S 13 Tim 18

ridhk oHdj
13 jk fYa%Ksh
.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

^2010 jif isg ls%hd;aul f&
oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

oHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
ridhk oHdj
13 jk fYa%Ksh
.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

^2010 jif isg ls%hd;aul f&
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
m%:u uqo%Kh - 2010
oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
uqo%Kh -
ii
wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh
ksmqK;d mdol Ihud,dj mdi,a moaO;shg ykajd f ldhh 13 jk fYa%Ksfha

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y ykajdu;a iu imqK f' 12 jk yd 13 jk fYa%Ksj, isiq
isiqhka Yaj oHd, m%fYh i|yd mj;sk oe ;r.hg f.dre u ksid ksrka;rj u h
;rul mSvkhlg hg;a f' kj Ihud,dj m%:u j;djg w'fmd'i' ^Wiia fm<& i|yd
fhdod .efkk g fuu mSvkh ;j;a oe f' tjeks wjia:djl Tn w;g m;ajk .=re
udf.damfoaY ix.%yh" Ih ksfoaY ;rug u .=rejrekg jeo.;a jkafka h' fuys uq,slj
u .=rejrhd ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= me;s ;=kla we;' tk .=re udf.damfoaY Ih ksfoaYh
yd mqK j .e<mS ;su" Ihud,df wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d mdolj Ihud,df oYkh
yd oelau uq,afldg f.k ilid ;su yd 12 - 13 fYa%Ksj, orejdf.ka wfmalaIs; idOk
ugu fufkys fldg ilid ;su' tfyhska fuh fydka mYS,kh lsu .=rejrhdg
w;HjYH ldhhla yd j.lSula jkafka h'
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh by; lS lreKq ;=k u Tnf.a wjOdkhg f.k tau i|yd
13 jk fYa%Ksj, b.eka lrk ishu .=rejrekg ta i|yd wjYH mqyqKq ,nd u i|yd
o ls%hd;aul is' ksrka;r j meje;afjk fuu mqyqKq ieisj,g wod< .=rejreka iyNd.s
u w;sYhska u wjYH lreKla jkafka fuys oelafjk bf.kq-b.eka uQ, Ou yd
ls%hdodu jgyd .ekSug mqyqKqj fnfyka bjy,a jk ksid h' fYaIfhka u mdi,a mdol
we.hS ls%hd" ksmqK;d jOkh i|yd bjy,a lr .ekSu wfmalaId flf' Ih lreKqj,g
muKla b.ekau hg;aug fkd isiqkf.a l=i,;d Tm .ekaf wNs,dIh bgqlrug f
ish uey;a wjYH nj wOHdmk yd we.hS ldhfha kshef,k wm ish u fokd
jgyd .; hq;= f'
.=re udf.damfoaY ms<sfh, lsf w;sYh fjfyild ldhh bgqlr,Sug uey;a
jq cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha ishu Ydia;S%h wxYj, ks,Odka we;= ldh uKav, yd
ndysr j ta i|yd odhl jq oaj;a yeu fokdg u o udf.a fYaI ia;+;sh ys f'
wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor

wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
iii
ix{dmkh
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh 2010 jIfha isg 13 jk fY%aKsh i|yd bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh ixOdkh lr .ekSu i|yd .=re Nj;=kayg m%fhdackj;a f'
fuu fmd; imdokh lsug mdol lr.;a Ih ksfoaYh fuf;la mej;s Ih
ksfoaYj,g jvd fjkia jQjls' tu fjki ykd .ekSug fhduqjk Tng th ksmqK;d
mdol Ih ksfoaYhla nj oelsh yels h' tfy;a ksmqK;d ug yd tla tla ksmqK;d
ug hgf;a oelafjk bf.kq M, tu fY%aKsh ;=< u w;am;a lr .; hq;= f' tneka
Tng fY%aKshg wod< mdv ie,iq lr .ekSf tu ksmqK;d ug yd bf.kq M,
fnfyka m%fhdackj;a f' fuu bf.kqM, bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sfha tla tla
wruqKq ilid .ekSug fukau mka;s ldurfha is flfrk we.hS WmlrK ilia lr
.ekSf ksKdhl f,i fhdod .ekSu flfrys Tnf.a wjOdkh fhduq lsu wfmalaId
flf' fuu Ih yeoEf mYS,kh l< hq;= w;sfl fmd;a m;a fuka u fj wv
mss<sn| isiqka oekqj;a lsug o fuu .=re udf.damfoaYh Tng m%fhdackj;a f'
fuys fhda; l%hdldrl Tn ksudKYS,s .=rejrfhl= jYfhka l%hd lsf wfmalId
s
s
a
iys;j wdoYj;a f,i bm;a l< tajd jYfhka i,lkak' tysoS .=re flakaSh mka;s ldur
l%shdj,sh fjkia lr YsIH flakaSh njla we;s lsu fYaIfhka wfmalaId flf' tneka
isiqka O fmd;am;a mYS,kh wka;cd, Nd;h jeks .fIKhg fhduq flfrk
bf.kq wjia:d yels yeug u Wod l< hq;= f' b.ekaf im%odhsl f,i igyka
bm;a lsu fjkqjg wdlIKSh f,i kj oekqu uQ,Ou wdh bm;a l< hq;= f' ta
i|yd ;dlaIKh yels;dla rg fhdod.;a ikaksfok Wml%u ksudKYS,S j Nd; lsug
kj mka;sldurh ;=< Wkka h hq;= f'
13 jk fY%aKsfha fuu Ih b.ekau wrUk Tnf.a isiqkag Ih ksfoaY ukdj
meye,s lr fokak' jIh mqrd l%hd;aul lrk Tnf.a b.ekaf ie,eiau ykajd fokafka
s
k th isiqka ;=< fm<Uula jkq we;' uq Ih ksfoaYh wdjrKh lr .ekSug mdi,
fj; isiqka wdlIKh f' fuu Ihud,d m%;sixialrK rgg oefkk mka;s ldur
bf.kq - be.ka l%shdj,sfha fjkila we;s lrkq i|yd wod< Ih ksfoaYh fuka u
fuys fhda; l%shdj,s weiqfrka Tnf.a ksudKYS,s yelshd mqnqjd .kakd fuka b,a,'
fuu udf.damfoaY ieliSf odhl jQ oaj;a ieug" .=reNj;=kag iy cd;sl
wOHdmk wdh;kfha ks,Odkag udf.a ia;=;sh ys f' f ldhh i|yd u`. fmkajQ
wOHlaI ckrd,a wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor ue;ska fuka u uqK lghq;= is lr mdi,aj,g
,ndf j.lSu Ndrf.k lghq;= l< wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a we;= ldhh
uKav,hg uf.a fYaI ia;=;sh mqo lr' fuys we;=<;a lreKq ms<sn| j ixjOkd;aul
fhdackd wef;d;a ud fj; ,nd fokafka k lD;{ f'
u,a ishU,df.dv
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
Ihud,d ixjOk mSGh
iv
WmfoaYkh (
u,a ishU,df.dv uy;d
wCIKh
wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor
iS' t' wd' weka;ks uy;d
Ih inkalrKh( ta' ' ta' o is,ajd uy;d
wOHlaI ckrd,a
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
wOHlaI ôHd" fi!LH yd
Ydl wOHdmk &
-
jHdmD;s lKavdh kdhl

^ridhk oHdj&
jHdmD;s ks,Od
Ihud,d lgqj (
wNHka;r
iS' t' wd' weka;ks uy;d
ta' ' ta' o is,ajd uy;d
t,a' fla' jvqf.a uy;d

ud,skS rd.jpd h
wOHlaI ôHd" fi!LH yd

Ydl wOHdmk &
jHdmD;s lKavdh kdhl
^ridhk oHdj&
jHdmD;s ks,Od
jHdmD;s ks,Od
jHdmD;s ks,Od
ndysr
uydpdh t' ' .=KjOk
uydpdh v' ' v' ch;s,l
uydpdh t' ' mS' o fldia;d
uydpdh fla' wd' wd' uydkdu
uydpdh ' mS' osidkdhl
wdpdh ks,aj,d fldagf.a
t' ta' mS' uqKisxy uhd
moaud fmdkakfmreu h
uqos;d lrg h
tka' tia' nd,fudayka uhd
tia' fms,af,a fukh
tia' ;sf,hskdoka uhd
wd' tka' ' nKavdr uhd
mS' ' tia' fmruqK uhd
nka, rKisxy uhd
iS' tka' ta' fmfrd fukh
t' tka' tia' chiQh h
B' ' mS' OujxY h
' kd.r;ak uhd
tka' ;srekdjqlriq h
tia' wreKdi, fuh
fld<U Yaj oHd,h

Y%S chjOkmqr Yaj oHd,h
fld<U Yaj oHd,h
fld<U Yaj oHd,h
fld<U Yaj oHd,h
Y%S chjOkmqr Yaj oHd,h
m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od ^Y%dl&
uyskao oHd,h" .d,a,'
uOH uyd oHd,h" wkqrdOmqr'
l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h" yegka'
yska oHd,h" fld<U 4'
yska ldka;d oHd,h" fld<U 6'
Ourdc oHd,h" uykqjr'
mskkj, uOH uyd oHd,h" rUqllk
a
a
fjia,s oHd,h" fnd/,a,'
foand,sld oHd,h" fnd/,a,'
u,shfoaj nd,sld oHd,h" l=reKE.,'
idka; mdjq`M oHd,h" ,d.sh'
Y%dl Wm.=re" u' u' '" hdmkh'
Y%dl Wm.=re" yska oHd,h"
fld<U 4'
yska oHd,h" ud;f,a
' fi,ajrkacka uhd

kS,ldka;s .=KjOk h
fla' mS' t,a' o is,ajd uhd
' iS' iurisxy h
tka' iS' fiakdr;ak h
fla' ' nka, l=udr uhd
rdclSh oHd,h" fld<U 7'

Y%dl ks'w'w' .d,a,'
Y%dl Wm.=re" uka oHd,h"
.d,a,'
Y%dl Wm.=re" rdclSh oHd,h"
fld<U 7'
Y%dl Wm.=re" rdclSh oHd,h"
fld<U 7'
iyldr m%ldYk flduidia" wOHdmk
m%ldYk fomd;fka;=j'
msgljr ksudKh
oHd chY%S ialkaOrdcd fuh
m.Kl ieliSu
wd' ta' ' whs' oikdhl'

wd' wd' fla' m;srK h
fj wvh
www.nie.lk
O iydh
ux., je,smsh uhd

moaud rjOk h
rx;a ohdjxY uhd
vi
mgqk
msgqj
1'0
wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh
ii
2'0
ix{dmkh
iii
3.0
im;a odhl;ajh
iv
4'0
bf.kqM, yd fhda; bf.kq - b.eka
1 - 251
l%shdldrl
5'0
mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau
253
6'0
we.hS ie,iq
255
vii
ksmqK;dj 11'0
( ridhksl" m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ksKh lsug yd m%;sl%shd

YS>%;dj iqiq mos md,kh lsug pd,l ridhk oHd uQ,Ou
fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1
( tosfkod ;fha oS yuqjk l%shdj,sj, YS>%;d ii|hs'
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
kEu wdldrhl fjkia ula i|yd tall ld,hla ;=< oS isjk fjkia u
YS>%;dj f,i m%ldY lrhs'

YS>%;dj m%ldY lsf oS ld,h mok jk nj O WodyrK ^m%f.h" m%f.&
inkaO lr f.k m%ldY lrhs'
O YS>%;dj,ska isjk ridhksl m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrK imhhs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj uekSf oS jH m%udKfha fjkia u uQ,sl idOlh f,i
fmkakq lrhs'
YS>;dj uekSf oS idkaKfha fjkia u o m%fhdackhg .; yels njg WodyrK
%
imhhs'
YS>%;dj iei|Sf oS jH m%udKh fyda idkaKh u; r|d mj;sk fjk;a .=Khla
^j;k wxlh wdosh& fyda Nd; l< yels nj fmkajhs'
laIKsl j isjk m%;sl%shd i|yd ld,h ueksh fkdyels neka tajdfha YS>%;dj
wOHhk lsug wmyiq nj m%ldY lrhs'
ld,h ueksh yels fika isjk m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;d wOHhkh l< yels njg
WodyrK imhhs'
fhda; bf.kqb.eka l%shdldrl (

laIKsl j$fl l,lska$os.= l,lska isjk l%shdj,s j.SlrKh lrkak'
yels ;r iajNdl WodyrK û<lEu" m,;=re boSu" wdydr Kh& imhkak'

;U f,dayh yd iskala f,dayh o< jYfhka 50] HNO3 w,hg oud m%;sl%shd
YS>%;djfha fjki fmkakq lrkak'

CuSO4 djKhlg iskala lene,a,la oud djKfha jK fjkiau fmkakq
lrkak' jKh djKfha idkaKfhys kqula jk fyhska YS>%;dj ieioSf
oS jK fjki o ieiosh yels nj idlPd lrkak'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

YS>%;dj wm ieug iqmqre woyils' f.h .ek is;kak'
f.h } r f.jdhdf YS>%;dj }
frys fjki
ld,h
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj g iudk wdldrfhka u w: oelah yels h'
ksmqK;dj 11'0
( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ksKh lsug yd m%;sl%shd

fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'2
( ridhksl m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl ksKh
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
lrhs'
ridhksl mhdil YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu wdoYkh lrhs'

fN!;sl mhdi ^jKh& flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu wdoYkh lr fmkajhs'
m%;sl%shdjl flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu fmkakq lsu i|yd WodyrK imhhs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjh ^wxY=j, m%udKh" iaMlrEmS
fyda wiaMlrEmS nj& n,mdk wdldrh mlaIKd;aul j fmkakq lrhs'
iucd;Ssh W;afm%arl u`.ska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj fjkiau wdoYkh lr fmkajhs'
YS>%;dj flfrys Iu cd;sh W;afm%arl n,mdk nj wdoYkh lr fmkajhs'
wdf,dalh m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk wkaou wdoYkh lr fmkajhs'
mdrcnq, lsrK m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk njg WodyrK bosm;a
lrhs'
oHq;a Odrdj iu`. oHq;a ridhksl l%shdj,sj, YS>%;dj fjkia jk nj fyda
r|d mj;sk nj oHq;a fokh yd oHq;a fldaI u`.ska wdoYkh lr fmkajhs'

mlaIKh I : m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys idkaKh n,mdk nj fmkau
rEmigyfka oelafjk mos WmlrK lg,h ilia lr msis lrk ,o 2 cm
os. ue.akSish m lene,s folla tl;= lr wksl=;a idOl ksh; j ;nd

idkaKh muKla fjkia moaO;s ;=< m%;sl%shd lrjkq ,nhs' k, follg c,h
10 cm3 ne.ska f.k tl k,hlg HCl x 2la o wfklg x 4la o oud
mlaIKh lr n,kak'
c,h 10 cm3
+ HCl w,
x fol
c,h 10 cm3 +
HCl w, x y;r
Mg
c,h
^WIaK;ajh ksh;j mj;ajd
f.k hdug c, nk
wjYH f'&
w, idkaKh je k,fha f.fhka jdhq nqnq`M ksl=;a jk nj olakg ,ef'

f wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys idkaKh n,mdk nj ks.ukh l<
yels h'
mlaIKh II ( m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajh n,mdk nj fmkau'

l%uh (
1'0 mol dm-3 H2SO4 10.0 cm3
0'01 mol dm-3 KMnO4 10.0 cm3
0'01 mol dm-3 Na2C2O4 25.0 cm3
60 0C WIaK;ajfha
mj;sk c,
;dmlh
ldur
WIaK;ajfha
mj;sk c,h
60 0C WIaK;ajfha oS
ldur WIaK;ajfha oS
rEmigyfka oelafjk wdldrhg WmlrK lg, ilialr moaO;sj, WIaK;ajh
muKla fjkia lr wksl=;a idOl ksh;j ;nd m%;sl%shd lrjkq ,ef'

t g ldur WIaK;ajfha mj;sk lg,hg jvd je f.hlska 60 0C lg,h
wjK jk nj kslaIKh l< yel'
f wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajh n,mdkafka hhs ks.ukh l<
yel'
mlaIKh III ( m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjh ^m%;sl%shdj, mDIaG
j.M,h& n,mdk nj fmkau'
l%uh( tlu ialkaOhla we;s CaCO3 leghla iy CaCO3 l=vq fjk fjk u
mlaIK k, follg .kak'
k, folg u tlu idkaKh we;s ^Wod ( 0'01 mol dm-3 HCl(aq)& w,
iudk mud tl;= lrkak'
mlaIK k< fol u c, ;dmlhl ;nkak'
jdhq msg f f.hkaf.a fjkialu kslaIKh lrkak'
c, ;dml ;ef wjYH;dj wjOdrKh lrkak'
CaCO3 l=vq iys; k<fha jdhq msgf YS>%;dj wkslg jvd je nj
kslaIKh l< yels h'

f wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjh n,mdk nj
ks.ukh l< yels h'
mlaIKh IV (
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys W;afm%arl n,mdk nj mlaId lsu'
l%uh (
lelEre k< follg "mud 20" H2O2 10'0 cm3 ne.ska .kq ,ef' ^mud 20
hkafkka woyia jkafka H2O2 djK tall mudjlska O2 mud 20la ,efnk
njhs'&
tllg c,h 5'0 cm3 tl;= lrk w;r wkslg 0'1 mol dm-3 NaOH djKh 5'0
cm3 tl;= lrkak'
tg NaOH tl;= l< k,fha f.fhka jdhq nqnq ksl=;a jk olakg ,ef'
f wkqj NaOH u`.ska H2O2 j, fhdack YS>%;dj je lr we;ehs lsj yel'
W;afm%arl j.
(a) iucd;Sh W;afm%arl
m%;lhl iy W;afm%rl tlu l,dmfha mj;S k tu W;afm%rl iucd;Sh W;afm%rl
s s%
a
a
a
f,i ye|skaf'
Wod (-(i)
(ii)
(b) Iucd;Ssh W;afm%arl
W;afm%arl yd m%;sl%shl tlu l,dmfha fkdjk g Iucd;Sh W;afm%arlhla f,i
ykajkq ,ef'
Wod (- (i)
(ii)
mlaIKh V( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys wdf,dalh ^lsrK yd ;rx.&
n,mdk nj fmkau'
H2 , 10 cm3
+
Cl2 , 10 cm3
c,h
i; iQhdf,dalh
yuqf oS
wf oS
fuu mlaIKfha oS yhsrcka iy laf,daka hk jdhqj, mud ^10 cm3& fjka
fjka jYfhka c,h u;= mska tla/ia lr .ekSu wjYH h'

rEm igyfka oelafjk wdldrhg WmlrK lg,h ilia lr wdf,dalh ,eu
muKla fjkia lr wksl=;a idOl ksh;j ;nd f.k jdhq m%;sl%shd lrjkq
,ef'
tg wf we;s k<hg jvd je YS>%;djlska i; iQhdf,dalh we;s k<fha
c,h by< k`.sk nj olakg ,ef'
tu ksid m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys wdf,dalh n,mdkafka hhs ks.ukh l<
yels h' Wod (
mlaIKh VI ( oHq;a ridhksl m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys tall ld,hl oS .,d hk

wdfrdamKh ^fyj;a Odrdj& n,mdk nj
1.5 V
1.5 V
1.5V
V
5V
V
5V
A
3cm
3cm
iaghf*da
^f*da&
lene,a,
iaghf*da
^f*da&
lene,a,
0.1 mol dm-3
H2SO4 djKh
ldnka
bf,lafg%dav
0.1 mol dm-3

H2SO4 djKh
ldnka
bf,lafg%dav
B mm:h
A mm:h
rEmigyfka oelafjk mos WmlrK lg, ilia lr h<s fldaI tlla iy

folla îudka;r.; j& inkaO lrka tlu Nj wka;rhla we;s jk mos
fjkia Odrdjka mm: fol ;=<ska .,d hdug i,iajkak' ^wjia:d foflys oS
bf,lafg%dav fol w;r Nj wka;rh iudk fkdf k bf,lafg%dav fol
w;r r fjkia lsfuka tajd iudk l< yels h'&
tg B oHq;a fok fldaIfha Ag idfmalaI j je f.hlska jdhq nqnq
ksl=;a jk nj olakg ,ef'

tu ksid f wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys tall ld,hla ;=< .,d .sh
wdfrdamKh fyj;a Odrdj n,mdk nj ks.ukh l< yel'

m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
WIaK;ajh
idkaKh ^mSvkh&
fN!;sl iajNdjh ^m%;sl%shlj, mDIal M,h&
W;afm%arl îucd;Ssh fyda Iucd;Sh&
;rx. iy lsrK
wdfrdamK .,d hk YS>%;dj
ksmqK;dj 11'0

YS>%;dj iqiq mos md,kh lsug pd,l ridhk oHd
uQ,Ou fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'3
( m%;sl%shl idkaK W; mos yiqrejka m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj

md,kh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
aA+bB cC +dD hkak ridhksl mhdihla ksrEmKh lrhs'

ridhksl m%;sl%shdj u`.ska A ys m%udKh bj;a jk YS>%;dj
fyda M,hla jk C ksmof YS>%;dj
jYfhka
jYfhka fyda w:l:kh lrhs'
ksh; mud moaO;s i|yd m%;sl%shd u`.ska m%;sl%shl (A) ys idkaKh fjkia
f YS>%;dj
fyda M,hl ^C& idkaKh fjkiaf YS>%;dj
fyda jYfhka m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj w:l:kh lrhs'

fok ,o m%;sl%shdjl oS tla tla m%;sl%shlh bj;a jk fyda tla tla M, iEfok
YS>%;dj tlsfklg iudk fkd f' th tu m%;sl%shdf tla tla m%;sl%shlfha
fyda tla tla M,fha iafgdhslsfhda;sl ix.=Klh u; r|d mj;sk nj mjihs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj iei|Sf oS ksYa; m%;sl%shlhla fyda M,hla fyda f;dard
.; hq;= nj ;yjqre lrhs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sl%shlj, idkaKfha n,mEu ta ta m%;sl%shlg
wod< m%;sl%shdf fm< u`.ska fmkakq lrhs'
m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
YS>%;dj = k [A] m [B]n
YS>%;d kshufha wvx.= mo w: l:kh lrhs'
m<uq jk fm< yd fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshufha ilrKh ,shd
olajhs'
m<uq jk fm< yd fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d ksh;fhys tall
^mrsfh SI tall yd mfh fkdjk SI tall& jHq;amkak lrhs'
Y+kH fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshufha ilrKh ,shd olajhs'
m%;sl%shdjl iuia; fm< w:l:kh lrhs'
m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjla i|yd jH m%udKh yd idkaKh ld,h iu`. fjkia
jk wdldrh m%ia;dl j ksrEmKh lrhs'
m%;sl%shdjl wO j ld,h w: l:kh lrhs'

m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjl ld,h iu`. idkaKh fjkia jk whqre m%ia;dlj
ksrEmKh lr wO j ld,h meyeos,s lrhs'
YS>%;d kshuh ,>q.Kl Y%s;hla wdldrfhka ksrEmKh lrhs'
O fm<j,g wh;a m%;sl%shd i|yd m%dfhda.sl WodyrK imhhs'
iqiq m%i;dr u`.ska m%;lhdjl wdrN YS>;dj yd lsih fudfyd;l YS>;dj
a
s s%
%
s
%
ksrEmKh lrhs'
6
Y+kH" m<uq yd fojk fm< m%;sl%shd ksoYkh lsu i|yd mlaIK bosm;a
lrhs'
mlaIKj,ska ,efnk f;dr;=re ksis f,i yeisrfuka O m%;sl%shlhkag
wod< m%;sl%shdf fm< ksKh lrhs'

YS>%;d kshuh yd m%;sl%shd fm< wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

mlaIKh I(- Mg iy w, w;r m%;sl%shdj flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu
mlaIKd;aulj ksKh lsu
wjYH oE (- 0'1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 250 cm3
msis lrk ,o 2.0 cm Mg m len,s 6
l%uh (rn mh
H2SO4 djKh
c,h 10 cm3
21321
21321
21321
21321
rn mh
Mg mh
isyska re k<h
c,h
lelEre k<hlg c,h
10 cm3 oud ugu rn mh fhdod l%udxlkh
lr.kq ,ef'
lelEre k<hg 0'10 mol dm-3 H2SO4 w,h 40 cm3 la tl;= lr lg msfrk
f;la c,h mqrjd .kq ,ef'

msis lrk ,o 2.0 cm os. Mg m lene,a, rEm igyfka oelafjk wdldrhg
uQhg i lr Mg mh we;=`M jk mos uQh jid hl=re lrka rdu
>ldj l%shd;aul lsu tljr lrkq ,ef'
l%udxls; ugu olajd jdhqj msug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,ef'
j.=f oelafjk wdldrhg O w, mud Nd; lrka w;a 2.0 cm os. Mg
m o i lr l%udxls; ugu olajd jdhqj tl;= ug ld,h ukskq ,ef'
0.10 mol dm-3
l%udxls; ugu olajd
H2SO4 mudj$cm3 jdhqj msug .; jk ld,h$s
40'0
35'0
30'0
25'0
20'0
15'0
wdrNl YS>%;dj
= wdrNfha isg iq`M fjkia ula olajd

uOHkH YS>%;dj
tla tla w, djKfha idkaKh .Kkh lrkak'
idkaKh yd
w;r m%ia;drhla w|skak' ,efnk m%;sM, idlPd lrkak'

mlaIKh II
Na2S2O3 iy HCl w,h w;r m%;sl%shdj flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu'
wjYH jH ( Na2S2O3 0.10 mol dm-3 djKh" 2.0 mol dm-3 HCl w,h"
rdu >ldj" lelEre k<" kq is,skavr'
l%uh (
Na2S2O3 djKfhka
25.0 cm3 m%udKhla 50 cm3 lrhg .kq ,ef'
Na2S2O3 iys; lrh l;srhla .eiQ lvodishla u; ;nd HNO3 5.0 cm3 tl;=
lr lrfha isg ksh; Wilska wei ;nd f.k l;srh fkdfmkS hdug .; jk
ld,h ukskq ,ef'
lrh msis lr j.=f olafjk wdldrhg O djK mud Nd; lrka
l;srh fkdfmkS hdug .;jk ld,h ukskq ,ef'

(i) m%;sl%shd iS>%;dj yd ;fhdai,afma whk idkaK w;r inkaOh fiu'
my; j.=f fmkajd we;s mos O ;fhdai,af*a idkaK we;s djK
Nd;fhka mlaIKh is lrkak'
Na2S2O3
djK
mudj$cm3
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
c,h
mudj/cm3
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
HCl
ld,h$s
djK
mudj /cm3
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
(ii)
m%;sl%shdf iS>%;dj iy yhsrcka whk idkaKh w;r inkaOh fiu'

my; j.=f fmkajd we;s mos O w, idkaK we;s jk mos djK idod
mlaIKh kej; is lrkak'
Na2S2O3
djK
mudj$
cm3
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
c,h
mudj
$cm3
HCl
djK
mudj$
cm3
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
ld,h$s
by; wjia:d foflys oS wdrNfha isg mhdih iq`M m%udKhla is ug

.; jk ld,h ;=< YS>%;dj ksh;j mj;S hhs o th wdrNl YS>%;djg iudk
hhs o Wml,amkh lrkak'
YS>%;dj } ksh;hla$t
by; wjia:d foflys oS idkaKh iu`. ^1$t& flfia p,kh f oe hs
wOHhkh lrkak'
mrSlaIKh III ( Fe(III) whk yd KI w;r m%;sl%shdj flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu
mlaIdKd;aulj ksKh lsu'
jdoh
(
fuu m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj ksKh lsu i|yd iEfok I2 j, m%udKh Nd;
l< yels h' msIag djKhla ks,a mdg u i|yd ;sh hq;= wju I2(aq)
idkaKh 1.0 10-5 mol dm-3 f' fuh b;d iq`M m%udKhla neka ta i|yd
.; jk ld,h uekSu wiSre h' t neka ld,h ueksh yels jk mos I2 ksoyia
u m%udo l< hq;= h' fuu ;;a;ajh I2, I-njg m;a jk YS>% m%;sl%shdfjka <`.d
lr .; yels h' f i|yd Na2S2O3 fhdod .; yels h' udOHhg okakd
S2O32- m%udKhla oud we;ak iEfok I2 b;d iS>%fhka my; m%;sl%shdjg
Ndckh f'
udOHfha wvx.= S2O32-wjika jQ miq fudfydf;a u djKfha ks,a jKh

osiaf' iEfok whka m%udKh fhdod we;s S2O32- m%udKh u`.ska ;SrKh
f'
wjYH jH (
0.10 mol dm-3 KI djKh" 0.10 mol dm-3 Fe3+ whk djKh
[FeCl3 fyda Fe(NH4)(SO4)2 fyda Nd; lrkak']
0.10 mol dm-3 Na2S2O3 djKh" 0.10 mol dm-3 H2SO4
djKh" rdu >ldj
9
l%uh (
mshjr 1
^1&
msIagh
fh
Na2S2O3
djK
mudj$cm3
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
^2&
1.0 mol dm-3
H2SO4
djK
mudj$
cm3
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
^3&
^4&
0.10 mol dm-3 0.10 mol dm-3
KI
FeCl3
djK
djK
mudj$
mudj$
cm3
cm3
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
^5&
c,h
mudj$
cm3
msIagh ks,a
mdg ug
.; jk
ld,h$s
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
by; j.=f oelafjk djK my; i|yka wkqms<sfj<g Y% lr msIagh ks,amdg

ug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,ef'
(2) + (4)
(1) + (3) + (5)
mshjr 2
msIagh
fh
Na2S2O3(aq)
mudj$cm3
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
H2SO4(aq)
djK
mudj$cm3
msIagh
KI(aq)
FeCl3(aq)
c,h ks,a mdg
djK
djK
mudj$ug .;
3
3
mudj$cm mudj$cm cm3
jk ld,h$s
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
m%;sl%shdjl wO j ld,h ^ t 1/2 &
m%;lhdjl wO j ld,h hkq lsih ridhksl m%;lhdjl m%;lhl" wdrNl

s s%
s
s s%
s s%
idkaKh wOhla ug .; jk ld,h hs'
m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjla i|yd ld,h iu`. idkaKh fjkia f m%ia;dl
ksrEmKh my; oelaf' m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjl wO j ld,h wdrNl
idkaKfhka iajdhka; f'
idkaKh$
mol dm-3
C
C/2
C/4
C/8
t 1/2
t 1/2
t 1/2
11
t^ld,h&
ksmqK;dj 11'0

fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'4
( ridhksl m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys O idOlj, n,mEu

.%y lsug wKql pd,l jdoh fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 03 hs'
(
m%;sl%shdjla is ug wjYH idOl ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'

il%shk Yla;sh w: olajhs'
WIaK;ajh je lrk g wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh je jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
fjkia WIaK;aj foll oS jdhq wKq i|yd fnda,aiaudka jHdma;s jl% we| tu
WIaK;aj foflys oS jdhq wKqj, pd,l Yla;s ii|hs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;df jeu wKqj, pd,l Yla;sfha jeu u`.ska meyeos,s
lrhs'
idkaK ixl,amh Nd;hg .kska tall mudjla ;=< tall ld,hl oS is
jk ix>gk ixLHdf jeu meyeos,s lrhs'
W; osYdk;shla iys; ix>gk iuia; ix>gk ixLHdjg iudkqmd;sl nj
m%ldY lrhs'
WIaK;ajh kexf oS il%shk Yla;sh blaujk wKq ixLHdj je jk nj
m%ldY lrhs'
WIaK;ajh je jk g ix>gk ixLHdf is jk je u by< nj m%ldY
lrhs'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys W;afm%arlhl n,mEu m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh
weiqka ia;r lrhs'

my; oS we;s m%;sl%shd Nd;hg f.k m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajh
n,mdk wdldrh fmkajkak'

wd,SlD; KMnO4 yd Tlai,sla w,h
isis,a yd WKq c,h iu`. ue.akSish ys m%;sl%shdj
Na2S2O3 yd HCl w;r m%;sl%shdj
m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu wdoYkh lsu i|yd my;
oelafjk m%;sl%shd Nd; lrkak'
c,Sh Na2S2O3 djKhla O idkaKfhka hq;a HCl djK iu`. m%;sl%shd
u
ue.akSish f,dayh" O idkaKfhka hq;a HCl djK iu`. m%;sl%shd u
my; oS we;s mlaIK W;afm%arlj, n,mEu wdoYkh i|yd fhdod .kak'
uex.kSia vfhdlaihs W;afm%arlh f,i fhdoka KClO3 ;dm fhdackh
lsu
yhsfrdlaihs whk W;afm%arl f,i fhdoka H2O2 fhdackh u
my; oS we;s mlaIKh m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjfhys
n,mEu wdoYkh lsug fhdod .kak'
udn,a len,s yd l=vq ;kql HCl iu`. m%;sl%shdj
12

m%;sl%shdjla is ug k ;
m%;sl%shl wKq ix>gkh h hq;= hs'
tla;rd wju Yla;shlg jvd je pd,l Yla;shla .efgk wKqj,g ;sh
hq;= h' f wju Yla;sh il%shk Yla;sh kka ye|skaf'

wKq W; osYdk;shla iys; j .eh hq;= h'
W; osYdk;sh
my; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj i,lkak'

NO (g) + Cl2 (g) NOCl (g) + Cl (g)
fuys ix>gkhlg ;=vq fok my; oelafjk wKql osYdk;s fol i,luq'
^w&
Cl
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
NO wKqf khsrcka mrudKqj Cl2 wKqj fj; im jk w;r N-Cl

nkaOkh we;s f'
Cl
^wd&
Cl
Cl
Cl
NO wKqf Tlaiscka mrudKqj Cl2 wKqj fj; im jk w;r N-Cl

nkaOkh we;s fkd f' NO yd Cl2 wKq .e" fmd,d mek fjka f'
il%shk Yla;sh
wKql Nd.h
Yla;h$k J
s
il%shk Yla;sh Êa & hkq M, ksmou i|yd ix>gkh jk wKqj,g ;sh hq;=
wju Yla;sh hs' th Yla;s ndOlhla jk w;r tys Yd,;ajh m%;sl%shdj u;
/f|a'
Ea
m%;lhl
s s%
H
M,
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
wKql Nd.h }
lsish f.hla iys; wKq .Kk

uq`M wKq .Kk
13
Ea il%hk Yla;hg
s
s
jvd Yla;sh we;s
wKql Nd.h
>
E a pd,l Yla;sh
il%hk Yla;hg jvd wvq Yla;hlska hq;a wKq o >gkh f' tfy;a fuys
s
s
s
oS tu wKq .efuka miq tlsfklska wE;a f' m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj il%shk
Yla;sh ^ Ea & u; /|S mj;S' Ea wvqj;a u" Bg je Yla;sfhka hq;a wKqj,
ixLHdj je f' f ksid iM, ix>gk ixLHdj by< f.dia m%;sl%shd
YS>%;dj je f'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
WIaK;ajh
wKql Nd.h
WIaK;ajh je jk g pd,l Yla;sh je jk neka tall ld,hl oS isjk

ix>gk ixLHdj je f' tu ksid tall ld,hl oS isjk iM, ix>gk
ixLHdj o je jk w;r tkhska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj je f'
f yereKq g l=vd WIaK;aj ke`.Sul oS jqj" il%shk Yla;sh blaujd hk
Yla;sfhka hq;a wKqj, Nd.h fndfyda fihska je u ksid o YS>%;dj je f'
fnda,aiaudka Yla;s jHdma; jl%fhka fuh meyeos,s l< yels h'
T1
T2
T1< T2
Ea
pd,l Yla;sh
idkaKh
m%;sl%shl idkaKh jej;a u tall mudjl wKq ixLHdj jejk neka

tall mudjl isjk ix>gk ixLHdj je jk w;r" ta iu`. tall mudjl
isjk iM, ix>gk ixLHdj o je f' t neka m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj je
f'
ie'hq' jdhquh moaO;sj," ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS mSvkh je jk l,ays mudj wvq
f' tfyhska idkaKh je f' f ksid jdhquh m%;sl%shd Ihfhys
mSvkh je u m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj je lsug fya;= f'
W;afm%arl
W;afm%arlhla m%;sl%shdjl hka;%Kh fjkia lsfuka m%;sl%shdj fjkia m%;sl%sh

ud.hla .kshs' tys il%shk Yla;sh my;a w.hls' tneka fuu il%shk
Yla;shg je Yla;shla we;s wKqj, ixLHdj je f' f ksid tall ld,hl
oS isjk iM, ix>gk ixLHdjka" je tkhska m%;sl%shd YS>%;djka je f'
14
wKql
Nd.h
ac
m%;sl%shl
M,
m%;lhd LKavlh
s s%
211 111
1
1
22211221
111 111
22222221
111 11
1
1 1
22222221
111111
22222221
1221111
111111
1 1
22222221
111111
22222221
1111111
2222221
122221
12221
1111
1221
111
E ac
Ea
pd,l Yla;sh
Ea - W;afm%arlh ke;g
Eac - W;afm%arlh we;sg
il%shk Yla;sh
il%shk Yla;sh
m%;sl%shlj, fN!;sl iajNdjh
>k m%;sl%shlj, wxY=j, ;ru l=vdj;a u" m%;sl%shl wKqj,g .eh yels mDIah
j. M,h je f' fuh m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj je lsug fya;= f' c,Sh
yhsrlaf,dala w, djKhla iu`. udn,a len,sj,g jvd f.fhka udn,a
l=vq m%;sl%shd u fuhg ksoiqkls'
YS>%;d fjki m%ia;dl j oelau

Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
f m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj yhsrcka jdhqj ksoyia f YS>%;dj wkqnoaOfhka
ueksh yels h' O w, idkaK i|yd yhsrcka jdhqj 10 cm3 ksoyia ug
.; jQ ld,h uksk ,oafoa k ;
R = wdrNl fYaIh
t = wdrNfha isg l=vd ld, wka;rhla
R yd t w;r m%ia;drh my; oelafjk wdldr f'

C
>
Yla;h
s
Ea
W;afm%arl ke;s
wjia:dj
W;afm%arl we;s
wjia:dj
>
t
15
ksmqK;dj 11'0
( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ksKh lsug yd m%;sl%shd

fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'5
( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj .%y lsug m%;sl%shd hdka;%Kh

fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
uQ,sl m%;sl%shd" ixlSK m%;sl%shdj,ska fjka lr olajhs'

m%;sl%shdjl fm< yd hka;%Kh w;r inkaO;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
Yla;s oHdf uQ,sl uQ,Ou Wmfhda.S lr" wKql ix>gkfhka miq j we;s
jk isoa meyeos,s lsu i|yd Yla;s me;slv f.dv kxjhs'

m%;sl%shdj,g hka;%K fhdackd lrkq msKsi iuia:dksl yd pd,l oHd;aul
wOHhk m%fhdackhg .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'

i;H m%;sl%shd lsysmhl f;dr;=re /ia lr" f. ksKdhl mshjr oS tajdfha
f. kshuh fhdackd lsug isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'

W; osYdk;shlska wKq folla tlsfklg im f oS l=ula is jkafka o
hkak ms<sn| j idlPdjla fufyhjd tkhska m%;sl%shdjl Yla;s me;slv
f.dv kxjkak'
m%;sl%shd hka;%K ksKh lsfuys ,d pd,l oHdj m%fhdackj;a jkafka flfia
oe hs .fIKh lsug isiqka fufyhjkak'
fhda; mlaIKh wdoYkh lrkak'

uQ,sl m%;sl%shd
iuyr m%;sl%shd tla mshjrlska is f' tajd uQ,sl m%;sl%shd hkqfjka ye|skaf'
uQ,sl m%;sl%shd iq,n fkd f'
ksoiqka ( NO (g) + O3 (g) NO2(g) + O2(g)
nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd
m%;sl%shdj,ska nyq;rh mshjr lsysmhlska is jk w;r tajd nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd
hkqfjka ye|skaf'
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
N2O5 + N2O5 N2O5 + N2O5*
N2O5* NO2 + NO3
16
mshjr
mshjr
NO2 + NO3 + NO2 + O2

NO + NO3 2NO2
^N2O5* } il%sh wKqj&
îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
mshjr
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjla mshjrj,a lsysmhlska isjk nj my; mlaIdj u`.ska
fmkakq l< yel' ^wd,slD; fmdgEish vhsfl%daf djKhg yhsv%cka

f*frdlaihs tl;= lsu&
^ks,a&
^fld<&
;=,; ridhksl ilrKfhka m%ldYs; O oO mhdihg fya;= jk uQ,l m%;lhd
s
Y= a
s
s s%
H
R 2
^mshjr& wkqms<sfj< m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh k f'

we;e g" m%;sl%shdjl hka;%Kh ksKh lsu i|yd iuia:dksl id:l f,i
Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
kso (
O
O
C + HO
18
OH
+ H218O
C
O
H2O bj;au i|yd tiagrfha wvx.= OH ldKavfha O mrudKqj fhfok nj

18
O iuia:dkslh u`.ska fmkah yels h'
O
O
OH- + R
18
18
OH
O-
tiagrj, laIdh c,fokfha oS we,afldfyd,h 18O iuia:dkslfhka

f;dr u" weis,a - Tlaiscka LKavkh yryd is jk nj ikd: lrhs'
m%;sl%shdjlg iyNd.s jk wKq ixLHdj wKql;dj k f' uQ,sl m%;sl%shdj,
wKql;dj" m%;sl%shd fm<g iudk f'
17
wKql;dj
tal wKql
oa wKq
;%s wKql
m%;sl%shdj
A M,
2A M,
3A M,
f. m%ldYkh
R = k[A]
R = k[A]2
R = k[A]3
m%;sl%shd fm<
m<uq fm<
fo jeks fm<
f; jeks fm<
nyqmshjr îxlSK& m%;sl%shdjl f.h ksKh lrkafka fifuka u is jk
m%;sl%shdj hs' tfyhska th f. ksKhl mshjr hkqfjka ye|skaf' tfyhska

nyqmshjr m%;sl%shdjl f. kshuh ksKh lsf ;SrKd;aul idOlh jkafka
f. ksKh mshjr hs'
kso (
A + 2B AB2
îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
A+ B
AB
^f. ksK mshjr&
AB + B
AB2
R = k[A][B]
m%;lhdjla" h m%;lhlhla wkqnoaOfhka Y+kH fm< k" bka woyia jkafka
s s%
s s%
tu m%;sl%shdf hka;%Khg mshjr folla fyda je .Kkla we;=<;a jk nj;a"

tlS m%;sl%shlh iyNd.s jk mshjr idfmalaI jYfhka je f.hlska is jk
nj;a h'
ish m%;sl%shl f. kshufhys we;=<;a fj;a k bka woyia jkafka
tlaflda ish m%;sl%shl f. ksK mshjrg iyNd.s jk nj h' ke;fyd;a
m%;sl%shlj,ska lsysmhla f. ksK mshjrg fmr f.fhka is jk
mshjrlg iyNd.s jk nj h'
kso (
A+ B D
îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
A + B
C
C
D
R = k[A][B]
^f. ksK mshjr&
by; i|yka fya;= ksid" yqfola m%;sl%shdjl iuia; ilrKh foi ne,Sfuka
muKla" m%;sl%shl idkaKh tys f.h flfrys n,mdk wdldrh fm/hsh

fkdyels h' m%;sl%shdjl fm<" mlaIK u`.ska muKla ksKh flfrk
wdkqNdl ksh;hls'
we;e m%;sl%shd mshjr iu.d j fyj;a iudka;r j is f' fujka ;kays
tajdfhka ksmfok M, we;s f YS>%;dj tu m%;sl%shdj, idfmalaI YS>%;d u;
/f|a'
kso (
C2H5OH
C2H4 + H2O
C2H5OH
CH3CHO + H2
fuys t;ke,aj,g jvd f.fhka t;Ska ksmof'

m%;sl%shdjla is ug k m%;sl%shl wKq W; osYdk;shla we;s j ix>gkh h
hq;= h' tla mshjrlska is flfr;e hs ie,flk my; oelafjk ;dmdjfYdaIl

m%;sl%shdj i,lkak'
NO + Cl2 NOCl + Cl
18
ix>gkh jk wKq folla tlsfklg imj;a u tajdfha bf,lafg%dak j,d

w;r lIKh wkql%ufhka je jk w;r ta iu`. tajdfha f.h wvq fjhs'
f iu`. wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh" Nj Yla;sh njg mj;kh fjhs'
M, iEfok mrsos m%;sl%shl wKq m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh ^m%;sl%shdf m%.;sh& Tiafia
boshg t;a u tajd Nj Yla;s Wmufha oS m%;sl%shlhkaf.a mrudKql kHIaj,
yd nkaOk bf,lafg%dakj, ieleiau il%sh ixlSKhla f,i ye|skaf' th
O = N....... Cl.......Cl f,i oelah yels h' il%sh ixlSKhla fnfyka wia:dhS
jk w;r Bg we;af;a ixl%l meje;auls' tfyhska th fjka lr .; fkdyels
h' f ksid f wjia:dj ixl%uK wjia:djla ^TS& hkqfjka o ykajkq ,ef'
m%;sl%shd jk wKqj,g" tajdfha bf,lafg%dak j,d kso f.dia merKs nkaOk
|Sug ;r m%udKj;a pd,l Yla;shla wef;d;a" il%sh ixlSKh kj nkaOk
idoka M, njg" tk fuys oS NOCl yd Cl njg" mj;kh f' wKqj,
pd,l Yla;sh" YsLrh lrd im ug m%udKj;a fkdfjf;d;a tajd fmd,d mek
tlsfklska wE;a f'
îl%sh ixlSKh
fyj;a ixl%d wjia:dj&
fuh my; oelafjk Nj Yla;s me;slka ksrEmKh l< yels h'

