingssuchasthe siteplansandhighwayprojects.Engineersscalesarereferredtoinwholenumbersandare relatedtosomanyfeetperinch.A20scalewouldbenotedas1=20thismeansevery inchonthedrawingequals20feetinreality.Thepurposeoftheengineersscaleistobe abletolayoutlargerareasofaprojectandgettheprojectononedrawing.Typicalscales foundonathreesidedengineersscaleare: 1=10(alsocanrepresent100,1000oreven10,000) 1=20(200,200020,000) 1=30(300,300030,000) 1=40(400,400040,000) 1=50(500,500050,000) 1=60(600,600060,000)
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FigureV.2showsthemeasurementofalineusingengineersscaleof1=10.
FigureV.2EngineersScale V.3.MetricsystemThemetricsystemofmeasurementhasseenlittleuseinthiscountry primarilybecausemetricconstructionstandardshavenotbeenestablished.Oncemetric standardshavebeenadoptedandmetricmodularmaterialsbecomeavailable,metric dimensioningwillbeused.Themetricscalecloselyrepresentingthecustomaryquarter inchscale(1/48)sizeisthe1:50scale(1/50size)inwhichatwocentimeterlengthonthe drawingequalsaonemeter(100cm)lengthontheactualobject. V.4.DimensioningtechniqueAdimensionlinecanterminateinanarrowhead,dot,ortick mark.Thedimensionscanbewrittenabove,below,orwithinthedimensionline.Any dimensionthatcanbeneededduringconstructionshouldbeincludedonthedrawing. Unnecessarydimensionsshouldnotbeincluded. V.4.1.DimensioningfloorplansThedimensionsonthefloorplanmustbecorrectbecause otherdrawingswillusefloorplanastheirbasis.Dimensionsofwalls,windows,anddoors areincluded.Whendimensioningwalls,differenttypesofwallsaredimensioned differently.MasonrywallsdimensionedtotheirexteriorsurfaceasinFigureV.3
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VI. PLOTDRAWINGS VI.1.FeaturesofplotdrawingsAplotdrawingisusuallycalledaplotplanorasiteplan.It isaviewfromabovethepropertythatshowsthelocationofthebuildingonthelot.Many featuresasshownbelowmaybeshownontheplotplan: Lotandblocknumberoraddress. Bearing(direction)andlengthofpropertylines. Northarrow. Dimensionsoffront,rear,andsideyards. Locationofotheraccessorybuildings(carport,garage,etc). Locationofwalks,drives,fences,andpatios. Locationofeasementsetbacks. Locationofutilities(gas,electric,water,andsewage). Elevationsatthevariouslocations. Treesandshrubstoberetained. Gradesandtopographyofthesite.
VI.1.1.NortharrowThenortharrowindicatesthenorthdirectionandwillhelptovisualize thestructure.Ifthewallsofthebuildingarenotparalleltothecompassdirections,aplan northmaybedesignated.Theplannorthwillbeslightlydifferentfromthetruenorth.A plannorthisprovidedsothatthereisareferencedirectionalignedwiththebuilding. VI.1.2.PropertylinesLinesoutliningthebuildingplotarecalledpropertylines.Thelength andbearing(direction)ofeachpropertylineisidentifiedontheplotplan.Bearingis expressedasdegreeseastorwestornorthorsouthandgivenindegrees,minutes,and seconds.(Aminuteis1/60thofadegree,asecondis1/60thofaminute).Whenthe propertylineisacurveinsteadofastraightline,itisidentifiedbyaradius,lengthofcurve, anditsangleoftangency.
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FigureVI.3ContourLineswithDecreasing ElevationsTowardtheMiddle
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usedonplans.Plotplansshouldalsoincludealistofsymbolsusedtoidentifyfeatures. Thislistiscalledalegend.