PE
RC
Êa (f)& - bos m%;sl%shdj i|yd il%shk Yla;sh
^ Ea (r)& - miq m%;sl%shdj i|yd il%shk Yla;sh
H
- m%;sl%shdf tka;e,ams fjki
N+ wjia:df we;s m%;lhlj, Nj Yla;h;a" il%h ixlSKfha Nj Yla;h;a
s s%
s
s
s
w;r fjki bos m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh Êa(f)& f' th" il%sh ixlSKh
idokq msKsi W; osYdk;sfhka ix>gkh jk wKqj,g iemhsh hq;= wju
w;sfl Yla;h f' N+ wjia:f we;s M,j, Nj Yla;h;a" il%h ixlSKfha
s
s
s
Nj Yla;sh;a w;r fjki miq m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh Êa(r)& f' th
M,j,ska il%sh ixlSKh iEoSug miq l< hq;= Yla;s lvbu f' bos yd wdmiq
m%;sl%shdj, il%shk Yla;s w;r fjki" m%;sl%shd tka;e,amshg iudk f'
H = Ea(f) - Ea(r)
19
^;dmodhl m%;sl%shdj," Yla;s ugug wkqrEm j" m%;sl%shlj,g my<ska M,

msysgk nj ie,lsh hq;= h'&
Wod (
nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd" Yla;s YSI fyj;a ixl%d wjia:d tllg je .Kkla
yryd is f' fu jeks m%;sl%shdj," idfmalaI jYfhka je ia:dhS;dfjka hq;a

w;rueoshla Î& Yla;s ;%fha kskhl msysghs' th fjka lr .ekSug fyda tys
fjk;a Ys,amSh l%u u`.ska ykd .ekSug fyda yels h' M, njg m;a ug th
;j;a il%sh ixlSKhla fyj;a ixl%d wjia:djla njg m;a h yels h'
ixl%d wjia:df iajNdjh ms<sn| j fndfyda f;dr;=re imhkafka w;rueosh
hs'
Yla;h
s
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
Yla;h
s
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
20
E = iuia; m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh

= m<uq mshjfrys il%shk Yla;sh
= fo jeks mshjfrys il%shk Yla;sh
= I A + B wdmiq m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh
= D A + B wdmiq m%;sl%shdf il%shk Yla;sh
fujeks m%;sl%shdjlg ksoiqkla f,i fnkaiSkaj,g ÂrH& bf,lafg%dmhs,hla
Ê+& wdfoaY u ie,lsh yels h'

+
ArH + E
Ar
E
+
AE + H+
^fika&
ArH + E+ Ar+
E
Ar+
+ :Z ArE + H:Z ^f.fhka&
+
NO2
Yla;h
s
NO2
+
H
NO2
21
TS1
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
+
I
TS2
ksmqK;dj 11'0

fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'6
( W;afm%arlj, O;ajh uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
WodyrK foka iucd;Sh W;afm%arl yd Iucd;Sh W;afm%arl tlsfklska fjka
lrhs'
ksoiqka weiqka iucd;Sh W;afm%rlhla m%;lhdjl YS>;dj je lrkafka flfia
a
s s%
%
oe hs ia;r lrhs'
ksoiqka weiqka Iucd;Sh W;afm%arlhla m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj je lrkafka
flfia oe hs ia;r lrhs'

wjfYdaIK yd wfYdaIK l%shdj,s ia;r lrhs'
wjfYdaIKh yd wfYdaIKh tlsfklska fjka lr olajhs'
jdhqjla" >k mDIaGhla u; wfYdaIKh u rEmSh f,i m%ldY lrhs'
Iucd;Sh W;afm%arKfha oS il%shk Yla;sfhys wvq u" mDIaGh yd wfYdaIs;
jHh ^jdhqj& w;r wka;l%shdj ksid is jk nkaOk j,u weiqka ia;r
lrhs'
tkaihsu" ffcjridhksl l%shdj,sj, W;afm%arl f,i ykd .kshs'
h;=re - w.=`M hka;%Kh weiqka tkaihsu l%shdj ia;r lrhs'
ffch W;afm%arlj, ,laIK i|yka lrhs' tajd idudkH W;afm%arl iu`.
ii|hs'
m%NdW;afm%arKh hk moh sia;r lrhs'
m%NdW;afm%arKh m%;sl%shdj,g ksoiqka bosm;a lrhs'

Tn iska f;dard .kakd ,o W;afm%; m%;lhdjla Wmfhda.S lr .kska m%;lhdjl
a
s s%
s s%
m%.;sh mslaiSu i|yd mlaIKhla ksudKh lr" tys ,d W;afm%arlh fl;r

M,odhs jkafka oe hs ksKh lrkak'
yhsrcka fmfrdlaihsj, fhdackh flfrys ^w& Br2 ^wd& MnO2 ^b& PbO2 yd
^B& uia lene,a,la yd ^w& je,s n,mdk wdldrh mslaikak'
^w& KClO3 ;ks j ^wd& KClO3" MnO2 lene,a,la iu`. yd
^b& KClO3" MnO2 l=vq iu`. r;a lrka Tlaiscka msg f YS>%;dj ii|kak'
W;afm%arlj, fmd ,laIK ,ehsia;= .; lrkak'
ldl W;afm%arl yd 'ffcj W;afm%arl' ixikaokh lrkak'
fgfha l%shdld;ajh i|yd m%Yia; pH w.h yd WIaK;ajh ;lafiare lrkak'

W;afm%arlhla m%;sl%shdjl f.h je lrkafka W;afm%arlh fkdue;s g oS
il%shk Yla;shg wvq il%shk Yla;shla iys; hka;%Khla Tiafia m%;sl%shdj is

ug ie,iSfuks' tfy;a fuys oS W;afm%arlh Y=oaO fjkia ulg Ndckh fkd
f'
22
W;afm%a; m%;sl%shdjg we;af;a wvq il%shk Yla;shla neka" kEu WIaK;ajhl
oS m%;sl%shl wKqj,ska Yd, Nd.hlg il%shk Yla;sh blau jQ pd,l Yla;shla

we;'
t neka je wKq ixLHdjla m%;sl%shdjg Ndck jk w;r" m%;sl%shdj f.fhka
is f'
iucd;Sh W;afm%arKfha oS W;afm%arlh yd m%;sl%shl tl u l,dmfha mj;S'
iucd;Sh W;afm%arKhg oYSh jYfhka we;=<;a jkafka djK f,i mj;sk j
Y%K yd jH h'
Br2(aq) iska W;afm%arKh flfrk H2O2(aq) ys fhdackh yd OH (aq) fyda
H+(aq) u`.ska W;afm%arKh flfrk tiaglrKh g ksoiqka f'
Iucd;Sh W;afm%arKfha oS W;afm%alh yd m%;sl%shl mj;skafka fjkia l,dmj,
h'
bf,lafg%dak yqjudre l%shdj,sfha oS w;rueos f,i l%shd lrk wdka;l f,day
whk ^Wod( Ag+, Fe2+, Mn2+& frfvdlaia m%;sl%shd W;afm%arKh lrhs'
whkaÎI& whk my; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj W;afm%arKh lrhs'
I mshjr ( fmfrdlafidvhsi,af*a Fe2+, Fe3+ njg TlaislrKh lsu
II mshjr ( Fe3+ whk" whvhs whk whka njg TlaislrKh lsu
iucd;Sh W;afm%arl m%;sl%shdjla isoq jk ud.h fyj;a m%;sl%shd hka;%Kh
fjkia lrka tys il%shk Yla;sh wvq lrhs'

kso( frdaka w,am m%udKhla ks;a;= lsysmhla ;=< yhsrcka fmfrdlaihs
fhdackh lrhs' f m%;sl%shdf hka;%Khg my; oelafjk mshjr fol
we;=<;a f'
iuia; m%;sl%shdj (
yhsrcka fmfrdlaihsj, fhdackhg Yla;s lvb folla we;=<;a f' ^rEm
igyk& tla tla lvb YSIfhka ^1& H2O2 yd Br2 w;r iEfok ixl%d
wjia:dj;a" ^2& H2O2 yd H+/Br- w;r iEfok ixl%d wjia:dj;a ksrEmKh f'
23
H2O2+ 2Br + 2H++ O2
sNj Yla;sh
Ea
Ea
2H2O2+ Br2
2H2O + Br2+ O2
m%;lhd
s s%
LKavdxlh
Wla; m%;sl%shdfjys YS>%;dj

iucd;Sh W;afm%arKh jdhqf.da,Sh ridhkhg o inkaO h' ksoiqkla f,i
CFC ys m%Ndfokfhka W;amdokh jk laf,daka mrudKq" fidaka hfkys
fidaka wKq >gkh lsu W;afm%arKh lrhs'
Iucd;Sh W;afm%arKh mshjr 4lska iuka; h'
24
wfYdaIKh - wdrNl jH tlla fyda je .Kkla W;afm%arl mDIaGhg

nef|hs' fuys oS m%;sl%shl wKqj, nkaOk n, tajd f|hs' ksoiqkla f,i"
c,h iEoSf oS W;afm%arl mDIaGhg neKq H2 yd O2 wKq" thg ne|s yhsrcka
yd Tlaiscka mrudKq njg m;a fjhs'
(ads - wfYdaIs;&
ixl%uKh - W;afm%arl mDIaGhg ne|s we;s mrudKq fyda LKav fyda mDIaGh u;
p,kh fjhs' fuh ;j;a mrudKq fyda LKav fyda yuq jk ;=re is f'
m%;sl%shdj - ixl%uKfha oS tlsfkl uqK.efik wfYdaIs; mrudKq fyda LKav
fyda W;afm%arl mDIaGh u; oS tlsfkl iu`. m%;sl%shd lrhs'
ksrfYdaIKh - tk" iEfok M, W;afm%arl mDIaGfhka bj;a u hs'
yeu kk ridhksl ludka;hla u mdfya /|S mj;skafka W;afm%arlj,
ixjOkh" f;dard .eksu yd Nd;h u; h' w;=re M, yd wmjH" W;afm%arl

I f,i l%shd lsu" W;afm%arlj, wdhq ld,h yd W;afm%arlj,g wjYH msjeh
W;afm%arlj,g wod< wdl lreKq f'
W;afm%rl
a
lD;Hh
ksoiqka
l%shdj,sh i|yd ksoiqka
f,day
yhsrckSlrKh
Fe, Ni, Pt,

Ag
j f;,a" >k foh njg

mj;kh lsu
wO$ikakdhl
Tlaihsv yd
i,amhsv
TlailrKh
s
f.kao.yrKh
NiO, ZnO,
MgO, MnO3,
MnS
mj;l u`.ska jdykj,

msgdr fuys we;s CO yd
yhsfrdldnk TlailrKhu
s
Tlaihsv
ksc,lrKh
Al2O3, SiO2
MgO
we,afldfyd,j, ksc,lrKh
w,
nyqwjhlrKh
H3PO4, H2SO4
fmd,stiagr iEoSf oS is jk
ix>kk nyqwjhlrKh
wjfYdaIKh yd wfYdaIKh iudk ixisoa fkd f'
wjfYdaIKh mDIaG
yryd iuia; jHh iska u is flfrkafkls' wfYdaIKh mDIaGhg muKla
iSud jQjls' tys oS m%;sl%shl wKq iy W;afm%arl mDIaGh w;r jeka v' jd,aia
nkaOk jeks n, nkaOk iEfohs'
25
iajhx W;afm%arKh hkq m%;sl%shdjl M, iska m%;sl%shdjla W;afm%arKh u hs'

s s%
%
ksoiqkla f,i A P m%;lhdfjys iS>;d kshuh R= k [A ] [P] hehs is;uq' fuys
M, iEoSu;a iu`. m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj je f' wdrNfha oS fjk;a ud.j,ska u
p ksmfok neka m%;sl%shdj wdrN jk w;r bka miq P j,ska m%;sl%shdj
W;afm%arKh f' my; oelafjk frfvdlaia m%;sl%shdf oS Mn2+ whk iajhx
W;afm%arlhla f,i l%shd lrhs'
yeu sg u m%;sl%shdjl" m%;sl%shl yd M, m%Yia; idkKhlska mej;Su ;yjqre

lsfuka m%;sl%shdj Wmrsu YS>%;dfjka isoq jSug ie,eiajSu ldl ksIamdokj,
oS jeo.;a f'
tkaihsu ( tkaihsu" fnfyka iqfYaIS jQ iucd;Sh" ffch W;afm%arl f'
tkaihsu" m%;sl%shl wKq oyia .Kkla ;;amrhla jeks fl ld,hla we;=<;
mj;kh lsf w ridhksl l%shdld;ajhlska hqla; h' tkaihsuhlska
W;afm%arKh flfrk m%;sl%shlh Wmia:rh hkqfjka ye|skaf' tkaihsu"
Wmia;rj,g ne|sh yels il%sh ia:dkj,ska iuka; h' tkaihsuhla" fm%dak
wKqjls' ke" yels<S o< jYfhka f.da,dldr yevhlg m;a ug tys we;s
keUqrej ksid ta ;=< il%sh ia:dk we;s jk w;r tajdg Wmia;rh ne|Sfuka
m%;sl%shdj W;afm%arKh f' E k jQ tkaihsug S k jQ Wmia;rh ne|Sfuka
we;s jk tkaihsu - Wmia;r ixlSKh ES f,i ixfla;j;a l< yels h' f
ne|Sfuys oS Wmia;rhg .e<mS isk mos tkaihsu wKqfjys il%sh ia:dkj,
m; ula is f' fu khska tkaihsuh" Wmia;rh 'ykd .kakd' w;r
tkaihsuhl n, u fia u kj nkaOk ;efkk w;r th M, we;s ug fya;=
f' f ne|Sf oS" Wmia;rfha nkaOk n, u fia u kj nkaOk ;efkk
w;r th M, we;s ug fya;= f'
E + S ES E + P
fuu tkaihsu-Wmia;r ixlSKh iEoSu u`.ska wvq il%shk Yla;sfhka hq;a kj
m%;sl%shd ud.hla jD; f' my; oelafjk Yla;s me;slvj,ska" tkaihsuhlska
W;afm%arKh fkdjQ yd W;afm%arKh jQ wjia:d ksrEmKh f'
Yla;h
s
Yla;h
s
m%;lhd
s s%
ud.h
26
m%;lhd
s s%
ud.h
ffcj W;afm%arl l%shd;aul jkafka w;s iqfYaI ;;a;aj hgf;a h' tajd pH
w.hg ixfoS jk w;r Wmu m%;sl%shd f.h ,nd .; yelafla m%Yia; pH

w.hla hgf;a h' tajd il%sh jkafka mgq WIaK;aj mrdihla ;=< h' WIaK;aj
fnfyka by< .shfyd;a nkaOk | jeu lrKfldg tkaihsufha il%sh
ia:dk lD; f' f ksid tajdg Wmia:rh iu`. mEySug fkdyels f'
oyh" f,a" ;a;r wdosh ksid we;s me,a, | fy<k tkaihsu ffch fia
l=vqj, wvx.= f' tajd idfmalaI jYfhka wvq WIaK;ajj, oS l%shd lrkq ,nhs'
m%ldY W;afm%arlhla hkq lsrK Yla;sh ^ E = h& Wlyd .; yels jHhls'
tfia wjfYdaIs; Yla;sh th m%;sl%shdj fj; fhduq lr m%;sl%shdj W;af;ackh

lrhs' m%ldY uOHia:dkhla ^photocenter& hkq jKl wKqj, ix; ieleiauls'
y;-,jj, we;=<;a ;hs,fldhs mg, fujeks ieleiaulg yd m%ldY
W;afm%arlhg ksoiqkls' th wdf,dal wekafgkdjla f,i l%shd lrka wdf,dal
Yla;sh .%yKh lr" m%Ndixiaf,aIKhg odhl jk laf,dafrda*s,a wKqj fj;
fhduq lrhs'
ghsfksh vfhdlaihs yd c,h Y%Khl mdrcnQ, lsrKj,g ksrdjrKh
l< l,ays" TiO2 lsrK Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh lrhs' t u`.ska W;af;a; ldnksl
jH CO2 iy H2O njg TlailrKh lrhs' fuh m%ldY W;afm%rKhg ksoiqkls'
s
a
W;afm%arlj, fmd ,laIK
1' W;afm%arlj, l%shdld;ajh YsIag h'
2' l=vd W;afm%arl m%udKhlg m%;sl%shdjl f.h Yd, f,i je lsug yels
h'
3' W;afm%arl l%shdjg" W;afm%arlfha wjia:dj jeo.;a f'
4' W;afm%rlhla ridhksl m%;lhdjg iyNd.s jk w;r wjidkfha tys ridhksl
a
s s%
ixhq;sh fjkia fkdf'
5' W;afm%arl iu;=,s; wjia:dj fyda iu;=,s;d ksh;h flfrys n,mEula fkd
lrhs' ^m%;lhdjl iu;=,; wjia:dj" th .kakd ud.h u; /|S fkd mj;sh'&
s s%
s
s
6' W;afm%arlhla m%;sl%shdjl tka;e,amsh fjkia fkd lrhs'
7' W;afm%arlhlska bos fuka u miq m%;sl%shdf o f.h iudk m%udKhlska
je flf'
8' ndysr jH u`.ska W;afm%arl I h yels h'
9' W;afm%arlhla m%;sl%shdf iafgdhslsfhda;sh fjkia fkdlrhs'
27
ksmqK;dj 12'0
( .;sl iu;=,s;;df mj;sk ixjD; moaO;sj, ufyaCI .=K

ksKh lsu i|yd iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,amh yd uQ,Ou
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1
( iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,am fhosh yels moaO;s ykd .kshs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
wkjr; wjia:dj yd tu wjia:df we;s moaO;s WodyrK foka meyeos,s lrhs'

moaO;shl .;sl l%shdj,s yd m%;sj;H;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
wjia:d mhdi" djKj, mj;sk iu;=,s;;d" ridhksl moaO;s" whksl moaO;s
whk yqjudre frisk iy bf,lafg%dav w;r mj;sk iu;=,s;;d hkdos fN!;sl

yd ridhksl l%shdj,s ksoiqka f,i fhdod .kka iu;=,s;;df mj;sk moaO;s
ia;r lrhs'

iu;=,s;;df mj;sk fN!;sl mhdi i|yd moaO;s k lrkak'
iu;=,s;;df mj;sk ridhksl mhdi i|yd moaO;s k lrkak'

ksmqK;d ugu 4'1 hgf;a 'Ih lreKq meyeos,s lsug w;aje,la' mYS,kh
lrkak'
wkjr; wjia:df mj;sk moaO;s
moaO;shl mj;sk h ix>glhla iEoSf YS>%;dj;a tu ix>glh jehf

YS>%;dj;a iudk jQ g tu moaO;sh wkjr; wjia:df we;s nj lsj yels h'
fuu l%shdj,sh ixjD; fyda jD; hk moaO;sj, is h yels h' fuys oS
ufyalaI .=K ld,h iu`. fjkia fkd f'
ksoiqka (î&
gexlshl we;s c,h mudjlg h YS>%;djlska c,h .,d tau;a" tu
YS>%;dfjka u bj;g c,h .,d hEu;a ie,l+ g wdrNfha oS tys ;snQ
c, mudj tf,i u mj;S'
îi&
jdhqf.da,h moaO;shla f,i ie,l+ g" my; i|yka m%;sl%shd fya;=fjka

tys fidaka idkaKh ksh;j mj;sk w;r th wkjr; wjia:df mj;S'
îii&
O l%shdj,S ksid O2 jehfjkjd fuka u O2 iEoSu o isjk ksid

jdhqf.da,Sh O2idkaKh ksh; j mj;S'
îv&
taldldr f,i oe,afjk b mkaoula .ek is;kak' moaO;sh jD; h'

oe,af,a .=K fkdfjkia j mj;sk nj fmfkkafka jH thg we;=`M jk
yd bka msgjk YS>%;d iudk jk fyhsks' fuh iu;=,s; moaO;shla
fkd f'
28
ufyalaI .=K
moaO;shla iuia;hla fia i,ld mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lrkq ,nk fyda .Kkh
lrkq ,nk fyda .=K ufyalaI .=K f' fuys oS moaO;sfha wxY= ms<sn| j wjOdkh
fhduq lrkq fkd ,ef'
.;sl l%shdj,s iy m%;sj;H;dj
A muKla we;=<;a lrk ,o ixjD; moaO;shl is jk my; oelafjk m%;sj;H

m%;sl%shdj i,luq'
A
B
wdrNfha oS A " B njg m;af YS>%;dj b;d by< jk w;r B , A njg
m;af YS>%;dj Y+kH f' l%ufhka B iEoSu;a iu`. B , A njg m;af YSS>%;dj
je jk w;r" A, B njg m;af YS>%;dj l%ufhka wvq f' h wjia:djl oS
bos l%shdf YS>%;dj yd miq l%shdf YSS>%;dj iudk f' tg moaO;sh .;sl
iu;=,s;;djg m;a we;ehs lshkq ,ef' fuh my; m%ia;drfhka o fmkah
yel'
YS>;dj
%
Rf = bos m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj

Rb = miq m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj
Rf = Rb
ld,h
fun iu;=,s;;d we;s jkafka m%;sj;S mhdi wdY%s; j muKs'

iu;=,s;;dj we;s ug moaO;sh ixjD; tlla h hq;= h'
bos yd miq hk fo miska u iu;=,s;;dj lrd t<h yels h'
iu;=,s;;dj .;sl h. tk iu;=,s; wjia:df oS bos yd miq m%;sl%shd fol
u iudk f.j,ska is f'
iu;=,s;;df oS moaO;sfha ufyalaI .=K fjkia fkd f'
fN!;sl fuka u ridhksl moaO;sj, .;sl iu;=,s;;d mj;S'
j jdhq iu;=,s;;d
ixjD; nkla ;=< we;=<;a lr we;s c,h yd by< wjldYfha we;s c, jdIamh
w;r my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s f'
H2O (l)
H2 O(g)
>k - jdhq iu;=,s;;d
whka W!jmd;kh jk jHhls' ixjD; nkla ;=< wvx.= lrk ,o >k

whka yd whka jdIamh w;r my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s f'
I2(s) I2(g)
ixjD; nkla ;=< we;s w`.=rej,g wfYdaIKh jQ CO jeks jdhqjla nk ;=<
jdhq l,dmfha we;s CO iu`. iu;=,s;;df mej;Su fuhg ;j;a ksoiqkls'
29
; jdhqjla yd jdhq l,dmh w;r iu;=,s;;dj
Tlaiscka jeks jdhqjla c,fha jKh iEfok ;kql djKhla i,luq' fuu
djKh" Tlaiscka jdhqj wvx.= jdhquh l,dmhla ^jdhqf.da,h jeks& yd iamY
j we;s g my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s f'
O2(djKh& O2(g)
wY% j - djH iu;=,s;;dj
tlsfkl yd wY% j folla tlsfkl yd iamY j mj;sk moaO;shl tu j

fofla u jKh jk jHhla jHdma; j we;s wjia:djl fuh we;s f'
kso ( I2 c,h yd CCl4 hk j foflys u osh f' CCl4 ys I2 osh j we;s
wjia:djl Bg ixY=oaO c,ia;rhla tla lr we;s wjia:djl CCl4 ys osh we;s
I2 l%ufhka c,ia;rhg .uka lrhs' ld,h;a iu`. fufia .uka lrk f.h
wvq f' ta w;r c,ia;rh ;=<g we;=`M jk I2 l%ufhka wdmiq CCl4 ia;rhg
.uka lrhs' ld,h;a iu`. fufia .uka lrk f.h je f' tu ksid tla
wjia:djl oS by; lS ixisoa foflys f. tl iudk f' tk tajd .;sl
iu;=,s;;djg t<U we;'
I2(H2O) I2(CCl4)
ridhksl iu;=,s;;d
fjd m%;sj;H ridhksl m%;sl%shd wdY%s; j we;s jk iu;=,s;;d h'

kso (N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl (g)
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O (l)
whksl iu;=,s; moaO;s
whksl moaO;shla ridhksl moaO;shla h hq;= u h' fujeks moaO;shl whk

wvx.= f' moaO;shl ridhk jH yd whk w;r we;s iu;=,s;;d fufia
ye|skaf'
kso ( H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COOH- (aq) + H+(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O (l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
HIn(aq) H+(aq) + In-(aq)
whk yqjudre frisk
fjd yria inkaO;d iys; nyqwjhjl f' fjd >k f,i iajNdjfha
mj;sk w;r tajdg H+ fyda OH- ia:dmkh l< yels l%shdld ldKav we;'
H+ ia:dmkh l< yels frisk" H+ ia:dmkh lrka fjk;a legdhk iu`.
nef|a'
kso ( RH(s) + NaCl (s) RNa(s) + HCl(aq)
OH- ia:dmkh l< yels frisk" OH- ia:dmkh lrka fjk;a wekdhk
iu`. nef|a'
kso ( ROH(s) + HCl (aq) RCl(s) + H2O(l)
30
c,fha lk;ajh bj;a lsug Nd; lrk frisk f i|yd ksoiqka f'
isfhd,hsgj, whk yqjudre lsf yelshdj mj;S'
kso ( 2NaAlSi2O6(s) + Ca2+(aq) Ca [AlSi2O6]2(s) + 2Na+(aq)
îsfhd,hs fyj;a fidah wefkdais,sfla&
2RCOOH(s) + Ca2+(aq) + SO42- (aq)+ 2H2O(l) (RCOO)2Ca(s) + 2H3O+(aq) + SO42(aq)
fuh o c,h msis lsu i|yd Nd; lrk friskhls'

bf,lafg%dav iu;=,s;dj
f,dayhla tys whk wvx.= djKhl .s,ajd we;s wjia:djla ie,l+ g wdrNfha
oS f,day mrudKq bf,lafg%dak msg lrka idok whk djK .; f' msg jk
bf,lafg%dak f,dayh u; /|S mj;S' tg f,day mDIaGh RK f,i wdfrdams;
f' djKfha whk idkaKh jej;a u tajd f,dayh u;= msg we;s bf,lafg%dak
,nd .kska f,day mrudKq njg m;a f' h wjia:djl oS f,day mrudKq
whk njg m;au;a" whk" f,day mrudKq njg m;a u;a tl u YS>%;djlska is
f' fug mrudKq yd whk w;r .;sl iu;=,s;;djla we;s f' fuu
wjia:df oS RK wdfrdams; f,day mDIaGh yd Ok wdfrdams; f,day whk w;r
we;s jk Nj wka;rh tu f,dayfha bf,lafg%dav Njh k f'
kso (
Cu(s), Cu2+ whk djKhl .s,ajd we;s wjia:djla i,luq'

tg Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s f'
31
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'2
( moaO;sj, mj;akd ufyalaI .=K iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,amh

weiqka m%udKd;aul j ksKh lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 08 hs'
(
iu;=,s;;d kshuh m%ldY lrhs'

fok ,o moaO;s i|yd iu;=,s;;d ksh; ,shhs'
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh meyeos,s lrhs'
n,mEulg hg;a lrk ,o moaO;shlg f,a peg,sh uQ,Ouh fhdohs'
idkaKh" mSvkh" WIaK;ajh" W;afm%rl yd m%;lhd udOH iu;=,;;djg n,mdk
a
s s%
s
whqre ia;r lrhs'

fok ,o moaO;sj, iu;=,s;;d ksh;h i|yd m%ldYk ,sug isiqkg mjrkak'
kslaIKhg ,lalrk moaO;shla iu;=,s;;djg t<U we;s oehs fiu i|yd
mlaIKhla ie,iq lsug isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'

ixrplj, idkaKh ka g" moaO;shl iu;=,s;;d ksh;h .Kkh lsug
wjYH Wmfoia fokak'
iu;=,s;;df we;s moaO;shla n,mEulg hg;a lrk ,o wjia:dj, oS f,a
peg,sh uQ,Ouh Nd; lsug wjia:d fokak'
wjYH o;a; imhd we;s g" iu;=,s; moaO;shl ixrplj, idkaKh fiu
i|yd l%shdldrl fokak'

iu;=,s;d kshuh (
ixjD; moaO;shl lsish WIaK;ajhl oS is jk my; i|yka mhdih
i,lkak'
moaO;sh iu;=,s;;df mj;S k" ta i|yd my; i|yka m%ldYkh ,sh yels
h'
fuys [ ] hka f kka wod< jHj, iu;= , s ; ;d idka Kh ixfla ; j;a

flf'moaO;sfha wdrNl idkaK fyda wjidk idkaK fyda l=ula jqj o fuys
K hkq WIaK;ajh u; muKla /|S mj;sk ksh;hls'
K wod< WIaK;ajfha oS moaO;sfha iu;=,s;;d ksh;h f,i ye|ska f' fok ,o
mhdihla i|yd iu;=,s;;d ksh;h m%ldY lsf oS my; i|yka wjYH;d imqrd
,sh hq;= h'
32
wod< ;=,s; m%;sl%shd ilrKh ,shd oelah hq;= h' îdudkHfhka fuh ,shkq
,nkafka iafgdhslsfhd;sl ix.=Kl i|yd wvq;u mQK ixLHd ,efnk mos

h'&
wod< WIaK;ajh i|yka l< hq;= h'
tla tla m%;sl%shlfha iy M,j, fN!;sl wjia:dj i|yka l< hq;= h' g wu;r
j moaO;shl iu;=,;;d ksh;h inkaO my; i|yka lreKq flfrys wjOdkh
s
fhduq l< hq;= h'
iu;=,s;;d ksh;h u`.ska m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj ms<sn| lsis f;dr;=rla ,nd fkd
fohs'
K ys w.h l%shdj,shg inkaO wdrNl idkaK u; r|d fkdmj;S'
K ys w.h WIaK;ajh iu`. fjkia f'
iuq;shla jYfhka K i|yd m%ldYkh ,shkq ,nkafka M," ,jfhys we;=<;a
jk mos h'
>khl fyda ixY=oaO jHhl fyda idkaKh ieu g u ksh;hla fia i,lkq
,ef' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h i|yd m%ldYkh ,sf oS tu ksh; w.h iu;=,s;;d
ksh;hg we;=<;a jk mos .Ks; lu lrkq ,ef'
iu;=,s;d ksh;fha tall" K i|yd jk m%ldYkh u; /f|hs' ^flfia jqj o
;dm.;s oHdjg wkqj iu;=,s;;d ksh;h ie,flkafka udk rys; rdYshla
f,i h'&
ujq,sl idkaKh wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d ksh;h ^Kc&

idkaKh weiqka m%ldYs; by; ia;r lrk ,o iu;=,;;d ksh;h idudkHfhka
s
ye|skafjkafka Kchkqfjks' ^fuys c hkafkka idkaKh ye`.f'& Kc ys tall"
iu;=,s;;d m%ldYkhg wod< iafgdhslsfhd;sl ilrKh wkqj fjkia f'
kso(
Kc ys tall =
Kc ys tall }
33
iu;=,s;;d ksh;h - wdxYsl mSvk weiqrska ^Kp&

jdhquh iu;=,s;;d moaO;shl wvx.= jdhq mmQK f,i yeisf k"
tk" ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS jdhqf idkaKh mSvkhg iudkqmd;sl h'

jdhqjl wdxYsl mSvkh } iuia; mSvkh jdhqf ujq, Nd.h
PG = PT xG
wdxYsl mSvkh" jdhqjl ujq, m%udKhg iudkqmd;sl w;r" th Y%Khl
we;=<;a jdhqjl idkaKfha kqula f,i .; yels h'
ksoiqkla f,i khsrcka yd yhsrcka w;r ixfhdackfhka wefudakshd
ksIamdokh lsf m%;sl%shdj i,luq'
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
N2 ,H2 yd NH3 jdhqj, wdxYsl mSvk ms<sfj<ska
mSvk wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d ksh;h Kp o k"
yd
o wdxYsl
f wkqj" Kp ys tall ^mSvk tall&-2 f' wdxYsl mSvk SI tallj,ska ^Pa

fyj;a Nm-2& o m%ldY l< yels h' tfy;a jdhqjl iu; wjia:djg wod<
mSvkh 1 bar f,i ^1 bar = 105 Pa& f,i ie,flk neka f tall fol u
wdxYsl mSvk i|yd Nd; l< yels h'
jdhqj, wdxYsl mSvk" tajdfha idkaK f,i u i,ld l%shd lrk neka" tajd
ilrKfhka m%ldYs; wod< iafgdhslsfhd;sl ix.=Klfha n,hg kexf'

Kp, iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh yd iu;=,s;;df mj;akd jdhqj, ixjD;a; moaO;shl
isjk idkaK ia;r flfrk oYlhls'
ixjD; moaO;shl isjk m%;sj;S ;dm fhdackh u`.ska iu;=,s;;df mj;sk
Y%Khla ,ef' ixjD; moaO;shla ;=< khsrcka fgfrdlaihs jdhqj fhdackh

fjka my; oelafjk iucd;Sh iu;=,s;;dj we;s f'
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
Kc =
Kp =
34
Iucd;Sh iu;=,s;;d
m%udKj;a ;r by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a l< g" wefudaksh laf,darhs"
wefudakshd jdhqj yd yhsrcka laf,darhs jdhqj njg fhdackh f' ixjD;
nkla ;=< oS m%;sl%shdj iu;=,s;;djg m;a f'
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
ixY=oaO >khl idkaKh" tys ujq, m%udKh mudfjka fnoSfuka ,ef'
ixY=oaO >khl >k;ajh ksh; neka tys idkaKh o ksh; f'

t neka ksh; WIaK;ajhla hgf;a oS wefudaksh laf,darhsj, fia u fjk;a
>k jHj, o iu;=,s;;d idkaKh ksh; jk w;r th iu;=,s;;d ksh;h

i|yd jk m%ldYkfha we;=<;a lsu wkjYH h'
Kc = [NH3(g)][HCl(g)]
Kp yd Kc w;r inkaO;dj
aA(g) + bB(g) cC(g) + dD(g)
by; wdldrfha idOdrK m%;lhdjla ie,lSfuka yd jdhq mmQK f,i yeisf
s s%
hehs Wml,amkh lsfuka my; oelafjk ilrKh jHq;amkak l< yels h'
Kp = Kc.(RT) n
fuys n hkq iafgdhslsfhd;sl ilrKfhys" M,j, we;=<;a jdhq wKq ujq,
ixLHdj - m%;sl%shlj, we;=<;a jdhq wKq ujq, ixLHdj f'
j - jdhq iu;=,s;;d
ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS ixjD; nkla ;=< j c,h yd c, jdIam w;r my;
oelafjk iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
H2O(l) F H2O(g)
fok ,o WIaK;ajhl oS by; moaO;sh i|yd iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka
H2O(l) ys idkao%Kh ksh; hehs ie,l=jfyd;a

ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS jdhqjl mSvkh tys idkao%Khg iudkqmd;sl fyhska
K=
f,i ,sh yels h' fuh jkdyS fuu moaO;sfha iu;=,s;;d ksh;h
jk w;r th tu WIaK;ajfha oS c,fha ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkhg iudk f'

; jdhq - jdhq iu;=,s;;dj yd KH
h jhl djKh we;s G k jQ jdhqjla yd jdhq l,dmfha we;s G jdhqj w;r
my; oelafjk iu;=,s;;dj mj;S hehs is;uq'
35
G ^djKh& F G ^jdhq l,dmh&

by; iu;=,s;;djg iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka
[G^jdhq l,dmh&] PG ^PG } jdhq l,dmfha G ys wdxYsl mSvkh&

[G^djKh&]
xG
^xG } djKfha G ys ujq, Nd.h&
jdhqj, ;kql djK i|yd j,x.= by; inkaO;dj fyka kshuh hkqfjka
ye|skf' fuys KH fyka kshu ksh;h f,i ye|skfjk w;r ksh; WIaK;ajhl
a
a
oS ksh;hls'
Nd. ix.=Klh ^ KD&
Nd. ix.=Klh hkq djH fYaIhla" wY%H j folla w;r jHdma; ug
wod< iu;=,s;;d ksh;h f'
wY%H j tlg fi, jQ l,ays ;djld,sl j Y% jk kuq;a wjidkfha oS je
>k;ajfhka hq;a jh my<ska o wvq >k;ajfhka hq;a jh by<ska o ;sfnk mos
l,dmj,g fjka f' l,dm fol fjka jkafka oDYH udhsula jk udjlfhks'
wY% yd ridhksl jYfhka tlsfkl iu`. m%;sl%shd fkdlrk djl folla
w;r tajd iu`. ridhksl j m%;lhd fkdlrkakd jQ o ix>gkhg fyda >gkhg

s s%
fyda Ndck fkdjkakd jQ o djHhla jHdma; j iu;=,s;;djg t<U we;s g
djl fol w;r djHfha idkaKj, wkqmd;h ksh; WIaK;ajfha oS ksh;hla
f'
X(B) F X(A)
KD }
A djlh ;=< X djHfha idkaKh

B djlh ;=< X djHfha idkaKh
^KD jHdma;s ix.=Klh fyj;a Nd. ix.=Klh f,i ye|skaf' &

djH;d iu;=,s;;dj
>k jHhla iy tu >kh oshfuka iEKq ix;Dma; djKhla w;r mj;sk
iu;=,s;;dj fufia oelah yels h'
kso(1
NaCl(s)
NaClîx;Dma; djKh&
fuys
[NaCl(s)] ksh;hla neka
Ks = [NaCl (sat)]
Ks hkq djH;d ksh;h f'
36
kso 2 (I2(s)
fuys Ks =
I2(CCl4 ix;Dma;&
[I2(CCl4 ix;Dma;&]
jKh fkdjQ >kfhys >k;ajh fjkia fkdjk neka tys idkaKh ksh;
f'
tu ksid Ks = [I2(CCl4ix;Dma;&]
tu ksid ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS ix;Dma; djKhl idkaKh ksh; f'
idjKh jQ wKq fyda whk idoka djK 1 dm3 l jKh jk jHhl Wmu
ujq, m%udKh tys ujq,sl djH;dj k f'

djK 1 dm3 l d; MX ixfhda.fha ujq, m%udKh
djK 1 dm3 l d; AgCl ujq, m%udKh
} MX ys ujq,sl
djH;dj
n+
} [M (aq)]
} [Xn-(aq)]
} AgCl ys ujq,sl djH;dj
} [Ag+(aq)]
} [Cl-(aq)]
djH;d .=Ks;h (Ksp)

c,fha w,am jYfhka djH oHq;a foHhl" ika;Dma; djKhl mj;akd
iu;=,s;;djg wod< iu;=,s;;d ksh;h" djH;d .=Ks;h ^Ksp& k f'
AxBy(s) xAy+(aq) + yBx-(aq)
by; iu;=,s;;djg iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka (
ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS >khl idkaKh ksh; neka"

Ksp = [Ay+(aq)]x[Bx-(aq)]y
f m%ldYkfha wka;.; jkafka wod< n,j,g kxjk ,o" ix;Dma; djKfha
we;s ta ta whkj, ujq,sl idkaKh hs'
Wod ( Ag2CrO4(s) 2Ag+(aq) + CrO42-(aq)
Ksp (Ag2CrO4) = [Ag+(aq)]2[CrO42-(aq)]
idudkHfhka by< djH;djla we;s ixfhda. i|yd djH;d .=Ks;h Nd; fkd
f' whksl idkaKh by< jk g tajd mmQK djK ;;a;jfhka wm.ukh

a
ug thg fya;=jhs'
c,fha whkSlrKh yd c,fha whkSlrK ksh;h (KW &
c,h" fl;r ixY=oaO jqj o b;d w,am f,i whkSlrKh f'
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
fuh w, - Niau iu;=,s;;djls' fuys oS c,h tys ixhq.aul w,h o
ixhq.aul Niauh o ksmojhs' by; iu;=,s;;djg iu;=,s;;d kshuh fh l,;
37
ixY=oaO c,fha idkaKh ksh; neka [H2O(l) ]2 ksh; f'

[H3O+(aq)] [OH- (aq) ] } ksh;hla } Kw
Kw, c,fha whksl .=Ks;h fyj;a c,fha whkSlrK ksh;h fyj;a c,fha
>gk ksh;h f,i ye|skaf'
ixY=oaO c,fha H3O+(aq) ys yd OH-(aq) ys idkaK iudk f'
-
25 0C oS" [H3O+(aq)] = [OH (aq)] = 1.0 10-7 mol dm-3

Kw = 1.0 10-14 mol2 dm-6
n, w,hl whkSlrK$>gk ksh;h (Ka)

HA wdldr n, w,hla c,fha oS my; oelafjk fm%dafgdak yqjudre
iu;=,s;;dfjys mj;S'
HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
fuys A- hkq w,fha ixhq.aul Niauh f'
;kql djKhl oS c,fha idkaKh ksh;hls'
Ka hkq w,fha whkSlrK$>gk ksh;h f'

Wod ( CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Ka w,fha wd,sl m%n,;dj ms<sn| kquls'

n, Niauhl whkSlrK$>gk ksh;h (Kb)
c,Sh djKhl we;s n, Niauhl ,dlaIKsl fm%dafgdak yqjudrej ie,l+ g;
B(aq) + H2O(l) BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
BH+ hkq Niaufha ixhq.aul w,h f' ;kql djKhl c,fha idkaKh
ksh; neka"
Kb, Niaufha whkSlrK$>gk ksh;h f'

kso ( NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
38
Kb, Niaufha m%n,;dj ksKh lsug Nd; l< yels h'

Ka iy Kbw;r inkaOh
Niauhl fm%dafgdak yqjudre iu;=,s;;dj tys ixhq.aul w,h weiqka o m%ldY
l< yels h'
BH+(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + B(aq)
B Niaufha Kb yd HB+ hk tys ixhq.aul w,fha Ka w;r .=Ks;h ie,l+

g (
Kw c,fha whksl .=Ks;h îajhx fm%dafgdak fok ksh;h& f'

w,-Niau oYl ^ pH oYl& i|yd jk iu;=,s;;dj ^ KIn &
pH oYl" idudkHfhka" c,fha djH" n, f,i wd,sl fyda n, f,i
Ndial ldnksl ixfhda. f' fujekakla c,Sh udOHfha my; oelafjk
iu;=,s;;dfjys mj;sk w;r tys w, iajrEmh ^HIn& yd tys ixhq.aul Niau
iajrEmh În-& jKfhka fjkia f' fuu iajrEm fol djKfha oS iu;=,;;df
s
mj;S'
HIn(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + In-(aq)
;kql djKhl c,fha idkaKh ksh; nj Wml,amkh flf' tg iu;=,;;d
s
ksh;h"
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh
iu;=,s;;djg t<U we;s g is we;s m%;sl%shd m%udKh iu;=,s;;d ,laIh
k f' fuh m%;sl%shdfjka m%;sl%shdjg fjkia f' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h"
iu;=,s;;d ia:dkfhys kquls' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h tlg jvd je k"
iu;=,s;;d ,laIh ol=Kg nr j mj;S hehs lshkq ,ef'
f,a-peg,sh uQ,Ouh
tl u m%;sl%shdjla i|yd uq`M iu;=,s;;d ,laIh wp, jQjla fkdj m%;sl%shd
;;a;j fjkia lsf oS fjkia jkakls' .;sl iu;,s;;djfha mj;sk moaO;shl"
a
tlS iu;=,s;;dj f.k taug fya;= jQ lsish idOlhla ixfrdaOkh l<fyd;a
tu ixfrdaOkh wju jk wdldrhg moaO;sh kej; ilia jkq we;' fuh f,apeg,sh uQ,Ouh ye|ska f'
my; i|yka idOl iu;=,s;;d ,laIh fjkia lrhs'
idkaKh
mSvkh
WIaK;ajh
39
tu idOlj, fjki" iu;=,s;;dj flfrys n,mdk wdldrh wfmdaykh lsug

f,a-peg,sh uQ,Ouh Nd; l< yels h'
f,a-peg,sh uQ,Ouh iu;=,;;d kshufhys .=Kd;aul .%yhla fia ie,fla'
s
yels iEu g u iu;=,s;;d kshuh m%fhdackhg .kska m%udKd;aul f,i
lreKq .%y lsug W;aidy .kak' tys oS my; i|yka lreKq fj; wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
^1& tla tla jHfha idkaKh fjkia lsu
^2& moaO;shl mSvkh je lsu ^fuys oS mudj wvq u idkaKh je
ula f,i ie,lsh yels h'&
^3& moaO;shg fjk;a ksIal%Sh jdhqjla fyda m%;sl%shdjlg n, fkdmdk
jdhqjla tl;= lsu'
^4& iu;=,s;;d ksh;h flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu m%udKd;aul j
wOHhkh fkdlrk fyhska" WIaK;ajh fjkia u is jk wjia:dj,
oS wod< mqfrdal:k i|yd f,a-peg,sh uQ,Ouh Nd; lrkak'
fuys m%;sl%shdf oS ;dmodhl$;dm wjfYdaaIl iajNdjh i,ld n,kak'
^5& W;afm%arlhla iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh fjkia fkd lrhs'
40
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'3
( tal ixrpl moaO;sj, j-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj p,kh jk

wkaou uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 08 hs'
(
ixY=oaO j moaO;s ykd .kshs'

wKql p,s;h weiqka j-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
WIaK;ajh iu`. jj, jdIam mSvk p,kh myohs'
jdIam mSvk iy ;dmdxl w;r inkaOh ykd .kshs'
wj ,laIH ykajhs'

c,h yereKq g fjk;a j i|yd l,dm igyka we|Sug isiqkag Wmfoia
fokak'

j jdIam iu;=,s;;dj
wyUq p,s;hl fhfok A hk jhl yd tys jdIamfha wKq i,lkak' jh
wvx.= j we;af;a jD; nkl k tys jdIam l,dmfha wKq is hkq we;' ta
iu`. jv jvd wKq j l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg .uka lrk w;r" fuh uq`M
jh u jdIamSNjkh jk f;la is jkq we;'
jfha jdIamNjkh ixjD; wjldYhla ;=< is jk l,ay" jfhka jdIam l,dmhg
S
s
fia u jdIam l,dmfhka j l,dmhg wKq .uka lsu is jk w;r tla;rd
wjia:djl oS wod< WIaK;ajh hgf;a .;sl iu;=,s;;djla ia:dms; f' fuu
iu;=,s; wjia:df oS jfha jdIamSNjk YS>%;dj" >kSNjk YS>%;djg iudkf'
A(l) F A(g)
flfia jqj o" fuys oS is jk wkalaISh mhdi kslaIKh
jdIam l,dmh
fkd f'
WIaK;aj
A
j l,dmhh ksh; j mej;=K fyd;a" iu;=,s;;df oS jdIamh
iska we;s flfrk mSvkh ksh;hla jk w;r th wod<
WIaK;ajfha oS jfha ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh f' fuh u
iu;=,s;;dAksh;hla o f'
wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh WIaK;ajh u; r|d mj;S' WIaK;ajh je f oS wKqj,
pd,l Yla;sh by< kexfjk w;r je pd,l Yla;shla iys; wKq" wka;wKql n, uevf.k jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M f' wka;-wKql n, m%n, jQ
;rug" wKq jdIam l,dmhg .uka lsf keUqrej wvq f'
jdIam l,dmhg wKq we;=`M u je jQ ;rug jdIam mSvkh je f' tneka
41
je jk WIaK;ajh jdIam mSvkh kexug fya;= f' wfkla w;g" WIaK;ajh

wvq l< l,ays jdIam l,dmfha wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh wvq jv jvd wKq j
l,dmhg mefKa' fuys m%;sM,hla f,i jdIam mSvkh wvq f'
jdIam l,dm
j l,dm
A A A
A
A
A
A A
P1
jdIam l,dm
A
A
A A A A
A A A A
j l,dm
T1
A
A
P2
A
A A
A
A AA
A
A
A
T2
T1> T2
P1> P2
jdIam mSvkh yd ;dmdxlh

jh r;a l< g WIaK;ajh by< hk w;r tla;rd WIaK;ajhl oS jfha
ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh" ^ndysr& jdhqf.da,h mSvkhg iudk f' f WIaK;ajfha
S
oS jH kgk w;r th jfha idudkH ;dmdxlh f'
WIaK;ajh iu`. jhl jdIam mSvkh je jkafka fh wdldrhg fkd f'
;j o O jj, wka;-wKql n, O jk w;r tksid tajdfha jdIamYS,s;d

o O h' f ksid O jj, ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh" jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkhg
iu jk WIaK;aj o tlsfklg fjkia f' f ksid O jj,g O
;dmdxl we;' ^j.=j yd rEmh n,kak&'
c,h
whka lmqre
vhs*khs,a
S
B;
jdIam mSvkh$atm
t;s,ka
S
vhsfu;s,a vhst;s,a
B;
B;
WIaK;ajh$ 0C
42
ixfhda.h
;dmdxlh $ 0C
^1'0 atm hgf;a oS&
jdIamYS,s;dj wvq f'
C2H5OH
78
C2H5OC2H5
34.6
H2O
100
C8H18
jdIam mSvkh wvq f'
120
;dmdxlh je f'
jhl wj ,laIh ^Critical Point &

ixjD; moaO;shl we;s j-jdIam iu;=,s;;djla i,luq' WIaK;ajfha je
u;a iu`. mj;akd iu;=,s;;dj | jefgk w;r jv jvd wKq j l,dmfhka
jdIam l,dmhg .uka lrhs' f iu`. jdIam l,dmfha jH m%udKh je yd
j l,dmfha jH m%udKh wvq kj iu;=,s;;d we;s jkq we;' wjidkfha oS
jdIam l,dmh muKla mejf;k wjia:djla t<fUkq we;'
imSvkfhka f jdIamh lrKh l< yels h'
flfia jqj o by< hk

WIaK;ajh iu`. jdIamh lrKhg olajk keUqrej wvq f' f ksid h
jdhqjlg wj WIaK;ajh hkqfjka ye|skafjk wju WIaK;ajhla mj;sk w;r
g by< WIaK;ajj, oS fl;r by< mSvkhla fhj;a jdhqj lrKh l<
fkdyels f' O jdhqj,g O wj WIaK;aj we;'
kso(
jdhqj$jdIamh
wj WIaK;ajh$ 0C
H2O
374
NH3
-118
CO2
31.5
wj WIaK;ajfha oS jdhqjla lrKh lsu i|yd fhosh hq;= wju mSvkh wj

mSvkh f,i ye|skaf' ;j o wj WIaK;ajfha oS yd wj mSvkfha oS iEKq
jHfha ujq,hl mudj" wj mudj f,i ye|ska f'
my; oS we;s c,fha l,dm igyfkka WIaK;ajh iu`. c,fha jdIam mSvkh
p,kh jk wdldrh ^TC jl%h& yd WIaK;ajh iu`. whsiaj, jdIam mSvkh

p,kh jk wdldrh ÂT jl%h& fmkakq flf' BT fLdfjka whsia yd j
c,h iu;=,s;;df mj;sk WIaK;aj yd mSvk fmkakq flf'
43
mSvkh$atm
>k
jdhq
>k
jdhq
WIaK;ajh$K
T ,laIHfha oS whsia" c,h yd c, jdIam hk ;=k u iu;=,s;;df mj;sk w;r

fuh c,fha ;%sl ,laIHh f,i ye|ska f'
TC jl%h c,fha wj WIaK;ajfhka ^647'4 K& wjika f'
WIaK;ajj, oS mej;sh yelafla jdIam l,dmhg muKs'
44
fuhg by<
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'4
( oajHx.S j moaO;sj, j-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj p,kh jk

wkaou .%y lrhs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
iu;=,;;dj yd pd,l oHdj ms<n| uQ,Ou oajhx.S djK moaO;shlg fhdoka

s
s
rW!,a kshuh jHq;amkak lrhs'

mmQK djKh w:olajhs'
wmmQK djK flfia" l=ula ksid rW!,a kshufhka wm.ukh f oehs
meyeos,s lrhs'
iu;=,s;;df oS djK yd jdIam l,dmj, ixhq;sh fiu i|yd rW!,a kshuh
Nd; lrhs'
oajHx.S djKj, mmQK yeisrSu yd mmQK fkd jk yeisu wdoYkh lrhs'

isiqka ,jd my; oelafjk djl hq.,j, O mud Y% lsug i,iajd
WIaK;ajfha is jk fjki uekSug i,iajkak'

1' fylafiaka yd fymafka
2' fm%dmfkdaka yd fu;fkda,a
3' fm%dmfkdaka yd fmkagfkdaka
kslaIK idlPd lrkak'
rW!,a kshuh mok jQ ir, ixLHd;aul .eg i|Sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
yels wjia:dj, oS we;e djl wKq w;r wka;l%shd idfmalaI jYfhka jvd
m%n, ug$jvd n, ug ;=vq fok fya;= idlPd lrkak' ksoiqkla f,i

CHCl3 yd CH3COCH3 w;r wdlIK n," CHCl3 yd C6H14 w;r wdlIK
n,j,g jvd m%n, f'

j - j moaO;s my; oelafjk mos j.SlrKh l< yels h'
- mQK f,i Y% jk j - j moaO;s

Wod ( c,h yd t;fkda,a" fylafiaka yd fymafka" fnkaiSka yd fgdka
- wO f,i Y%H j - j moaO;s
Wod( c,h yd hqgfkda,a" c,h yd B;
- wY%H j - j moaO;s
Wod ( c,h yd fgrdlaf,dafrdfuf;aka
45
mmQK djK
mQK f,i Y% jk A yd B hk j ixrpl follska hq;a oajhx.S djKhl

we;e g f(A-B) = f(A-A) = f(B-B) h yels h' ^f hkafkka wka;-wKql
wdlIK n, fyj;a wKq w;r wka;l%shd ixfla;j;a flf&' t n djKhla
mmQK djKhla k f' mmQK djKhl ixrpl Y% l< g ^w& uq,q
mrsudj Y% lrk ,o mudj, tl;=jg iudk f' ^wd& tka;e,ams fjkila is
fkd f ^tfyhska WIaK;aj fjkila o kslaIKh l< fkdyels f&'
A yd B jj, mrsmQK djKhla" ixjD; nkla ;=<" by<ska we;s la;
wjldYlhg jdIamNjkh jk l,ay"s j l,dmfha wka;l%hd
S
s
jdIam jd hdug ;r pd,l Yla;shla we;s A yd B wKq
blau
l,dmh Ghg" by<ska we;s wjldYhg kslafuhs' f
j mDIa
iu`. jdIam l,dmfha p,kh jk A yd B wKqj,ska
j
iuyrla j l,dmhg we;=`M fjhs' f l%shdj,s foflys
l,dmh
f. iudk jQ g .;sl iu;=,s;;djla we;s f' fuh"
ksh; WIaK;ajhla mj;sk g ^w& iuia; jdIam mSvkh
^fuhg A yd B jdIamj, wdxYsl mSvk odhl f& yd ^wd& jdIam l,dmfha
ixhq;sh ksh; j mej;Sfuka ikd: f'
jdIamfha ixhq;sh ^w& A yd B j, idfmalaI jdIamYS,;d ^tfyhska tajdfha
;dmdxl& yd ^wd& djKfha A yd B j, idfmalaI idkaK u; /f|hs'
h ixrplhl jdIamYS,s;dj yd djKh ;=< tys idkaKh je jk g" th
jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M f m%jK;dj je jk w;r tkhska bka je wdxYsl
mSvkhla fhfohs'
rW!,a kshuh
oajHx.S mmQK djKhl jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh m%udK;aul j ksKh lsu
i|yd j - jdIam moaO;shl we;s iu;=,s;;d ^^1& yd ^2&& ie,lsh hq;= h'
A j l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg hdf YS>%;dj R1 k

[A(l)] j l,dmfha A ys ujq, Nd.hg iudkqmd;sl neka
R1= k1 xA ...............(3)
jdIam l,dmfha we;s A" j njg m;af YS>%;dj R2 k"
;jo"
A (g) ys idkaKh [A(g)]j, wdxYsl mSvkh PA g iudkqmd;sl neka
R2= k2 PA ............... (4)
iu;=,s;;df oS R1= R2 f'
^3& yd ^4& wkqj
46
tfy;a xA = 1 jk g" PA = P0A f'

k= P0A
PA= P0A xA
tfia u" PB= P0B xB
f wkqj" ksh; WIaK;ajhla hgf;a oS" mmQK djKhl A k jQ h
ixrplhlska we;s flfrk jdIam mSvkh" A j, ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkfha yd
j l,dmfha tys ujq, Nd.fha .=Ks;hg iudk f' f inkaO;dj rW!,a
kshuh hkqfjka ye|ska f'
fujeks djKhl PA < P0A yd PB < P0B nj meyeos,s h'
A jfha jdIam mSvk md;kh = P0A - PA
P0 A - PA = P0A - P0A xA
P0 A - PA = P0A(1- xA)
P0 A - PA = P0A xB
f'
tfia u"
fuh rW!,a kshuh m%ldY l< yels l,am wdldrhls'

rW!,a kshuh" fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh iu`. ixfhdackh lsfuka
jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh ksKh l< yels h' uq`M jdIam mSvkh P o" jdIam
l,dmfha A yd B ys ujq, Nd. ms<sfj<ska yA yd yB o k(
h WIaK;ajhl oS P0A ksh;hla neka rW!,a kshuh wkqj mmQK djKhl
h ixrplhl jdIam mSvkh yd j l,dmfha tys ujq, Nd.h w;r m%ia;drh

ir, fLdjla f' B g jvd A jdIamYS,S hehs Wml,amkh l< fyd;a ^tk
P0A> P0B yd t neka Tb(A)< Tb(B)& mmQK oajHx.S djKhl jj, jdIam mSvk
yd ujq, Nd. w;r m%ia;drh my; oelafjk mos f' fuys PAB hkq uq mSvkh
jk w;r PA yd PB ms<sfj<ska A yd B ys jdIam mSvk f'
47
jd'mS'
jd'mS'
P0A
PAB
PA
P0B
PB
xA
0
1
1
0
xB
kso ( fylafiaka yd fymafka" fnkaiSka yd fgdBka" fn%dafudtf;aka yd

whfvdtf;aka" ldnka fgrdlaf,darhs yd laf,darf*da" C6H6 yd C6D6 îe' hq'
kE u ixhq;shl oS uq`M mSvkh PA ys yd PB ys ftlHhg iudk h'&
tfy;a" fujeks Y%Khl ksh; mSvkfha oS ;dmdxlh yd ixhq;sh w;r ir,
fh inkaO;djla fkd mj;S'
;dmdxlh
;dmdxlh
Tb(B)
Tb(A)
xA
0
1
1
0
xB
mmQK fkdjk j moaO;s

mmQK djK rW!,a kshuhg wkql, j yeisfrhs' rW!,a kshufhka wm.ukh
+
jk djK o f' fjd wmmQK djK f' wmmQK djKhl wka;
wKql wdlYk n, wiudk f' tk"
wmmQK djK iuyrl
yd
>
jk w;r" tys
m%;M,hla f,i j l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg wKq we;=`M f ksoyi mmQK

s
djKhl mj;sk tu ksoyig jvd wvq h'
tu ksid jdIam mSvk - ixhq;s jl% my<g wj;,kh ula fmkajhs' tkuq
;dmdxl - ixhq;s jl% by<g kefjhs'
kso ( fm%dmfkdaka yd fu;fkda,a" g%hslaf,dafrdfuf;aka yd fm%dmfkdaka"
t;fkdhsla w,h yd c,h
48
jdIa m
mS v kh
p AB
mmQK
djKhl
jdIam mSvkh
lv b u`.ska
olajd we;'
PA
PB
xA
xB
fujeks djK rW!,a kshufhka RK wm.ukhla fmkajkafka hehs lshkq

,ef' fu n djK Y% lsf oS WIaK;ajh by< hhs' mud ixfldapkhla
is f'
;j;a we;e djKj,
yd
f' mmQK djKj,
wKqj,g jvd myiqfjka fjdfha wKq j l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M
fjhs'
f djKj, jdIam mSvk - ixhq;s jl% mmQK ;;a;ajfhka by<g o" ;dmdxl
- ixhq;s jl% my<g o wm.uk f'
kso ( fm%dmfkdaka yd ldnka vhsi,a*hs" fm%dmfkdaka yd fmkagfkdak"a t;fkda,a
yd fnkaiSka'
;dmdxl
;dmdxl
Tb(B)
p AB
pA
p
mrsmQraK o%djK
mmQK
djKhl
jdIam mSvkh
lv b u`.ska
olajd
we;'
T b(A)
0
1
XA
XB
1
0
fujeks djK rW!,a kshufhka Ok wm.ukhla fmkajk w;r ixrpl Y%

lsf oS WIaKa;jfha wvq ula is f' mudf jeula is f'
49
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'5
( oajHx.S j moaO;sj, j-jdIam iu;=,s;;d m%dfhda.sl lghq;=

i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
03 hs'
jdIamYS,S jHhl wjdIamYS,S jHhla osh we;s djKhlska tajd fjka lr
.ekSug" ir, wdijkh Wmfhda.S lr .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'

ir, wdijkhlg WodyrK imhhs'
ir, wdijkh i|yd Nd; jk WmlrK m%ldY lrhs'
tu WmlrKj, Wmfhda.S;d meyeos,s lrhs'
ir, wdijkhla i|yd wdijk WmlrK ilia lrk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
jdIamYS,S j hq.,lska iEoS we;s Y%Khl ix>gl tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug
Nd.sl wdijkh Nd; jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
Nd.sl wdijkhlg WodyrK olajhs'
Nd.sl wdijkhlska fjka lr .; yels oajHx.S Y%Khl .=K m%ldY lrhs'
rW!,a kshuh iy Nd.sl wdijkh w;r inkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'

Nd.sl wdijkfha fhoS f,i
we,afldfyd, ksIamdokh
fm%fgda,sh msmyj
isiqka iu`. idlPd lrkak'

Nd.sl wdijkh wdY%s; .eg i|Sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

Kq djKhlska fyda wm;% c,fhka fyda wdi%e; c,h ,nd .ekSug ir,
wdijkh fhdod .; yels h'

fuys oS wdijk ma,dial=jg wu;r j lkafvkairhla iy wdodhlhla o wjYH
jk uQ,sl WmlrK w;r f' ^jd; lkafvkairh iy c, lkafvkairh w;r
fjki myokak'&
tla ixrplhla muKla jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M jk ksid ir, wdijkh b;d
ir, uQ,Ouhla u; mok f'
ixrpl fol u jdIamYS,S jk mmQK fyda wdikak f,i mmQK djKhla
ie,l+ g tajd tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug Nd.sl wdijkh fhfoa'
ir, wdijkfha WmlrKj,g wu;r j fuys oS Ndcl l=kla Nd; flf'
Nd.sl wdijkfhka j folla tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug k tajdfha
;dmdxl w;r ie,lsh hq;= fjkila ;sh hq;= h' t k jdIamYS,;d ie,lsh
hq;= ;r tlsfklg fjkia h hq;= h'
50
tla tla WIaK;ajfha oS ,nd.; yels" wdiQ;fha ixhq;sh oek .ekSug" WIaK;aj
ixhq;s l,dm igyka b;d m%fhdackj;a f'
WIaK;ajh
TA0
jdIam
T1
T2
TB0
<
j F jdIam
T1
<
T2
ksh; mSvkfha oS w|sk
,o l,dm igyk
TA0 } A j, ;dmdxlh
TB0 } B j, ;dmdxlh
xA 0 x 1
xB 1
0.5
0.5
ixhq;sh
1
0
TA0 > TB0 jk A yd B mmQK djKhl l,dm igyk i,lkak'

A iy B iu ujq, Y%Khla kgk WIaK;ajh T1 f' T1 WIaK;ajfha oS j
l,dmh iu`. iu;=,s;j mj;sk jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh x1 f' ^;dmdxlh wvq
ixfhda.h" jdIam l,dmfha jemqr mj;S'&
T1 ys oS kgk jdIamh >kSNjkh l<fyd;a ,efnk jfha ixhq;sh x1 f' fuys
b;d wl m%;sY;hla B we;s nj fmfka'
;jo x1 ixhq;sh ork jfha T2 ;dmdxlh wvq ksid th jdIamhla f,i wdijk
l=fka ;j;a by<g .uka lrkq we;'
f wdldrhg fjka fjka wkqhd; wdijk /ilska is jk l%shdj,s ish,a,
tljr wdijk l=k ;=< ika;;sl j is f'
wjidkfha wdiQ;h f,i ixY=oaO B ixrplh ,ef' wdijk ma,dial=f we;s
djKfha A ys ujq, Nd.h l%ufhka je jk neka ;dmdxlh je jk w;r
wjidkfha oS imQKfhka u jdf.a A b;s f'
51
WIaK;ajudkh u`.ka wdiQ;fha

s
WIaK;ajh ,nd foa'
c,h msgu
,s.a lkafvkairh
c,h
we;=`Mu
re leg wiqrd we;s

l=k
wdiQ;h
l=k osf.a l%ufhka

WIaK;ajh wvq f'
is u j<lk lKsld
;dmh
wdijkfha oS x1 ixhq;sh iys; djKh wdijk l=fka by<g hk g fjkia

jk wdldrh B;, u`.ska oelaf'
Wmu ;dmdxl Y%Khla ie,l+ g Nd.sl wdijkh u`.ska" tla ixrplhla
msis j wdiQ;h f,i ,nd .; yels jqj o wdijkh wimQK h' bka j fol
imQKfhka u tlsfklska fjka lr .; fkdyels h' ^ma,dial=f j fofla
Y%Khla b;s f'& ;j o" ljr jhla wdiQ;h f,i ,nd .; yelsf o hkak
r|d mj;skafka wdijkh wdrN lrk djKfha ixhq;sh u; h'
* wju ;dmdxl Y%K ms<sn| j ;ksj u is;Sug isiqka fhduq lrh yels h '
52
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'6
( w,am f,i djH whksl ixfhda. yd inkaO iu;=,s;

moaO;sj, .=K m%udKkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
we;e whksl ixfhda. b;d fyd|ska c,fha osh jk w;r we;e ixfhda. iq`M
jYfhka osh fjk nj m%ldY lrhs'

iq`M jYfhka osh jk ixfhda. i|yd Ksp fhdohs'
fmd whk wdprKh fhdohs'

djH;d .=Ks;h yd fmd whk wdprKh inkaO fhda.H .eg i|Sug isiqka
fhduq lrkak'

NaCl ys c,fha djH;dj wdikak f,i 5 mol dm-3 f' djKfha Na+ yd Cl-
whk w;r wka;l%shd mj;sk fyhska tajd ir, jqj o" tlsfklska iajdk fkd
f'
AgCl jeks iaj,am jYfhka djH whksl ixfhda.hl c,Sh djK ;=< tajdfha
whk iajdk j mj;sk w;r ix;Dma; djKhl tu whk iy >kh w;r my;
i|yka .;sl iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
iu;=,s;d kshuh fhoSfuka"
hk [AgCl(s)] ksh;hls'
Ksp = [Ag+(aq)][Cl-(aq)]
fuh djH;d .=Ks;h hs'
Ksphkq ksh; WIaK;ajfha oS ksh;hls' th djH;d .=Ks;h f,i ye|ska f'
fmd whk wdprKh ( by; i|yka wdldrfha ix;Dma; AgCl djKhg c,Sh NaCl
djKhla tl;= l< g c,Sh Cl- whk idkaKh je f' fok ,o WIaK;ajhl
oS Ksp ksh;hla neka udOHfha Ag+ idkaKh wvqh hq;=h' tk AgCl
wjlafIam f' wka whqrlska lsjfyd;a Cl- whk djKhl AgCl j, djH;dj"
ixY=oaO c,fha AgCl ys djH;djg jvd wvq h' fuh fmd whk wdprKh f,i
ye|skaf' Ag+ inkaOfhka o ;;a;ajh fufia h'
53
ksmqK;dj 12'0

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'7
( n, w," n, Nia u " wd,s l ,jK yd Ndia l ,jK

wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d moaO;sj, .=K m%udKkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
ixhq.aul w," ixhq.aul Niau nyq Ndial w, ykajhs'

Kw, Ka, Kb fhdod ir, .eg i|hs'
pH w: olajhs'
wd,sl yd laIdh djKj, pH .Kkh lsug ilrK jHq;amkak lrhs'
fok ,o wkqudmkhlg fhda.H oYl f;dard .ekSu i|yd oYl ms<sn| jdoh
Nd; lrhs'

u,aj,ska oYl ms<sfh, lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
oYl$ pH lvodis Nd; lr O djKhkays pH w.h ksKh lsug
mjrkak'
pH w.h mlaId lsfuka ,jKj, c,Sh djKj, wd,sl" laIdh fyda WodiSk
nj mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsug fhduq lrjkak'

n, w, yd n, Niau c,fha oS Nd.sl jYfhka whkSlrKh jk fyhska
iu;=,s;;d we;s f'

ixhq.aul hq.,
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l)
CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
ixhq.aul hq.,
H2O yd H3O+ ms<sfj<ska ixhq.aul Niauh yd tys ixhq.aul w,h f'

ixhq.aul hq.,
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
ixhq.aul hq.,
54
iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka"
HCl, HNO3 jeks m%n, w, yd NaOH m%n, Niau c,Sh djK ;=< oS mQK
>gkh isf'
tksid tajdfha >gkh weiqka H3O+ whk idkaKh iy OH- whk idkaKh
fl,ska u m%ldY l< yels h'
Tiaj,af.a ;kqlrK kshuh
n, f,i whkSlrKh jk moaO;s i|yd fuf,i fl,ska u whkSlrKh mdol
fldg H3O+ fyda OH- whk idkaK bosm;a l< fkdyels h' ta i|yd j.=.;
Kafyda Kb w.h oS we;s g ta i|yd Tiaj,a ;kqlrK kshu Nd; l< yels h'
n, tal Ndial w,h (HX) ujq, tlla wvx.= jk V djK mudjla i,luq'
HX(aq) H+(aq) + X- (aq)
wdrNl ujq, m%udKh$mol
>gkh k
iu;=,s; g m%udKh$mol
^1-)
iu;=,s; g idkaK$mol dm-3

mj;sk WIaK;ajfha oS by; n, w,h ;jrg;a >gkh fkdjk neka th
iu;=,s; moaO;shla f,i i,lkq ,ef'
55
Ka hkq n, w,fha >gk ksh;h f'

= fyj;a w,fha wdrNl idkaKh c f'
by; inkaO;dj Tiaj,a ;kQlrK kshuh k f'
1 jk g"
neka
Ka } 2 C ^n, w, i|yd&
Kb } 2 C ^n, Niau i|yd&
f inkaO;dj u`.ska n, w,j, [H+] fyda n, Niauj, [OH-] fyda

fiu l< yels h'
pH w.h
c,Sh djKj, mj;sk yhsfidaksh whk idkaKh we;e g b;d wvq h'
ldl l%shdj,s" IKh" w, jeis" rer yd ldhsl ridhkh we;=`M fndfyda
lghq;=j, oS udOHhl [H3O+] wjYH yd m%fhdackj;a f' fndfyda g wmg
yuq jk c,Sh djKj, [H3O+], 10-5 - 10 mol dm-3 mrdifha mj;S'
f ksid [H3O+] djKh ,>q mudKfhka m%ldY lsu myiq h' yhsfrdaksh
whk fkdfyd;a yhsrcka whk idkaKfhys ixLHd;aul w.fha 10 mdofha

RK ,>q w.h pH k f' fuys p j,ska n,h o H3O+ j,ska yhsfrdaksh
whk fyj;a ir, j m%ldY flfrk mos yhsrcka whk o ixfla;j;a f'
.Ks;uh f,i pH w: oelafjkafka my; oelafjk ilrKfhks'
fyj;a
m%ldYkfha RK i,l=K ksid" yhsrcka whk idkaKh je jk g pH wvq
f' ;j o pH tall tll fjki" yhsrcka whk idkaKfha oi .=Khl

fjkilg wkqrEm f'
56
m%n, w, djKj, pH .Kkh lsu

m%n, w, c,fha oS imQKfhka whkSlrKh mj;S hehs Wml,amkh
flf' fjdfha H3O+ whk idkaKh" w,fha ujq,sl idkaKfhka fl,ska
u ,nd .; yels h' w,h talfm%dal k [H3O+], w,fha ujq,sl idkaKhg
iudk f'
Wod( 0.1 mol dm-3 yhsrlaf,dala w, djKhla ie,l+ g"
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
[H3O+(aq) ] = 0.1 mol dm-3

[H3O+(aq) ] /(1 mol dm-3) = 0.1
-log10 0.1 = 1
pH = 1
H2SO4 jeks oafm%dal w, ;kql c,Sh djKj, oS H3O+ whk ^H+whk&
folla foka fndfyda rg u mdfya mQK f,i whkSlrKh f'

H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq) + SO 2- (aq)
4
0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 djKhl [H3O+(aq) ] = 0.2 mol dm-3
[H3O+(aq)]/(1 mol dm-3) = 0.2
= 2 10-1
log10 0.2 = -0.7
-log10 0.2 = 0.7
pH = 0.7
m%n, Niau djKj, pH .Kkh lsu

m%n, Niau o c,fha oS imQKfhka whkj,g >gkh f' tu ksid tu
djKj, yhsfrdlaihs whk idkaKh Niaufha ujq,sl idkaKh weiqka

myiqfjka ,nd .; yels h'
kso ( 0.3 mol dm-3 fidah yhsfrdlaihs djKhla ie,l+ g (
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[OH-(aq)] = 0.3 mol dm-3
fuys yhsrcka whk idkaKh" c,fha whksl .=Ks;h weiqka ksKh l<
yels h' 298 K WIaK;ajfha oS c,fha whksl .=Ks;h 110-14 mol2 dm-6 f'
t neka fuu WIaK;ajfha oS"

[H3O+(aq)] = Kw / [OH-(aq)]
[H3O+(aq)] =
= 3.33 10-14 mol dm-3
pH = -log10 (3.33 10-14 )
= 13.5
n, w, djKj, pH .Kkh lsu
n, w, c,fha oS whkSlrKh jkafka wimQK f,i h' t neka n,
talfm%dal w,hl c,Sh djKfha my; oelafjk iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
57
HA (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

moaO;sh i|yd iu;=,s;;d kshuh fh g (
w,fha wdrNl ujq,sl idkaKh C o >gk m%udK o f k;
<< 1 jk g 1 -
1 neka
tfia u n, Niau djKhl"

n, w, yd m%n, Niauj,ska jHq;amkak ,jK djKj, pH .Kkh lsu
kso(
CH3COONa
CH3COONa(s) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + Na+(aq)
Na+(aq) + H2O(l) ie,lsh hq;= m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH (aq) + OH-(aq)
iu;=,s;;d kshuh wkqj ;
[H2O(l)] ksh; neka"
58
0.050 mol dm-3 fidah t;fkdta djKhl yhsfrdlaihs whk idkaKh
yd m%;sl%shd m%;sY;h .Kkh lrkak' wod< WIaK;ajfha oS t;fkdhsla w,fha

Ka, 1.8 10-5 mol dm-3 f'
djKfha OH- idkaKh x k(

[CH3COO-(aq)] = 0.05 mol dm-3 - x
[OH-(aq)] = x
[CH3COOH(aq)] = x
5.6 10-10 mol dm-3 =
x = [OH-(aq)] = 5.3 10-6 mol dm-3

m%;sl%shd m%;sY;h =
59
n, Niauhlska yd m%n, w,hlska jHq;amkak ,jK yd c,h w;r m%;sl%shdj

kso ( NH4Cl
fuu whk c, fokhg iyNd.s u i,luq'
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) ie,lsh hq;= m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
[H2O(l)] ksh; neka"
++(aq)
Ka(NH )
NH 44
n, w,hlska yd n, Niauhlska jHq;amkak ,jK iy c,h w;r m%;sl%shdj(
kso ( CH3COONH4
ka ,efnk whk fol u c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd f'
+ H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
yd K b(CH3COO ) fndfydarg u iudk ksid c,h ;=< f m%;sl%shd fol u
fndfydarg iudk m%udKj,ska is f' fuys iuia; m%;sl%shdj my; oelafjk
ilrK ;=fkys tl;=fjka ,ef'
+ H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
+ CH3COO-(aq) CH3COOH(aq) + NH3(aq)
iu;=,s;;d kshuh wkqj ;
60
kuq;"a
djKhl pH w.h mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu

djKhl pH w.h
oYl îQpl&
oYl lvodis
pH gr
Nd;fhka ksKh l< yels h'
pH oYl ms<sn| jdoh
oYlh n, w,hla f,i i,lka" tys fmd iQ;%h HIn f,i i,lkq ,ef'
tu ksid c,Sh udOHfha oYlhla my; oelafjk iu;=,s;;df mj;S'
HIn(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + In-(aq)
I jKh
II jKh
oYlhla nj ye`.ug n, w,fha iu;=,s;;d ksh;h Ka fjkqjg KInksh;h
fhdokq ,ef'
-log10 KIn = -log10[H3O+(aq)]-log10[In-(aq)]-(-log[HIn(aq)])
HIn yd In jK follska hqla; f'

w,hla tl;= lsf oS iu;=,s;;dj jug nr jk neka HIn ys jKh m%uqL
j fmfkkakg f'
laIdrhla tl;= lsf oS ^ H3O+bj;a jk neka & iu;=,s;;dj ol=Kg nr jk
w;r In- ys jKh m%uqL f'

my< pH w.h j, oS jKh I fmkak flfrk w;r th "my< jKh" f,i;a
q
by< pH w.h j, oS jKh II fmkakq flfrk w;r th "by< jKh"
f,i;a ykajkq ,nhs'
61
djKfha pH, pKIn g iu jk g" HIn ys yd ys iu Y%Khlg wdfKsl
w;rueos jKh oYkh f'
oYlhl pH mrdih pKIn+ 1 yd pKIn- 1 w;r msysgk g jK mhdih we;s
jkafka pH tall folla we;=<; h'
oYlh
^1& ;hs,a Tfka
^2& ;hsfuda,a
^3& mSsfkda,ama;,ska
my< jKh
frdai
ly
wjK
62
pH mrdih
3'1 - 4'4
6'0 - 7'6
8'3 - 10'0
by< jKh
ly
ks,a
frdai
ksmqK;dj 12'0
ksmqK;d ugu 12'8

Nd; lrhs'
( wjYH;djg irs,k mrsos iajdrlaIl djK ms<sfh< lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 07 hs'
(
iajdrlaIl djK .=Kd;aul j yd m%udKd;aul j yodrhs'

iajdrlaIl moaO;s i|yd fykavika ilrKh jHq;amkak lrhs'
fykavika ilrKfha Nd; ir, .Kkh ls u`.ska fmkajhs'
iajdrlaIl moaO;shl pH w.h yd iajdrlaIl Odrs;dj .=Kd;aul j yd
m%udKd;aul j meyeos,s lrhs'

O moaO;sj, iajdrlaIl l%shdj fm/hSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
m%n, w, fyda m%n, Niau fyda okakd m%udKhla tl;= lsf oS O iajdrlaIl
moaO;sj, pH fjkiau .Kkh lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

iajdrlaIl djK
ridhksl jYfhka ixY=oaO jQ c,h 1.0 dm 3 lg 1.0 mol dm -3 HCl djKhlska
fyda 1.0 mol dm -3 NaOH djKhlska 0.10 cm 3 tl;= l< g isjk pH
w.fhys fjki wdikak jYfhka tall 3la nj .Kkh lsfuka fyda pH
lvodis Nd;fhka fyda fmkah yels h' fuhska fmkS hkafka w, fyda
laIdr iq`M m%udKhlg pH w.fhys Yd, fjkila is l< yels nj hs' tfy;a
fujeks fjkilg m%;sfrda djK o f'
iajdrlaIl djKhla hkq iaj,am m%udKj,ska H+ fyda OH- fyda c,h fyda
tl;= lrk g djKfha pH w.fha fjkia ug m%;sfrdaOh olajk djK f'
0.l mol dm -3 CH3COOH(aq) j,ska 50.00 cm3 f.k thg 0.l mol dm -3 NaOH
djKhlska fok ,o mud tl;= lr f.k hEf oS moaO;sfha pH w.h fjkiau
my; j.=fjka fmkakq flf'
tl;= lrk ,o
0.1 mol dm-3
NaOH mrsudj$cm3
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
35.00
45.00
50.00
moaO;sfha
pH w.h
2.88
3.88
4.15
4.39
4.60
4.75
5.12
5.71
8.75
63
by; j.=j wkqj NaOH(aq) 10 cm3la yd 25 cm3la tl;= lrk w;r;=r pH w.h
fjkia we;af;a b;d iq`M jYfhks' tk ndysr j tl;= lrk ,o Niauh ksid
we;sjk pH w.h fjkiau wvq lr .ekSug moaO;sh lsish m%;sfrdaOhla olajd
we;' f l%shdj iajdrlaIl l%shdj k f'
iajdrlaIl moaO;s
n, w,hla" tys ixhq.aul Niauh iu`. Y% j we;s moaO;s iajdrlaIl .=K
fmkajhs' Wod ( CH3COOH(aq) yd CH3COONa(aq) moaO;sh
n, Niauhla tys ixhq.aul w,h iu`. Y% j we;s moaO;s iajdrlaIl .=K
fmkajhs' Wod ( NH4OH(aq) yd NH4Cl(aq) moaO;sh
iajdrlaIl djKhl iajdrlaIl l%shdj we;s jk wdldrh
I CH3COOH(aq) yd CH3COONa(aq) moaO;sh weiqka meyeos,s lsu
f,i mQK j >gkh f'
f,i Nd.sl j
>gkh f'
fuu moaO;shg msg;ska H+(aq) iaj,amhla tl;= l< g"
m%;sl%shdj wkqj n, f,i >gkh jk CH3COOH(aq) idoka tl;= l< H+
moaO;sfhka bj;a f' tu ksid moaO;sfha pH w.h fndfyda rg ksh; j mj;S'
fuys oS CH3COONa(aq)
>gkh fuka CH3COO-(aq) we;s muK
jKhg ,nd oS we;'
fuu moaO;shg msg;ska OH- iaj,amhla tl;= l< g
OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq) 2H2O(l) f,i n, j >gkh jk
H2O idoka tl;= l< OH-(aq) moaO;sfhka bj;a f' moaO;sfha wvq jk
H+(aq) idkaKh mj;ajd .ekSug CH3COOH >gkh f' tneka pH w.h
fndfyda rg ksh; f'
II NH4OH(aq) yd NH4Cl(aq) moaO;sh weiqka meyeos,s lsu
NH OH(aq)
+ OH-(aq)
4
NH4Cl(aq)
+ Cl-(aq)
fuu djKhg msg;ska H+(aq) iaj,amhla tla l< g"
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O (l) f,i c,h idoka tl;= l< H+(aq) fndfyda
rg moaO;sfhka bj;a f' tg moaO;sfhka wvq jk OH-(aq) idkaKh
mj;ajd .ekSug NH4OH >gkh f' tu ksid moaO;sfha pH w.h fndfyda
rg ksh; f'
fuu djKhg msg;ska OH-(aq) tl;= l< g"
+ OH-(aq) NH OH(aq) f,i n, Niauh idoka tl;= l< OH4
(aq) wvq lr idkaKh .efka'
pH w.h fndfyda rg ksh; j mj;S'
fykavika ilrKh
CH3COOH(aq)/CH3COONa(aq) jeks iajdrlaIl moaO;shl pH w.h" ksKh
lsug my; ilrKh ^fykavika ilrKh& jHq;amkak l< yels h'
64
w,fha >gk ks;h;h"
CH3COOH(aq)j, >gk m%udKh wvq ksid CH3COO (aq) imQKfhka u
,nd fokafka ,jKfhka muKla nj o ilrKfha wvx.= CH3COOH idkaKh

wdrNl CH3COOH idkaKhg wdikak j iudk nj o Wml,amkh lr
fuu .Kkh lsj, oS Nd; lrkq ,ef'
iuyr wjia:dj, oS moaO;sj, pH w.h ksh; j mj;ajd .ekSu jeo.;a f'
kso( rerfha" ludka;j, oS" ffcj oHd;aul mlaIKj, oS'

rerfha pH w.h 7'4 ls' rerfha pH w.h 0'5lska fjkiau mjd urKh
f.k taug ;=vq foa' tu ksid Yrhg tkak;a ,nd oSf oS rerfha
iajdrlaIl .=Kh b;d m%fhdackj;a f'
HCO3 (aq)
rerfha iajdrlaIl l%shdj
rer ;r,fha osh jQ ldnkavfhdlaihs we;s neka tys my; oelafjk l%shdj,s
mj;S'
rer ;r,fha osh jQ Na+, K+ O whk j. we;' tneka" n, w,hla jk