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Footingsarealsorequiredundercolumns.Thesefootingsareusuallywiderandthickerthan thoseforfoundationwallsbecausethecolumnloadsareconcentratedononespot.Fireplace
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FigureVII.4SectionandPlanofAugerCastPile AFrictionpile.BBearingpile VII.4.CaissonsCaissonsarealsodrilledtothedesigndepthandareusuallyfrom1872in diameter.Thedrillisthenremovedandthebottomofthecaissontestedforsoilloadcapacity. Aftertheholepassesinspection,asteelreinforcingcageisinstalled,andtheholeisfilledwith concrete. VII.5.SteelpilesAsteelpileisalongHshaped(Hpile)orround(pipepile)steelmemberthat ishammerdrivenintotheearth.Thepileisdriventoasuitablesupportstratumordrivento frictionresistanceofthesoil(thistypeofpileisreferredtoasafrictionpile).Onadrawingwith thistypeoffoundationsystem,severalsteelpilescanbeseenclusteredtogetherandtopped withapilecaptomaketheclusterworkastotalloadsystem.SeeFigureVII.5.
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FigureVII.8ThickenedSlabBelow LoadbearingWall VII.7.FoundationelevationsElevationsforafoundationaremarkedonthefoundationplan view.Dependingonthetypeoffoundation,theelevationswillbegivenforvariouspartsofthe system.Forwallfootings,thetopofthefootingisgivenandsometimesthebottomofthe footingwillalsobemarkedasanelevation.Foraugercastpiles,caissons,andsteelpiles,the topofthepilecapistheelevationgiven. VII.8.SlabreinforcementSteelreinforcingrodsorweldedwirefabricarecastintheconcrete whenaslabissubjectedtodryingshrinkage.Reinforcementisalsousedwhentheconcrete slabisexpectedtobesubjectedtotensionduetothesettlingofadirtfillorheavyload.A typicalnotespecifyingweldedwirefabricinaconcretefloorwouldreadas:#4@12o/cEW OVER4ABC. VII.9.WaterproofingfoundationsWaterproofingoffoundationwallsisneededinareaswhere soilandclimaticconditionsdemandprotectionfromundergroundwater.Residential waterproofingusuallyconsistsofmoppingtheoutsideofthefoundationwallwithtaror asphalt.Sometimesapolyethylenesheetisappliedoverthetar.Drawingsforafoundationto bewaterproofedwillhaveaheavyblacklineontheexteriorwallwithanoteindicating location.Alayerofcrushedrockorgravelislaidbelowthefloorarea.Thislayeristhen coveredwithaheavyplasticvaporbarriertokeepthedampnessinthegroundfrom transferringtotheslab.
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FigureVIII.1FloorFrameComponents Sillplate:Thesillplateisaboardattachedtotopsurfaceofthefoundationwall.Anchor boltscastintheconcreteareusedfortheconnection.A2x6memberisoftenusedfor thesillplate. Header:Theheaderisnailedtothetopofthesillplateatitsexterioredge.Theheader ispositionedwithitslongercrosssectionaldimensionvertical.Theheaderisofthe samesizeasthejoistsattachedtoit. Joists:Theendsofthesefloorsupportbeamsrestonthesillplate,andarenailedtothe header.Joistsarenormallyspaced1216apart.Commonlumbersizesusedasjoists are2x8,2x10,and2x12.
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FigureVIII.2AdditionalFloorFramingMembers Doubleheader:Whenanopeningthatdisruptstheframingpatternisneeded,adouble header,samesizeasthejoists,isinstalledperpendiculartothejoists. Doubletrimmer:Twojoistsarenailedtogethernexttoanopening. Tailjoist:Thesearejoistsinterruptedbyanopening.Theynormallyrunbetweenthe doubleheaderandthesillplate. Ledger:Aledgerisasmallpieceoflumber,suchas2x2,nailedtothesideofthedouble header,atitsbottomedge.Thispieceservesasaledgeonwhichthetailjoistsrest. Notchesmustbecutintothejoists. Bridging:Thesesmallmembersareconnectedbetweenthesidesoftheadjacentjoists. Bridgingprovideslateralstabilityforthejoistsandhelpstotransmitloadbetweenthe joists.Manytypesofbridgingareused:joistsizedmembers,crossed2x4s,orcrossed metalbars. Thefloorframingsystemisoftenshownonthefloorplan.Thesizesofthemembersaregiven. Joistswillbespecifiedinmannersimilarto2x12JOISTS16O.C.(oncenter),followedby markstoindicatedirectionofthespan. A2x12memberisusedforeachjoist.Thejoistsarespaced16fromoneanother.Joistsona planrepresentthejoistsabovethelevelshown.