H2CO3 iy tys NaHCO3 ,jKh rer ;r,fha wvx.= h'
NaHCO3(aq) Na+(aq) +
H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) +
m%;sl%shdj ksid msg;ska iq`M
-
jYfhka OH ,enqKq g tajd H2O f,i bj;a flf'

msg;ska iq`M jYfhka H+ ,enqKq g" th udOHfha we;s
f,i bj;a flf'
iska H2CO3
fuu iajdrlaIl l%shdj,sh ksid fndfyda rg H+ whk idkaKfha fjkila

we;s fkd f' t ksid rerfha pH w.h fjkia fkd f'
ludka;fha oS" fYaIfhka wdydr l,a;nd .ekSf l%shdj,Skays oS" pH w.h
fkdfjkia j ;nd .ekSug iajdrlaIl Nd; f'
65
kso (
fidah isf$isla w,h

fidah fnkafidta$fnkafidhsla w,h
we;e ffcj oHd;aul mlaIKj, oS o udOHfha pH w.h fkdfjkia j
mj;ajd .ekSug wjYH f' Wod ( l,, oHd;aul mlaIK
l,,h i j mj;ajd .kska h mlaIKhla is lsug wjYH jQ g" pH
w.h fkdfjkia j ;nd .ekSug iajdrlaIl fhdod .efka'
iajdrlaIl Od;dj
iEu iajdrlaIl moaO;shlg u pH w.hla we;'
tfia u iEu iajrdlaIl moaO;shlg u th iajdrlaIla f,i fhdod .ekSug
iqiq pH mrdihla we;'
Wod ( CH3COOH(aq), CH3COONa(aq) moaO;sh .;a g
CH3COOH(aq)j, Ka w.h 1'8 10-5 mol dm-3 jk ksid tys
pKa } 4'76 f'
by; moaO;sh iajdrlaIl f,i fhdod .ekSug fhda.H pH mrdih 4'76 1 f'
tk ^3'76 yd 5'76 w;r f'&
by; iajdrlaIl moaO;sh i,luq'
tys
fuu iajdrlaIl djKfha pH w.h fjkia jkafka
fjkia
jQ g h' fuu wkqmd;h iajdrlaIl wkqmd;h k f' tu ksid h moaO;shlg

w,hla fyda Niauhla tl;= l< g iajdrlaIl wkqmd;h fkdfjkia j
mj;ajd .ekSf yelshdj wl k" tu moaO;sfha iajdrlaIl Od;dj wl
f'
iajdrlaIl Od;dj je moaO;shlg w,hla fyda Niauhla tl;= lrk g
pH w.h fndfyda rg ksh; f'
Wod ( A yd B hkqfjka moaO;s 2la i,luq' fuu iajdrlaIl moaO;s foflys
u pH w.hhka iudk jk w;r th 4'745la f'
A
B
[CH3COOH(aq)] = 0.200 mol dm-3, 50.00 cm3
[CH3COONa(aq)] = 0.200 mol dm-3, 50.00 cm3
[CH3COOH(aq)] = 0.020 mol dm-3, 50.00 cm3

[CH3COONa(aq)] = 0.020 mol dm-3, 50.00 cm3
by; A yd B moaO;sj,g msg;ska NaOH iudk mud tl;= lf<a hhs is;uq'
tg moaO;s foflys u my; m%;lhdj isfjka CH3COONa iu ujq, m%udKhla
s s%
iEfoa'
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COO-(aq) + Na+(aq) + H2O(l)
tg A moaO;sfha
fjkia jk m%udKh B moaO;shg jvd wvq
h'
66
fuh A yd B moaO;sj,g msg;ska 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH 5.00 cm3tl;= l<
wjia:djla i,luq'
A djKh i|yd
= 0.09051 mol dm-3
= 0.1000 mol dm-3
B djKh i|yd
f wkqj fo jeks djKfha pH w.h jemqr fjkia we;s nj fmfka' t

k fo jeks djKfha iajdrlaIl Od;dj m<uq djKfha iajdrlaIl Od;djg
jvd wvq h'
iajdrlaIl Od;dj hkq iajdrlaIl djKhl 1dm3 mudjl pH w.h tall
tllska fjkia lsu i|yd wjYH H+ ujq, m%udKh fyda OH- ujq, m%udKh
hs'
CH3COONa (0.2 mol dm-3)/CH3COOH (0.2 mol dm-3) iajdrlaIl djKh
i,lkak' fuu djKfha pH w.h
67
u`.ska fokq ,ef'
Ka = 1.75 10-5 mol dm-3 yd
=1
pH = 4.757 f'
fuu djKfhys pH w.h tall 1lska fjkia u i|yd
wkqmd;h oY .=Khlska fjkia h hq;= h'

f i|yd H+ ujq, x m%udKhla wjYH hehs is;uq' fuh m%n, w,hla tl;=
lsfuka ,nd.; yels h' H+ tl;= l< g iajdrlaIl djKfha CH3COOidkaKh wvq jk CH3COOH w;r idkaKh je f' my; m%lsl%shdj wkqj
fuh isf'
tu ksid
by; ilrKh i|yd i|Sfuka x = 0'1636 mol f,i ,ef'
tu ksid by; djKfha iajdrlaIl Od;dj 0'1636 mol f'
CH3COONa (0.02 mol dm-3)/CH3COOH (0.02 mol dm-3) iajdrlaIl djKfha
iajdrlaIl Od;dj fiu i|yd by; (A) ilrKhg wkqrEm my; ilrKh
fhdod .; yels h'
fuu ilrKh i|Sfuka
x = 0'0164 mol
tu ksid fuu iajdrlaIl djKfhys iajdrlaIl Od;dj 0'0164 mol f' iajdrlaIl
Od;dj je iajdrlaIl djK pH fjkilg je m%;sfrdaOhla olajk nj fuhska
meyeos,s f'
68
ksmqK;dj 13'0
( m% f hda . s l jYfhka jeo.;a jk oHq ; a ridhks l moa O ;s

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1
( djKhl wvx.= djH m%udKh ksKh lsu i|yd ikakdhl;d

kq Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 06 hs'
(
oHq;a foH" oHq;a wfoH" m%n, oHq;a foH yd n, oHq;a foH

hk mo w: olajhs'
oHq;a foH" oHq;a wfoH" m%n, oHq;a foH yd n, oHq;a foH
i|yd WodyrK olajhs'
Odrdj ikakhkh lrk N+;d: mok fldg bf,lafg%daksl ikakdhl yd
whksl ikakdhl ii|hs'
T kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
oHq;a foHhla yryd Odrdjla ikakhkh u i|yd bf,lafg%dav foflys
u m%;sl%shd is h hq;= nj m%ldY lrhs'
WodyrK foka bf,lafg%dv m%;lhd j. ^ks .; u" jKh u" TlailrKh"
a
s s%
s
TlaisyrKh& k lrhs'
m%;sfrdaOh yd ikakhk;dj hk mo w: olajhs'
m%;sfrdaO;dj yd ikakdhl;dj hk mo w: olajhs'
fldaI ksh;h" ikakhk;dj yd ikakdhl;dj w: olajhs'
fldaI ksh;fhys mfh yd wmfh SI tall jHq;amkak lrhs'
oHq;a foH djKhl ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl m%ldY lrhs'
ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOlj,g tosrs j ikakdhl;dj p,kh
jk wdldrh mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lrhs'
ikakdhl;dfjys mfh yd wmfh SI tall jHq;amkak lrhs'
djKhl ikakdhl;dj uekSu i|yd klrKh l< iagka fia;= mm:h
fhdod .kshs'
O iajdNdl c, ksheosj, yd okakd idkaKfhka hq;= fjk;a oHq;a
foj, wdikak ikakdhl;d uek ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
ixhq;sh mok fldg" c, ksheosj, yd fjk;a djKj, ikakdhl;d w;r
fjkial meyeos,s lrhs'

m%n, oHq;a foHh" j, oHq;a foHh" oHq;a wfoHh hk mo
w: olajkak'
j wjia:df oS fyda djK wjia:df oS fyda oHq;a foHhla whk u`.ska
oHq;h ikakhkh lrk nj jgyd fokak' f,day ikakdhlhla bf,lafg%dak

u`.ska oHq;h ikakdhkh lrk nj myokak'
whksl djKhl fyda whksl jhl whk w;r fuka u whk yd djlh w;r
wka;l%shd mj;sk nj f;are lrkak' ;kQlrKfha n,mEu m%ldY lrkak'
oHq;a Nj wka;rhla fhoSfuka whk whk m%;sreoaO osYdj,g .uka lsug
fm<fUk nj;a" tajd .uka lrk f. b;d l=vd nj;a" tu f. Nj wkqlukh
%
u; r|d mj;sk nj;a i|yka lrkak' j.=j 13'1'1 bosrsm;a lrkak'
69
Odrdj } wdfrdamKh$ld,h
whkhla u`.ska f.k hkq ,nk Odrdj whk idkaKh ^C &" tajdfha f.h ^v&
yd whkhl wdfrdamKh ^z& u; r|d mj;sk nj wjOdrKh lrkak'
I+ = AF C+ v+ z+ hkak jHq;amkak lrkak' ;jo" I = I++ I- nj o fmkajkak'
m%;sfrdaOfha mriamrh ^1/R) ikakhk;dj f,i w: olajkak' my; i|yka
mos m%;sfrdaO;dj ^& yd ikakdhl;dj ^k& ykajd fokak'
bf,lafg%dav
7654321
7654321
7654321
7654321
7654321
7654321
R
l
djKh
m%;sfrdaO;dj fuka u ikakdhl;dj o ta jHhg ^f,dayhg fyda djKhg&
wdfKsl ksh;hla nj o WIaK;ajh wkqj th fjkia jk nj o ^djKhl oS

fi,aishia wxYlhg 2] la muK& i|yka lrkak'
ikakdhl;df mfh SI tallh 1 m1nj fmkajkak' ;jo 1S = 1 1
jk w;r jvd;a u m%fhda.sl tallh

nj fmkajkak' 13'1'2 jk j.=j
bosm;a lrkak' djKhl wvx.= jk whk idkaKh ms<sn| jeo.;a f;dr;=re
ikakdhl;dj u`.ska ,efnk nj j.=j wkqidrfhka wjOdrKh lrkak'
djKhla ;kq l ls f oS idka Khg wdika k jYfhka iudkq m d;s l j
ikakdhl;dj wvq jk nj;a b;d ;kql djK i|yd fuh jvd;a ksjeros nj;a
13'1'3 jk j.=f wvx.= o;a; u`.ska fmkajkak'
bf,lafg%dav yryd Nj wka;rhla fhdod Odrdj uek kshuh fhoSfuka R
fiu m%dfhda.sl jYfhka l< fkdyels h' O%ejKh ^bf,lafg%dav wi, oS jH

uqla; u yd ta wkqj djKfha m%;sfrdaOh fjkia u yd bf,lafg%dav Njh
fjkia u& fuhg fya;jhs' by< ixLHd;hla we;s m%;Hdj; Odrdjla fhoSfuka
=
fuh wju l< yels h' m%;sfrdaOh uekSu i|yd kaiagka fia;= fyda g fia;=
mm: Nd; l< yels h' ^mlaIKh 13'1'1 n,kak'&
by; rEmfha A yd l m%dfhda.slj ueksh yels h'
idka djKj, mj;sk wka;whksl wdlIK yd whk-djl wka;l%shd
weiqfrka th meyeos,s lrkak' tfy;a f i|yd jvd;a iqiq l%uh jkafka

okakd k w.hla iys; djKhla fhdod R uekSfuka by; ^1& ilrKh u`.ska
(l/A) .Kkh lsuhs' fuh ikakdhl;d fldaIh l%udxlkh lsu f,i ye|ska
f' fndfyda ika k dhl flda I ks udKh lrkq ,nka f ka (l/A) w.h
wdikak w.hla .kakd mos h'
70
ikakdhl;d kq fhfok wjia:d idlPd lrkak'

djKj, idkaKh weia;fka;= lsu yd uekSu
c,fha m;%;dj ksKh lsu - ,jK;dj uekSu
OdkHj, h<s iajNdjh ksKh lsu
ldnksl djlj, wvx.= c, m%udKh ksKh lsu ^N+.; c,h ksKh
lsu&
fmdf<df iajdNl c,h wvx.= ia:dk ksKh lsu
wkqudmkj, oS iul;d ,laIHh ksKh lsu
mlaIKh 13'1'1 ( djKj, ikakdhl;dj uekSu
^fuh is l< hq;af;a .=re wdoYhla jYfhka muKS&
isyka ldnka l+re folla Nd; fldg ikakdhl;d fldaIhla ksudKh lrkak'
s
fjda,ah;dj 230V/3V wjlr mkdulhlska ,efnk m%;sj;H Odrdj Nj
iemhqula fia Nd; lrkak' wdrlaIdj Wfoid ta iu`.u 3V/3V jk mos
ilid .;a ;j;a mkdulhla o Nd; l< yels h' g fia;=f ;=,s;
,laIHh ksKh lsu i|yd fyf*dakhla fyda jOlhla ^wema,smhrhla&
iys; iamSlr moaO;shla fyda Nd; lrkak'
Tf mdif,a foda,fkalaIhla ;sf k ta whqka u mlaIKhg fhdod .;
yels h'
rEm igyk 13'1'1
mjrKh lrk ,o oYlh lh osf.a O ia:dkj, ;nd fyf*dakfha

Yoh wju jk ia:dkh ,nd .kak' fyf*dakh lfkys oud .ekSu wjYH
fkd f' R1/R2 = R3/R4 jk fyhska R1 ys w.h .Kkh l< yels h' O
djK idm, fhdoka tajd i|yd R1 ,nd f.k" l/A o Nd;fhka ta ta
djKj, k .Kkh lrkak'
WIaK;ajh" idkaKh yd oHq;a foHh fjkia fldg mlaIKh kej;
lrkak'
jeo.;a ( ,s ier jeoSfuka m%fi ug iqiq Wml%u fhdokak' iEu inkaOhla
lsug fmr m%Odk ,s iemhqu ika lrkak'
71

j.=j 13'1'1 ( Nj wkql%uh 1V cm-1 hgf;a c,Sh djKj, oS whkj, f.
^WIaK;ajh 298 K&
whk
f.h$mm min-1
H+
OHNa+
K+
NO 3ClSO42Ca 2+
2.05
1.12
0.29
0.42
0.40
0.42
0.88
0.67
c,Sh djKj, oS H+ yd OH- whkj,g Wmu f. we;s nj i,lkak' tneka

tajd wfkla whkj,g jvd oHq;h ikakhk i|yd odhl fjhs' ksoiqkla
f,i c,Sh ;kql HCl djKhl oS Odrdfjka 80] muK f.k hkq ,nkafka
H+ whk u`.sks'
j.=j 13'1'2 ( O c, idm,j, iy djKj, ikakdhl;d

idm,h
ikakdhl;dj$
wdi%e; c,h
0.01 mol dm-3 KCl djKh
<sx c,h
mhsmam c,h
uqyq c,h
1-2
1 480
12 400
110 000
100 - 200
50 - 150
40 000
j.=j 13'1'3 KCl djKj, ikakdhl;d
idkaKh / mol dm-3

1
0.1
0.01
0 0C
6.543
0.7154
0.07751
72
k/S m-1
18 0C
9.820
1.1194
0.12227
25 0C
11.173
1.2886
0.14114
ksmqK;dj 13'0
( m% d fhda . s l jYfhka jeo.;a jk oHq ; a ridhks l moa O ;s

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'2
( iu;=,s; bf,lafg%dav yd tajdg wod< bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd

uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davhl ieleiau w|shs'

WodyrK foka idudkH f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davj, m%;sj;H
bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

bf,lafg%davh yd djKh w;r Nj wka;rhl mej;Su ia;r lrhs'
O j.j, bf,lafg%dav ^jdhq bf,lafg%dav" f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%dav"
f,day - wdjH ,jK bf,lafg%dv" frfvdlaia bf,lafg%dv& rEmSh f,i ksrEmKh
a
a
lrhs'
O j.j,g wh;a bf,lafg%davj, m%;sj;H bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davhla ksudKh fldg fmkajkak'
iu;=,s; wjia:df f,dayh yd djKh w;r Nj wka;rhla mj;sk nj
i|yka lrkak'
wod< m%;sl%shd iu; wdldrfhka ,shd fmkajkak'
^TlaisyrK m%;sls%hdj"
m%;sj;H ,l=K yd fN!;sl wjia:d jeo.;a f' bf,lafg%davh ixfla;j;a
flfrk wdldrh o ,shd fmkajkak'&
mlaIKh ( 13'2'1 ( Njudkh Nd; lsu
bf,lafg%dav folla "iqiq mos" inkaO lsfuka fldaIhla ksudKh jk nj
fmkajkak' iqiq mos hkak ffioaOdka;l ^,jK fia;jla u`.k& yd m%dfhda.lj

s
=
s a
s
îjr Nsolhla u`.ska& fhfok wdldrh ia;r lr fokak'
Tn ksudKh l< bf,lafg%dav tlsfkl inkaO fldg Njudkhka u`.ska
tajdfha oHq;a.dul n, ukskak' idudkH i, o`.r fjda,a grhla o kk

g,a fjda,a grhla o Nd; fldg tla tla fldaIfha oHq;a.dul n,h
ukskak' fj<| fmdf,a we;s w`M;a 1'5 V fldaIhl oHq;a .dul n,h uekSfuka
Tnf.a m%;sM, ;yjqre lr .kak'
rEm giyk( 13'2'1

73
iu; fjiagka-leh fldaIhla u`.ska Njudkh l%udxlkh lrkak'
fjiagka-leh fldaIhla ke;ak veksfh,a fldaIhla fyda tfia;a ke;ak

w;a idudkH neghla ^1'5 V& Nd; lrkak'
E2/E1 = l2/l1
rEmfha oelafjk mos fldaIj, w.% ksis osYdjg inkaO lrkak' idudkH
fjda,a grhla fhdod .kska fldaIfha O%eh;dj ;yjqre lr.kak' tfia
fkdjkakg ;=,s; ,laIHhla fkd,efnkq we;' Tn iE fldaIj, oHq;a .dul
n,h Nj udkh u`.ska uek jd;d lrkak'
mlaIKh 13'2'2( is,aj - is,aj laf,darhs bf,lafg%davh ksudKh lsu
fika gr 6la muK os. oS lhla wefkdavh jYfhka o lef;davh
jYfhka ldnka bf,lafg%davhla o fhdod ;kql HCl djKhla fyda NaCl
djKhla fyda oHq;a fokh lrkak' 3V Njhla fhoSu iEfya' oS
lfha fl<jr iq - w`M meye;s AgCl ;ekam;a f' fuh Cl- whk
djKhl ^ KCl& .s,a,fuka Ag(s), AgCl(s)/Cl- (aq) bf,lafg%davh ,ef'

j.=j 13'2'1 ( bf,lafg%dav j.
bf,lafg%dav
j.h
ksoiqka
iu;=,s; bf,lafg%dav
m%;sl%shdj
f,day - f,day whk Cu (s)/Cu2+(aq)

Ag (s)/Ag+(aq)
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e
Ag+ (aq) + e
f,day wdjH ,jK Ag (s)/AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq)

Hg (l),/Hg2Cl2(s)/Cl-(aq)
Cu (s)
Ag (s)
AgCl (s) + e
1
2
Ag (s)+Cl-(aq)
Hg2Cl2(s) + e
Hg (l)+Cl-(aq)
^le,u,a bf,lafg%davh&
jdhq
fvdlaia
Pt,H2(g)/H+(aq)
Pt,O2(g)/OH-(aq)
Pt/Fe2+(aq),Fe3+(aq)
2H+(aq) + 2e
H2(g)
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
4OH-(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + e
Fe2+(aq)
djK yd fhfok g fN!;sl wjia:djla yd idkaKh;a ^kso( Fe2+(aq, 1.0 mol dm3&&
jdhq i|yd fhfok g fN!;sl wjia:dj yd mSvkh;a ^kso(H2(g, 1.0 bar&& ,su
w;HdjYH f'
74
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'3
( oHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, .=K mlaIKd;aul j ksKh

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
iu; bf,lafg%davh w: olajhs'

iu; yhsrcka bf,lafg%davh rEmSh f,i ksrEmKh lrhs'
iu; yhsrcka bf,lafg%davh iei bf,lafg%davhla ^reference electrode&
f,i ykd .kshs'

bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav Njh w: olajhs'
fok ,o bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav Njh kq lrk wdldrh wdoYkh
lrhs'
oHq;a.dul n,h w: olajhs'
bf,lafg%davhl iu; bf,lafg%dav Njh w: olajhs'
bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav Njh flfrys n,mdk idOl m%ldY lrhs'
iu; bf,lafg%dav Nj Nd; lr oHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh f.dvk`.hs'
le,u,a bf,lafg%davh yd is,aj-is,aj laf,darhs bf,lafg%dav m%dfhda.sl
iei bf,lafg%dav nj m%ldY lrhs'
Nj;sh" idkaKh ksKh lsug Nd; l< yels Ys,amSh l%uhla nj m%ldY
lrhs'
iu;=,s;;d oHq;a-ridhksl fldaI i|yd WodyrK fohs'
ir, bf,lafg%dav iys; iu;=,s;;d oHq;a - ridhksl fldaIj, bf,lafg%dav
m%;sl%shd yd fldaI m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
m%dfhda.sl fldaI yd iu;=,s;;dfjys we;s fldaI fjka lr olajhs'

ir, fldaIhla yd veksfh,a fldaIhla ilid fmkajkak'
tajdfha isjk m%;sl%shd ,shkak'
fj<| fmdf<a we;s idudkH m%udKfha f,la,dka fldaIhla fldgiaj,g
fjka fldg tys wNHka;r jHqyh fmkakq lrkak' wod< bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd
yd fldaI m%;sl%shdj ,sug fhduq lrjkak'
c,h oHq;a fokh lsug i,iajd th kej;afuka wk;=rej tys fldaIhla
ksudKh we;s wdldrh wdoYkh lrkak' ôHq;a fokfha uQ,Ouh
myod fokak'&
fj<|fmdf<a we;s O fldaI yd neg tajdfha ridhkh wkqj;a" yevh wkqj;a"
m%udKh wkqj;a" wk>;ajh wkqj;a fjka fldg we;s wdldrh ia;r lr
fokak' ^m%;s ldhdxYhlska m%ldYk mYS,kh lrkak'&
75
m%d:l neghl ixfla;h

negfha we;s fldaI .Kk
^tl fldaIhla muKla k
th tl f,i i|yka fkd
flf'&
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)
fldaIfha ridhkh
^-& ixfla;hla ke;'idudkH
f,la,dka fldaIh
^L& -laIdh f,la,dka fldaIh
^M& -riosh fldaIh
^C& -ldnksl bf,lafg%dav iys;
Li-MNO2 fldaIh
fldaIfha yevh
^R& -rjq
^F& -me;,s
^S& -iu p;=rY%dldr
fldaIfha wk>;ajh
ks,a" r;=" l wdoS jKhkag
wkqj P,S,C wdoS wl=re fhfoa'
^wksjdh fkdf'&
fldaIfha ienE
m%udKh fyda
m%udKhg wod<
fla;h
fj<| fmdf<a we;s fldaIhl m%;sh ksKh lrk whqre wdoYkh fldg
fmkajkak' m%;s ldhdxYfha wod< m%;sh bos lrkak'

^SLS 319,1986,BSEN 60086-1:1996)
iu; yhsrcka bf,lafg%davh yd wfkla iu; bf,lafg%dav ykajd fokak'
fldaIhl iu; oHq;a .dul n,h ykajd fokak' Tn iE is,aj - is,aj

laf,darhs bff,lafg%davh wfkla bf,lafg%dav iu`. inkaO fldg Nj
wka;r jd;d lrkak'
tlu j.fha bf,lafg%dav folla inkaO l< g w.% w;r Nj wka;rh
Y+kH nj fmkajkak
wka;cd;sl iuq;shg wkqj bf,lafg%dav Nj ukskafka iu; yhsrcka
bf,lafg%davfha Njhg idfmalaIj h' f wkqj iu; is,aj - is,aj

laf,darhs bf,lafg%davfha bf,lafg%dav Njh 0'22 V f' ta wkqj wfkla
iu; bf,lafg%dvj, bf,lafg%dv Nj .Kkh l< yels h' fjd wdfrdayK
a
a
ms<sfj<g ;efuka oHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh ,efnk nj fmkajkak'
bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd u`.ska fldaI m%;sl%shdj ,nd .kakd wdldrh;a" thg wod<
j Ecell = ER - EL fyda Ecell = EC- EA u`.ska fldaIfha oHq;a .dul n,h ,nd
.kakd wdldrfhka meyeos,s lrkak'

Ok w.%h
Cu(s)/Cu 2+(aq)
RK w.%h
'.d'n' /V
Ag(s), AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq) j,g
idfmalaI j wfkla
bf,lafg%davfha Njh
tk" Ecell = E - Eref
Ag(s), AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq)
Ag(s), AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq) Zn(s)/Zn2+ (aq)
76
+ 0.66
- 0.54
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'4
( O fldaI j. ms<sn| uYkfha fhfohs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
O j.j, m%dfhda.sl fldaI ^m%d:l fldaI" oa;shsl fldaI" bkaOk fldaI"
m%ldY oHq;a - ridhksl fldaI& ykd .kshs'

m%dfhda.l m%d:l fldaI i|yd ksoiqka fohs' ^m%d:l fldaIh" veksfh,a fldaIh"
s
f,la,dka fldaIh" ,s;sh fldaIh&
O m%dfhda.sl m%d:l fldaIj, ,laIK ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'
m%dfhda.sl m%d:l fldaIj, bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd yd fldaI m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
^C j.fha ,s;sh fldaI yer&
fldaI yd neg fjka lr olajhs'
iu; wxlk ^ridhkh" yevh" ;ru yd Nd;h& Nd; lrka neg ykd
.ksh'
s
oa;shsl fldaI i|yd ksoiqka fohs' ^Bh ixpdhl fldaIh" Ni-Cd fldaIh"
Ni-Fe fldaIh" ksl,a-f,day yhsrhsv fldaIh&
by; oa;shsl fldaIj, wdfrdamK ick l%shdj,sj,g wod< m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
O j.j, oa;shsl fldaIj, ,laIK ii|hs'
bkaOk fldaIhla wfkla fldaIj,ska fjka lr olajhs'

by; 13'2 yd 13'3 l%shdldrlj, oS
lreKq bosm;a lrk ,oafoa yqfola

ffioaOdka;sl miqula u; h' m%dfhda.sl jYfhka Nd; jk fldaIhl oS
tu`.ska Odrdjla ,nd .; hq;= h' ta wkqj m%dfhda.sl fldaIh bf,lafg%dav
m%;sl%shd fyda fldaI m%;sl%shdj lsisfia;a u iu;=,s; m%;sl%shdjla fkdjk nj
jgyd fokak' Yla;s soHdf tk .sia Yla;sh" tka;e,amsh yd tkafg%dmsh
idudkH m%;sl%shdj,g fuka u fldaI m%;sl%shdj,g o fhfoa'
m%dfhda.slj Nd; jk O j.j,g wh;a fldaI ms<sn| j wOHhkh oHq;a
ridhkfha b;d jeo.;a wxYhla njg fya;= meyeos,s lrkak'
oa;shsl fldaI wdfrdamKh lsf oS yd ickh f oS is jk m%;sl%shd fjk
fjku idlPd lrkak'
fldaIj, tl;=jla yehg neg ykajd fokak' neg i|yd fjda,ah;dj"
wdfrdamKh yd Odrdj hk mo fhfok wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
neghla i|yd "Ah" tallh ykajd fokak'
fldaI yd negj, ldhlaIu;dj m%dfhda.sl jYfhka idlPd lrkak'
idudkH bkaOk fldaIj, ieleiSu yd ridhkh ia;r lrhs'
77
oHq;a foh
NH4Cl/ZnCl2
(+) O%ejh
C/MnO 2
(-) O%ejh
Zn
(+) O%ejfha oS m%;sl%shdj
(-) O%ejfha oS m%;sl%shdj
(lef;dav m%;sl%shdj)
idudkH f,la,dka
ixfla;h
(lef;dav m%;sl%shdj)
2MnO 2+2H2O+2e
MnO(OH)*+2OH-
fldaIh
78
laIdr fldaIh
laIdr f,day
C/MnO 2
Zn
Mn(OH) +2OH-
laIdr f,day
HgO
Zn
HgO+H2O+2e
,s;sh fldaIh
ldnksl oHq;a
MnO2
Li
Mn
4+
foHh
* MnO(OH) hkak Mn2O3 f,i o fhdod ;=<kh l< yels h'
2+
MnO2 +Zn+2H2 O
Zn(OH)2+2e
Zn+2OH-
Hg+2OH-
yhsfrdalaihsv(KOH)
Zn(OH)2+2e
3+
Mn 4 Mn
2MnO2+Zn+2NH4Cl
MnO(OH)+Zn(NH3)2Cl2
Zn+2OH-
MnO 2+2H2O+2e
yhsfrdalaihsv(KOH)
u''l fldaIh
Zn2+ + 2e
Zn
fldaI m%;sl%shdj
Li
Li + e
Mn(OH)2+Zn(OH)2
HgO+Zn+H2O
Hg+Zn(OH)2
,s;sh MnO2 ;=<g ridhkslj
.%yKh u
2MnO(OH)
Mn2O3 + H2O
fldaIh
bkaOk fldaI
oHq;a ridhksl bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd i|yd ndyska m%;sl%shl ika;;sl j
iemfhk fldaIhla bkaOk fldaIhla f,i ye|skaf' vhsyhsrcka yd
vhsTlaicka" f;aka yd vhsTlaicka f i|yd nyq,j fhdod .efka' fndfydag
s
s
oHq;a fPoHh jkafka laIdh KOH djKhls' ijr ldnka-ksl,a
bf,lafg%dav fndfyda g Nd; f' vhsyhsrcka vhsTlaiscka bkaOk fldaIh
i|yd m%;sl%shd fufia h'
TlailrKh(
s
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq)
4H2O(l) + 4e
TlaiyrKh(
s
O2(g) + 2H2O(l)+ 4e
4OH-(aq)
f;aka - vhsTlaiscka bkaOk fldaIh i|yd m%;sl%shd fufia h'
TlailrKh(
s
CH4(g) + 2H2O(l)
CO2(g) + 8H+(aq) + 8e
TlaiyrKh(
s
2O (g) + 8H+(aq) + 8e
4H2O(l)
79
2
fldaI
oHq;a foHh
wefkdavh lef;davh
ickfha oS
ickfha oS
wefkdav m%;sl%shdj**
f, welshqf,agrh
H2SO4
Pb
2-
PbO2
Pb(s) + SO4 (aq)
lef;dav m%;sl%shdj**
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e
ksl,a leh fldaIh
KOH(aq)
Cd
Ni(OH)3
PbSO4(s) + 2e
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Cd(s) + 2OH-(aq)
Ni(OH)3(s) + e
Cd(OH) + 2e
Ni(OH) (s) + OH-(aq)
ksl,a hlv fldaIh
KOH(aq)
Fe
NiO(OH)
Fe(s) + 2OH-(aq)
NiO(OH)
Fe(s)(OH)2+2e
Ni(OH)2(s) + OH(aq)
-(aq)
MH(s) + OH
NiO(OH)(s) + H2O(l) + e
M(s) + H O(l) + e
Ni(OH) (s) + OH-(aq)
ksl,a f,day yhrhsv
KOH(aq)
MH*
fldaIh
NiO(OH)(s) + e
* = LaNi5, Mg2Ni, FeTi hkdos iqfYaI Y%f,day lSmhla f i|yd fhfoa' yhsrcka Yd, m%udKhla .nvd lsf yelshdjla
fjg we;' jHhfha 1 cm3 yhsrcka jdhq 1 dm3 muK .nvd lr .kS' fufia yhsrhsvh MH u`.ska ixfla;j;a lr we;'
WodyrK . LaNi5H6
** = fldaIh wdfrdamKh lsf oS fuhg reoaO m%;sl%shdj ^miq m%;sl%shdj& isf'
ie'hq' wdfrdamK l%shdj,sfha oS mi qm%;sl%shdj is f'
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'5
( oHq;a fokhl oS oHq;a Yla;sh" ridhksl Yla;sh njg

m;a lsf l%shdj,sh i|yd imqrd ,sh hq;= wjYH;d ykd
.ksh'
s
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 03 hs'
(
fhdack Njh" oHq;a m%;s.dul n,h yd wfjda,ah;dj w: olajhs'

fhdack Njfhys" oHq;a m%;s.dul n,fhys yd wfjda,ah;dfjys Nd;
yd .eg m%ldY lrhs'

ir, oHq;a foHhl fhdack Njh mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lrhs'
oYSh oHq;a foH moaO;s i|yd I-E jl% w|shs'

13'5'1 mlaIKh is fldg fhdack Njh" miq oHq;a.dul n,h yd
wfjda,ah;dj hk mo ta wkqidrfhka meyeos,s lrkak'

mlaIKh 13'5'1 ( O oHq;a foH i|yd >gk Njh ksKh lsu
(DC muKla Nd; lrkak'&
(4-6) V
Nj iemhqu
fjkia l<
yels h'
Njudkh fyda
p,H m%;sfrdaOh
rEm igyk 13'5'1

by; mm:h wgjd tu`.ska w,amd,s; c,h" ;kql NaOH djKh yd CuSO4
djKh hk tajd ldnka bf,lafg%dav fhdod oHq;a fokh lrkak'

Njudkh u`.ska V fjkia lr ta iu`. Odrdj jd;d lrkak' tfia u CuSO4
djKhla ;U bf,lafg%dav fhdod oHq;a fokh fldg ,efnk m%;sM, o
jd;d lrkak' f i|yd I-E jl% w|skak'
Tng idod .; yels Ag(s),AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq) bf,lafg%dav folla fhdod ;kql
HCl djKhla o oHq;a fPokh fldg ,efnk I-E jl%h w|skak'

m%;sM,h idlPd lrkak'
80

fhdack Njh(
oHq;a foH Odrdj ie,lsh hq;= muKska jeu werfUk wjia:df oS

fhfok Njhhs' fhdack fjda,ah;dj f,i o ye|skaf'
miq oHq;a.dul n,h (
Odrdjg m%;sreoaOj l%shd;aul jk Njh fyda oHq;a.dul n,hhs'
wfjda,ah;dj(
wO m%;sl%shd i|yd ;dm.;sl f,i ksKh lrk ,o TlaisyrK Njh yd
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lrkq ,nk TlaisyrK Njh w;r fjkihs'
ke;fyd;a moaO;sfha l%shd;aul m%dfhda.sl Njhhs' wfjda,ah;dj fldaIhg
iqfYaI jk w;r th fldaIfha iajNdjh wkqj fjkia f' tfia u tl u

m%;sl%shdfjys jqj th l%shd;aul ;;a;aj wkqj fjkia f'
oYSh m%;sl%shd i|yd I-E jl%
I
;kql H2SO4, Pt fyda C
bf,lafg%dav" ir, Odrdj (DC)
fuys fhdack Njh wdikakj
1'70 VmuK f'
E
fhdack Njh
I
;kql H2SO4, Pt fyda C
bf,lafg%dav" m%;Hdj; Odrdj
(AC)
E
I
CuSO4 djKh Pt fyda C
bf,lafg%dav" ir, Odrdj (DC)
fhdack Njh
I
CuSO4 djKh" Cu wefkdavh yd
Cu ^fyda fjk;a) wefkdavh ir,
Odrdj (DC)
E
81
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'6
( ir, whksl moaO;sj, oHq;a fok M, mqfrdal:kh

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
oHq;a fokh Yla;s ixpdhl l%shdj,shla f,i ykd .kshs'

ir, oHq;a foH moaO;sj, oHq;a foH M, mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

oHq;a fokfha M, uQ,sl jYfhka oHq;a foHfha iajNdjh u;" fhdokq
,nk Nj wka;rh u;" bf,lafg%davj, iajNdjh u; yd WIaK;ajh u;

djKfha idkaKh u;;a r|d mj;skq we;' tlu wjia:djl h bf,lafg%dvhla
a
u; m%;sl%shd folla fyda je .Kkla is h yels h' djKfha WIaK;ajh"
idkaKh yd fjda,ah;dj yd bf,lafg%davj, iajNdjh md,kh lsfuka tu
l%shd md,kh l< yels h' fjdfha m%dfhda.sl fhoS iqiq ;ekaj, oS idlPd
lrkak'
c,h oHq;a fokh fldg vhsyhsrcka yd vhsTlaiscka jdhq tl;= lrkak'
tl;= jk jdhq mud o< jYfhka uek tu jdhq m%udK yd .,d .sh oHq;a
m%udKh w;r inkaO;dj m%udKd;aul j w.hkak'
c,fha oHq;a fokh ^w,amd,sl fyda Ndial&
wefkdavfha oS ;
4OH-(aq)
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
lef;davfha oS ;
2H2O(l) + 2e
H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
fldm bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 djKhla c, fokh lsu
wefkdavfha oS ; Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
2+
lef;davfha oS ;
Cu (aq) + 2e
Cu(s)
ma,ek bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 djKhla c, fokh lsu
wefkdavfha oS ; 4OH-(aq)
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
2+
lef;davfha oS ; Cu (aq) + 2e
Cu(s)
ldnka bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh NaCl djKhla c, fokh lsu
wefkdavfha oS ;
2Cl-(aq)
Cl2(g)
lef;davfha oS ;
2H2O(l) + 2e
H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
82
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'7
( Ldokh md,kh l< yels l%u uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
Ldokh oHq;a-ridhksl l%shdj,shla f,i ykd .kshs'

oHq;a-ridhksl wdldrfhka Ldokh md,kh lrhs'
oaf,day Ldokh ia;r lrhs'
lef;dah wdrlaIKh i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'
wluKH lsu ia;r lrhs'

f;;a f,day Ldokh oHq;a ridhksl l%shdjla f,i ykajd fokak' il%sh;dj
w;ska tlsfklg fjkia f,day f;;a udOHhl oS tlsfklg iamYj ;enQg

is jk Ldokh ia;r lrkak' ;ks f,dayhl o O ia:dkj, jHqyhfha
fjkial yd mirfha is jk fjkial ^WodyrK ( Tlaiscka idkaKh&
ksid Ldokhg u`. mEfok nj fmkajd fokak' ue.akSish ^fyda iskala& yd
hlv Nd;fhka oaf,day Ldokh ms<sn| mlaIKh is lrkak'
lef;dah wdrlaIdj fhfok m%dfhda.sl wjia:d fmkajd fokak'
ka iy
iskala f,dayh u`.ska hlv wdrlaId lsf we;s fjki fmkajd fokak'
ridhksl l%u u`.ska f,day mDIaGh ridhksl jYfhka ksIal%Sh ;;a;ajhlg
m;alsfuka th wdrlaId lsu wluKH lsu (passivation) f,i ye|skaf'

fndfydag hlv i|yd TlaislrKh fyda fmdiafma ^whka fmdiafma& njg
m;alsu lrkq ,ef' TlaislrKh i|yd wod< jH wefkdavh f,i Nd;
lrka tys oS uqla; jk Tlaiscka u`.ska TlaislrKh is lrkq ,ef'

.e,ajdkSh Ldokh fyj;a oaf,day Ldokh fyj;a wiu f,day Ldokh(
tk" jvd Wp f,dayhla fyda Ldol oHq;a foHhl we;s f,day fkdjk
ikakdhlhla ^lef;davh& iu`. we;s jQ oHq;a iamYhla ^fN!;sl iamYh o
we;=`M j& lrKfldg f,dayhla f.j;a f,i Ldokh u hs'
"lef;dah wdrlaIK M,h" lrKfldg" hq.ufhka wvq Ldok m%;frda fyj;a
a
s
"il%Sh" f,dayhl je jYfhka o je Ldok m%;sfrda fyj;a "Wp" f,dayh
wvqfjka o Ldokh fjhs' jeu ydksh is jkafka f,day hq., .efgk ikahghs'
oaf,day ikafhka wE;g h;au Ldokfha YS>%;dj wvqf'
lef;dah wdrlaIKh
tk" f,dayhla oHq;a-ridhksl fldaIhl lef;davh njg m;a lsfuka th

Ldokfhka wdrlaId lr .ekSf l%uYs,amh hs' fuh is lrkq ,nkafka
wdrlaId lsug we;s f,dayh" oHq;a - ridhksl fldaIfha wefkdavh f,i l%shd
83
lrk jvd;a il%sh ^myiqfjka Ldokhg ,la jk& f,dayhla iu`. iamY j
;efuks' fndfyda g" jdfka" c, yd bkaOk k<" .nvd gexls" cej, we;s
jdfka l|ka" ke" uqyqfoka f;,a ,nd .kakd ;ekaj, bos lr we;s fosld yd
f.dvu f;,a ,sx wdjrK wdosfha wdrlaIKh i|yd lef;dah wdrlaIK moaO;s
Nd; f'
wluKH lsu
fuys oS f,dayh u;" th ;j rg;a Ldokh u je<flk mos oe wl%sh

mDIah mg,hla iajhxisoaO f,i iEoSug i,ikq ,ef' idudkHfhka fuu
mg,h wKq lsysmhl .klka hq;a Tlaihsv fyda khsrhsv mg,hls' u,
fkdlk jdfka wluKH lsug khsla w,h fhdod .; yels h' th
mDIaGfha wmjH bj;a lr wdrlaIl Tlaihs mg,hla f,dayh u; ;ekam;a
lrhs' *afjdka wdY%s; lghq;= i|yd ksl,a f,dayh fhdod .; yels h' fuys
oS iEfok ksl,a *afjdrhs mg,h ksid f,dayh wluKH f'
84
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'8
( uyd mudK oHq;a ixiaf,aIK l%u uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 06 hs'
(
uyd mudK ksIamdok i|yd Nd; flfrk ldl oHq;a fok l%shdj,s
m%ldY lrhs' ^fidah yhsfrdlaihs ksIamdokh - m%dr fldaI" fidah

ksImdokh - vjqka fldaI" weksh ksYmdokh - Hall Heroult fldaI" ldnksl
a
a
oHq;a ixiaf,aIKh&
ldlj oHq;a ixiaf,aIK l%shdj,sh fhdod .ekSf jdis i|yka lrhs'

fuys oS wod< fN!; ridhksl uQ,Ou ms<sn| j idlPd lrkak' ldl
ksYamdok inkaOfhka we;s iqfYaI;d fYaIfhka f.k yer olajkak'

^wuqjH" mirh" wmjH" fjk;a ludka; iu`. we;s inkaO;d" jdIsl
ksYamdokh" jHj, fhoS wdosh&
uq,au oHq;a ldnksl ixiaf,aIKh f,i flda,af m%;sl%shdj ykajd fokak'
wel% s f ,da k hs rhs , a Âcrylonitrile&j, lef;da h c, oa wjhlrKh
^Hydrodimarisation & u`.ka wefmdkhsrhs,a Âdiponitrile& njg m;a lsu ykajd
s
fokak' wefmdkhsrhs,a khsf,daka 6" 6 ksmof wuqjH jk wemsla
w,fha yd fylaifu;s,a fgruhskaj, wdrNl jHh f'

ldnksl oHq;a ixiaf,aIKh
fld,af m%;sl%shdj
CH3COO-Na+ c,Sh djKh oHq;a fokfhka wefkdavfha oS Bf;aka

.
,ef'
CH3
CH3COO- - e
CH3COO.
CO2 + CH3.
CH3CH3
wefmdkhsrhs,a ixiaf,aIKh
wel%sf,dakhsrhs,a
wefmdkhsrhs,a
H 2O
HOOC(CH2)4COOH
H2
(CH2CH2CN)2
Nylon 6,6
85
H2N(CH2)6NH2
ldl j oHq;a ixiaf,aIK l%shdj,sh fhdod .ekSf jdis

bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shdj, oS wO m%;sl%shd isjk fyhska wod< M, fjk
fjku bf,lafg%davj, uqla; u isf'

M, fjkalsula fndfyda g wjYH fkdf'
Odrdj" Nj wka;rh wdos oHq;a p,Hhka md,kh lsu hdka;%sl p,Hhka
^mSvkh" WIaK;ajh& wdosh md,kh lsug jvd myiqf'

wod< Njhka md,kh lsfuka jrKSh f,i wod< m%;sl%shd muKla isug
ie,eiah yels h'
m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj fl<skau Odrdj u`.ska md,kh jk fyhska W;afmarl"
WIaK;ajh jeks idOl fndfyda g wod< fkdf'
86
ksmqK;dj 13'0

uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'9
( ldl jYfhka jeo.;a ixis o a hla f,i oHq ; a

f,daydf,amkh uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 04 hs'
(
oHq;djidokh yd oHq;a f,daydf,amkh w;r fjkial fmkajd fohs'

oHq;a f,daydf,amkfha .=Kd;aul nj flfrys n,mdk idOl i|yka lrhs'
idudkH oHq;a f,daydf,amk moaO;s iuyrl ixhq;sh yd oHq;a f,daydf,amk
;;a;aj i|yka lrhs'

oHq;a wdf,amkh ^m%Odk jYfhka oHq;a f,daydf,amkh& yd oHq;h u`.ska
f,dayhla lef;davh u; ;ekam;a lsu w;r fjki ykajd fokak'

wdf,amkfha Yla;su;a nj" m%Ndj" ridhksl ksYal%Sh;dj" hdka;%sl .=K" jH
iu`. ;oska ne|S isu" b;e,S" isre wdosfhka f;dr nj" >klu yd fmkqu
w;ska taldldr nj tys ;sh hq;= m%Odk ,laIK f,i ykajd fokak'
oHq;a wdf,amkhl .=Kd;aul nj my; i|yka idOl u; r|d mj;sk nj
i|yka lrkak'
oHq;a foHfha iajNdjh yd m;%;dj" whk idkaKh" WIaK;ajh" Odrd
>k;ajh" pH w.h" djKfha mj;sk fjk;a whkj, iajNdjh" Nj wka;rh"
wefkdavfha m;%;dj" Ndckfha yevh" lef;davh yd wefkdavfha idfmalaI
msys" NdKavfha msislu yd mDIaGfha iajNdjh'

ir, m%dfhda.sl oHq;af,daydf,amk moaO;s
;U oHq;a f,daydf,amkh
CuSO4.5H2O (200 - 250) g" idka H2SO4 (15 - 25) cm3 yd fc,ka b;d
iaj,amhla c,h 1 dm3 j, djKh lrkak'
iqiq WIaK;ajh 20 - 40 0C
Odrd >k;ajh 20 - 50 mA cm-2
wefkdavh ( ;U f,dayh
ksl,a oHq;a f,daydf,amkh
NiSO4.7H2O 250 g" NiCl2 45 g" fndala w,h ^H2BO3& 30 g, yd ielka
iaj,amhla c,h 1 dm3 j, djKh lrkak'
wefkdavh ( ksl,a f,dayh
lafrdah oHq;a f,daydf,amkh
lafrdala Tlaihs ^Cr2O3& 200 g, idka H2SO4 1 dm3 djKh lrkak'
wefkdavh ( Bh f,dayh
87
ksmqK;dj 14'0
( uQ,jHj," whkj, yd ixfhda.j, .=Kd;aul yd m%udKd;aul

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1
( .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKfhka legdhk mlaIKd;aul j ykd

.ksh'
s
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
myka is`M mlaIdfjka legdhk ykd .kshs'

wkqrEm fudapk jKdj,sh Wmfhda.S lr .kska oe,af,a jKh meyeos,s
lrhs'
wjlafIamK l%uj,ska yd iEfok wjlafIam O m%;sldrlj, jKh u
wkqidrfhka legdhk ykd .kshs'

djH;d .=Ks; uQ,Ouh Nd;fhka wjlafIamj, djH;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
laIdrhl djKhla tl;= lsfuka wefudaksh whk ^NH4+ & ykd .kshs'
legdhkj,ska iEfok whksl ixfhda.j, djH;d .=Ks;h mok lr .kska
,ehsia;= .; legdhk ldKav mylg fjka lrhs'

myka is`M mlaIdj Nd; lr" fok ,o Y%Khl we;s legdhk ykd .ekSug
isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'

wkqrEm fudapk jKdj,s Wmfhda.S lr .kska oe,af,a jKh meyeos,s lrkak'
fok ,o ksheoshl we;s legdhk ykd .ekSug isiqkg mjrkak'
wod< laf,darhsvj," i,a*hsvj," yhsfrdlaihsvj, yd ldnfkagj, Ksp w.h
ii|k f,i isiqkg mjikak'

myka is`M mlaIdj
myka is`M mlaIdf oS iEu legdhkhlska u mdfya mrudKq we;s f' oe,a,g
,nd fok jKh ta ta uQ,jHj, wvq Yla;s mr;rhg inkaO h'
M* ielenqKq wjia:df mrudKqj
M0 fN!u wjia:df mrudKqj

Yla;s m;r ^DE& idudkHfhka wvq fndfyda s-f.dkqf uQ,jH oe,af,ka
W;a;f;ackh f'
Wod ( Na
88
4P Yla;s ugu
wjfYdaIKh
^330 nm)
3P Yla;s ugu
fudapkh
wjfYdaIKh
^589 nm)
fudapkh
3S Yla;s ugu
rEmh 14'1'1 ( fidahj, oDYH jKdj,sfha fLdj,g wod< bf,lafg%dak ixl%uK
wjlafIamKfhka ykd .; yels legdhk

d7,d8, d9 yd d10 bf,lafg%dksl kHdi we;s legdhkj,ska iEfok wjlafIam"
jemqr wefudakshdj, jKh ia:dhS ixlSK whk idohs' MX ,jKfha
Ksp< 1 10-7 mol2 dm-6 f k M2+ legdhk f,i MX wjfCIam f'
M2+(aq) + X2- (aq) MX(s)
(d7) [Co(NH3)6]2+
- ly Uqre
(d10) [Zn(NH3)4]2+
(d8) [Ni(NH3)6]2+
- ;o ks,a
(d10) [Ag(NH3)2]+
9
2+
(d ) [Cu(NH3)4]
- .eUqre ks,a (d10) [Cd(NH3)4]2+
- wjK
- wjK
- wjK
NH4+whk ykd .ekSu

wefudaksh ,jK laIdr djK ^NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2wdoS& iu`. wefudakshd
jdhqj ksoyia lrhs'
Wod (
^l&
ksl;a jk wefudakhd jdhqj fkia, m%;ldrlfhka fyda f;;a r;= ,suia m;%hlska
=
s
s
mlaId lr ykd .; yels h'
NH3 (g)
fkia,
Uqre meyels wjlafIamh$jKh
m%;ldrlh
s
legdhk Y%Khla fjka lsf l%shdj,sh

legdhk Y%Khl .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKfha oS tajd ldKav mylg fjka flf'
.=Kd;aul Yaf,aIK mmdhg mok we;af;a jrKSh wjlafIamK uQ,Ouh
hs' jrlg tlla ne.ska djKhl we;s legdhk wjlafIam lsu jrK
wjlafIamKh hs'
I ldKavh
legdhk Y%Kfha djK fldgilg isi,a ;kql yhsrlaf,dala w,h jemqr
s
+
2+
2+
tl;= flf' Ag " Pb yd Hg2 whk wef;d;a wdjH laf,darhsv f,i
wjlafIam f'
Ksp = 1.0 10-10 mol2 dm-6
89
Ksp = 1.0 10-5 mol3 dm-6

Ksp = 1.0 10-18 mol2 dm-6
by; laf,darhsvj, Ksp w.h b;d l=vd fyhska whksl .=Ks;h myiqfjka
blauh yels h' wO jYfhka djH wfkl=;a laf,darhsvj, Ksp w.h by<
jk w;r tajd djKfha mj;S'
PbCl2 >kh" [PbCl4]2- yd [PbCl3]- wdoS ixlSK whk idoka idka HCl ys
jKh f' isis,a ;kql HCl(aq) tl;= lsfuka fuh j<lajd .; yels h'
II ldKavh
I ldKavfha wdjH laf,darhsv fjka lsfuka miq ,efnk fmfrkh wd,sl h'
fuh yryd H2S hef oS b;d wvq Ksp w.hlska hq;a i,a*hsv muKla wjlafIam
f'
Pb2+(aq) PbS(s) ^l`M&
Sn2+(aq)
SnS(s) Ûqre&
2+
4+
Cu (aq) CuS(s) ^l`M&
Sn (aq)
SnS2(s) ^ly&
2+
3+
Hg (aq) HgS(s) ^l`M&
Sb (aq)
Sb2S3(s) ^;e,s&
3+
3+
Bi (aq)
Bi2S3(s) ^l`M&
As (aq)
As2S3(s) ^ly&
Cd2+(aq) CdS(s) ^ly&
by; i,A*hsvj, djH;d .=Ks; fufia h'
Ksp(PbS) = 7 10-28 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(SnS) = 1 10-26 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(CuS) = 4 10-36 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(Sb2S3) = 1 10-93 mol5 dm-15
-52
2
-6
Ksp(HgS) = 1 10 mol dm
Ksp(As2S3) = 1 10-22 mol5 dm-15
Ksp(Bi2S3) = 1 10-97 mol5 dm-6
Ksp (CdS) = 8 10-27 mol2 dm-6
H2S ys whkSlrKh
H+ whkj, by< idkaKh fya;=fjka i,a*hs whk idkaKh idfmalaI
jYfhka wvq h' i,a*hsvj, by< Ksp w.hla we;s Mn2+" Zn2+" Co2+" Ni2+ jeks
legdhk djKfha mj;S'
90
III ldKavh
d; H2S bj;a lrkq msKsi II ldKavfha fmfrkh kd lsysmhla kgjkq
,ef' bkamiq fmfrkfha Fe2+ whk fjf;d;a tajd Fe3+ njg TlaislrKh
lrkq msKsi idka HNO3 iu`. kd lsysmhla kgjkq ,ef' miqj djKhg
NH4Cl yd NH4OH tl;= flf'
Fe3+(aq)
Al3+(aq)
Cr3+(aq)
Fe(OH)3 (s) ^r;=-Uqre&

Al(OH)3 (s) îq fc,kh&
Cr(OH)3 (s) ^fld<&
Ksp(Fe(OH)3)
Ksp(Al(OH)3)
Ksp(Cr(OH)3)
= 1 10-28 mol3 dm-9

= 1 10-33 mol3 dm-9
= 1 10-31 mol3 dm-9
NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
n, Niauhla jk NH4OH ys c,Sh djKhl OH- idkaKh mj;skafka my<
ugul h' NH4Cl iska iemfhk NH4+ whk iu;=,s;;dj ;j rg;a jug
ia:dmkh lrhs' f ksid OH- idkaKh fndfyda fihska wvq f' tfy;a
Al3+" Fe3+ yd Cr3+ hk whkj, yhsfrdlaihsvj, idfmalaI jYfhka wvq Ksp
w.h whksl .=Ks;h iska blaujkq ,nk fyhska tajd wjlafIam f'
NH4Cl(aq)
tfy;a by< Ksp w.hla iys; yhsfrdlaihsv idok legdhk djKfha mj;S'
Ksp[Zn(OH) 2] = 1 10-17 mol3 dm-9
Ksp[Ca(OH)2] = 1 10-5 mol3 dm-9
Ksp[Mn(OH)2] = 1 10-14 mol3 dm-9
Ksp[Mg(OH)2] = 1 10-11 mol3 dm-9
-16
3
-9
Ksp[Co(OH)2] = 1 10 mol dm
Ksp[Ni(OH)2] = 1 10-16 mol3 dm-9
Fe(OH)2 ys djH;d .=K;h 1 10-14 mol3 dm-9 f' NH4Cl we;s g Fe(OH)2
s
imQKfhka wjlafIam fkd f' m%;sldrl tl;= lsug fmr Fe2+ whk Fe3+
njg mj;kh l< hq;af;a tfyhsks'
Ni2+(d8), Cu2+(d9), yd Zn2+(d10) iska ia:dhS weka ixlSK iEoSu tajdfha
yhsfrdlaihsvj, djH;djg fya;= f'

IV ldKavh
III ldKavfha fmfrkfhys OH- whk jemqr wvx.= ksid th laIdh f' OHwhk iys; f udOHhg H2S hef' H2S j,ska iemfhk H+ whk iska OHwhk WodiSk flfrhs'
H2S(aq) 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
OH-(aq)
H2O(l)
fuhska by; iu;=,;;dj ol=Kg nr jk w;r th djKfha S2- whk idkaKh
s
je lsug fya;= f'
f ksid idfmalaI jYfhka by< djH;d .=Ks; iys; Mn2+" Zn2+" Co2+ yd Ni2+
hk whkj, i,a*hsvj, by< jQ djH;d .=Ks;h blaujk whksl .=Ks;hla
djKfha we;s f' f ksid tu whk i,a*hsv f,i wjlafIam f'
91
Zn2+(aq)
Ksp(ZnS)
= 1 10-21 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(MnS)
= 1 10-25 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(CoS)
= 1 10-23 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(NiS)
ZnS (s)
= 1 10-28 mol3 dm-6
îqq&
Mn2+(aq)
MnS(s)
^frdai&
Co2+(aq)
CoS (s)
^l`M&
Ni2+(aq)
NiS(s)
^l`M&
V ldKavh
IV ldKavfha fmrkh kgjd H2S bj;a lr" NH4Cl iaj,amhla yd jemqr
NH4OH tl;= flf' djKh kgjd (NH4)2CO3 tl;= flf' Ca2+, Sr2+ yd
Ba2+ whk" ldnfkag f,i wjlafIam f'
Ca2+(aq)
(NH4)2CO3(aq)
Sr2+ (aq)
(NH4)2CO3(aq)
Ba2+(aq)
(NH4)2CO3(aq)
CaCO3(s)
(iq)
SrCO3(s)
(iq)
BaCO3(s)
(iq)
92
Ksp = 3x10-9 mol2 dm-6

Ksp = 1x10-10 mol2 dm-6
Ksp = 5x10-9 mol2 dm-6
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'2
( .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKh Nd;fhka" wekdhk mlaIKd;aul

j ksKh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
wjlafIamK l%uh fyda fjk;a l%u Nd;fhka wekdhk ykd .kshs'

wekdhkj,ska iEfok ixfhda.j, djH;d .=Ks;h wkqidrfhka wekdhkj,
wjlafIamKh meyeos,s lrhs'

wekdhkj, iajNdjh mok lr .kska wjlafIam" w,j, djKh u
meyeos,s lrhs'
legdhk" wefudakshd iu`. ixlSK iEoSu lrK fldg is jk wjlafIamj,
djKh u meyeos,s lrhs'

wjlafIamK l%uh Nd;fhka oS we;s ksheosfha we;=<;a wekdhk ykd .ekSug
isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'

kslaIs; mhdi i|yd ilrK ,su isiqkg mjrkak'
wekdhkj, iajNdjh mok lr .kska w,j, wjlafIam djKh u meyeos,s
lrkak'

iqfYaI mlaId u`.ska
Cl-, Br-, I-, S2-, SO42-, SO32-, CO32-, NO2-, NO3- yd

PO43- hk legdhk ykd .; yels h'
Cl , Br-yd I- whk i|yd mlaId
fya,hsv whk djKhg ;kql khsla w,h yd is,aj khsf djKh
tl;= flf' is,aj fya,hsvh wjlafIam f' fya,hs whkh ykd .ekSu
i|yd wefudakshd djKhl wjlafIamfha djH;dj Nd; l< yels h'
whkh foka
imQKfhka
djKh f'
whkh foka
imQKfhka
djKh f'
wdjH h'
idka NH3
[Ag(NH3)2]+ idoka wjfCIam

osh f'
93
is,aj fya,hsvj, djH;d .=Ks;

Ksp(AgCl) = 2 10-10 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(AgBr) = 5 10-13 mol2 dm-6
Ksp(AgI) = 8 10-17 mol2 dm-6
is,j laf,darhsj, djH;d .=K;h idfmalI jYfhka by< neka [Ag(NH3)2]+
a
s
a
whkh iEoSug ;r m%udKj;a is,aj whk djKfha mj;S' tfy;a is,aj

whvhs inkaOfhka th tfia fkd f'
yd
whk i|yd mlaId

l`M wjlafIamh
;e,s meyeh" fld< meyehg yef'
^fld<&
^;e,s&
ls meyeh" jemqr jdhqj hef oS
wjK f'
îq&
^wjK&
^r;= Uqre jdIamhla we;sf'&
yd
whk i|yd mlaId
whk djKhlg BaCl2 djKh tla l< g whk fol u iq meye;s >khla
f,i wjlafIam f' w,j, ^;kql HCl fyda ;kql HNO3& wjlafIamfha
djH;dj mlaId lsfuka whk fol tlsfklska fjka lr ykd .; yels h'
djKh f'
wdjHh h'
fuys oS
w,hls'
whk H+ whk u`.ska bj;a fkd flf' ukao iEfokqfha m%n,
94
whk i|yd mlaId

Uqre j,h mlaIdj - khsf whk djKhlg isis,a f*ria i,afma djKh
iaj,amhla tl;= lr" idka i,a*shqla w, x lsysmhla mlaId k<fha
;a;sh osf.a fifuka tl;= lrkq ,ef' fug" khsf djK ia:rh yd
i,a*shqla w, ia:rh fjka jk ikafhys Uqre meye;s j,hla olakg ,ef'
wefudakshd mlaIdj - khsf djKh" weksh l=vq yd fidah
yhsfrdlaihs djKh iu`. r;a lsf oS wefudakshd njg TlaisyrKh f'
whk i|yd mlaId

fmdiaf*a djKhlg idka khsla w,h iaj,amhla yd jemqr wefudaksh
fud,sf djKh tl;= lr WKqiq flf' ly meye;s wjlafIamhla ,ef'
95
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'3
( mrudKqj,$wKqj, Yla;s ug w;r mr;rh" O lsrKj,

Yla;sh iu`. iSyq lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
O jKdj,SlaI l%u ykd .kshs'

wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKhg ksoiqka f,i jK;sh" mdrcnq,$oDYH
jKdj,s;sh yd mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,s;sh ia;r lrhs'

fudapk jKdj,SlaIKhg ksoiqkla f,i is`M oSma;s;sh ia;r lrhs'
ir, jKudkhla yd is`M oSma;sudkhla lgq igyka lr fldgia k lrhs'

mdrcnq,$oDYH jKdj,Sudkhl" mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,Sudkhl yd
is`M oSma;sudkhl mska;+r isiqkg fmkajd tajdfha l%shdj,sh meyeos,s lrkak'

mod:h yd oHq;a pqnl lsrK w;r wka;l%shdj yd mrudKq$wKq iska
Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh lsu" wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaI l%uj, Nd; jk uQ,Ou

f'
Yla;s O Yla;s wdldr iu`. is flfrk yd wka;l%shdj lrKfldg mrudKq
^yd we;e g wKq& W;af;ackh u yd bka wk;=re j mrudKqj,ska ^we;e
wKqj,sk& Yla;h ksoyia u" fudapk jKdj,SlI l%uj, Nd; jk uQ,Ouh
a
s
a
f'
my; oelafjk oE ms<sn| f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug jKdj,SlaI l%u Nd; l<
yels h'
- mrudKq yd wKq
- wKqjl mrudKq ieliS we;s wdldrh
- ridhksl nkaOkj, iajNdjh
- wKql .=K
- iuyr ridhksl m%;sl%shdj, YSS>%;dj
oHq;apqnl lsrK - mod: wka;l%shdf oS my; oelafjk oE is h yels
h'
- wjfYdaIKh
- fudapkh
- mrdj;kh
- m%lsrKh
wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKh
f l%ufha oS mrudKq fyda wKq ksheoshla yryd oHq;a-pqnl lsrK hjkq
,nk w;r" wjfYdaIs; lsrKh ukskq ,ef' wjfYdaIs; lsrK m%udKh yd
lsrKfha ;rx. wdhduh îxLHd;h& w;r w|skq ,nk m%ia;drhla f,i
wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh ,nd .efka'
96
wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKfha oS mrudKq fyda wKq ksheosh iu`. wka;l%shdjg
fmr yd miq oHq;a-pqnl lsrKfha ;Sj%;dj ukskq ,ef'

mDIaGhla" h ;rx. wdhduhla we;s lsrK wjfYdaIKh lr; fyd;a th" bka
wjfYdaIKh fkdjqKq ;rx. wdhdu iys; lsrKj,g wkqrEm jK mrdj;kh

lrhs'
mdroDYH mDIaGhla h ;rx. wdhdu iys; lsrK wjfYdaIKh lrk w;r
wfkla ;rx. wdhduj,g wkqrEm lsrK ifm%aIKh ug bv fohs'
jia;=jla iq meyefhka fmfkf;d;a bka yeu lsrKhla u mdfya iudk j
mrdj;kh f' jia;=jla l`M meyefhka osia f k bka ljr fyda ;rx.
wdhduhl wdf,dalh mrdj;kh jkafka b;d iq`M jYfhks' jia;=jla wjK
f k th 400 - 800 nm mrdifha îsh jK& ish ;rx. wdhdu ifm%aIKh
lrhs'
jia;=jla ks,a meyefhka osia f k ^Wod( fldmÎI& i,af*a djKhla&" th
ks,a meye;s lsrK yer" oDYH l,dmfha wka ish lsrK wjfYdaIKh lrhs'
tfia jqj o" wjfYdaIKh lrk ,o ish lsrK fudapkh fkd flf'
idudkHfhka is jkafka wKq WoaoSmkh u;a" wKqqf lmk yd N%uK fya;=
fldg Yla;sh W;aickh wKq fN!u wjia:djg wdmiq meKSu;a h'
jK;sh
jKdj,Sudkhla hkq djKhl fl;r jKhla weoaoe hs ksKh l< yels
WmlrKhls' fuh djKhlg jKhla f.k fok ridhk jHhl idkaKh
ksKh lsf oS fnfyka m%fhdackj;a h' jKdj,Sudkhlska flfrkqfha
djKh yryd ifm%aIKh jk wdf,dalfha m%udKh uekSug ,la lsu hs'
jK;sl Yaf,aIKhg mok jkafka djKhl we;s wKqj, idkaKfha
fjki iu`. oHq;-pqnl jKdj,sfha oDYH m%foaYfha ^400 - 800 nm& lsrKj,
a
;Sj%;dfjys is jk p,kh hs' f p,khg fya;=j djKfha we;s iuyr
wKq iska lsrK wjfYdaIKh u hs'
mdrcnq,$oDYH jKdj,S;sh
m%Njh
iudka;rl ldph
fmryk
p, wdOdrlh
djKh
djlh
ndOl j.fha
m%ldY fldaIh
rEmh 14'3'1 ( mdrcnq,$oDYH jKdj,Sudkh
ksheosh wjK k th oDYH lsrK wjfYdaIKh fkdlrk w;r mdrcnq,
lsrK wjfYdaIKh lrhs'

97
mdrcnq,$oDYH jKdj,SlaIKh m%Odk jYfhka Nd; jkqfha djK.;
wjfYdaIK fYaI Yaf,aIKfha oS h' ldnksl ixfhda." f,day ixlSK wdosh

fun fYaI f'
mdrcnq,$oDYH jKdj,SlaIKh hkq ksheoshla ^wjfYdaIK fYaIh& iska
wjfYdaIKh flfrk iqfYaI ;rx. wdhduhlska hq;a lsrKhl fkdfyd;a
wdf,dalfha m%udKh uekSug Ndck flfrk l%u Ys,amhls'
jKdj,SlaIh" .=Kd;aul yd m%udKd;aul Yaf,aIKfha oS fia u ldnksl
ixfhda.j, jHqy wkdjrKfhys ,d Nd;hg .efka'
Wod ( DNA wKq mdrcnq, lsrK wjfYdaIKh lrhs' tfyhska wjfYdaIKh
lrk ,o mdrcnq, lsrK m%udKh uekSfuka ksheosfha we;s DNA m%udKh
ksKh l< yels h'
mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,S;sh
wkqkdo fLd
m%Njh
taljKlrh
oe,a,
wkdjrlh
bkaOk
bys
l=rh
jOlh
kSydldrlh
Tlaisldrlh
uqlh
udkh
igyqj
ksheosh
14'3'2 rEmh ( mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,Sudkh
mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,s;sfha oS Tlais-weisg,ska" oe,a, u`.ska by<
,laIKj, oS ksheosh mrudKq njg m;aflf' tu ksheosh ;=<ska oHq;a pqnl

;rx. hejQ g mrudKqhl= bf,lafg%dak u`.ska Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh lr by<
Yla;s ug fj; ixl%uKh f' tla tla ixl%uKfha oS wjfYdaIKh lrk
,o lsish ;rx. wdhduhla iys; lsrKhlg wkqrEm f'
ksoyia mrudKqj,ska hq;a ksheoshla yryd lsrKhla hejQ l," bka fldgila
N+ wjia:df we;s mrudKq iska wjfYdaIKh flf'

wjfYaIKh lrk ,o m%udKh
N+ wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj
98
mrudKql fudapk jKdj,S;sh ^myka is`M mlaIdj&

p,H isr
oe,a,
wefkdavh
m%ldY fldaIh
mrdj;lh
taljKlrh
Tlaisldrlh
bkaOk
;+lrej
=
Yaf,aIKh
flfrk djHh
jOlh
wkdjrlh
14'3'3 rEmh ( is`M oSma;sudkh

f,dayhl iqiq ixfhda.hla oe,a,g pQIKh jQ l,ays my; oelafjk isoa is
f'
>k wjfYaIhla b;s lrka djlh jdIam u'
>kh wdrNfha oS fN!u wjia:df mj;sk ;snQ ix>gl jdIamSlrKh
fjka mrudKq njg >gkh u'
mrudKqj,ska iuyrla oe,af,a ;dm Yla;sfhka by< Yla;s ug fj;
WoaoSmkh u îelenqu&' ilenqKq mrudKqj, wia:dhS nj ksid tajd lsrK
fudapkh lrka h<s fN!u wjia:djg meKSu'
fudapkh jQ lsrKj, ;Sj%;dj ielenqKq wjia:df we;s mrudKq
ixLHdj
f uQ,Ouh mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,S;shg;a wod< f'
E1
ielenqKq mrudKqj
fudapkh
wjfYdaIKh
E0 M
fN!u wjia:dj
kso ( NaCl
fN!u wjia:df
mrudKqj
99
ielenqKq
mrudKqj
fuys l } 589 nm ^ly&

3D
4P
818 nm
3P
330 nm
589 nm
Na (3S)
ie'hq' ( S , P yd D hkq ldlaIsl fkd f' tajd Yla;s wjia:d f' fidah
mrudKqjl 3S ldlaIslfha bf,lafg%dakhla f' fuh 3S Yla;s wjia:dj f'
fuh wdj;s;d j.=f we;s f,day ish,af,a u mdfya isf'
oDYH l,dmhg wh;a fkdjk ksid we;e f,dayj, oe,af,a jKh kslaIKh
l< fkdyels h'

Wod ( Mg - 330 nm
Zn - 214 nm
Nj/N0
Element
/nm
2000 K
4000 K
Na
589.0
9.8610-6
4.4410-3
Ca
422.7
1.2110-7
6.0310-9
Nj } ielenqKq wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj

No } N+ wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj
is`M fudapk jKdj,S;sh ^FES& fmr ykajk ,oafoa is`M oSma;s;sh f,i h'
fudapk ;Sj%;dj ielenqKq wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj ^Nj&
Nj fN!u wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj ^No&
No djKfha f,day whk idkaKh
ie'hq' ( Co2+(aq) yd MnO4-(aq) hk whk fol u frdai meye;s h' tfy;a 0.1
mol dm-3 Co2+(aq) djKhla" 0.1 mol dm-3 MnO42-(aq) djKhlg jvd
,d meyefhka hqla; h' fuhg fya;=j Co2+(aq) whkhg jvd MnO4-(aq)
whkfhka ielenqKq mrudKq ksmoSf iNd;dj je u h'
100
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'4
( ridhks l Ya f ,a I Kh i|yd wjfYda I K yd fuda p k

jKdj,SlaI l%u Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
h - ,en kshuh m%ldY lrhs'

l%udxlk jl%hla Nd;fhka w{d; idkaKhla ksKh lsu i|yd h-
,en kshuh Nd; lrhs'

ir, jKudkhl yd is`M oSm;udkhl fldgia ykd .ekSug isika fhdojkak'
a s
q
ksheoshl w{d; idkaKhla ksKh lrkq msKsi h-,en kshuh fhdod
.ekSug isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'

wjfYdaIK yd fudapk jKdj,SlaIKj, fhoS idlPd lrkak'

wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKh
tla jHhla jKj;a jk moaO;s i|yd f l%uh fYaIfhka iqiq f^jK;sh&'
jK ;Sj%;dj wjfYdaIH;dj f,i ueksh yels h'
wjfYdaIH;dj Â&" ;rx. wdhduhg$ixLHd;hg$;rx. wxlhg tfrys j m%ia;dr
.; flf' we;e g th m%;sY; ifm%aIKhg^T& tfrys j o m%ia;dr .;
flf'
f'
wdf,dalfha wjfYdaI; Nd.h" mlaId djKfha we;s jKj;a jHfha idkaKhg
s
iudkqmd;sl f'
f l%uh 180 - 900 nm mrdifha wjfYdaIKh is lrk jKj;a fyda wjK
jH i|yd jHdma; l< yels h' fu g th mdrcnq, jKdj,S oSma;s;sh
hkqfjka ye|skaf'
f l%uh" h-,en kshuh Nd; lr" djKhl we;s wjfYdaIlfha idkaKh
m%udKd;aul f,i ksKh lsug fndfyda g Nd; f'
h - ,en kshuh
(i)
(ii)
e = cl
A hkq uksk ,o wjfYdaIH;dj hs'
I0 hkq fok ,o ;rx. wdhduhlska hq;a m;k lsrKhl ^fyda wdf,dalfha&
;Sj%;dj h'
101
(iii)
(vi)
(v)
(vi)
I hkq ifm%aIs; lsrKfha$wdf,dalfha ;Sj%;dj hs'

chkq wjfYdaIK fYaIfha idkaKh f'
l hkq ksheosh ;=< m:fha os. hs'
e ksh;hla jk w;r th ye|skafjkafka wjfYdaIK;dj hkqfjks'
iqfYaIs; WIaK;ajhl oS yd fok ,o djlhl oS f ksh;h uQ,sl wKql
.=Khla f'
- C, mol dm-3 tallfhka m%ldYs; l,ays e ujq,sl wjfYdaIK;dj
hkqfjka ykajkq ,ef' e ys tallh dm3 mol-1 cm-1 f'
m;k
;Sj%;dj, I0
ifm%aIs; ;Sj%;dj, I
c
l
14'4'1 rEmh ( ksheoshlska lsrKhla wjfYdaIKh u

h-,en kshuh wfOdarla; wjfYdaIK jKdj,s i|yd o tl fia wod< h'
jKudkhla fyd|s k a l% s h d;a u l jka f ka tla ; rd mrdihla ;= < muKs '
ifm%aIH;dj ^transmittence& wju jYfhka 0'28 h hq;= h' fuhska woyia

jkafka b;d wvq ifm%aIH;djla we;s by< idkaKfhka hq;a djK f i|yd
kqiqiq nj h'
A yd c w;r l%udxlk m%ia;dr o weosh yels h'
fudapk jKdj,s
fudapk jKdj,S ;=ka j.hls'
1' ika;; jKdj,s - fjd ;dmoSma; >kj,ska fudapkh flf' fjdfhys
;shqKq fLd olakg fkdue;'
2' l,dm jKdj,s - ielenqKq wKq iska fjd ckkh f'
3' fLd jKdj,s
- ksYa; ;rx. wdhduhlska hq;a wdf,dalh$lsrK f,i
Yla;sh fudapkh lrk ielenqKq mrudKqj,ska we;s
flf'
jKdj,SlaI l%uj, jdis
ksKh lrkq ,nk uQ,jHhg iqfYaI f'
ld,h msuefia'
l=vd m%udK ^10-3 mol dm-3 fyda Bg jvd wvq idkaK& ksKhkh i|yd iqiq h'
l%udxlk jl% Nd; fldg idkaKh ksKh lsu
fuh wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKfha oS fia u fudapk jKdj,SlaIKfha oS
Nd;hg .; yels h'
Î& wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKh
l%udxlk jl%h" ksheoshl wvx.= jHhl w{d; idkaKh" okakd idkaKfhka
hq;a iu; ksheos yd iei|Sfuka ksKh lrkq msKi Yaf,aIK ridhk oHdf
s
Nd; flfrk idudkH l%uhls'
102
l%udxlk jl%hla hkq WmlrKfhys m%;spdrh fyj;a Yaf,aIK ix{dj"
Yaf,aIs;fha ânalyte& fyj;a uekSug Ndck jk jHfha okakd idkaKj,g

tosj w|skq ,nk m%ia;drhls'
fuys oS Yaf,aIlhd isk" Yaf,aI;fha wfmalI; idkaKhg im jQ mrdihla
a
s
a s
we;=<; msysgk idkaKj,ska hq;a iu; djK fY%aKshla ms<sfh, lrkq ,ef'
fndfyda Yaf,aIKj, oS WmlrK m%;pdrh yd Yaf,aI; idkaKh w;r m%i;drh
s
s
a
fh inkaO;djla fmkajhs' Yaf,aIlhd w{d; idkaKfhka hq;a ksheoshg
wod< m%;spdrh uek .kshs' wk;=rej" l%udxlk jl%fha wka; ksfYkfhka
Yaf,aIs;fha idkaKh ksKh flf'
mrudKql wjfYdaIK jKdj,SlaIKfha oS o ÂAS& ,nd .efkkqfha fun
l%udxlk m%ia;drhls'
wjfYdaIKh N+ wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj ^No&
N+ wjia:df we;s mrudKq ixLHdj djKfha whk idkaKh
w{d;
idkaKh$mol dm-3
ÎI& fudapk jKdj,SlaIKh

is`M oSma;sudkh
is`M oSma;sudkh hkq myka is`M mlaIdf oS ,efnk m%;sM, m%udKkh i|yd
ksudKh lr we;s WmlrKhls'
ksheosh" oe,a,g ksydlrKh flf' fudapkh jk lsrK taljKlrhla
fyj;a fmrykla yryd hjd m%ldY - fldaIhla iska wkdjrKh lr .efka'
fudak ;Sj%;dj oe,af,a we;s ielenqKq mrudKq ixLHdj ^Nj&
Nj No
Nj djKfha f,day whk idkaKh
ksydldrlh oe,af,a ksoyia mrudKq taldldr f,i jHdma; lsug Wmld f'
fudapk
lsrK
;Sj;dj
%
w{d;
idkaKh$mol dm-3
ie' hq' yhsrckaj, mrudKql fudapk jKdj,sh 1 tallfha oS we;'
103
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'5
( >k ridhksl ixfhda. ixY=oaO lsf l%u Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
wfYdaIKfhka ixY=oaO lsu i|yd w`.=re Nd; lrhs'

fok ,o ixfhda.hl ixY=oaO;dj ;yjqre lrhs'

isiqka ,jd jKj;a idhul djKhla ms<sfh, lrjd Bg w`.=re .a? 1 -2 w;r
tl;= lrjkak'
djKh l,;ka kd myla muK r;a lr isis,a lsug lshkak'
djKh fmrd" jKh bj;a o" fkd o hk nj kslaIKh lsug i,iajkak'

ldnksl m%;sl%shdjl wY=oaO M,fhys jKj;a wmjHhla ;sh yels h' djK
udOHfha we;s wY=oaO jHh" jKldrl w`.=re iu`. ks;a;= 5-10 w;r ld,hla
kegfuka wmjH bj;a l< yels h'
jKldrl w`.=re jKj;a wmjH wjfYdaIKh lrk w;r l=vd wxY= f,i
we;s friskuh jH r|jd .kS' fmfrkh idudkHfhka jKj,ska f;dr jk
w;r ta ;=< msis iaMl ;ekam;a f'
jKj;a ixfhda.h c,h" t;fkda,a fyda fnkaiSka jeks iqiq djlhl jKh
flf' idudkHfhka O%eh ixfhda. c,fhys o wO%eh ixfhda. fnkaiSka"
fgdBka jeks wO%eh djlj, o jKh f' ixfhda.h" w`.=re yd kgjd isis,a
jkakg ;ef oS iaMlSlrKh f'
,efnk >k mqkiaMlSlrKh lr h<d .efka'
jdxlh uekSfuka ixY=oaO;dj ;yjqre l< yels h'
jKldrlh jemqr we;s g th ixfhda.h o wfYdaIKh lrk neka th
jemqr tl;= lsfuka je<lsh hq;= h'
jKldrlh tl;= l< hq;= m%udKh mj;akd wmjH m%udKh u; /f|a'
fndfyda lghq;=j, oS wY=oaO >kfhys nka 1 -2] la fhoSu m%udKj;a h'
il%sh l< w`.=re fkdfyd;a il%sh ldnka hkqfjka ykajkq ,nkafka fnfyka
ijr jk mos ilia lrk ,o w`.=re h' wfYdaIKh i|yd Yd, mDIaGhla
th i;= h' il%sh ldnka" jdhq msis lsf oS" f,day ksiaidrKfha oS" rka msis
lsf oS yd ;j;a fndfyda ldhj, oS Nd;hg .efka'
104
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'6
( ixhq;sh yd idkaKh ksKh lsf l%uhla f,i Ndr;sh

Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
t<jq`M" lmdmq fmd,a jeks jH ksheoshl wvx.= f;;ukh m%udKh ksKh lsu
i|yd Ndr;sl l%uhla msie,iq lrhs'

f;;ukh m%udKh ksKh lsf mlaIKd;aul l%shdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
f;;ukh m%udKh ksKh lsf jeo.;alu ykd .kshs'
Fe3+" Al3+ wdoS whk tajdfha yhsfrdlaihsv f,i wjlafIam lsug yd tajdfha
Tlaihsv njg mj;kh lsug l%uhla ia;r lrhs'

Fe3+ yd Al3+ whk idkaKh ksKh lsf mlaIKd;aul l%shdj,sh meyeos,s
lrhs'

f;;ukh m%udKh ksKh lsf WodyrK i|yka lrkak'
f;;uk m%udKh ksKh lsf jeo.;alu idlPd lsug isiqkg bv
i,ikak'
t<jq`M ^wdydr& ksheoshl we;s c, m%;sY;h ksKh lsu i|yd mlaIKhla
ie,iq lsu isiqkg mjrkak'

Ndr;sl l%uh fhdod .; yels wjlafIamhl ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
fok ,o djKhl we;s Fe3+ fyda Al3+
whk idkaKh ksKh lsf
mlaIKhla isiqka ,jd is lrjkak'

wmkhkh flfrk t<jq`M" lmdmq fmd,a wdosfhys f;;uk m%udKh tla;rd
ugulg jvd wvq h hq;= h' ke;fyd;a laIq ka u`.ska tajdg ydks mefKa'
Ndr;sh
Ndr;sl Yaf,aIKh" nr uekSfuka flfrk Yaf,aIKhls' fuys oS fndfyda
g flfrkqfha jHhla wjlafIam ug i,id tys nr lsrd .ekSu h'
M+(aq) + X-(aq) MX(s)
fmfuka tl;= lr .ekSf oS ie,lsh hq;= wmf;a hdula is fkdug k
wjlafIamh wdjH h hq;= h' jHjydrfha oS fuhska woyia flfrkqfha djK.;
jH m%udKh" idudkH Yaf,aIK ;=,djlska ykd .; yels wju iSudj ^0'1mg)
fkd blaujk nj h'
wjlafIamh fmug yels h hq;= h' wjlafIamh" fm udOHh yryd fkdhk
;rf wxY=j,ska hqla; h hq;= h'
wjlafIamh ksh; ixhq;shlska hqla; h hq;= h'
105
f;;ukh m%udKh ksKh lsu

ksheosh lsrkak'
lsrk ,o ksheosh Wkl ;nd ksh; ialkaOhla ,efnk f;la 105 0C g muK
r;a lrkak'
ksheosh kej; lsrkak'
ksheosfha c,h m%udKh nr wkqj m%;sY;hla f,i .Kkh lrkak'
Fe3+ idkaKh Ndr;sl j ksKh lsu

whk djKfhka {d; mudjla uek.kak'
thg jemqr wefudakshd djKh tl;= lr r;a lrkak'
wjlafIamh fmrkak'
ksh; ialkaOhla ,efnk f;la wjlafIamh fldajl j,kh lrkak'
wjfYaIh Fe2O3 lsrd .kak'
Fe3+ m%udKh yd tys idkaKh .Kkh lrkak'
Al3+ idkaKh ksKh lsug o f l%uh f Nd; l< yels h'
106
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'7
( m%;sl%shdjla imQK jk wjia:dj fyj;a iul;d ,laIHh

ykd .kshs'
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
wjlafIamKh" ika;; p,k l%uhla f,i Nd; lrhs'

whkj," ixfhda.j, yd f,day ixlSKj, jK ;Sj%;dj ika;; p,k l%uh
i|yd Nd;hg .kshs'

w,-Niau m%;sl%shdj, oS is jk pH w.fha p,kh iul;d ,laIHh ykd
.ekSu i|yd Nd;hg .kshs'
idkaKh ksKh lsug ika;; p,k l%uh Nd;hg .ekSf oS imqrd ,sh
hq;= ;;a;aj ykd .kshs'

isiqka ,jd wjlafIamk l%uhg yd jK;sl l%uhg wod< mlaIK ie,iq
lrjkak'
l%udxlk jl% Nd;fhka m%;sl%shlj, idkaKh fiu i|yd isiqkg Wmfoia
fokak'

ika;; p,k l%u
m%;sl%shdjla imQK jk wjia:dj ykd .ekSu i|yd ika;; p,k l%uh
Nd;hg .; yels h'
aA + bB
cC + dD
A ujq, nA yd B ujq, nB Y% l< g A fyda B fyda lsisjla b;s fkd
m%;sl%shdj imQK jQ nj îul;d ,laIHhg t< nj& i,lkak'
tg
nA : nB = a : b
wjlafIamK l%uh
M,hla ^C fyda D& wjlafIamhla fj;a k" wjlafIamKh m%;sl%shdj is jk nj
fmkajhs' m%;sl%shdj imQK;ajhg <`.d jk ,laIHh ykd .ekSu i|yd f
wjlafIamKh Nd; l< yels h'
kso( aA (aq) + bB (aq)
cC(s) + dD(aq)
nA ksh; j ;nd nB p,kh l<fyd;a" Wmu wjlafIamKh is jk wjia:dj
ykd .; yels h'
14'7'1 yd 14'7'2 j.=j, oelafjk mos" A yd B ys okakd idkaKfhka hq;a
djKj, mud iudk yrialv iys; mlaId k<j, Y% lr" iEfok
wjlafIamfha Wi ^h& ukskak'
107
iEfok wjlafIamfha m%udKh wjlafIamfha Wi