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VIII.3.DimensioningfloorframesNormally,dimensionsforexteriorwallsaregiventothe outsideofthestudwallforframeandbrickveneerbuildings.SeeFigureVIII.3
FigureVIII.3Dimensioningof ExteriorWall Anotemaybeaddedtothedrawingtoread:exteriordimensionsaretooutsideofstuds; interiordimensionsaretocenterofstuds.Drawingsshouldbecheckedcarefullytoverifythe dimensioningpracticeused.Usuallyinteriorwallsofframeconstructionaredimensionedto theiredges,butsometimestotheircenterlines.Masonryinteriorwallsaredimensionedto theirfaces,withthewallthicknessalsodimensioned.Housesthathavesecondstoriessmaller thanthefirstarecalledoneandahalfstoryhouses.Thesehousesusuallyinvolvekneewalls (shortwallsjoinedbyaslopingceiling)anddormers.Splitlevelhouseshavefloorplansin whichthelevelsareseparatedbyhalfflightofstairs.Manyvariationsarecalledforinframing ofthistypeofstructure. VIII.4.WallframesTherearethreebasictypesoflightframeconstruction:platform,balloon, andparkandbeam. VIII.4.1.PlatformframingPlatformframing,alsoknownaswesternframing,isthemost widelyusedtype.Thefirstfloorisbuiltontopofthefoundation,soitresemblesaplatform whenthesubflooringiscomplete.Thefirstfloorandwallsectionsareraisedandasecond floorplatformisbuiltontopofthesewalls.Then,thesecondfloorwallsectionsareraisedand anotherplatformforthesecondstoryceilingisconstructed.Eachfloorisaseparateunitbuilt onthestructurebelow.SeeFigureVIII.4.
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FigureVIII.5BalloonFraming
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FigureVIII.6WallFrameComponents Soleplate:Thisservesasabaseforthewallframe.Thesoleplateisthesamesize memberasthestuds(normally2x4or2x6)andisnailedtothesubfloor. Studs:Studsaretheverticalmembersinthewallframe,runningfromthesoleplateto thetopplate.Studsarenormally2x4or2x6members. Header:Whensomestudsmustbeleftouttomakeroomforawindoworroom,a headerisusedtodistributetheweightofthebuildingaroundtheopening.Most commonwayofconstructingheadersistoruntwo2x4memberssidewaysandinsert a3/8spacer.Theheaderisnailedinplace. Trimmerstud:Astudisalwayslocatedoneithersideofaheader.Nexttothesestuds andbelowtheheader,trimmerstudsareplaced.Atrimmerstudextendsfromthe soleplatetothebottomoftheheader.Itisattachedtoboththestudatthesideand totheheader. Roughsill:Aroughsillispositionedtosupportawindow. Cripplestud:Cripplestudsareshortandextendbetweenthetopplateandtheheader orthesoleplateandroughsill.Theyaresimilartotrimmerstuds,butarenotpaired withanadjacentstud.