'h' g tfrys j VA yd VB fjk fjk u m%ia;dr .; lrkak'
14'7'1 j.=j( B ys djK mudj ksh; j ;nd A ys djK mudj p,jh lsu
mla I k<h
VA/cm3
VH 2 O /cm3
VB/cm3
h/mm
1.0
9.0
5.0
2.0
8.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
5.0
4.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
2.0
5.0
9.0
1.0
5.0
10
10.0
0.0
5.0
2 j.=j ( A ys djK mudj ksh; j ;nd B ys djK mudj p,jh lsu

mla I d k<h
VA/ cm3
VB/cm3
/cm3
h/mm
5.0
1.0
9.0
5.0
2.0
8.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
5.0
4.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
2.0
5.0
9.0
1.0
10
5.0
10.0
0.0
108
ksoiqkla f,i [A] = [B]
yd
a=b
k (
Maximum Point
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VB/cm3
VA /cm3
â& rEmh 14'7'1(a) ( h yd VA w;r m%ia;drh

w;r m%ia;drh
2â& rEmh 14'7'2(a) ( h yd VB
Wmu ,laIHfhka m%;sl%shdj imQK u ye`.f' m%ia;dr fol taldnoaO

lsfuka iafgdhslsfhd;sl wkqmd;h ,nd .; yels h' f i|yd fo jeks
m%ia;drh m%;sj;kh lr m<uq jeks m%ia;drh u; w;smsys; l< yels h' fuys
oS y wlaIh fomiska u msysghs'
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VA/cm3
rEmh 14'7'1(b) (
h yd VA w;r m%ia;drh
VB/cm3
rEmh 14'7'1(b) (
h yd VB w;r m%ia;drh
^m%;sj;kh l<&
109
VA/cm3
VB/cm3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10
0
3 rEmh 14'7'3 ( ixfhda; m%ia;drh

'h' hkq iu yrialka hq;a wjlafIamfha Wi hs'
h tu wjlafIamfha mudj
h wjlafIamfha ialkaOh ^wjlafIamfha >k;ajh ksh; neka&
h wjlafIamfha ûjq,& m%udKh ^wjlafIamfha ujq,sl ialkaOh ksh; neka&
[A] = [B ] k"
tuksid ujq, wkqmd;h" nA : nB = VA : VB
14'7'1 yd 14'7'2 j.= ixfhdackh lr 3 jeks j.=j ,nd .; yels h' ;=ka jeks
j.=fjka fl<ska u 14'7'3 rEmh ,nd .; yels h'
3 j.=j ( uq`M mudj ksh; jk mos A ys yd B ys djK mud p,kh lsu
Test tube
VA/cm3
VB/cm3
h/mm
1.0
9.0
2.0
8.0
3.0
7.0
4.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
4.0
7.0
3.0
8.0
2.0
9.0
1.0
14'7'3 j.=f oelafjk mos m%;lhl O wkqmd;fhka Y% lsfuka o m%;lhdjl

s s%
s s%
iafgdhslsfhd;sh mlaIKd;aul j ksKh l< yels h' fuys oS uq`M djK

mudj ksh; j ;nd .efka'
110
k<j, iudk idkaKj,ska hq;a djK Nd; jk l,ays"
VA nA
VA nB
m%i;drfha Wmu ,laIHfhka m%;lhlj, iafgdhslfhd;sl wkqmd;h fmkak
a
s s%
s
q
flf'
m%;sl%shl idkaKh ksKh lsu i|yd l%udxlk m%ia;drhla we|sh hq;= h' CA
ksKh lrkq msKsi B w;sla; j mej;sh hq;= w;r CB ksKh lsug k A

w;sla; j mej;sh hq;= h' iuia; mudj ksh; h hq;= h'
14' 7'4 j.=f oelafjk mos" iudk yrialka hq;a mlaIK k<j, A j, yd
B j, iu; djK Y% lr" wjlafIamj,Wi ukskq ,ef'

4 j.=j ( djK mudj ksh; j yd w;sla; j ;nka djK mudj p,kh
lsu
Test tube
VA/ cm3
VB/cm3
1.0
10.0
9.0
2.0
10.0
8.0
3.0
10.0
7.0
4.0
10.0
6.0
5.0
10.0
5.0
6.0
10.0
4.0
7.0
10.0
3.0
8.0
10.0
2.0
9.0
10.0
1.0
111
/cm3
h/mm
h
h1 = w{d; idkaKfhka hq;a
djKfhka ,efnk
wjlafIamKfha Wi
h1
[A] ksKh lsf oS B
jemqr ;sh hq;= h'
10
VA /cm3
rEmh 14'7'4 ( h iy VA w;r l%udxlk m%ia;drh

A ys w{d; idkaKfhka hq;a djKfhka 10'0 cm3la" iudk yrialv iys;
mlaIK k<hla ;=< B djKfha 10'0 cm3 lg Y% lr iEfok wjlafIamfha

Wi ukskq ,ef' iei|Sfuka fyda m%ia;drh Nd;fhka A djKfha idkaKh
ksKh l< yels h' f i|yd l%udxlkh" W; mrdih we;=<; mej;sh hq;=
h' l%udxlk m%ia;drh we|Su i|yd ms<sfh, lrk ,o djK yd idkaKh
fkdokakd djKh iudk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;sh hq;= h' ^kso( WIaK;ajh&
jK;sl l%uh
m%;sl%shlhla fyda M,hla jKj;a tlla jk l,ays jK;sh" ika;; p,k

l%uhla f,i fhdod .kska iul;d ,laIHh fia u m%;sl%shlj, idkaKh o
ksKh l< yels h'
aA + bB
cC + dD
C fyda D jKj;a k fyda tajdfha jK A yd Bj, jKj,ska fjkia k
jK;sl l%uh Nd; l< yels f' fuys oS fmr mlaIKj, oS fhdod.;a
^14'7'1" 14'7'2" 14'7'3" 14'7'4& j.=j, yd ^14'7'1" 14'7'2" 14'7'3" 14'7'4& rEmigykaj,
i|yka& wjlafIam Wi fjkqjg jKudkhlska ukskq ,nk wjfYdaIH;dj Â&
Nd;hg .efka'
14'7'5 j.=j ( BdjK mudj ksh; j ;nd A djK mudj p,kh lsu
djKh
VA/cm3
1.0
V B/cm 3
Absorbance(A)
9.0
5.0
10
10.0
0.0
5.0
/cm3
112
wjfYdaIH;dj uekSf oS h jKj;a fYaIhla iska Wmu f,i wjfYdaIKh
flfrk ;rx. wdhduh f;dard .; hq;= h'
wjfYdaIH;dj
Wmu ,laIHh
Wmu
wjfYdaIH;dj
fmkajk ,laIHh" m%;sl%shdj
imQ K jk wjia : dj
fmkakq lrhs'
VA/cm3
oDYH l%uh Nd;hg .kafka k" Wmu jK ;Sj%;dj" m%;sl%shdj imQK
jk wjia:dj fmkajhs'
wjfYdaIH;dj
Wmu ,laIHh
Wmu ,laIHh"
iafgdhslsfhd;sl
wkqmd;hg wkqrEm f'
VA/cm3
VB/cm3
rEmh 14'7'6 ( wjfYdaIH;dj yd VA fyda VB
w;r m%ia;drh
djKhl w{d; idkaKh fiu i|yd l%udxlk jl%hla Nd;hg .; yels
wjfYdaIH;dj
h'
VA/cm3
rEmh 14'7'7 ( wjfYdaIH;dj yd VAw;r l%udxlk jl%h
113
ksheosfha wjfYdaIH;djg wkqrEm idkaKh" tys idkaKh f' ke;fyd;a
oDYHuhg jYfhka iudk jK ;Sj%;dfjka hq;a djKhl idkaKh f'

ksoiqkla f,i Fe3+ âq& whk idkaKh ksKh lsu i|yd ie,sis,sla w,
ixlSKh Nd;hg .; yels h'
oDYH l%uh Nd;hg .kafka k A yd B djKj, idkaKh" msh weiska
ykd .; yels ugul ;sh hq;= h' jKudkhla Nd;hg .kafka k

wjfYdaIH;dj 0'1 - 0'8 mrdifha mj;sk mos djKj, jK ;Sj%;dj mej;sh
hq;= w;r" ksjeros ;rx. wdhduh Nd;hg .; hq;= h'
114
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'8
( wkqudmk l%uh" ridhksl Yaf,aIK l%uhla f,i Nd;

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
w,-Niau m%;sl%shd wkqudmk yd TlaislrK-yrK m%;sl%shd wkqudmk Nd;
lrka wkqudmk l%u ia;r lrhs'

m%d:l iu; f,i Nd; l< yels idudkH jH i|yd ksoiqka olajhs'
m%d:l iu; jHj, {d; idkaKfhka hq;a djK ms<sfh, lrhs'
oYl l%uh Nd;hg .kska m%;sl%shdjla imQK jk wjia:dj îul;d
,laIHh& ksKh lrhs'

wkqudmk l%ufhka w,fha$Niaufha fyda Tlaisldrlfha$Tlaisydrlfha
idkaKh ksKh lrhs'
w,j,$Nia u j, pK a yd pK b w.h Wmfhda . S lr.ks ka w,-Nia u
wkqudmkj,g wod< ish wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka lrhs'

w,-Niau yd TlaislrK-TlaisyrK wkqudmk ksoiqkla f,i .kska iul;d
,laIHh yd wka; ,laIHh hk mo meyeos,s lrkak'

my; i|yka m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re oSug Wmfoia fokak'
i m%d:l iu;hla f,i Nd;hg .; yels >k jHhl ;sh hq;= jeo.;a
,laIK y;rla f' ta ljf o@
ii tla;rd ridhk jHhlska 0'10 mol la wvx.= jk djK 250'00 cm3 la
ms<sfh, lr .ekSug wmg wjYH we;' Tng Nd;hg .; yels ;=,dfjys
ksrjoH;d ugu 10 mg f' jH folla Tn i;= j we;' A ys ujq,sl
ialkaOh 10 g mol-1 jk w;r B ys ujq,sl ialkaOh 100 g mol-1 f'
â& A j,ska ljr ialkaOhla lsrd .; hq;= o@
^b& B j,ska ljr ialkaOhla lsrd .; hq;= o@
^c& ;rul by< ujq,sl ialkaOhla we;s jHhla m%d:l iu; jHhla
f,i fhdod .ekSu jeo.;a jkafka wehs@

wkqudmk l%u
djKhl w{d; idkaKh ksKh lsu i|yd wkqudmk;sl Yaf,aIKh
fhdod .efka'
wkqudmkhl oS is jk ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl iul;d ,laIHfha oS tl;= lrkq
,nk jHfha m%udKh" ksheosfha we;s Yaf,aIs;fha ânalyte& m%udKhg iul
f'
oYlhla iska m%;sl%shdjl iul;d ,laIHh y`.jk wjia:dj wka; ,laIHh
f,i ye|skaf'
115
wkqudmkhla is lsug k Bg wod< m%;sl%shdj

f.j;a h hq;= h'
iafgdhslsfhd;sl h hq;= h'
by< RK G w.hlska hqla; h hq;= h ^m%;sl%shdj imQK;ajh lrd hd
hq;= h&'
wkqudmkhla m%fhdackj;a jkafka djK w;=ka tll idkaKh okakd l,ays
muKs' idudkHfhka {d; idkaKfhka hq;a djKh ms<sfh, lr .kafka

m%d:l iu; f,i .kakd jHfha okakd m%udKhla c,fha jKh lr
iqfYaI mudjla olajd ;kql lsfuks'
Yaf,aIs; jHh iu`. tla wksjdh m%;sl%shdjla is lrk" okakd by<
ixY=oaO;djlska hq;a jHhla m%d:l iu; jHhla f,i ye|skaf'
by< ixY=oaO;dj" wvq m%;sl%sh;dj" wvq c,dlIKh yd by< djH;dj m%d:l
iu; jHhla f,i fhdod .kq ,nk jHhl m%Odk .=K f'
m%d:l iu; jHhla fkdue;s g fjk;a oa;Shsl jHhla Nd; l< yels
h' wkqudmkfha fhoSug fmr oa;Shsl jHh m%d:l iu; jHhlska
m%udKlrKh lr .; hq;= h'
m%d:l iu; djKhla u`.ska m%udKkh lr .kq ,nk djKhla oa;shsl
iu; ^m%dudKsl& djKhla f,i ye|ska f'
ixY=oaO jHhla lsrd .ekSu 0'1 mg ksrjoH;d ugulska is flf'
idudkHfhka {d; idkaKfhka hq;a djKh ms<sfh, lrkqfha mud;sl
ma,dial=jl h'
ksrjoH {d; idkaKhlska ms<sfh, lr .kakd ,o m%d:l iu; jHhl
djKhla ye|skafjkafka iu; ^m%dudKsl& djKhla f,i h'
w, djKhl idkaKh fidhd .ekSug iu; Niau djKhla o" Niau
djKhl idkaKh fidhd .ekSug iu; w, djKhla o Nd; l< yels
h'
w, - Niau wkqudmk
fuys oS {d;$w{d; idkaKfhka hq;a w,$Niau djK mudjla îdudkHfhka
25'00 cm3 la& WodiSk lrk {d;$w{d; idkaKfhka hq;a w,$Niau djKhl
mudj uek .efka' m%;sl%shdj imQK jk wjia:dj ykd .ekSu i|yd
oYlhla fhdod .efka'
wkqudmkhl m%dfhda.sl l%shdj,sh
msfmgqj ^fyda hqfrgqj& Nd; lr ;kql w,$laIdr djKfhka 25'00
cm3la msis fla;= ma,dial=jlg wkqudmk lrkak' iqiq oYlhlska x

lsysmhla Bg tl;= lrkak'
w,$laIdr djKh iaj,amhlska hqfrgqj fidaokak' w,$laIdr djKfhka
hqfrgqj mqrjd udjlh 0'00 cm3 i,l=K yd imd; lr .kak ^ V1 cm3&'
x jYfhka hqfrgqf we;s w,$Niau djKh ksoyia lrkak'
^Tn ju;a lrefjla fkd f k& lrduh yeisru i|yd ju; o ma,dial=j
le,;Su i|yd ol=K; o fhdod .kak'
oYlh" jKh fjkia lrk uq,a wjia:df u djKh tl;= lsu kj;ajkak'
fuh" wkqudmkfha wka; ,laIHh f'
hqr mdGdxlh ^V2 cm3 & lshjkak' m%;sl%shd l< w,$Niau mudj
^V2 - V1& cm3 f' fuh w,$Niau djK 25'00 cm3 WodiSk l< djK mudj
^titre& f'
116
wkqudmkh h<s is lr idudkH mudj ,nd .kak' wju jYfhka lsh
folla wjYH f' f mudfjka fkdokakd idkaKh .Kkh l< yels f'
wkqudmkh
wkqudmk wxlh
m<uq hqr mdGdxlh$cm3
fo jeks hqr mdGdxlh$cm3
djK mudj$cm3
mdGdxlh
02
24'20
48'10
23'90
01
0'00
24'20
24'20
03
0'00
23'90
23'90
fo jeks yd ;=ka jeks wkqudmkj, mdGdxlj, idudkHh 23'90 cm3 f'

fjki 0'30 cm3 g jvd je jk lsh fkdi,ld yeh yels h'
kso(
m<uq lshu
fo jeks lshu
;=ka jeks lshu
( 24'20 cm3
( 23'90 cm3
( 23'90 cm3
fuys oS m<uq lshu fkd i,ld yef' tg wfkla lsh foflys idudkHh
23'45 cm3 f'
0'1 mol dm-3 NaOH djKhl 25'00 cm3 la" 0'1 mol dm-3 HCl djKhla yd
wkqudmkh lsug wod< wkqudmk jl%hl lgqigyk my; oelaf'
PH
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
10
20
30
40
w, mudj/ cm3
rEmh 1 ( by; wkqudmkhg wod< pH pl%h

fmdgEish yhsrcka;ef,a fyda ksc,Sh ^h<d .kakd ,o& fidah ldnfka"
w, - Niau wkqudmk i|yd iqiq m%d:l iu; jH f'

COO-K +
fmdgEish yhsrcka;ef,a
COOH
TlaislrK - TlaisyrK wkqudmk
wkqudmk;sl Yaf,aIKfha oS TlaislrK-TlaisyrK ^Redox& m%;sl%shd o
Nd;hg .efka' fuys oS w{d; idkaKhlska hq;a Tlaisldrl$ydrl djKhla

117
iu; Tlaldrl$ydrl djKhla iu`. wkqudmkh flf' wod< djK foflys

mud yd m%;sl%shdf iafghslsfhd;sh Nd;fhka fkdokakd idkaKh fidhd
.; yels h'
KMnO4 yd K2Cr2O7 djK iq,n Tlaisldrl f' we;e g frfvdlaia
oYlhla o Nd;hg .efka' MnO4- whkh jKj;a neka th Nd; jk

wjia:dj, oS fjk;a oYl wkjYH h' MnO4- whkh iajhx oYlhla f,i
l%shd lrhs'
Na2C2O4 ' K2Cr2O7 yd KIO3 frfvdlaia wkqudmk i|yd m%d:l iu; jH
f,i Nd;hg .efka'
w, udOHfha whkaÎI& yd fmdgEish vhslafrdaf^VI& w;r wkqudmkh

whkaÎI& wefudakh i,af*a whkaÎI& fyj;a i|yd iqiq m%Njhls' tys djKhla
s
idudkHfhka ms<sfh, lrkq ,nkafka ;kql i,a*shqla w,fhka wd,SlD;
c,fha djKh lsfuks' w,h Fe2+ whkj, TlaislrKh j<lhs'
uek .kakd ,o Fe2+ djK mudjla ^25'00 cm3& wkqudmk ma,dia;=jl nyd
thg ;kql H2SO4 w,h ^10'00 cm3 la muK& tl;= flf'

vhsf*ks,weuhska oYlh x yhla o f*diaf*dla w,h 5 cm3 o Bg u tl;=
a
lrkq ,ef' vhsf*ks,aweuhska frfvdlaia oYlhls' th wjK h'

TlaislrKh jQ l,ays th ks,a-o meye;s idhula njg mj;kh f'
vhslafrdaf whk djKhg jefgk g" Fe2+ whk Fe3+ whk njg
TlaislrKh f' ish Fe2+ whk TlaislrKh wjika fuka miq ;j rg;a
tl;= jk vhslafrdaf djK xj fyda fol oYlh iu`. m%;sl%shd lrhs'
f wjia:df oS ks,a-o meyeh oYkh jk w;r th wkqudmkfha wka;
,laIHh f'
iEfok Fe3+ whk f*diaf*dla w,h iu`. ixfhdackh ixlSK whk
we;s f' fuh" Fe3+ whk oYlh iu`. frfvdlaia m%;sl%shdj,g Ndck u
j<lhs' tfia fkdjqkfyd;a tajdhska wka; ,laIHhg n,mEula we;s f'
ikakhk;sh
ika k hk;s l kq o m% ; s l s % h djla imQ K jk wjia : dj fkdfyd;a
wkqudmkhl iul;d ,laIHh fiu i|yd m%fhdackj;a h' iul;d ,laIHfha

oS djKhl ikakhk;dfjys lemS fmfkk fjkila is jk wjia:dj, oS
fuh Nd;hg .; yels h' ikakhk;dfjys is jk laIKsl fjki" whkj,
iajNdjfhys fyda idkaKfhys is jk fjki ksid we;s h yels h'
tl;= lrkq ,nk wkqudmlfhys mud yd djKfha ikakdhl;dj w;r w|skq
,nk m%ia;drh" ikakhk;sl wkqudmk jl%hla f,i ye|skaf'

WodiSk djKhl ikakdhl;dj" djKfha we;s Ok yd RK whkj,
odhl;ajj, ftlHhg iudk f' H+ yd OH- whkj, ip,;dj by< fyhska

jemqr H+ fyda OH- whk we;s djKhl ikakdhl;dj by< f'
118
ikakhk;sl kq" m%n, yd n, oHq;a foHj, djKj, iajNdjh
ms<sn| h m%;sfohla ,nd fohs' f oekqfuka m%dfhda.sl j m%fhdack ,eh

yels h' whk djKfhka bj;a fjf;d;a" tys ikakdhl;dj wvq f' fug"
ika;shk;sl WmlrKhla djKfha ikakhk;dj ^1$m%;sfrdaOh& wvq jk nj
fmkajhs' ikakhk;sl wkqudmkhl oS f lreK m%fhdackhg .efka'
1
m%;sfrdaOh
ikakhk;dj
}
ikakdhl;dj }
^ l } os.; A } j.M,h&
}
ikakdhl;dfjys tall }
}
}
1$R ikakhk;dj f,i ye|skaf' m%;sfrdaOh ukskq ,nkafka j,sks ^&' t
neka ikakhk;dfjys tallh 1 f' 1 i|yd iSukaia hk fYaI kduh

iys; tallh Nd; jk fyhska ikakdhl;dfjys tallh S m-1 f'
m%n, w, - m%n, w, ikakhk;sl wkqudmkhl oS ^ Wod ( HCl yd NaOH&"
NaOH djKh ikakdhl;d fldaIfhys ;nd" idudkH mrsos hqrgqfjka HCl

djKh Bg tl;= flf' wdrNfha oS ksoyfia we;s Na+ yd OH- whk
lrKfldg" ikakdhl;dj by< f' tfy;a w, djKh tl;= j;a u
WodiSkslrKh ksid whkj,ska fldgila bj;a f'
H+(aq) + OH- H2O(l)
f ksid djKfha ikakdhl;dj wvq f' flfia jqj o fuys oS neyer jk
whk iu`. djKhg Cl- whk we;=`M jk nj o isys lghq;= h'
Cl- whkj, tl;= u ikakdhl;dj je lrhs'
tfy;a Cl- whkj,

ikakdhl;dj" OH- whkj, ikakdhl;dfjka wvlg o jvd wvq h' fuys
iuia; m%;sM,h jkafka djKfha ikakdhl;dj wvq u hs' f wvq u
wkqudmkfha wka; ,laIHh t<fUk f;la is f'
wka; ,laIHfha oS b;d iq`M m%udKhla yer" wka ish u OH- whk H+ whkj,ska
WodiSk we;' tl;= jk <`. w, xj;a iu`. djKhg w,fhka H+

whk we;=`M f' fuu H+ whk djKfha ikakdhl;dj Yd, f,i je
lsug odhl jk w;r ta iu`. we;=`M jk Cl- whk iska o ikakdhl;dj by<
kexf' tfyhska wka; ,laIHfhka miq ikakdhl;dj je f'
119
ikakdhl;dj$
cm-1
wka; ,laIHh
2 rEmh(
w, mudj / cm3
NaOH yd HCl w;r ikakhk;sl wkqudmkhg wod<

wkqudmk jl%h
fu jeks m%ia;drhla w;ska o we|sh yels jqj;a" ikakdhl;dudkh" igyqjlg
inkaO lr iajhxl%Sh j m%ia;drh ,nd .ekSu jvd myiq h'

fjk;a m%n,$n, w, yd laIdr ixfhdack i|yd o ikakdhl;d kq
wkqidrfhka jl% ,nd .; yels jqj;a tajd w:l:kh lsu Ialr h'
kso(
CH3COOH(aq) yd NaOH(aq) w;r wkqudmkh
ikakdhl;dj$
cm-1
w, mudj$ cm-1
3 rEmh ( NaOH(aq) yd CH3COOH(aq) w;r ikakhk;sl

wkqudmkhg wod< wkqudmk jl%h
wjlafIamK wkql%uKhl oS ikakdhl;dj sp,kh jk wdldrh
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
120
NaCl(aq) tl;= lsf oS AgCl(s) f,i bj;a f' kuq;a Na+(aq) djKh
tl;= jk neka whk ixLHdf fjkila is fkdjk w;r ikakdhl;dj o
fkdfjkia j mj;S'
iul;d ,laIH miqfuka wk;=re j tl;= flfrk w;sla; fya;=fjka whk
ixLHd by< hdu;a iu`. djKh ikakdhl;dj o by< hhs'
ikakdhl;dj$
cm-1
wka; ,laIHh
121
NaCl(aq) mudj / cm3
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'9
( moaO;sfha we;s wekdhkj, yd legdhkj, iajNdjh mok

fldg" iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h ksKh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
moaO;sfha m%n, Niau legdhk yd m%n, w, wekdhk we;s g pH w.h ksKh
lrhs'
moaO;sfha m%n, Niau legdhk yd n, w, wekdhk we;s g pH w.h ksKh
lrhs'
moaO;sfha n, Niau wekdhk yd m%n, w, legdhk we;s g pH w.h ksKh
lrhs'
djKhl pH w.h" moaO;sfha iEfok whkj, c,fok m%udKh u; /|S
mj;sk nj meyeos,s lrhs'
c,fok m%udKh m%Odk jYfhka u" ksmfok n, w,fhys pKa w.h
fyda n, Niaufhys pKb w.h u; /|S mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs'

my; oelafjk ,jKj, c,fokh i|yd ilrKh ,sug Wmfoia fokak'
NaCl, KNO3, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, AlCl3, MgSO4

my; oelafjk wdldrfha w,j, m%n,;d iei|Sug Wmfoia fokak'
A w,h ; Ka = 1.8 10-5 mol dm-3
B w,h ; Ka = 5.0 10-2 mol dm-3
C w,h ; Ka = 1.6 10-4 mol dm-3

m%n, Niau legdhk ^Na+/K+&$m%n, w, wekdhk ^Cl-/SO42-/NO3-/ClO4-&
kso ( NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
NaCl jeks ,jKhl iaMl oe,sila c,fha jKh jk l,ays ic, lfnd,la
we;s jk mos c, wKq iska wekdhk iy legdhk jg lr .kq ,ef' whk
iu`. c, wKq we;s lr .kakd wka;l%shd fya;=fjka c, wKq b|Sula is
fkdf' fuys oS H+ yd OH- whk m%udKfha fjkila fkdjk w;r pH ksh;
j mj;S' ridhksl jYfhka ixY=oaO jQ c,h Nd; lrk ,oafoa k iul;d
,laIHfha oS by; i|yka moaO;sfha pH w.h 7g iudk f'
m%n, Niau legdhk ^Na+/K+ &$n, w, wekdhk ^CH3COOH-/CO32-&

kso ( CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COO-Na+(aq) + H2O(l)
fidah t;fkdta c,fha jKh ksoyia whk idohs' ,efnk t;fkdta

whk c,fokh f'
CH3COO-Na+(aq)
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O (l)
Na+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
122
c, wKq fn%dkaiag w, f,i o t;fkdta whk fn%dkaiag Niau f,i o
l%shd lrhs' fkd tfia k" c, wKqj,g jvd t;fkdta whk m%n, Niau f'
iu;=,s;;df oS weos OH- whk fya;= fldg f.k iul;d ,laIHfha oS djKh
laIdh ^7g je& pH w.hla fmkajhs'
n, Niau legdhk ^NH4- &$m%n, w, wekdhk ^Cl-/SO42-/ NO3-/ ClO4- &
kso ( NH4OH(aq) + HCl (aq)
NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l)

wefudaksh laf,darhs c,fha jKh f oS" djK .; wefudaksh whk
c,fokh fuka iu;=,s;;djla we;s f'
NH4Cl(aq)
NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq)
fuys oS fn%dkaig w,hla f,i l%hd lrk wefudakh whk iska fn%dkaig
a
s
s
a
Niauhla f,i l%hd lrk c, wKq fj;g fm%dfgdak m%odkh flfrka yhsrcka
s
a
whk we;s flf' f yeisu m%n, w,j,ska yd n, Niauj,ska jHq;amkak
,jKj,g oYSh jk w;r ,jKfha legdhkh c,hg jvd m%n, w,hla f'
c,h Niauhla f,i l%shd lrka yhsrcka whk Wmojhs' H+ whk ksid
djKh wd,sl jk w;r tkhska iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h 7g jvd wvq
f'
n, w,hlska iEfok ,jKhl djKhl pH w.h
pKa = - log Ka
f wkqj w,hl m%n,;dj jej;a u tys pKa w.h wvq f' ksoiqkla f,i
n, w,hla jk HA ys pKa = 9.00 o" ;j;a n, w,hla jk HB ys pKa =
6.00 o hehs is;uq' fufia jk l,ays HB, HA jvd m%n, w,hla f'
NaA ,jKfha 0'1 mol dm-3 djKhla i,lkak'
(pKa = 9.0)
HA ys
Kh= c,fok ksh;h
[OH-(aq)] 2
= 10-mol dm-6
[OH-(aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
pOH
pH
=3
= 11.0 ^wdikak f,i&
123
fuf,i" HA w,fhka jHq;amkak ,jKhl iqfYaIs; idkaKfhka hq;a"

djKhl pH w.h .Kkh l< yels h'
n, Niauhlska iEfok ,jKhl djKhl pH w.h
pKb = - log Kb
f wkqj Niauhl m%n,;dj jej;a u tys pKb w.h wvq f' ksoiqkla f,i
n, Niauhla jk MOH ys pKb= 5.00 o ;j;a n, Niauhla jk BOH ys
pKb= 3.00 o hehs is;uq'
tu ksid MOH g jvd BOH m%n, Niauhls'
MCl ,jKfha 0'1 mol dm-3 djKhla i,lkak'
(pKb(MOH)= 3.00)
M+(aq) + H2O(l)
MOH(aq) + H+(aq)
[H+]2 = 10-10mol2 dm-6

[H+] = 10-5 mol dm-3
pH = 5.0
fuf,i MOH Niaufhka jHq;mkak ,jKhl okakd idkaKfhka hq;a djKhl
a
pH w.h .Kkh l< yels h'
iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h
m%n, w, - Niau
iul;d ,laIfha oS pH p,kh meyeos,s lsu
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O(l)
-14
2
-6
+
Kw = 10 mol dm = [H (aq)] [OH-(aq)]
iul;d ,laIHfha oS
[H+(aq)] = [OH-(aq)]
tu ksid[H+(aq)]2 = 10-14 mol2 dm-6
[H+(aq)] = 10-7 mol dm-3
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH = 7.0
124
n, w, - m%n, Niau
A- (aq) + H2O (l)

HA (aq) + OH- (aq)
HA n, w,fha pKa= 5.00 hehs o" iul;d ,laIHfha oS [A-(aq)], 0'1 mol dm3
hehs o ie,l=jfyd;a"
[OH-(aq)]2 =10-10 mol dm-3

[OH-(aq)] = 10-5 mol dm-3
pOH = 5.0
pH = 9.0
m%n, w, - n, Niau wkqudmk
MOH n, w,fha pKb= 5.0 hehs o" iul;d ,laIHfha oS [M+(aq)],
0'1 mol dm-3 hehs o ie,l=jfyd;a"
mol2 dm -6
[H+(aq)]2 = 10-10 mol2 dm-6

[H+(aq)] = 10-5 mol dm-3
pH = 5.0
MCl ,jKfha djKhla yd NaOH w;r wkqudmkh
M+ (aq) + H2O(l)
MOH (aq) + H+(aq)
MOH n, Niaufha pKb = 9.0

MCl ,jKfha 0.1 mol dm-3 djKhla ie,l+ g
[H+(aq)] 2 = 10-6
[H+(aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
pH = 3
125
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'10
( w,-Niau wkqudmkj,g iqiq oYlhla f;dard .kshs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
w, - Niau m%;sl%shdj, iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h .Kkh lrhs'

O wkqudmk i|yd wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka lrhs'
iul;d ,laIHh wdikakfha oS l=vd djK mudjlska laIKsl j Yd, pH
fjkila is jk nj ykd .kshs'

w, - Niau ^WodiSkslrK& oYl" n, w, fyda n, Niau nj m%ldY lrhs'
oYlhla whkSlrKh jQ yd fkdjQ ;;a;aj hgf;a oS tlsfklg fjkia jK
fmkakq lrk nj wjfndaO lrhs'

oYlhl pH mrdih ^jK mrdih& tys >gk ksh;h ^KIn & u; /|S mj;sk
nj wjfndaO lrhs'
oYlhl jrKh" wkqudmkfha iul;d ,laIH pH w.hg fyj;a laIKsl pH
fjkia mrdihg wkqrEm pKIn w.h u; r|d mj;sk nj fmkajd fohs'
O wkqudmk i|yd iqiq oYl ksfoaY lrhs'

m%n, w,-Niau wkqudmkhl O wjia:dj, oS djKfha pH w.h .Kkh
lsug isiqkg u`. fmkajkak'

isiqkg my; oelafjk wdldrfha O wkqudmkj, wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka
lsug wjia:dj fokak'
m%n, Niau - m%n, w,
m%n, Niau - n, w,
n, Niau - m%n, w,
wkqudmkj,g iqiq oYl ksKh lsug;a O oYl Nd; lrk g jeh
jk wkqudml djK mud .Kkh lsug;a isiqka fhdojkak'
tllg je mshjr .Kklska is jk wkqudmkj, wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka
lsug isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
Na2CO3(aq) yd HCl(aq)

m%;sl%shdj imQK jk wjia:dj iul;d ,laIHh f,i ye|skaf'
iul;d ,laIHfha [H+(aq)] = [OH-(aq)] f'

m%n, w,-m%n, Niau wkqudmkfha oS" wka; ,laIHfha oS legdhkhj;a ^Wod'Na+,
K+, Ca2+& wekdhkhj;a ^Wod( Cl-, NO3-& c,fokhg Ndck fkd f' tneka
iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h ksKh lrkq ,nkafka c,fha >gkh isks'
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h 7 f'

126
tfy;a wfkl=;a wkqudmkj, oS n, Niaufha legdhkh o" n, w,fha
wekdhkh o c,fokh f'

m%;sM,h iska ;SrKh flf'
ksoiqka (
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l)
djKfha pH
w.h f c,fokfha
NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS djKh wd,sl jk w;r pH < 7'0 f'

CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l)
CH3COOH (aq) + OH- (aq)
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS djKh laIdh jk w;r pH > 7'0 f'

my; oelafjk wkqudmkh i,lkak'
0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH
0.1 mol dm-3 HCl, 25.00 cm3
wdrNl pH w.h } 1'0

laIdrh 5'0 cm3 tl;= lsfuka miq pH }
} 1'1761
> 1'2
} 2'6778
> 2'7
} 11'2924
> 11'3
wkqudmk jl% foi ne,Sf oS" iul;d ,laIHh imfha is jk Yd, pH
fjki fya;=fjka isria fldgia tlla fyda je .Kkla we;s jk nj fmfka'
127
oYl lsysmhl pH mrdi" jK mrdi yd pKIn w.h my; j.=fjys oelaf'
my< iSudjg
jvd wvq
pHw.hl oS
jKh
pH mrdih
oYlh
by< iSudjg
jvd wvq
pHw.hl oS
jKh
pKIn
fu;s,a Tfka
2'9 - 4'6
r;=
;e,s
3'7
fu;s,a fr
4'2 - 6'3
r;=
ly
5'0
frda f ud;hs f ud,a
6'0 - 7'6
ly
ks,a
7'1
mSfkda,ama;,Ska
8'3 - 10'0
wjK
r;=
9'6
wkqudmkhla i|yd iqiq oYlhl pH
mrdih" wkqudmkfha YS>%;u pH

fjki yd iumd; h hq;= h' tk" wkqudmk jl%fha iul;d ,laIHh
we;=<;a jk isria fldgi ;=< pH mrdih msysh hq;= h'
wkqudmk pl%
^1& m%n, w, - m%n, Niau wkqudmk
0.100 mol dm-3 HCl
0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH
0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH

( 25.00 cm3)
(a)
0.100 mol dm-3 HCl

(25.00 cm3)
(b)
128
NaOH mrsudj$cm3
14'10'1' rEmh ( m%n, w, - m%n, Niau wkqudmkhl wkqudmk pl%h
^2& m%n, Niau - n, w, wkqudmk
0.100 mol dm-3

NaOH
HA
0.10 mol dm-3 (25.0 cm3)
HA n, w,fha pKa } 5'0 hehs Wml,amkh lruq'

0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH j,ska 0.1 mol dm-3 n, HA w,h 25.0 cm3 wkqudmkh
lsf oS rH p,kh jk wkaou my; m%ia;drfha oelaf'
129
[HA] = [A-]
14'10'2 rEmh ( n, w, - m%n, Niau wkqudmkhl wkqudmk jl%h
wdrNl wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsu
[H+(aq)]2 = 10-6 mol2 dm-6

[H+(aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
pH = 3.0
iul;d ,laIHfha oS wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsu
iul;d ,laIHfha oS [HA(aq) = [OH-(aq)]

iul;d ,laIHfha oS [A-(aq)] = 0.01 mol dm-3 f,i .; fyd;a"
130
[H-(aq)]2 = 10-10 mol2 dm-6

[OH- (aq)] = 10-5 mol dm-3
pOH = 5.0
pH = 9.0
^3& m%n, w, - n, Niau wkqudmk
0.10 mol dm-3
HCl
0.10 mol dm-3 MOH

( 25.00 cm3)
MOH ys pKb = 5.0 hehs is;uq'

wdrNl wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsu
MOH (aq)
M+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
[OH- (aq)]2 = 10-6 mol dm-6

[OH- (aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
pOH = 3.0
pH =14.0 3.0 = 11.0
iul;d ,laIHfha oS wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsu
[M+ (aq)] = 0.1 mol dm-3

M+ (aq) + H2O (l)
MOH (aq) + H+ (aq)
[H+aq]2 = 10-10 mol2 dm-6

[H+] = 10-5 mol dm-3
pH = 5.0
131
[MOH(aq) = [M+(aq)]
14'10'3 rEmh ( n, Niau hq., w, wkqudmkhl wkqudmk jl%h
4& 0'05 mol dm-3 c,Sh Na2A djKhla yd 0'10 mol dm-3 HCl w;r wkqudmkh
H2A ys pKa1 = 6 o pKa2 = 10 o k(
A2- (aq) + H2O (l)
HA- + H2O (l)
HA- (aq) + OH- (aq)

H2A (aq) + OH- (aq)
2[HA-] = [A ]
14.10.5 rEmh ( HCl iu`. Na2A
[H2A] = [HA-]
yd NaHA
132
wkqudmkh i|yd wkqudmk jl%h
msfkda,ama;,Ska oYlh f,i fh g jeh jk djK mudj V1 o fu;s,a

Tfka oYlh f,i fh g jeh jk tu djK mudj V2 o f'
Na2CO3 yd HCl w;r wkqudmkh
by; ksoiqk fuka fuh o meyeos,s l< yels h'
CO32- (aq) + H2O (l)
HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq)
HCO3- (aq) + H2O (l)
H2CO3 (aq) + OH- (aq)
HCO3 ys
= 6.37 and
= 4.27 x 10-7 mol dm-3 and
= 10.33 o f'
= 4.68 x 10-3 mol dm-3 o f'
133
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'11
( idkaKh fiu msKsi TlaislrK-TlaislrK m%;sl%shd fhdod

.ksh'
s
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
fok ,o m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; TlaislrK - TlaisyrK ilrK ,shhs'

m%;sl%shdj imQKu ksKh lrKq msKsi iqiq oYlh f;darhs'
okakd idkaKfhka hq;a djK mudjla iu`. m%;lhd lsug wjYH fkdokakd
s s%
idkaKhlska hq;a m%;sl%shl mudj ksKh lrhs'

iafgdhslsfhd;sl wkqmd;h weiqka m%;sl%shl idkaKh .Kkh lrhs'

TlaislrK - TlaisyrK m%;sl%shdj ,nd .ekSug wod< TlaislrK yd TlaisyrK
wO whksl m%;sl%shd ,shk f,ig isiqkaf.ka b,a,d iskak'

fok ,o Tlaisydrlh fyda Tlaisldrlhl fyda idkaKh ksKh lrkq msKsi
W; mlaIKhla ie,iq lrk f,i mjrkak'
wjYH wjia:djkays oS W; oYlh f;dard .ekSug isiqkag bv ykak'

fojk tallh hgf;a oS we;s m%;sl%shd ;=,s; lsu mYS,kh lrkak'
iuyr m%;sl%shd i|yd m%;sl%shdj imQK u ksKh lrkq msKsi m%;sl%shl fyda
M, fyda iajhx oYlhla f,i fhdod .; yels h'

iuyr m%;sl%shdj, iul;d ,laIHh ksKh lrkq msKsi oYl fhdod .; hq;=
f'
134
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'12
( .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKh i|yd whfvd;sl wkqudmk Nd;

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
Fe3+, IO3- , Cr2O72- MnO4- yd Cu2+. jeks Tlaisldrl yd I- w;r m%;sl%shdj, M,
ykd .kshs'
whvhs whk Tlaiydrlhla f,i l%hd lrk g" fok ,o whkhl TlaiyrKh
s
s
s
i|yd wO whksl m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
frfvdlaia m%;sl%shd wkqidrfhka m%;sl%shdj, iafgdhslsfhd;l wkqmd;h ,nd
.ksh'
s
iu; ;fhdai,afma djKhla Nd;lr" Tlaisldrl djKhl idkaKh
ksKh lrhs'
ish wfhdfvd;sl wkqudmkj, oS jemqr I- ;sf wjYH;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
W; mos msIagh oYlhla f,i fhdod .kshs'

whvhs whk" Fe3+, IO3- , Cr2O72- MnO4- yd Cu2+. iu`. isoq lrk m%;sl%shd
i|yd ;=,s; whksl iuSlrK ,shkak'

YsIHhkg
- by; m%;sl%shdj, iafgdhslsfhd;sh fiug yd

- S2O32- yd I2 w;r m%;sl%shdj i|yd ;=,s; ilrKh ,sug wjia:dj fokak'
whfvd;sl wkqudmkh Nd;fhka Tlaisldrlhl ^Fe3+, IO3- , Cr2O72- MnO4yd Cu2+& idkaKh ksKh lsu i|yd l%shdmmdhla ie,iq lsug isiqkg
mjrkak'

2IO3-(aq) + 10 e + 12 H+(aq)
10I-(aq)
(1) + (2);
5I2(aq) + 10 e
I2(aq) + 6H2O(aq) .............. (1)

...............................................
2IO3-(aq) +10I-(aq) + 12H+(aq)
IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 6H+(aq)

I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)
(2)
6I2(aq) + 6H2O(l)
3I2(aq) + 3H2O(l) .......................(3)
2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq) ................................(4)
(4) x 3 + ( 3) ;
IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 6H+(aq) + 6S2O32-(aq
6I- (aq)
+ 3H2O( l ) + 3S4O62-(aq)
iafgdhslsfhd;sl wkqmd;h IO3- (aq)
135
6S2O32-(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + e
Fe2+(aq) ....................... (1)

2I-(aq)
I2(aq) + 2e ----------------(2)
(1) x 2 (2) ; 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq)
2Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq) ---------(3)
I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)
2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq)
iafgdhslsfhd;sl wkqmd;h
2Fe3+(aq) I2(aq) S2O32-(aq)
Fe3+(aq)
S2O32-(aq)
Cr2O72-(aq) + 6e + 14 H+(aq)
2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) ----------(1)

3I2(aq) + 6e ---------------(2)
6I (aq)
(1)-(2);
Cr2O72-(aq) + 6I-(aq) + 14H+(aq)
I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)
2Cr3+(aq) + 3I2(aq) + 7H2O(l) ---------(3)
2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq) --------------(4)
Cr2O72-(aq)
3I2(aq)
Cr2O72-(aq)
6S2O32-(aq)
6S2O32-(aq)
2MnO4-(aq) + 10e + 16H+(aq)

-
2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) --------------(1)

5I2(aq) + 10e --------------------(2)
10I (aq)
(1)-(2);
2MnO4-(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 10I-(aq)
2Mn2+(aq) + 5I2(aq) + 8H2O(l) -------(3)
I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)
2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq) ---------------(4)
2MnO4-(aq)
5I2(aq)
MnO4-(aq)
10S2O32-(aq)
5S2O32-(aq)
Tlaisldrlfha idkaKh ksKh lsu yd S2O32- Nd;fhka I3- whk m%udKkh

Tlaisldrl djKfhys uek.;a mudjla wkqudmk ma,dial=jg tl;= lrkak'
;kql i,a*shqla w,h tl;= lrkak' ÎO3-" Cr2O72-" MnO4- jeks Tlaiwekdhk
s
we;s g muKS.&
KI(aq) jemqr tl;= lrkak'
Cr2O72- fyda MnO4- Tlaisldrl jk l,ays" ma,dial=j jid ks;a;= 5 - 10 la
muK wf ;nkak' ^KIO3 wef;d;a jydu wkqudmkh is lrkak' &

hqrgqj iu; ;fhdai,af*a djKfhka mqrjkak'
,d ly$msre meyeh ,efnk f;la wkqudmkh is lrkak'
w; ms<sfh, lrk ,o msIag djKfhka 3 cm3 la tl;= lrkak'

;o ks,a meye;s djKh ksjK jk f;la djKh wkqudmkh lrkak'
jeh jQ ;fhdai,af*a djK mudj uek.kak'
ix.; lsh ,efnk f;la wkqudmkh kej; kej;;a lrkak'
jeh jQ ;fhdai,af*a djK mudf idudkHh .Kkh lrkak'
m%;sl%shdf iafghslsfhd;sh Nd;fhka Tlaisldrlfha idkaKh .Kkh
lrkak'
136
ie'hq' ;kql i,amhla w,h Nd; lsu wjYH jkafka m%;lhdj wd,sl udOHfha
s q
s s%
is jk neks' fuhska iemfhk H+ whk u`.ska IO3-" Cr2O72-" MnO4- jeks

Tlafidwekdhkj, Tlaiscka bj;a flf'
jemqr KI wjYH jkafka ksoyia jk whka" I3- f,i djK .; lsug h'
S2O32- iu;lrKh i|yd Nd; flfrk m%d:l iu; jH jkafka IO3- yd
Cr2O72- h'
u| f,djla ;eug fya;=j I- yd Cr2O72- fyda MnO4- jeks Tlaisldrl iu`.
m%;sl%shdj fifuka is u h'

wf ;ef wruqK jkafka I- whkj, jdhj TlaislrKh wju lsu h'
O2(g) + 4e + 4H+(aq)
4I- (aq)
2I2(aq) + 4e
2H2O(1) --------- (1)

-------------------(2)
(1) + (2); O2(g) + 4I-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
2I2(aq) + 2H2O(aq)
(jd;fhka is jk TlaislrKh)
I-(aq)+ I2(aq)
I3 (aq)
CuI iska I3- wfYdaIKh flf'
CuCNS ys djH;d .=Ks;h CuI ys djH;d

.=Ks;hg jvd wvq neka CNS tl;= lsf oS wfYdaIs; I3- whk ksoyia f'
-
I3- whk ksoyia fjka my; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj hg;a msfihska wjlafIamfha
mDIaGfha is f'
CuI(s) + CNS-(aq)
CuCNS(s) + I-(aq)
I3- idkaKh je k msIagh" ta iu`. >k ixlSKhla idohs' t neka msIag
oYlh tl;= lrkafka wka; ,laIHh wdikakfha oS I3- idkaKh wvq j

mj;sk g h' wka; ,laIHfha oS ks,a meyeh ke;s j hhs'
137
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'13
( jH fjka lr .ekSu i|yd jKdf,aL Ys,am l%uh Nd;

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
jKf,aL Ys,amfha oS Nd; jk m%Odk;u ridhksl uQ,Ouh Nd. ix.=Klh
nj ms<s.kshs'
jKdf,aL Ys,am l%uh Nd; lr jH fjka lrhs'
jH fjka u tajdfha Nd. ix.=Klj, fjki weiqfrka ia;r lrhs'

isiqka Wf.k we;s Nd. ix.=Klh isysm;a lrkak'
wp, l,dmh yd ip, l,dmh hk mo meyeos,s lrkak'
my; oS we;s ir, jf,aL mlaIKh lrkak'
Ydl m;% lla c,h yd t;fkda,a iu. wUrkak'
djKh fmrd ksiaidrlh ,nd .kak'
jKdf,aL lvodis f,i ;Ska; fmdjk lvodis Nd; lrka ksiaidrlfha
wvx.= O jKl fjka lsug W;aidy lrkak'

Nd; jKdf,aL l%uYs,amj, j.SlrKh
O jKdf,aL Ys,am l%u .Kkdjla f'
ta ish,a,l u p,kh jk ip,

l,dmhla o p,kh fkdjk wp, l,dmhla o f'
jKdf,aL Ys,amh
wfYdaIK
^wp, l,dmh - >k&
ip, l,dmhjdhq
jdhq->k
jKf,aL
Ys,mh^GSC&
a
Nd.
^wp, l,dmh - j&
ip, l,dmh-j
ia;N
jKf,aL
Ys,mh
a
ip, l,dmhjdhq
;=kS ia;r
jKf,aL
Ys,mh
a
138
ip, l,dmh-j
ia;N
jKf,aL
Ys,mh
a
jdhq-j
jKf,aL
Ys,mh
a
;=kS
lvodis
ia;r
jKf,aL
jKf,aL Ys,mh
a
Ys,mh
a
fndfyda jKdf,aL Ys,mj, Nd; jk fN!;sl .=Kh jkafka Nd. ix.=Klh

a
hs'
K =
Cs
CM
wp, l,dmfha djH idkaKh

ip, l,dmfha djH idkaKh
A yd B hk jH foflys Y%Khla fjka lr .; hq;= hehs o tajdfha Nd.
ix.=Kl ms<sfj<ska KA yd KB hehs is;uq' A yd B tlsfklg fjkia f.j,ska

ip, l,dmfha .uka lrkafka KA yd KB wiudk jk g muKS' tfia jk g"
jKf,aL Ys,am l%ufhka A yd B fjka lr .; yels h'
jdhq-j jKdf,aL Ys,amh
fuu l%uh ;dmdxl wdikak WIaK;ajhl oS fhdackh fkdjk jdIamYS,S j
fjka lr .ekSu i|yd Nd; f'
jdhq-j jKdf,aL Ys,amh idudkHfhka Y%Khl ix>gl fjka lsug o
tajdfha idkaK ksKh lsug o Nd; f'
fuys ip, l,dmh jdyl jdhqjla ^Wod ( He, Ar, N2& jk w;r th j wp,
l,dmh ^yhsfrdldnk" nyqwjhjl wdoS& wvx.= ia;Nh yryd .uka lrhs'
ip, l,dmhg we;=<;a lrkq ,nk A yd B ys Y%Kh ^djKh& tys oS jdIamlrKh
S
f' jdhq yd wp, l,dmh w;r iu;=,s;;d wkka; ixLHdjla we;s h yels
h'
A yd B j, ixprKh f f.h tajdfha Nd. ix.=Kl u; /|S mj;S'
wp, l,dmfha Aj, idkaKh
KA =
ip, l,dmfha Aj, idkaKh

wp, l,dmfha Bj, idkaKh
KB =
ip, l,dmfha Bj, idkaKh
KA >KB k" B m<uqfjka m%laId,kh l< yels h'
wkdjrl m%;pdrh
s
ia;Nfhka m%laId,kh jk jdyl jdhq mudj
14'3'1 rEmh ( fjka jk ix>glj, idkaK yd djl mudj w;r inkaO;dj
139
KB >KA k" A m<uqfjka m%laId,kh l< yels h'

wkdjrl m%;pdrh
s
ia;Nfhka m%laId,kh jk jdyl jdhq mudj
14'3'2 rEmh ( fjka jk ix>glj, idkaK yd

djl mudj w;r inkaO;dj
lvodis jKdf,aL Ys,amh

fuys fi,shqf,daia udOHhl ^matrix& isr jQ c, wKq wp, l,dmh f' jh
ip, l,dmh hs' ip, l,dmh tla jhla fyda j lsysmhl Y%Khla h yels
h'
lvodishla m%Odk jYfhka u iEoS we;af;a fi,shf,daia fl|sj,sk' fi,shf,daia
q
s
q
iEoS we;af;a yhsfrdlais,a ldKav rdYshla we;s .afldaia wKqj,sks' c, wKq
f ldKavj,g yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska nef|k w;r h<s lvodishlska nr
wkqj 10] muK c,h f' lvodis jKdf,aL Ys,amfha oS wp, l,dmh f,i
l%shd lrkafka f c,h hs'
fjka lsug we;s Y%Kh" lvodish osf.a p,kh jk f ip, l,dmfha jKh
f' p,kh is jkafka djlh yd lvodisfha >k fl|s w;r we;s n, fya;=
fldg f.k we;s jk flaYdlIKfhka fyda .=re;ajdlYk n,fhks'
fi,shqf,daia
djl fmruqK
.uka l< r
A
B
XA
XB
14'3'3 rEmh ( lvodis jKdf,aL Ys,amfha oS djlh yd djH lvodisfha

.uka l< r
140
RF(A) =
RF(B) =
A djHh .uka l< r ^XA&

djlh .uka l< r ^Y&
B djHh .uka l< r ^XB&
djlh .uka l< r ^Y&
KA>KB k KF(B)>KF(A) f'

KB>KA k KF(B)>KF(A) f'
KA= KB k fol u" iudk f.hlska .uka lrhs'
RF(A)= KF(B) fjf;d;a fjka lsu l< fkdyels h'
141
ksmqK;dj 14'0

Yaf,aIKh is lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'14
( ridhksl Yaf,aIKh i|yd ialkaO jKdj,S;sh Nd;

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
ialkaO jKdj,Sudkh iuia:dkslj,ska iEfok Ok f,i wdfrdams; ^tal Ok&
whk" tajdfha ialkaOh$wdfrdamKh ^m/e& wkqmd;h wkqj fjka lrk nj

wjfndaO lr .kshs'
O fYaI ixLHdjg YSI ^peaks& ixLHdj wkqrEm nj;a fYaIhl idfmalaI
iq,n;djg YSI Wi wkqrEm nj;a ykd .kshs'
ialkaO jKdj,Sudkhl jeo.;a fldgia yd tajdfha lD;H ykd .kshs'
ialkaO jKdj,S;sfhys fhoS ia;r lrhs'

ialkaO jKdj,Sudkfha uQ,Ouh meyeos,s lsug isiqkg bv i,ikak'
ialkaO jKdj,Sudkfha fldgia yd tajdfha lD;H ykd .ekSug isiqka
fhdojkak'
ialkaO jKdj,S o;a; Nd; lr idudkH mrudKql ialkaOh .Kkh lsug
isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'

ialkaO jKdj,S;sfhys uQ,Ou
jdIamSlrKh l<
ksheosh
whkSlrK l=rh
;ajrKh lrk oHq;a lafIa;%h
pqnl lafIa;%h
bf,lafg%dak oskh
nka je wxY=
igyqj
w;rueos ialkaOfhka hq;= wxY=

nka wvq wxY=
jOlh
whk wkdjrlh
rsla; fmdmhg
14'14'1 rEmh ( ialkaO jKdj,sudkh
142
ialkaO jKdj,Sudkh ksmojk ,oafoa weiagka isks'

fuys" uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl ksheoshla jdIamSlrKh lr tu wxY= by<
m%f.hlska p,s; jk bf,lafg%dakj,ska jIKh flf' fuys oS ksmfok

Ok wdfrdams; whk fyda LKav" oHq;a lafIa;%hlska ;ajrKh lr we;s pqnl
lafIa;%hla fj;g ;ajrKh flf'
;ajrKhg ,la lsrSu i|yd fhdod .kakd oHq;a lafIa;%h yd W;al%uKhg ,la
lsu i|yd fhdod .kq ,nk pqnl lafIa;%h ksh; j ;nd .;a g" WmlrKfha
fl<jr we;s whk wkdjrlh u; m;kh jkafka tla;rd m/e wkqmd;hla we;s
whk muKs' jvd Yd, m/e wkqmd;hla we;s whk W;al%uKh jkafka l=vd
fldaKhlsks' l=vd m/e wkqmd;hla we;s whk Yd, fldaKhlska W;al%u f'
whk wkdjrlh" jOlhla yryd igyqjg inkaO lr we;' igyqf jd;d
jk YSI ixLHdfjka mj;akd O whk ixLHdj oelaf' YSIj, Wi" O

whkj, idfmalaI iq,n;dj olajhs'
WmlrKfha wjYHfhka ;sh hq;= fldgia
whkSlrK l=rh (
ksheosh jdIamlrKh u; bf,lafg%dk jIKh ug ie,iSfuka Ok wdfrdam;

S
a
s
whk$LKav we;s f'
bf,lafg%dak oskh(
jIKh i|yd bf,lafg%dak lonh Wmojhs'
oHq;a lafIa;%h (
Ok whk lonh ;ajrKh lrhs'
pqnl lafIa;%h(
m/e wkqmd;hg wkqj whk W;al%uKh lrhs'
whk wkdjrlh (
tlu ialkaOfhka yd wdfrdamKfhka hq;a whk tlu m:fha .uka lrhs' tu
whk Odrdj" wkdjrlh iska wkdjrKh lr .efka'
jOlh (
wkdjrlh ;=< whkj,ska ksmfok Odrdj jOkh lrhs'
igyqj (
wkdjrlfha yd jOlfha o;a; m%ia;dl wdlD;shlg mj;kh lrhs'
ialkaO jKdj,Sudkhl m%fhdack (

uQ,jHhl(
1' iuia:dksl ixLHdj ykd .ekSu
2' tla tla iuia:dkslfha ialkaOh fidhd .ekSu
3' tla tla iuia:dkslfha idfmalaI iq,n;dj ksKh lsu
4' uQ,jHhl ksrjoH yd idudkH mrudKql ialkaOh ksKh lsu
143
52.3
YSI Wi
îdfmalaI
iq,n;dj&
23.6
22.6
1.5
204 206
207
208
kshqla,sfhdak
wxlh
2 rEmh ( Bhj, ialkaO jKdj,sh

Bhj, iuia:dksl ixLHdj y;rls'
Bhj, idudkH mrudKql ialkaOh = (1.5x204) + (23.6x207) + (22.6x207) + (52.3x208)
100
= 207.24
144
ksmqK;dj 15'0
( iuyr uQ , jH yd ixfhda . " ia j Ndjfha mj;s k wdldr"

ldlj ksiaidrKh$ksmou iy Nd; uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 15'1
( s f.dkqf uQ,jH yd ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"

ldl j ksiaidrKh$ksmou iy Nd; uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
ridhksl ludka;hl ia:dhSlrKh i|yd uQ,sl wjYH;d ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'

ludka;hl wuq jHhla f,i Nd;hg .; yels iajNdl im;l ,laIKh
ia;r lrhs'
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au ykd .kshs'
fidahj, ksiaidrKh ^vjqka fldaI l%uh& yd tys m%fhdack ia;r lrhs'
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, ldl m%fhdack ykd .kshs'
Kq" inka yd Na2CO3^fid,af l%ufhka& ksIamdokh ia;r lrhs'
le,aish ldnfka wuqjH f,i fhdod .kska ms<siaiQ yqkq" rxck l=vq yd
le,aish ldnhs ksmou ia;r lrhs'

ridhk jHhl oHd.dr ms<sfh, lsu yd ldl ksIamdokh w;r fjki
idlPd lrkak'
ridhksl ludka;hla id:l j wdrN lsug yd mj;ajd .ekSug imsh hq;=
wjYH;d idlPd lrkak'
ludka;hl wuqjHhla f,i fhdod .; yels iajdNdl im;l ,laIK
isysm;a lrkak'
wdj;s;d j.=f s f.dkqf uQ,jH u;lhg kxjkak'
s f.dkqf uQ,jH iajdNdl j mj;sk wdldr j.= .; lrkak'
fidah ksiidrK l%hdj,sfha mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou idrdxY
a
s
lrkak'
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, ldl m%fhdack idlPd lrkak'
idudkH Kq" inka" fidah ldnfka" ms<siaiQ yqkq" rxck l=vq yd le,aish
ldnhs ksIamdokfha mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou imsKavkh
lrkak'

ridhksl ludka;hl ia:dmkh i|yd imsh hq;= wjYH;d
m%d.aOkh
wuqjH iemhqu
Y%uh
wmjH l<ukdlrKh
;dlaIKh
n,Yla;sh ôHq;h" bkaOk wdos&
m%jdyk myiql
fj<|fmd<
145
ludka;hl wuqjHhla f,i Nd; l< yels iajdNdl im;l ,laIK

oS> ld,Sk j m%fhdackhg .; yels Yd, ix; f,i mej;Su
m%fY myiqj
by< ixY=oaO;dj
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au
by< m%;lhj ksid s f.dkqf uQ,jH ksoyia f,i fkdmj;sk w;r mj;skfka
s s%
a
ixfhda. f,i h'

kso ( wdlr Kq
uqyq c,h
,s fida,mSg
ldk,hs
fida,a mSg
is,aka
fnd/laia
fnrs,a
ue.akihs
lSirhs
fvd,uhs
yqkq.,a
ls.re~
fn,s lgq
mai
*afjdiamd
wemghs
NaCl
NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, CaSO4, CaCO3,MgSO4
NaNO 3
NaCl, MgCl2.6H2O
KNO 3
KCl
Na 2Br4O 7. 10H 2O
3BeO.Al2O3.6SiO2
MgCO3
MgSO 4.H 2O
CaCO3.MgCO3
CaCO 3
CaSO 4. 2H 2O
CaF 2
Ca5(PO4)3 x fyj;a 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2
(x = F, Cl, OH)
fidah ksiaidrKh ^vjqkaia fldaI l%uh&

fidah ksiaidrKh flfrkqfha ,Sk NaCl oHq;a fokh lsfuks'
CaCl2 tl;= lsfuka jdxlh 600 0C olajd wvq lr .; yels h'
lef;davfha oS ( Na+ + e Na
wefkdavfha oS( 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e
laf,daka jdhqj yd fidah f,dayh w;r m%;sl%shdj je<lSug wefkdavh yd
lef;davh jD;a;dldr jdfka oe,a m%drhlska fjka lr we;'

fldaIh ;=<ska wvq Nj wka;rhla hgf;a by< oHq;a Odrdjla hjkq ,ef'
146
laf,daka
j fidah
we;=<; jdfka wdia;rKhla
iys; .sks m%;sfrda .fvd`M
;a;h
s
jdfka lef;davh ^-&
jdfka oe,
ksrka wefkdavh ^+&
jdfka lef;davh ^-&

fidah yd le,aish
laf,darhsvj, ,Sk
Y%Kh
fidahj, m%fhdack
fidah jdIam ,dmq
j fidah kHIal m%;sl%shdldrlj, isis,kldrlhla f,i Nd; f'
>k fidah B; yd fnkaika jeks ldnksl djl h<Su i|yd m%fhdackj;a
S
f'
ldnksl ixYaf,aIK i|yd fhdod .efka'
m%n, Tlaisydrlhla jk fidavduhs ^NaNH2& ksIamdokh
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, ldl m%fhdack
ue.akSish Y% f,day
ue.akSish" nka wvq Y% f,day jk hq/ka Âl/Mg/Cu& yd ue.ak,shj,

Âl/Mg& ix>glhls' ue.akSishj, Y% f,day .=jka hdkd ludka;fha oS yd
;r. i|yd fhdod .kakd fudag r:" l%Svd NdKav" md meos" ldhd,Sh WmlrK"
bf,lafg%dksl mm: yd fjk;a f,day Ldokfhka wdrlaId lsug Nd; jk
lemfjk f,day wefkdav f,i m%fhdackhg .efka' ;j o kHIal Nd;j,
oS" iefK<s PdhdrEm .ekSj, oS yd laIKdf,dal ksmof oS ue.akSish
m%fhdackhg .efka'
ue.akSish Y% f,dayj, .=K iuyrla k(
ieye,a nj
wvq >k;ajh ^wekshj, >k;ajfhka 2$3 ls&'
by< WIaK;aj, oS mj;akd fyd| hdka;%sl .=K
YsIag Ldok m%;sfrdaOh
147
u,afj
u,afjj, O jK we;s lsu i|yd fj fnfy;a iu`. s f.dkqf

f,dayj, ,jK fhdod .efka' ta ta f,dayj,ska Wmojk jK my; oelaf'
,s;h
s
- l%sika r;=
fidah
- ly
fmdgEish
- ,s,ela
reh
- ;o r;=
iSish
- wyia ks,
le,aish
- .fvd`M r;=
iafg%dkah - l%sika r;=
fh
- wem,a fld<
s f.dkqf uQ,jHj, ldl m%fhdack
Kq ksIamdokh
Kq ksmojkq ,nk ia:dk Kq f,ajd hkqfjka ye|skaf' Y%S ,xldf m%Odk
Kq f,ajd ynkaf;dg yd mq;a;,f msysgd we;' Kq f,ajdhla msysgqug

iqiq m%foaYhl ;sh hq;= ,laIK k (
c,h ldka fkdjk ue iys; mi
h<s iq<`. yd je iQh ;dmh
wvq jIdm;kh
wuqjHh f,i fhdod .kq ,nkafka uqyq c,h hs'
uqy
q
c,h
ujq djKh
;=ka jeks
md;a;h
s
fo jeks
md;a;h
s
m<uq
md;a;h
s
CaCO3(s)
CaSO4(s)
NaCl(s)
f,ajdfha m<uq md;a;shg uqyq c,h fmdm flf' iQh ;dmh ksid uqyq c,h
jdIamSlrKh f' uqyq c,fha idkaKh je j;a u m<uq md;a;sfha oS CaCO3

wjlafIam jk w;r th ;ekam;a ug ykq ,ef'
b;s jk djKh f,ajdfha fo jeks md;a;hg hjkq ,nk w;r tys oS jdIamlrKh
s
S
;j rg;a is f' fuys oS djKfha idkaKh ;j;a je jk w;r CaSO4
wjlafIam f'
fo jeks md;a;sfhys b;s jk djK fldgi f; jeks md;a;shg udre flf'
jdIamlrKh ksid djKfha idkaKh ;j;a je jk w;r fuys oS Kq wjlafIam
S
u werf' wjlafIams; NaCl leg f,i fjka lr .kakd w;r tys Ca2+, Mg2+
yd SO42- wmjH f,i wvx.= f'
148
msis NaCl c,dlIl fkd f' tfy;a by; wdldrfhka ,nd .kakd Kq
wmjH ksid c,dlIl f' ;=kajk md;a;sfhka ,nd .kakd Kq msg; f.dv
.id ih uila muK ;sfnkakg ykq ,ef' fuu .nvd ls ld,h ;=<
le,aish yd ue.akSish ,jK jd;fhka c, jdIam Wrdf.k djK .; jk
w;r NaCl >khla f,i b;s f'
Kqj, m%fhdack
wdydr rij;a lr .ekSu
wdydr ixrlaIKh ^Wn,lv" wpdre&
fidah f,dayh" Na2CO3" NaHCO3yd NaOH ksIamdokh
fia,hska f,i
inka ksIamdokh
f;,a" foh fyda tajdfha fo w, yd wldnksl c, djH Niau ^NaOH,
KOH& wuqjH f'

ldl inka ksIamdokh mshjr yrlska hqla; h'
ieMkSlrKh - fuys oS Ydl f;,a" fmd,a f;,a fyda i;a;aj fo fidah
yhsfrdlaihs iu`. Y% lr ;dmhg Ndck flf' fuys m%;sM,h jkafka
oS> odu ldfndlais,sla w,j, ,jK jk inka h'
R C O CH2
O
R C O CH + 3NaOH
O
R C O CH2
R = C17H35 /C15H31 / C11H23
CH2-OH
3RCOO-Na+ + CH - OH
inka
CH2-OH
.a,sifrd,a
(w;=re M,h)
.a,sika bj;a lsu - .a,sika fyj;a .a,sifrda,a inkaj,g jvd jkd
jHhls' tfyhska thska je fldgi jkdlfuka je rEm ,djKHh

ksYamdok wdosh ksIamdokh i|yd fjka lr .efka' .a,sikaj,ska fldgila
inkaj, iqug nj yd uD nj mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd tys u ;sfnkakg ykq
,ef'
msis lsu - fuys oS inkaj, w;sla; fidah yhsfrdlaihs m%udKhla
fjf;d;a th isla w,h jeks n, w,hlska WodiSk lrk w;r b;s
j we;s c,fhka ;=fkka folla neyer lsfuka msis inka ,nd .efka'
ksudj - fuu wjika woshf oS jK" ixrlaIl yd iqj|ldrl tl;= lr
fj<| fmd<g heu i|yd leg fyda o~q njg m;a flf'
NaOH fjkqjg KOH Nd; l< yel' KOH fh inka iug ys;lr neka
uD inka ^<ore inka& ksmou i|yd m%Odk jYfhka KOH fhdod .kshs'
inkaj, we;s RCOO-Na+ m%;sY;h" uq`M fouh jH ^Total fatty matter& f,i
ye|skaf'
^TFM value&
149
fidah ldnfka ksIamdokh ^fid,af l%uh&

f i|yd wuqjH f,i n%hska djKh îdkaa NaCl
djKh&" yqkq.,a yd
wefudakshd ^ydn l%ufhka ksmojkq ,nk& fhdod .efka'
wefudakshd jdhqj n%hska jKfha jKh flf' f m%;sl%shdj ;dm odhl h'
tneka wvq WIaK;aj m%;sl%shdjg ys;lr h'
jKfha ldhlaIu;dj by< kexu msKi m%;mjdy uQ,Ouh Nd;hg .efka'
s
s %
NaCl(aq)
wgj
NH3(g)
wefudakshdj,ska ika;Dma; jQ n%hska djKh" yqkq.,a ;dm lsfuka ,nd .kakd
CO2 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrjkq ,ef' f m%;sl%shdj o ;dmodhl jk w;r wvq

WIaK;aj m,odj je lsug fya;= f'
fuys oS o l%shdj,sfha ldhlaIu;dj je lsug m%;sm%jdy uQ,Ouh fhdod
.efka'
NaCl(aq) + NH3(aq)
wgj
CO2(g)
wgj ;=< my; oelafjk m%;sj;H m%;sl%shd is f'
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) F NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

OH-(aq) + CO2(aq) F HCO3-(aq)
fo jeks m%;sl%shdfjka OH- whk bj;a flfrk fyhska m<uq m%;sl%shdj jv jvd
ol=Kg nr fjka OH- whk ksmojhs' tuksid HCO3- idkaKh by< hhs'
HCO3- idkaKh by< hk g NaHCO3 iaMlSlrKh f'
Na+(aq) + HCO3- (aq) NaHCO3(s)
>k NaHCO3 fjka u myiq lsu i|yd wvq WIaK;ajhla mj;ajd .kq ,ef'
NaHCO3 fjka lr f.k r;a lsfuka Na2CO3 ksmojd .efka' msg jk CO2
h<s m%;spl%ShlrKh flf'
2NaHCO3(s)
Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
150
NaHCO3 iEoSf Y=oaO m%;sl%shdj fufia h'
NaCl (aq) + NH3(aq) + CO2(aq) + H2O(l) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

NH4Cl yd CaO" wefudakshd mqkckkh i|yd fhdod .efka' f wefudakshd
h<s m%fhdackhg .efka'
CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
wjika iuia; m%;sl%shdj fufia h'
2NaCl + CaCO3 Na2CO3 + CaCl2
wdrNl
jH
wdrNl
jH
CaCO3(s)
w os h r 1
^fmda r Kq j &
le,aish
ldnfka lr
lsu
NaCl(aq)
CaO(s)
c,h
tl;=
lsu
w os h r 5
osh .eiQ yqkq iy
wefudaksh
laf,darhs Y%Kh
r;a lsu
Ca(OH)2(s)
osh .eiQ
yqkq
CO2(g)
NH4Cl(aq)
wos h r 3
wefudakslD; n%hska
djKh iu`.
ldnkavfhdlaihs
Y% lsu
NaHCO3(s)
woshr 4 (fmdarKqj)
fidah yhsrcka
ldnfka lr lsu
Na2CO3(s)
ksImdos;h
a
151
NH3(g)
wos h r 2
n%hska djKh
iy wefudakshd
Y% lsu
NaCl(aq)/NH3(aq)
fidah ldnfkaj, m%fhdack

fojq fidavd f,i Nd;h
lk c,h uD lsu
inka ksIamdokh
re ksIamdokh
laId,l ksIamdokh
lvodis ksIamdokh
NaHCO3 j, djH;djg jvd KHCO3 ys djH;dj je fyhska by; l%hdj,sfha
s
oS KHCO3 wjlafIam fkd f' tfyhska fid,af l%ufhka KHCO3 ksmojd

.; fkdyels h'
ms<siaiQ yqkq ksIamdokh ^CaO&
fuu l%shdj,sfha oS fmdarkqf by<ska bkaOk ôr& yd yqkq.,a we;=`M lrka
udrefjka udrejg ;gq f,i wiqrkq ,ef' fmdarkqj m;=f,ka .sks oe,au
flfrk w;r .skak l%ufhka by<g me;sf'
by< WIaK;ajh" CO2 fmdarkqj by<ska msg ug i,iajhs' le,aish Tlaihs
^ms<siaiQ yqkq& fmdarkqj ;=< b;s f' isis,a fuka miq fmdarkqf m;=f,ka
ms<siaiQ yqkq msg;g .efka'
f l%ufha wjdis
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
le,aish ldnfkaj, fhdack WIaK;ajh ^ 900 0C & idfmalaI jYfhka
by< h' idudkHfhka orj,ska f WIaK;ajh fkdiemfhk w;r CaCO3

uq`Mukska u fhdackh fkd f'
CO2 fmdarkqfjka imQKfhka msg fkdjk g" th CaO iu`. h<s
ixfhdackh CaCO3 idohs' ^m%;sl%shdj m%;sj;H ksid&
iEfok ms<siaiQ yqkq or w`M iu`. Y% j mj;S'
msg jk ;dmh ksid mdil IKh we;s f'
ksoyia jk CO2 j,ska jd;h IKh f'
ms<siaiQ yqkqj, m%fhdack

osh .eiQ yqkq yd ls yqkq ksIamdokh
le,aish ldnhs ksIamdokh
mfiys wd,sl;dj wvq lsu
rxck l=vq ksIamdokh
wefudakshd ksIamdokh
f.dvke`.s,s ludka;fha oS Nd;hg .ekSu
rxck l=vq ksmou
yqkq.,a ;dm lsfuka ms<siaiQ yqkq ^CaO& ksmojd .efka'
ms<siaiQ yqkqj,g c,h tl;= lsfuka osh .eiQ yqkq ^Ca(OH)2& ksmojd .efka'
N%uK fmdarkq ;=< meh 12 - 15 w;r ld,hla f;;a >k osh .eiQ yqkq ;=<ska
laf,darSka jdhqj hjkq ,nk w;r jka jr >kh flal lsfuka th jdhqjg
fyd|ska ksrdjrKh flf'
152
m%;sm%jdy uQ,Ouh Nd;fhka m%;sl%shdj ldhlaIu;dj je flf'
CaCO3(s) F
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)

3Ca(OH)2(s) + 2Cl2(g) Ca(OCl)2.Ca(OH)2.CaCl2.2H2O(s)
rxck l=vqj, m%fhdack
rxck ldrlhla f,i
Ic kdYlhla f,i ^fYaIfhka c,fha&
le,aish ldnhs ksIamdokh ^CaC2&
ms<siaiQ yqkq" fldala iu`. ,s W!Iaul ;=< 2000 0C l muK WIaK;ajhlg r;a
flf'
CaO(s) + 3C(s) CaC2(s) + CO(g)
2CaO(s) + 5C(s) 2CaC2(s) + CO2(g)
le,aish ldnhsj, m%fhdack
Tlaisweisg,Ska oe,a, ksmou
Ydlj, u,a yg.ekau W;af;ackh lsu
m<;=re boSu W;af;ackh
153
ksmqK;dj 15'0

ksmqK;d ugu 15'2
( 'p' f.dkqf uQ,jH iy ixfhda. ldl j ksiaidrKh$

ksmou iy Nd; uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
p f.dkqf uQ,jHj, yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, meje;au ykd .kshs'

weksh" laf,daka yd i,a* hk uQ,jHj, ksiaidrKh yd m%fhdack
ia;r lrhs'
khsrcka" Tlaiscka yd wd.ka jd;fhka fjka lr .ekSf l%u ia;r lrhs'
wefudakshd" hqhd" khsla w,h" fmdiafma fmdfydr yd i,a*shqla w,h
ksmou yd tys oS Nd; jk fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
we," ldnka vfhdla i hs " is , s f lda k a " yhs rcka fmfrdla i hs yd
yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,h hk tajdfha m%fhdack m%ldY lrhs'

wdj;s;d j.=f p f.dkqf uQ,jH isysm;a lrkak'
p f.dkqf uQ,jH iajdNdl j mj;sk wdldr ,ehsia;= .; lrkak'
weksh" laf,daka yd i,a* ksiaidrK l%shdj,sj, mshjr yd wod<
fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou imsKavkh lrkak'

weksh" laf,daka yd i,a* hk uQ,jHj, m%fhdack idlPd lrkak'
wefudakshd" hqhd" khsla w,h" fmdiafma fmdfydr yd i,a*shqla w,h
ksImdok l%hdj,sj, mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou le lr olajkak'
a
s
we," ldnka vfhdlaihs" is,fldak" yhsrcka fmfrdlaihs" yhsrlaf,dala
s
a
w,h hk jHj, yd by; i|yka ksIamdokj, m%fhdack idlPd lrkak'

weksh ksIamdokh ^fyda,a - fyfrda,a fldaI l%uh&
f l%uh weksh ,jKj, WNh.=KS iajNdjh Nd;hg .kshs'
weksh Tlaihsj, wY=oO iajrEmhla jk fndalihs - Al(OH)3(Al2O3.3H2O)
a
a
fidah yhsfrdlaihsj,ska msh lsfuka ixY=oaO weksh Tlaihs
wk;=re j ixY=oaO we,qksh Tlaihs ,Sk l%fhd,hsj, ^Na3AlF6& jKh
flf' fyda,a - fyfrd,a fldaIfha l%shd;aul WIaK;ajh" ixY=oaO weksh

Tlaihsj, jdxlh jk 2070 0C isg 800 - 1000 0C olajd wvq lsug l%fhd,hs
m%fhdackj;a f'
,Sk Y%Kh my; oelafjk wdldrfha fldaIhla ;=< oHq;a fokh flf'
154
wefkdav o~q
bj;a l< yels wdjrK
mjdlh
,Sk jh
wekd
j weksh
isi,-oSu
s a
ldnka wefkdavh
ldnka l=h
ldnka wdia;rKh
;dm mjdrlh
Odrd ix.%dyl oKav
jdfka wdjrKh
15'2'1 rEmh ( oHq;a fokfhka weksh ksiaidrKh i|yd ludka;j,

oS Nd; flfrk fyda,a-fyfrda,a ^Hall-Heroult& fldaIh
wefkdavhg wdlIKh jk Tlaihs whk tys oS Tlaiscka jdhqj njg
TlaislrKh f'
2O2-(l) O2(g) + 4e
lef;davhg wefok Okdfrdams; weksh whk tys oS f,dayuh weksh
njg TlaisyrKh f'
Al3+(l) + 3e Al(l)
,Sk weksh fldaI m;=f,ys /ia jk w;r th ksh; ld,dka;rj, oS
ihs*kj,ska ms;g .efka' fldaIh l%shd;aul jk WIaK;ajfha oS" ksoyia jk
Tlaiscka .%ekhs wefkdav yd m%;sl%shd lrka ldnka vfhdlaihs Wmojhs' f
ksid laIh jk wefkdav jka jr w;a lsug is f'
weksh Tlaihsj, oHq;a fokh wLKav l%shdj,shla jk w;r tys oS
w;s Yd, oHq;a Yla;shla jeh f' weksh lsf,da.a?uhla ksmof oS o<
jYfhka 15 kWh la jeh f'
wl;r oHq;a Yla;s wjYH;dj weksh msh;a msysgqug iqiq ia:dk iSud
lrhs' ,dN" tfuka u iq,n ,sh ^Wod( c, ,sh& f i|yd ys;lr h'
weksh ksmof wl msjeh i,lk g tys m%;spl%SlrKh fhda.H
ms<sfj;ls'
wekshj, m%fhdack
wvq >k;ajh ksid jdyk ;ekSug b;d iqiq f,dayhls' tfy;a ixY=oaO f,dayh
hdka;%sl jYfhka n, neka fjk;a f,day yd Y% lr hdka;%sl m%n,;dj je

lr .; hq;= f'
jdfkaj,ska n, .ekajQ weksh Y% f,day" fudag r:" nia r:" fjk;a jdyk
yd Wux h wdosfha n| fldgia iEoSug fhof'
weksh Y% f,day jk hq/ka Âl/Mg/Cu& yd ue.ake,sh Âl/Mg& ieye,a
h; Yla;su;a h' tfyhska .=jka hdkd ludka;fha oS Nd; f'
155
fyd| oHq;a ikakdhl;dj yd wvq >k;ajh ksid ,s flan, ksmoug fhdod
.efka' tfy;a Wka woskq ,nk flan, iEoSf oS weoSu yd leu je<lSug
jdfka yrhla fhdokq ,ef'
Ldokhg m%;frda neka f.dvke`.s,s fldgia yd y;d.dr rduq iEoSug .efka'
s
;kH;dj yd Tm oeuQ mDIaGfha by< wdf,dal mrdj;S .=Kh lrKfldg
fudag r:j, mykaj, mrdj;l f,i fhdokq ,ef'
uq`M;eka f.a WmlrK" wdydr nka yd t;= mg, ieoSug .kq ,ef'
i,a* ksIamdokh
*%dIa ^Frasch& l%uh

cmdkfha yd weuld tlai;a ckmofha fglaidia yd ,qishdkd hk m%foaYj,
ksoyia i,a* N+.; j mj;S'
i,aa* ksiaidrKfha oS taldlaI k< ;=kla N+fha .eUqrg .s,ajkq ,ef'
170 0C g r;a lrk ,o w;ma; c,h msg; k<h ;=<ska my<g fmdm flf'
fuys oS i,a* j f'
we;=<; k<fhka imSvH jd;h ueo k<h Tiafia my<g fmdm lrkq ,ef'
fug" j jQ i,a* ueo we;s j,hdldr wjldYh osf.a by< k`.S'
f l%ufhka ,efnk i,a*j, ixY=oaO;dj 99'5] muK f'
fmK iys; j
i,a*
WKqiq imS; jd;h
w;ma; c,h ^170 0C &

mi
ue
je,s
f.kao. ksh
f.kao. ksh
j i,a*
15'2'2 rEmh ( *%dIa l%ufhka f.kao. ksIamdokh
yhsrcka i,a*hs jdhqj TlaislrKfhka i,a* ksmou

f l%ufhka i,a* ksmoug wjYH H2S jdhqj imhd .efkkqfha fndr
f;f,ys yd N+ jdhqf wvx.= yhsrcka i,a*hs" 2 - yhsfrdlaist;s,aweuhska

ys ^HOCH2CH2NH2 & 'isr lr' .ekSfuks'
TlaislrK woshr follska is flf' m<uq woshf oS yhsrcka i,a*hs"
i,a* vfhdlaihs njg TlaislrKh flf'

fo jeks woshf oS i,a* vfhdlaihs ;jrg;a yhsrcka i,a*hs iu`.
Fe2O3 fyda Al2O3 jeks W;afm%arlhla yuqf oS m%;sl%shd ug ie,eiaf'
156
i,a*j, m%fhdack
uyd mudK jYfhka SO2 yd CS2 ksIamdokh
.sksl+re ludka;fha oS Nd; jk fmdiamria g%hsi,a*hs ksmou
mqmqrK jH yd fj fnfy;a ksIamdokh
rn j,alkhsia lsu
os,Sr kdYlhla yd j,a kdYlhla f,i fhdod .ekSu
laf,daka ksIamdokh
laf,darhsvj, TlaislrKh" laf,daka ksIamdokh lsf m%Odk l%uh f'
Cl- whk TlaislrKh lsug m%n, Tlaisldrlhla wjYH h'
jdKsc jYfhka is lsf yelshdj we;af;a oHq;a fok TlaislrKh hs'
jdKsc jYfhka laf,daka ksIamdokh flfrkqfha laf,dafrd-laIdr fldaI ;=<
^chlor-alkali& c,Sh fidah laf,darhs oHq;a fokh lsfuks'
mg,h
n%hska
we;= ` Mu
NaOH(aq)
;kq l
NaOH(aq)
md jQ
n%hska
h^+&
wefkda v h^ &
h^-&
lef;da v h^ &
15'2'3 rEmh ( laf,dafrd - laIdr fldaIh
wO m%;sl%shd jkafka(
2Cl-(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2e
^wefkdavfha oS&
2H2O(l) + 2e 2OH (aq) + H2(g) ^lef;davfha oS&
iuia; m%;sl%shdj k (
2NaCl(l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2(g)
wefkdah yd lef;dah l=r nyqwjhl legdhk yqjudre mg,hlska fjka
lr we;'
mg,hg legdhk yqjudre l< yels fyhska th Na+ whkj,g wefkdah
l=rfha isg lef;dah l=rh lrd hdug bv fohs'
oHq;a fokfha oS" wefkdavfha oS wdfrdamK bj;a u;a lef;davfha oS
wdfrdamK ,eu;a is jk neka legdhkj, ixl%uKh l=r fol ;=< oHq;a
WodiSk;dj mj;ajd .ekSug bjy,a f'
OH- whk yd Cl2 w;r m%;sl%shdj l%shdj,shg ndOdjls' tfy;a mg,h wekdhk
yqjudre fkdlrk neka OH- whkj, ixl%uKh hgm;a f'
-
157
laf,dakaj, m%fhdack
fl<ska u fyda ixfhda; wdldrfhka fyda frosms<s" ,S yd lvodis m,am wdosh
rxckh lsu
c,fha Ic keiSu
yhsrlaf,dala w,h ksIamdokh ^yhsrcka yd m%;sl%shd lrfuka&
iqkanqkaj,ska ka" ghsfksh yd ue.akSish hkdoS f,day Wlyd .ekSu
laf,dakSlD; rn" lD kdYl" jKl yd T!IO ksIamdokh
fmd,sks,a laf,darhs jeks nyqwjhjl ksIamdokh
jd;fhka khsrcka" Tlaiscka yd wd.ka fjka lr .ekSu

jd;h 10 atm muK f;la imSvkh lr" fmrd tys we;s OQ,s bj;a flf'
wk;=rej CO2 yd f;;ukh bj;a flf'
wjfYaI fldgi 200 atm olajd imSvkh flf'
ldur WIaK;ajhg isis,a lsfuka miq laIKsl j m%idrKh ug ie,eiafuka
;jrg;a isis,a f' isis,a jkafka m%idrKh f oS wka;wKql wdlIK n,

lef oS Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh jk fyhsks'
YS; lrk ,o jd;h m%;spl%ShlrKh flfrk w;r th m%idrKfha oS ;j rg;a
isis,a u is f'
fuys m%;sM,hla f,i" jd;h lrKh f'
j jd;h Nd.sl wdijkhg Ndck lrkq ,nk w;r -196 0C oS khsrcka
keug mgka .kS'
wd.ka yd Tlaiscka ms<sfj,ska -186 0C oS yd -183 0C oS kgka wdiQ; f,i fjka
fjhs'
wefudakshd ksIamdokh ^fyan l%uh&

khsrcka yd yhsrcka jdhq wuq jH f'
khsrcka jdhqj ,nd .kafka jd;fha Nd.sl wdijkfhks'
my; oelafjk l%u u`.ska kema;dj,ska fyda N+ jdhqfjka fyda yhsrcka ,nd
.efka'
C6H14(g) + H2O(g) 6CO(g) + 13H2(g)
^kema;dj,&
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 2H2(g)