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FigureVIII.9CommonRoofStyles FigureVIII.10illustratessomecommontermsusedinroofframing:
FigureVIII.10CommonRoofFramingTerms
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IX. PLUMBINGDRAWINGS Inmostresidences,plumbingconsistsofthewaterdistributionsystem,sewagedisposal system,andpipingneededforheatingandcoolingsystems.Sometimes,pipingdiagramsare unnecessary.Symbolsontheplandrawingslocatefixturessuchassinks,waterclosets,floor drains,andexteriorhosebibs.Theplumberinstallsthesysteminaccordancewiththe specificationsandlocalgovernmentcodes.Plumbersmustcoordinatetheirworkassignment withothercraftspeople,becauseplumbingtakesplaceduringthreedifferentstagesof construction: Initialstageprovidesfortheserviceentranceofthewatersupplyandsewerdraintothe buildingaremadepriortothepouringofthefoundation. Thenextstageistheroughinplumbing,whichincludesinstallingwatersupplypipes andsewagedrainpipes.Theroughinworkisperformedbeforetheslabispouredin slabongradeconstructionandbeforewallcoveringmaterialsareplacedonthewall framing. Thefinalstageisthefinishplumbing,whichincludestheinstallationandconnectionof fixturesafterthefloorandwallsarefinished. IX.1.WaterdistributionsystemThewaterdistributionsystemincludesthemainsupplyline tothebuildingfromthemunicipalwatermeter,individualwell,orothersourceofsupply.All pipesthattakewaterfromthemaintothevariousserviceoutlets(waterheaters,sinks,water closets,hosebibsetc.)arecalleddistributionpipes.Thedistributionsystemalsoincludesallof thecontrolvalves.Symbolsforplumbingfixturesarepictorialrepresentativesofthefixtures andtheyareshownontheplanviewsandoninteriorelevationviews.Themostcommonly usedsymbolsforplumbingareshowninFigureIX.1
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FigureIX.1CommonPlumbingSymbols IX.2.DistributionpipingmaterialsPipingmaterialsusedforwaterdistributionincludecopper, galvanizedsteel,brass,andplastic.Copperandplasticarethemostcommon.Copperpiping shouldnotbeembeddedinconcreteslabs,masonrywalls,orfootings.Whenitisnecessaryfor thepipetogothroughaslaborawall,aplasticsleeveoralargerpipeshouldbeplaced betweenthecopperwaterpipeandconcrete.Thiswillpermitmovementduetoexpansionof thecopper.Galvanizedsteelpipehasgreatstrengthanddimensionalstability.Thegalvanized coatingprotectsthepipeagainstrusting.Brasspipeisusedforhighlycorrosivewater.This typeofpipewouldbeusedinsituationssuchascoastalareaswheresaltwaterisusedfor cooling,baths,orotherapplications.Plasticpipeisusedextensively.Threeofthemost commontypesareacrylonitrilebutadienestyrene(ABS),polyvinylchloride(PVC),and polybutylene.Plasticpipesandfittingsusesolventweldedjoints.FigureIX.2showsan isometricviewofthewaterdistributionsystem. IX.3.SewagedisposalsystemThesewagedisposalsystemisalsoknownasthe drain/waste/vent(DWV)system.Itincludesaverticalsoil(waste)stack,avent,andatrapfor eachfixture.Thewastestackcarriesthewastewatertothebuildingdrain,tothebuilding sewerlineoutsidethebuilding,andtothepublicsewerorseptictank.Atthebaseofeach stack,fittingscalledcleanouts(CO)areinstalledtoprovideaccesstocleanoutthecloggedline withaplumbersrodortape.Pipingcanbeshownonplanandelevationviews,butoftenan isometricdrawingofthesystemisprovided.
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returnedtotheheatingunitthroughductsandafilteringsystemtobereheatedandre circulated.Sourcesofheatforforcedairsystemsarenaturalgas,liquefiedpetroleumgas (LPG),oil,coal,orelectricity.Drawingsoftenspecifytheairflowrateatagivenpointincubic feetperminute(CFM). X.1.2.HydronicheatingsystemInahydronicheatingsystem,waterisheatedtoa temperatureof2000F(900C)inaboiler.Then,thehotwateriscirculatedbyapumpandpiping systemtoconvectorsinthespacestobeheated.Drawings,whenprovided,aresuperimposed overthefloorplanorgiveninanisometricdiagram. X.1.3.ElectricradiantheatingElectricradiantheatingisusuallyprovidedbywiresembedded intheceilings,walls,orfloorsandbaseboardsofthebuilding.Radiantheatisgivenoffbythe materials(suchasconcreteorplaster)thatarewarmedbyresistanceinducedinthewires embeddedinthem.Heatingsystemdrawingscanbesuperimposedoverthefloorplansona separatediagramprovidedwithappropriatenotes.Whendrawingsarenotprovided,the amountofheatrequiredforeachspaceisnotedonthefloorplan. X.2.CoolingsystemsCoolingsystemscanbegroupedasunitsystems(windoworwall mounted)andremotesystems(refrigerationequipmentlocatedawayfromtheareatobe conditioned).Athirdsystem,evaporativesystem,isusedinspecialcircumstances. X.2.1.UnitcoolingsystemsUnitcoolingsystemsareprovidedtocoolaroomandareinstalled inawindoworspaceprovidedinanexteriorwall.Verylittleconstructionisinstalledintheir installation. X.2.2.RemotecoolingsystemsRemotecoolingsystemshavethecondensingunitinaremote spaceawayfromtheareatobecooled.Theevaporatorisinthemainduct,whereafanforces airpastthecoolingcoilsandcirculatestheairtotheroomstobecooled. X.2.3.EvaporativecoolingsystemsEvaporativecoolingsystemsaremosteffectiveindry climateswheretherelativehumidityislow(20%orless).Thesystemfunctionsbymovingair rapidlyoverapadofloosefibersthatiskeptmoistbyawaterspraymist.Theairiscooledasit passesthroughthepad,andthencarriedthroughaductsystemtotherooms.Thesupplyduct layoutforanevaporativecoolingsystemissimilartothatofaforcedairsystem. X.3.AirfiltersMostheatingandcoolingsystemsprovideameansoffilteringtheairthatflows throughthesystem.Thefiltersusuallyhaveanadhesiveoroilcoatthatcollectlintanddust particles.Thesefiltersmaybedisposableorwashable.Anelectrostaticfilterisusuallya separateunitaddedtothesystem.Itisnotedontheheatingandcoolingplananddetailedin thespecifications.
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FigureXI.1CommonSymbolsonElectricalPlan
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FigureXI.5EquipmentSchedule XI.5.ElectricalcircuitsAcircuitisthepathofelectricityfromasource(distributionpanel) throughthecomponents(receptacles,lights)andbacktothesource.Circuitsarenumberedon thediagramandconnectedbyaheavyline,endinginanarrowthatindicatesthecircuitis connectedtothedistributionpanel.Electricityisbroughtintothebuildingbywayofthe serviceentrancethroughthemeterandontothedistributionpanel.Formostresidences,one distributionpanelissufficient.Therearebranchcircuitsasshownbelow: Generallightingcircuitsusedprimarilyforlightingandsmallportableappliancessuchas radios,TVsets,andvacuumcleaners. Generalappliancecircuitsusedforthoseoutletsalongthekitchencounterserving toasters,waffleirons,mixers,andotherappliances. Individualappliancecircuitsusedformajorappliancesthatrequirelargeamountsof electricity,suchasrangeovens,washers,dryers,andwaterheaters. Equipmentcircuitsthatfurnishpowertomotordrivenequipment.
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Dedicatedcircuitsforcomputersandotherspecialequipmentthatcannottolerate voltagefluctuationsorinterruptions. XI.6.Groundfaultcircuitinterrupters(GFCI)TheuseofaGFCIisdefinedintheNational ElectricalCodeandtheyareinstalledinareaswheremoisturemaybepresentorwherethe userofanelectricallypoweredtoolorappliancecouldcomeincontactwithagroundedmetal surface.TheuseofaGFCIisdefinedintheNationalElectricalCode(NEC).AGFCIwillopenthe circuitifacurrentleakageorfault(toground)occursinexcessof0.006amperes.These interruptionsoccurwhenthedifferenceincurrententeringandcurrentleavingthecircuitare notidentical.TheGFCIautomaticallysensesthefaultandturnsoffthepowerwithin25to30 milliseconds.Thesedevicesmustbeusedinthefollowingsituations: Inkitchenswherereceptaclesarewithin66ofthesink. Inbathrooms. Ingarageswheremoistureispresentorthereisdirectaccesstograde,unlessthe receptacleisnotreadilyaccessibleorisdedicatedtoafixedappliance,suchasafreezer. Forexteriorreceptacleswhereaccesstogradeispossible.
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FigureXII.1BasicWeldingSymbol
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FigureXII.3WeldDimensions
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XII.4.3.SpotweldThesearespecifiedbytheirdiameter,strengthinpounds,pitch(centerto center),andnumberofweldsasshowninFigureXII.6.
XII.4.4.AllaroundweldTheweldallaroundsymbol,asshowninFigureXII.7,indicatesthat theweldextendscompletelyaroundajoint.
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