^N+ jdhqf&
fyda Tlaiscka iu`. Nd.sl TlaislrKh (
C6H14(g) + 3O2(g) 6CO(g) + 7H2(g)
^kema;dj,&
2CH4(g) + O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2(g)
^N+ jdhqf&
khsrcka yd yhsrcka w;r m%;sl%shdfjka wefudakshd iys; iu;=,s; Y%Khla
we;s f'
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
H = -92 kJ mol-1
f,a peg,sh uQ,Ouhg wkqj je mSvkh yd wvq WIaK;ajh iu;=,s;;df oS
wefudakshd m%udKh je lsug fya;= f'

158
by< mSvk meyeos,sj u wefudakshd m,odj by< kexug Wmia:Nl jk
kuq;a wl mSvkj,g Tfrd;a;= fok WmlrKj, kv;a;= msjeh o wl h'

f ksid j;udkfha Nd; jkqfha 250 atm m%Yia; mSvkhls'
je wefudakshd weiajekakla ,eug WIaK;ajh wvq h hq;= h' tfy;a wvq
WIaK;aj, oS m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj o wvq neka th wdl jYfhka wjdisodhl h'
f ksid Nd;fha mj;skafka 450 0C l m%Yia; WIaK;ajh ls' m%;sl%shdj
;dmodhl neka isis,kh l< hq;=h'
fuys ,d W;afm%arlh o jeo.;a p,Hhls' W;afm%arlh f,i hlv ^ fyda Fe3O4&
o W;afm%rl jOl f,i l=vd m%udKj,ska fmdgEish Tlaihs fyda weksh
a
Tlaihs o Nd; f'
mSvkhla hgf;a jdhq isis,a lr j wefudakshd fjka lr .efka'
yhsrcka
msis lsu
^CO, CO2 wdos
jdhq bj;alsu&
khsrcka
imSvlh
;dm yqjudrej
m%;spl%SlrK
fmdmh
m%;sl%shd
fkdl<
W;a f m% a r l
mj;lh
wefudakhd
s
lkafvkairh
.nvd gexlshg
15'2'4 rEmh ( wefudakshd ksIamdok l%shdj,sh
wefudakshdj, m%fhdack
khsla w,h" fmdfydr yd khsf,dka ksIamdokh
fmfrda,sh ludka;fha oS fndr f;f,ys wd,sl ixrpl WodiSk lsug
Nd; f'
c,h yd wmc,h msh lsf oS pH hdulhka f,i" djK ;;a;ajfha oS
n, wekdhk yqjudre friSk mqkckkhg" laf,daka iu`. taldnoaO j
mdkS h c,h ks m oug yd fndhs f ,a r e c,h ms hf oS Tla i s c ka
neyereldrlhla f,i fhdod .efka'
i,a* wvx.= bkaOk oykfha oS msg jk i,a* Tlaihsv WodiSk lsu i|yd
msgdr jH md,l moaO;sj, Nd;hg .efka'
wdydr" mdk" fmfrd-ridhk jH yd YS; .nvd ludka; wdY%s; ldl
YS;lrK moaO;sj, YS;ldrlhla f,i Nd; f'
159
rn ludka;fha oS iajdNdl yd lD;%su rn lsj, wld, le .eiSu
j<ld th ia:dhSlrKh lsu i|yd fhdod .efka'

hqhd ksIamdokh
wefudakshd yd ldnka vfhdlaihs wuqjH f,i .efka'
hqhd ksIamdokh mshjr follska hq;a l%shdj,shls'
wefudakhd yd ldnka vfhdlaihs

s
(NH3 yd CO2)
1 mshjr
180-210 0C yd 150 atm hgf;a l%shd;aul jk
ixiaf,aIK m%;sl%shdlrlhg we;=`M lsu
wefudakh ldnf
s
(NH2COONH4)
2 mshjr
l%ufhka wvq jk mSvk hgf;a l%shd;aul jk
fhdacl .Kkdjla ;=<ska heu
hqhd djKh
CO(NH2)2 + H2O
jdIamSlrKfhka idkaKh
hqhd iaMl
I
NH3(g) + CO2(g)
II
NH2COONH4(s)
CO(NH2)2(aq) +H2O(l)
15'2'6 rEmh ( hqhd ksIamdokh

m<uq mshjf m%;sl%shdj f.j;a yd ;dmodhl jk w;r ludka;fha oS
Nd; jk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS wjYHfhka u imQK;ajh lrd hhs'

fo jeks mshjf m%;sl%shdj jvd fifuka is jk ;dmdjfYdaIl tlla jk
w;r imQK;ajh lrd fkd hhs' mj;kh 50 - 80] w;r mrdihl is

f'
je jk WIaK;ajh yd NH3/CO2 wkqmd;h iu`. mj;kh je jk w;r
je jk H2O/CO2 wkqmd;h iu`. th wvq f'
160
hqhdj, m%fhdack
by< khsrcka m%udKhla ^46]& wvx.= neka ckm%sh >k khsrckSh
fmdfydrls'
hqhd - f*daue,ayhs nyqwjhjlh ksmoug .efka'
khsla w,h ksIamdokh ^Tiaj,a l%uh&
wefudakshd" jd;h yd c,h wuqjH f,i Nd; f'
wefudakshd
900 0C jd;h yd Y% fldg NO ksmou i|yd 850 0C l muK
WIaK;ajhla hgf;a ma,ek_-frdah W;afm%arlh u;ska hef'
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Y%Kh isis,a flf'

2NO(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
c,h yd jemqr jd;h yd Y% flf'

4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
4HNO3(aq)
jd;fhka wefudakshd TlaislrKh khsla Tlaihs iEoSu ;dmodhl
m%;sl%shdjls' jdhq .e,Sf f.h iSreudre lsfuka WIaK;ajh 900 0C g ilid

tu w.fhys mj;ajd .efka'
l%shdj,sh is ug ie,fikqfha by< mSvkhla hgf;a h' f ksid msh;a
wjldYh ;=<g je m%;sl%shl m%udKhla we;=`M jk w;r W;afm%arl mDIaGfha

tall ld,hla ;=< is jk ix>gk ixLHdj je f' fuhska m%;sl%shd
YS>%;df u| jYfhka je f'
jemqr jd;h fhoSfuka wefudakshdj, imQK TlaislrKh ;yjqre flf'
wvq WIaK;ajh ;dmodhl iu;=,;;djla jk B<`. woshrg ys;lr neka Y%Kh
s
W;afm%arl mDIaGfhka bj;a jk g Bg isis,a jd;h tl;= flf'
jd;h yuqf oS NHO3 iEoSu i|yd khsrcka vfhdlaihs c,fha wjfYdaIKh
lsug fmr jdhq wl f,i isis,a lsu wjYH f'
96] l muK mj;khla i|yd fhda.H ;;a;aj jkafka
4 - 10 atm mSvkh
850 - 1225 0C l WIaK;ajh
10] frdah wka;.; ma,ek W;afm%arlh
161
khsla w,fha m%fhdack

fmdfydrla jk yd mqmqrK jH ksmoug wjYH jk wefudaksh khsf
ksIamdokh
ludka; i|yd wjYH jk khsfg ksmou
NaNO3 uia jeks wdydr mrlaIKh i|yd fhdod .efka'
KNO3 fmdfydr yd fj fnfy;a ksmoug m%fhdackj;a f'
AgNO3 PdhdrEm mg, yd lvodis iEoSug Wmfhda.S f'
fmdiafm fmdfydr ksmou
fmdiamria ish kg w;HjYH fmdaIlhls'
iqmfmdiafma Ydlj,g fhdokq ,nk jeo.;a fmdiamria fmdfydrls'
th
le,aish vhsyhsrcka fmdiafmaj, Ca(HCO3)2 yd ic, le,aish i,afma
fyj;a maij, (CaSO4. 2H2O) Y%Khls'
tmamdj, we;s wemghs [3Ca3(PO4)2. CaX2 fyj;a (Ca5(PO4)3X, X = F/Cl/
OH] fmdiafma fmdfydr ksIamdokhg Nd; l< yels fyd| wuqjHhls'
le,aish fmdiafm wdjH h' th fl ld,Sk fnda. i|yd fhoSf oS djH
;;a;ajhg m;a lrkqfha mQK yd Nd.sl w,amd,kfhks'
w,amd,kh i|yd i,a*shqla w,h" khsla w,h" yhsrlaf,dala w,h
fyda fmdiafmdla w,h Nd; l< yels h'
3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2(s) + 7H2SO4(aq) 3Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 7CaSO4(s)
+ 2HX(aq) ---(1)
3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2(s) + 14HCl(aq) 3Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 7CaCl2(s)
+ 2HX(aq) -----(2)
ishq j l=vq lrk ,o wemghs" w,h yd Y% lr i;s 4-6 w;r ld,hla
;sfnkakg ykq ,ef' fuys oS m%;sM,h jkafka isx.,a iqmfmdiafma ^SSP&

h'
^2& m%;sl%shdf M,j,g wefudaksh i,af*a tl;= lsfuka c,dlIl fkdjk
fmdfydrla ,nd .; yels h'
CaCl2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)
i,a*shqla w, ksIamdokh îamY l%uh&
i,a*" jd;h yd c,h fyda i,a* g%fhdlaihs" jd;h yd c,h wuqjH f,i
Nd; f' i,a*hsv f,damiaj,ska f, yd iskala jeks f,day ksiaidrKfha oS
i,a* vfhdlaihs ksmfoa'
162
i,a*
(1) jd;fha oykh
i,a* vfhdlaihs, SO2
S(g) + O2(g)
SO2(g)
(2) jemqr jd;h yd Y% lsu
(3) fjka fjka W;afm%arl ;gq y;rla yryd heu
(450 0C ys we;s jefkah^V& Tlaihs leg)
i,a* g%fhdlaihs, SO3
2SO2(g) + O2(g) F 2SO3(g)
(4) idka i,a*shqla w,fha jKh lsu
T,sh fyj;a mhsfrdi,a*shqla

(5) mfriaifuka
idka i,a*shqla w,h
w,h ^Wl= iOqu jh &
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)
2H2SO4(aq)
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)
H2S2O7(l) c,h iu`. Y%
lsu
i,a* vfhdlaihs yd Tlaicka w;r m%;lhdj m%;j;H h' i,a* g%fhdlaihs

s
s s%
s
wLKav j i,a* vfhdlaihs yd Tlaiscka njg f|hs' tu jdhqj,g h<s

m%;sl%shd ug ie,fik mos Y%Kh W;afm%arl ;gq lsysmhla yryd hjkq
,ef'
m,odj je lr .ekSu msKsi" wjidk W;afm%arl ;gq fol w;r oS i,a*
g%fhdlaihs bj;a flf'
i,a* g%fhdlaihs iEfok m%;sl%shdj ;dmodhl ksid;a tys oS jdhq wKq ;=kla
m%;sl%shd fuka jdhq wKq folla iEfok ksid;a iu;=,s;;df oS je m,odjla
,nd .; yelafla f,a pe,sh uQ,Ouhg wkqj î& je mSvkhla yd îi& wvq
WIaK;ajhla hgf;a h'
m%dfhda.sl j fhdod .kq ,nk m%Yia; WIaK;ajh 450 0C f' whym;a ugug
m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj wvq ulska f;drj Nd; l< yels wju WIaK;ajh fuh f'
by< WIaK;ajj, oS bkaOk msjeh wl u;a m%;sl%shd l=rj, Ldokh je
u;a fujeks WIaK;ajhla Nd; lsug n,mdk wfkla fya;= h'
450 0C WIaK;ajfha oS SO3 njg mj;kh jk m%udKh 97] WIaK;ajhls'
f by< m,odj jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh hgf;a oS o ,efnk neka by< mSvk
fhoSu wkjYH h'
;dmodhl m%;sl%shdf m%.ukh;a iu`. moaO;sfha WIaK;ajh je f' fu g
njg SO3 mj;kh jk m%;sY;h wvq f' f ksid W;afm%arl ia;r w;r oS
jdhq isis,a lsu wjYH f' fuh is lrkqfha isis,k c, k, u`.sks' fuys oS
iEfok yqud,h Yla;sh ksmoug Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
i,a* g%fhdlaihs jKh flfrkqfha c,fhys fkdj idka i,a*hla w,fhys
s q
h' w,h fl<ska u c,fha jKh l<fyd;a w, udrhla we;s u thg
163
fya;=j hs' fuh ldhlaIu f,i >kSNjkh fkdf' ;jo" fuh mir
IKhg o fya;=jls'
i,a*shqla w,fha m%fhdack
fmdiafma fmdfydr ksmou
ghsfkshÎV& Tlaihs" ,sf;dafmdaka wdoS idh jKl ksmou
wefudaksh i,af*a fmdfydr ksmou
ffhdka we;=`M lD;%su fl|s yd ma,diala ksIamdokh
HCl, HF wdoS w, ksmou
f,day ks meiqreu ^processing&
laId,l ^m%Odk jYfhka we,als,a yd we,a i,af*dfka& ksmou
fmfrda,sh msyj ^refining& - m%Odk jYfhka we,alSk ksiaidrKh
idh" mqmqrk jH yd T!IO ksIamdokh
we,j, ^weksh i,af*a& m%fhdack
.sks jdrKh lsf oS ^fixe proofing& yd c, jdrKfha oS ^water proofing &
Nd; lsu
c,h msis lsu
m%;siafolhla ântiperspirant& f,i Nd; lsu
ldnka vfhdlaihsj, m%fhdack
Ydl iska m%Ndixiaf,aIKh i|yd fhdod .ekSu
u j. iEoSu-mSvkh hgf;a CO2 jKh lsu fuu ludka;fha moku
f'
.sks ksu- ldnka vfhdlaihs I rys;" jd;hg jvd >k;ajfhka hq;a oyk
wfmdaIlhla neka f i|yd fhda.H f'
is,sfldak yd tajdfha m%fhdack

Tlaiscka wvx.= is,slka ixfhda. is,sfldak k f' tajd" oduj, udrefjka
udrejg Tlaiscka yd is,slka mrudKq wvx.= jkakd jQ lD;%su nyqwjhl f'

fu;s,a ldKav ^- CH3 & jeks yhsfrdldnk ldKav tla tla is,lka mrudKqf
s
b;s nkaOk ia:dk folg inkaO we;' is,sfldakj, jHqyh my;
oelafjk mos f'
R
O
Si
R
O
Si
Si
R
'R' hkq yhsfrdldnka ldKav jk w;r n j,ska jryka ;=< oelafjk mqkrdj;S
tall wksYa; ixLHdjla oelaf'

is,sfldak ridhksl jYfhka wl%sh" c, lIl" ;dm m%;sfrda" fyd| oHq;a
mjdrl jH f' f .=K ksid tajd wdrlaIl wdjrK" iafkayl" mjdrl"

uqd ;eug .kakd jH yd wdila; jH âdhesives& f,i m%fhdackj;a f'
ldhsl jYfhka o is,sfldak wl%sh f' tfyhska th rEm,djkH ie;alj, oS
164
Yrh ;=< r|jd ;efnk jHhla f,i Nd; f' is,sfldakj, fN!;sl .=K
mq`M,a WIaK;aj mrdihla ;=< fjkia fkdjk neka wNHjldY hdkd wdosfha
oS m%fhdackhg .; yels h'
yhsrcka fmfrdlaihsj, m%fhdack
frosm<" ,S m,am" ksia ysiflia wdosh rxckh lsug Nd; flf' rxck
s s
.=Kh Tlaisldrl .=Kh u; /|S mj;S' rxckfha w;=re M,h c,h muKla
u ys;lr ,laIKhla f'
m%;smQ;slhla ântiseptic agent& f,i Nd; f'
yhsrlaf,dala w,fha m%fhdack
idh yd jKl ksIamdokh
laf,daka ksIamdokh
.e,ajkhsia lsu" idh wdf,am lsu wdosfhys oS hlv ;yvq msis lsu
rdc w,h ms<sfh, lsu
oHd.dr m%;sldrlhla f,i Nd;h
165
ksmqK;dj 15'0

ksmqK;d ugu 15'3
( d f.dkqf uQ,jH iy ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"

ldl j ksiaidrKh$ksmou iy Nd; uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
d- f.dkqfjys ^ 3 d fY%aKsh muKs & uQ,jH mj;sk wdldrh m%ldY lrhs'

Odrd W!Iaul l%ufhka hlv ksiaidrKh lsu ia;r lrhs'
Odrd W!Iaulfha is jk m%;sl%shd i|yd ilrK ,shhs'
Odrd W!Iaul l%ufhka hlv ksiaidrKh lsu rEmSh f,i fmkajhs'
;U f,dayh" tys f,damiska ksiaidrKh lsu ia;r lrhs'
;U f,dayh ksiaidrKfha oS is jk m%;sl%shd i|yd ilrK ,shhs'
W;afm%arl f,i d-f.dkqf uQ,jHj, yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, m%fhdack ykd
.ksh'
s
Y% f,day ksmof oS d- f.dkqf uQ,jHj, Nd; ia;r lrhs'
ffjoH lafIa;%fha oS 60 Co iuia:dkslfha m%fhdack m%ldY lrhs'

d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, meje;au idlPd lrkak'
Nd; fN!;ridhksl uQ,Ou wjOdrKh lruka hlv yd ;U ksiaidrKfha
mshjr idlPd lrkak'

Y%f,day ksIamdokfha oS yd W;afm%arl f,i fhdod .ekSf oS d- f.dkqf
uQ,jHj, m%fhdack idlPd lrkak'
ffjoH lafIa;%fha 60 Co Nd; jk wjia:d i|yd ksoiqka bosm;a lrkak'

d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, meje;au
mD lnf,ys Fe, Ti yd Mn hk wka;l uQ,jH ;=k fndfyda iq,n h'
idudkHfhka Mn yereKq g" brf mrudKql l%udxlfhka hq;a 3d fY%aKsfha

f,day" T;af;a mrudKql l%udxlfhka hq;a wi,ajeis f,dayj,g jvd iq,n;dfjka
je h' ^ydlska kS;sh& d- f.dkqf 4d yd 5d fma<sj, f,day" 3d fY%aKsfha
f,dayj,g jvd ,N h' d- f.dkqf uQ,jHj, f,damia m%Odk jYfhka
Tlaihsv" i,a*hsv yd ldnfkag f'
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
f;daghs
b,aukhs
rEghs,a
jekf
lafrdauhs
mhsfrdihs
ySughs
ue.akghs
Sc2[Si2O7]
FeTiO3
TiO2
PbCl2.3Pb3(VO)2
FeCr2O4
MnO2
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
166
whka mhsrhsia
isvrhs
fldn,aghs
fmka,ekavhs
le,afldmhsrhs
wdckaghs
f,da ms~q
Co
Ni
Cu
Ag
Au
FeS2
FeCO3
CoAsS
(Fe, Ni)9S8
CuFeS2
Ag2S
hlv ksiaidrKh Ôdrd W!Iaul l%uh&

hlv f,dami" fldala ^Tlaisydrlh& yd yqkq.,a ^f,da fndr iE jHh& wuqjH
f' fhdokq ,nk CaCO3 m%udKh" f,damfiys we;s is,slduh jH m%udKh
u; /f|a'
jh we;=<g
^f,dami" fldala
yd yqk.,a&
q
jdhq msgu
hmiA" fldala iy yqKq.,a
.sks .fvd`M
wdia;rKh
jhr
WKq jd; Odrdj
j jQ f,da fndr
j hlv
^msg;g&
WKq jd; Odrdj

f,da fndr ^msg;g&
j hlv
W!Iaulfha m;=f,ka WKqiq jd;h we;=`M flf' fldala oykfhka ;dmh yd
CO ckkh f'
jd;h we;=`M jk ia:dkfha WIaK;ajh 1500 0C muK o uqfkys WIaK;ajh
2000C o muK o f'

whka(III) Tlaihs" m%Odk jYfhka ldnka fudfkdlaihsj,ska o ;rula rg
ldnkaj,ska o TlaisyrKhf'
; ldnka 3-4] wvx.= j hlvj,ska ;kd .efkk hlv wuq hlv f'
ixY=oaO hlvj, jdxlh 1535 0C f' tfy;a wmjH wvx.= u fya;=fjka wuq
hlvj, jdxlh 1015 0C f'
167
CaCO3 fhdackfhka CaO yd CO2 jdhqj we;s f' CaO is,sflag wmjH
yd m%;sl%shd f,da fndr ^CaSiO3& idohs' j ;;a;ajfha we;s f,da fndr" W!Iaul
m;=f,ys we;s j hlv u; md f' f,da fndr" W!Iaulh m;af,ka we;=`M
flfrk jd;fhka hlv TlaislrKh u j<lhs'
wuq hlvj, 3 - 4] ldnka o we;e g Si, P, S iy Mn jeks wmjH o wvx.=
h'
400 0C oS
3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) 2Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g)
2Fe3O4(s) + 2CO(g) 6FeO(s) + 2CO2(g)
500-600 0C oS
2CO(g) C(s) + CO2(g)
800 0C oS
FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(l) + CO2(g)
900 0C oS
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
1000 0C oS
FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(l) + CO2(g)
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
1800 0C oS
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3
f,da fndr
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) Ca(AlO2)2
fldm ksiaidrKh
;U f,dayh ms`vq ^f,da len,s& f,i mDfha mej; we;s kuq;a f jk g tu
m%Njh m%fhdackhg f.k wjika we;'

;Uj, iq,n;u f,dami jkafka fldm mhsrhs ^CuFeS2& h' Y%S ,xldf
fiare," CuFeS2 yuqf'
fldm ksIamdokhg fhdod .kakd wuqjH jkafka fldm mhsrhsia yd jd;h
hs'
fldm mhsrhsia jd;fha lr flf'
2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g)
wk;=re j ,efnk M,h" ixjD; W!Iaulhla ;=< is,sld iu`. r;a flf'
whkaÎI& Tlaihsj,ska je;r m%udKhla is,sld iu`. m%;sl%shd j f,da fndr
idohs' j fldmÎ& i,a*hs u; md fj; fuh k< yryd neyer l< yels h'
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(l)
whkaÎI& is,sfla ^f,da fndr&
wY=oaO fldmÎ& i,a*hs wk;=re j jd;fha r;a flf' fuys oS bka fldgila
fldmÎ& Tlaihs idoka m%;sl%shd f'
2Cu2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
miq j" fldmÎ& Tlaihs" m%;lhd fkdjQ fldmÎ& i,a*hs yd Y% lr jd;fhka

s s%
f;dr j ;oska r;a lrkq ,ef' fuys oS fldm yd i,a* vfhdlaihs we;s f'
Cu2S(s) + 2Cu2O(s) 6Cu(s) + SO2(g)
^,s ;U" wmjH 2 - 3]&
168
,s ;Uj,ska ixY=oaO ;U ,nd .efkkqfha fldmÎI& i,af*a djKhl
oHq;a fokh u`.sks' ;=kS ;U ;yvqjla lef;davh f,i o wY=oaO ,s ;U

wefkdavh f,i o fhdod .efka' fuys oS wefkdavfha ;U jKh jk w;r
ixY=oaO ;U lef;davh u; ks.; f'
d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, m%fhdack
W;afm%arl f,i
d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, ysia d ldlaIsl we;' tfyhska tajd mDIaGhg jdhq wKq
wfYdaIKh lr .kska tajd iu`. il%sh ixlSK we;s lrhs' f wfYdaIK
l%hdj kj ridhksl nkaOk fkd;efkk fN!;sldfYdaIKhla ^physisorption&
s
h yels h; ke;fyd;a f,day mDIaGh yd wjfYdaIs;h w;r nkaOk ;efkk
ridfYdaIKhla ^chemisorption& h yels h'
ksl,a f,day mDIaGhla u;

â& fN!;sldfYdaIKh yd
^b& ridfYdaIKh oelafjk
rEmigyk
kso ( t;Skaj, yhsrckSlrKh

CH2 = CH2(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
f,day mDIaGhla u; oS hqh u`.ska

t;Ska yhsrckSlrKh oelafjk
rEmigykla
169
Y%f,day ksmou
idudkHfhka Y% f,day ksmojkqfha f,day j lsfuka jqj o fuh yeu g u

is l< fkdyels h' b;d by< jdxlj,ska hq;a fud,s k ^jdxlh
26200 C& yd gxiagka ^jdxlh 3400 0C & jeks f,dayj,ska Y% f,day ;ekSf oS
pQK f,day luh k jQ Ys,amSh l%uh Nd; f' fuys oS ishq l=vla njg m;a
lrk ,o f,day 750 N m-2 muK mSvkhla fhdod W; yevj,g imSvkh lr
;dmhg Ndck flf' f yereKq g mfriaifuka md,kh lrk ,o Odrd
>k;ajhla" oHq;a fok ixhq;shla yd WIaK;ajhla hgf;a oHq;djidokh
êlectro-deposition& u`.ska o Y%f,day ksmojd .; yels h' ms;a;," iqiq ;;a;aj
hgf;a fufia ksmojd .; yels Y% f,dayhls'
ffjoH lafIa;%fha 60Co m%fhdack
ffjoH WmlrK cSjdkqyrKh lsrSu
lsrK ls;aidf oS lsrK m%Njhla f,i fhdod .ekSu
wdydr yd rerh m%lsrKhg Ndck lsf oS lsrK m%Njhla f,i Nd;
lsu
oHd.dr lsrKYS,S m%Njhla f,i Nd; lsu
170
ksmqK;dj 15'0

ksmqK;d ugu 15'4
( nyqwjhjl jH tosfkod ;fha oS M,odhSj Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
nyqwjhjl ykajhs'
nyqwjhjl iajdNdl yd lD;%Su jYfhka j. lrhs'
ixiaf,aIKh l%uh wkqj nyqwjhjl j. lrhs'
O nyqwjhjlj, jHqy" .=K iy Nd; ia;r lrhs'
O rn Y%K ilia lsu yd jkdl tl;= lsu ms<sn| j meyeos,s lrhs'
iajNdl rn j,alkhsia lsu ms<sn|j ia;r lrhs'
nyqwjhjl ydhkh hkak meyeos,s lr ta isjk wdldr k lrhs'
nyqwjhjl jH Nd;h wdY%s; .eg`M i|yd i 3R ixl,amh weiqfrka
bosm;a lrhs'
mDIaG wdf,amk jH f,i nyqwjhjlj, Nd; k lrhs'
ixhqla; jHj, jHqyh ms<sn| uQ,sl .%yhl fhfohs'
ikakdhl nyqwjhjl yd tajdfha Nd; ia;r lrhs'

nyqwjhjl jH ms<sn| j isiqkaf.a fmr oekqu uikak'
nyqwjhjl iajdNdl$lD;%Su yd wdl,k$ix.Kkh f,i j. lrkak'
iq,N j Nd; jk nyqwjhjlj, talwjhjlh" wkqNl iQ;%h .=K yd Nd;
ms<sn| j idlPd lrkak'

rn Y%K ilia lsu yd jkdl tl;= lsu ms<sn|j ia;r lrkak'
rn j,alkhsia lsu yd bka wfmalaIs; oE ykajd fokak'
nyqwjhjl ydhkh ms<sn|j ia;r lr ta ms<sn|j isiqkaf.a w;aoelS idlPd
lrkak'
nyqwjhjl Nd;h inkaOj mek ke`.S we;s .eg`M i|yd i 3R ixl,amh
weiqfrka fhdackd lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak'
mDIaG wdf,amk f,i nyqwjhjl Nd; i|yd ksoiqka bosm;a lrkak'
ixhqla; jHj, jHqyh yd Nd; ykajd fokak'
ikakdhl nyqwjhjl yd tajdfha Nd; ia;r lrkak'

ir, wKq" Yd, ixLHdjla tlsfkl iu`. inkaO fjka idok Yd, wKq
j.hla f,i nyqwjhjl ye|skah yels h'

Wod ( n(C2H4) nyqwjhjh
fjd iajdNdl nyqwjhjl iy lD;S%u nyqwjhjl f,i j. l< yels h'
iajdNdl nyqwjhjl ^natural polymers) - iajdNdlj u moaO;s ;=< ksmof'
Wod ( iajdNdl rn" fm%dak" tkaihsu
lD;%u nyqwjhjl ^synthetic polymers& - ksid iska lD;%u j ixiaf,aYKh
s
S
lrkq ,ef'
171
Wod (
fmd,s;Ska fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhs"fmd,stiagr" fg*af,daka"

fla,hs" khsf,daka" hQhdf*daue,ayhs
nyqwjhjl ixiaf,aYkh lrkq ,nk l%uh wkqj o j. follg fnosh yelsh'
wdl,k nyqwjhjl âddition polymers &
ix>kk nyqwjhjl ^condensation polymers &
wdl,k nyqwjhjl
fjd iEfokqfha wika;Dma; talwjhj u`.ska jk w;r" tjeks fhdaO wKqjl

wdkqNl iQ;%h" talwjhjfha ^monomer& iQ;%hg iudk h'
fmd,s;Ska
H
H
C=C
n
H
C C C C C C
CC
t;Ska ^talwjhjlh&
tksid fmd,s;Ska ys idudkH jHqyh ^wkqNdl iQ;%h& m%ldY lrkqfha
[CH2
CH2]n f,i h'

fmd,s;Skaj, >k;ajh wkqj tajd fohdldr f'
i my< >kk;aj fmd,s;Ska (Low Density Polythene - LDPE)
ii' by< >k;aj fmd,s;ka (High Density Polythene - HDPE)
S
by; wdldr fol ksmoSu i|yd tlsfklg fjkia l%u fhdod .efka' my<
>k;aj fmd,s;Ska 200 0C muK WIaK;ajhla yd 1000 atm g je mSvkfha oS

t;s,Ska nyqwjhlrKfhka ksmojkq ,f' by< >k;aj fmd,s;Ska ksmojkq
,nkafka 100 0C wvq WIaK;ajfha oS yd 100 atm g wvq mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS
W;afm%arl yuqf t;s,Ska nyqwjhlrKfhks'
fmd,s;Ska rihlska yd .kaOhlska f;dr" ieye,a" I rys;" idfmalaI j f,ka
wvq nyqwjhjl jHhls' weiqre mg," is,su^trash bags&" wdik wdjrK"
fnda;,a" O nka j." fi,a, nvq wdosh ksmoug fhfoa'
fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhs ^PVC&
H
H
C=C
n
H
Cl
by< WIaK;ajh
by< mSvk
C C C C C C
Cl
Cl
jhskhs,a laf,darhs ^talwjhjlh&
C C
172
Cl
Cl
nyqwjhjl jHfha mj;sk laf,daka fya;=fjka PVC .sks .ekSj,g ,lau
b;d wvq h' tfuka u odu w;r wdlYk n, fmd,s;Skaj,g idfmalaI j jvd;a
Yla;su;a u fya;=fjka by< oe njlska hqla; h' ia:dhsldrl" msrjq jH
wdosh fhoSfuka th m%fhdackj;a wkaoka ilia lr .; yels u PVC j,
fYaIs; .=Khls' c,k," ,s /yeka wdjrK" ;=kS mg," wdik wdjrK"
we;=re wdosh ksmoug Nd; f'
fmd,sjhskhs,a wel%sf,a ^PVA&
wel%s,sla w,h hkq 2-Propenoic acid i|yd fhfok jHjydl kduh hs'
H
H
C=C
H
wel%s,sla w,fha jHq;amkak wel%s,sla nyqwjhjl ksmof oS Nd; f'

ksoiqka (
H
H
C=C
H
CH 3
fu;s,a wel%f,a ^Methyl acrylate&

s
CH 3
H
C=C
H
CH 3
fu;s,a fu;el%f,a ^ Methyl methacrylate&

s
CO 2CH 3
O
C
n CH2 = CH
CH2
CH
n
OCH 3
Polymethyl acrylate
=
O
C
n CH2 = C
CH 3
CO 2CH 3
CH2
C
n
CH 3
CH 3
Polymethyl methacrylate
173
jvd;a m%fhdackj;a wel%s,sla nyqwjhjlhla jk fuh ieye,a" m,s`.= jeks
meyeos,s" mdroDYH >k jHhls' .=jka hdkd ljq" jdykj, miq ,dmq wdjrK"
,s ,dmq wdjrK" wlaIs isldp wdosh ksmoug fhfoa'
wel%s,sla w,fha iy tys fidah ,jKfha Y%Khla nyqwjhlrKfhka
ksmojkq ,nk fidah fmd,swel%sf,a fYaIs; nyqwjhjlhls' fuys jHqyh

my; mos f'
CO 2- Na+
CO 2H
(CH2
CH)x (CH2
CH)y
n
fuu nyqwjhjlhg tys mudj fuka 800 .=Khla wdiq; c,h o 300 .=Khla
muK k< c,h o wjfYdaIKh lr r|jd ;nd .; yels h' fuu .=Kh ksid
ikSmdrlaIl ;=jd" kems wdosh ksmoug fhfoa'
fmd,siaghska
C=C
H
by< WIaK;ajh
by< mSvk
H
C
iaghska ^talwjhjlh&
H
C C
Polystyrene
H
n
kso fmfkk re jeks jHhls' fYaIfhka fmk wdldrhlg ilia lr
>kSNjhkh lsfuka ^f*da& mjdrl jH iy weiqre jH ksmojkq ,ef'
fg*af,daka
F
C=C
n
F
by< WIaK;ajh
C C C C C C C C
by< mSvk
F
F
fgfrd*af,dfrd tf;aka ^talwjhjlh&

174
fuh" we;=<; wdf,am lsfuka c,fhka f;;a fkdjk" fkd wef,k iq`M msisk
nka ilia l< yels h' wl WIaK;ajhlg Tfrd;a;= fok neka .sks wdrlaIl
we i|yd o fhfoa' ridhksl l%shdldrS;ajh b;d wvq neka Ldol ridhk
jH ish,a,g u mdfya Tfrd;a;= foa' t neka ridhksl ludka; i|yd
fhfok WmlrKj, lmdg" uqd ^seals&" .Eial wdosh ieoSf oS Wmfhda.S lr
.efka'
fmd,swhsfidm%ska îajdNdl rn&
H
H2C = C
C = CH2
C C
CH 3
C C C C
cis-isoprene ^tal wjhjlh&
C C
CH 3
CH 3
C C
CH 3
C C
H
ffjoH lafIa;fha Nd; jk w;ajeiq" neka" gh" hq" fug wdosh ksmoug
%
Nd; f'
iajdNdl rnj, weoSf .=Khg fya;=j" cis fmd,swhsfidm%ska odu ;su hs'
kuq;aldlj rnj, weoSf .=Kh wjYH mos fjkia lsug;a" rn Yla;su;a

lsug"th nr wkqj 1] - 3] la w;r i,a* m%udKhla fhdod r;a lrkq ,ef'
th rn j,alkhsia lsu f,i ykajhs' tg fmd,swhsfidm%ska odu w;r S
u`.ska yria nkaOk idok ksid tajdfha weoSf .=Kh wvqjk w;r" weoSfuka
miqj uq,a msysgqug hEf yelshdj o je f' nr wkqj 25] - 35] w;r S fhdod
rn r;a l< g tnkhs ,ef'
175
lD;%Su rn ^SR&
n H2C = C
H
C = CH2
C C
C C
C C
C C
1" 3 hqgka ^talwjhjlh&
C C
C C
Polybutadiene
ix>kk nyqwjhl
taldjhl tlsfkl nkaOkh f oS l=vd wKqjla ^ H2O, HCl jeks& bj;a
iEfok nyqwjhjl ix>kk nyqwjhjl f,i ye|skaf'
fmd,stauhsv
CONH- LKavfhka wEkq mqkrdj:k tall iys; nyqwjhjl fmdf
tauhsv f,i ye|skaf' khsf,daka fmd,stauhsvhls' ka jvd;a iq,Nj Nd;
jk nyq wjhjhla jk khsf,daka 6" 6 my; wdldrhg ksmof'
khsf,daka 6'6
1"6 diaminohexane iy hexanedioic acid ix>kk nyqwjhlrKfhka ksmojkq
,ef'
O
(CH 2) 4
=
HO
n H2 N
O
(CH2)6 N H2 + n C
HO
N
H
(CH 2) 6
O
(CH 2) 4
C
n
Nylon 6.6
by; vhsldfndlais,sla w,h fjkqjg tys w, laf,darhsvh Nd; l< g
nyqwjhlrK l%shdj,sh jvd;a ldhlaIu f'
176
jHqyuh jYfhka iajdNdl fiao" f,dau wdoshg iudk ,laIK fmkakq lrk
lD;%Su fl|s ksIamdokhg fhfoa' kuq;a by< Yla;su;a Ndjh;a iajdNdl

fl|sfuka c,h wdlIKh fkd lrk nekq;a r`M Nd;hg W; fros j.
ksmoug fhfoa' t fia u fiao fuka isks ieye,a frosms<s j. ksmou
i|yd o fhfoa' tmuKla fkdj l,d," gh kQ,a" jdykj, hka;% fldgia
iEoSug ^ gear wheels, bearings& fhfoa' ud oe,a wdosh i|yd Nd; jk Yla;u;a
s
kQ,a" c,fhka f;;a fkdjk l+vdr fros wdosh ksmou i|yd o khsf,daka
fl|s fhdod .efka' khsf,dakaj, Yla;su;a nj yd m%;Hia:;dj lrKfldg th
isrerg ;o jk we yd fia wdosh ksmoug b;d iqiq jHhla f'
O
fmd,stiagr
ldKavfhka wEKq mqkrdj;k tall iys;

nyqwjhjl fmdf tiagr f,i ye|skaf'
fgrs,Ska
Ethane-l, 2-diol (ethylene glycol) iy Benzene-1, 4- dicarboxylic acid (Terephthalic
acid) w;r ix>kk nyqwjhjlrKfhka fgr,Ska ksmof'
lmq iy f,dau jeks iajdNdsl fl|s i|yd wdfoaYlhla f,i Nd; jk fl|s
ksmoug fhfoa' Yla;u;a Ndjfhka by< fuu fl|s *hsn .a,dia ksYmdokfha
s
a
oS frisk jYfhka Nd; f' frosms<s ksmoug o fuu fl|s nyq,j Nd; f'
PdhdrEm mg, iy pqnl y~mg ksmof oS o fhfoa'
ikakdhl nyqwjhjl
oHq;h ikakhkh l< yels ldnksl nyqwjhjl ikakdhl nyqwjhjl f,i
ye|skaf'
f,day oHq;a ikakdhl jH f,i;a" nyqwjhjl jH mjdrl f,i;a fmdf
i,lkq ,enqj o ikakdhl nyqwjhjl by; .=Kj, ixl,khla fmkakq
lrhs'
t neka nyqwjhjl jH i;= kuHYS,S nj" ;kH nj" m%;Hia; nj wdoS .=K o
177
iu`. f,day i;= by< oHq;a ikakdhl .=Kh o ixl,kh jQ jHhla jk

ikakdhl nyqwjhjl fndfyda ldhj, oS m%fhdackhg .; yels h'
fmd,s;ka jeks fndfyda idm%odhsl nyqwjhjlj, oS odufha msy ldnka mrudKq
S
s
sp3 uqyqlrKhg ,la j is.aud - nkaOk idod we;s neka tajd i;=j ip,k
bf,lafg%daka fkdue;' kuq;a sp2 uqyqlrKfha mj;sk ldnka mrudKq iys;
ixhq.aul oa;aj nkaOkj,ska iEos odu iys; nyqwjhjl ixfhda. i;=j ip,k
bf,lafg%dak mj;S' tajd k ia:dk.; ;;a;ajfha mj;skqfha pz ldlaIsl i;=
bf,lafg%dakhs'
fuf,i ia : dk.; jQ bf,la f g% d a k wO jYfhka bj;a ls fuka
^TlaislrKfhka& fyda bf,lafg%dak tl;= lsu ^TlaisyrKfhka& fyda ud;%kh
^dope& lrkq ,ef' tg wia:dk .;jQ bf,lafg%dakj, ip,k yelshdj by<
hdfuka nyqwjhjl jHhg jvd;a by< ikakdhl;djla ,ef'
ikakdhl nyqwjhl ilia lr .ekSug W; nyqwjhl ixfhda. ldKav
lsysmhla my; oelaf'
ikakdhl nyqwjhjl i;= ikakdhl .=Kh m%fhdackhg .kska o oHq;a
l%shdld;ajh m%fhdackhg .kska o tajdfha Nd;

hgf;a i|yka l< yels h'
ikakdhl .=Kfha Nd;
m%Odk wdldr folla
oHq;a l%shdldrS;ajfha Nd;
ia;s oHq;a jH
wdila; jH âdhesives&
uqs; mm:
lD;%Su iakdhq
fkdwef,k iq`M fros
vfhda g%dkaisiagia
.=jka hdkd jHqy
wKql bf,lafg%dksl jH
oHq;a m%oYl
Êlectrical displays)
m%;sckkh l< yels neg
oHq;a foH whk
yqjudre mg,
ixhqla; jH (Composites)
fjkia ,laIK iys; jH folla fyda je .Kkla lsish wdldrhg Y%lr"

ksmojkq ,nk" tajdfha ,laIKj, ixl,khla iys; m%;sM, jHh ixhqla;
jHh f,i ykajhs'
iEu g u wjYH;djlg W; .=Kdx. ish,a,lau i;= iajdNdl jH yuq
178
fkdjk ksid w;S;fha isg u tu wjYH;dj imqrd,k jH o Y%K ilia lr

f.k we;'
kso ( f.dvke`.s,s ludka;fha oS Nd; jk yqkq nodu Y%K
kj ;dlaIKh fhdod .kska ksmojk ;=kS ,E,s" fl|s Y%s; re ^*hsn
.a,dia&" fmd,afl|s Y%s; rn" jdykj,g fhdok wdrlaIs; re ^windescreen&"
fj fkdjosk lnd wdosh j;udkfha Nd; jk ixhqla; jH i|yd ksoiqka
lsymhls'
s
ixhqla; jHhl wvx.= ix>gl uQ,sl wdldr folla hgf;a j.SlrKh l<
yels h'
Yla;su;a nj by< kexu i|yd fhdok jH ^reinforcement materials&
fndfyda g fuu jH ;ka;= wdldrfhka fyda O yevfha yd m%udKfha
wxY= f,iska fyda tl;= lrkq ,ef'
n|jd ;nk jH ^matrix material&
Yla;su;a nj by< kexu i|yd fhdok jH ixhqla; jHh ;=< ksishdldrj
ia:dk .; lr r|jd ;nkqfha fu u`.sks' f i|yd fndfyda g fhdokqfha
nyqwjhl jH hs'
ixhqla; jH ms<sn| j.SlrKhla my; oelaf'
ixhqla; jH
wxY= u`.ska
iu;a l<
Yd,
wxY=
u`.ka
s
kso(
fldkal%S
Y%K
;ka;= u`.ka
s
iu;a l<
l=vd
wxY=
u`.ka
s
kso(
Y% f,day
ia:r jYfhka
ilia l<
;=kS mg,
fl ;ka;=
u;a j
kso ( ;Ska;"
osYdk; jQ
,efka
os.= ;ka;=
mg,
kso(
wyUqj
lekajia u;a j
osYdk; jQ
osYdk; jQ
ieka
wdldrh
kso(
fldref.ag
ldfnda
*hsn.a,dia
nyqwjhjl ydhkh
fuhska woyia jkafka ;dmh" wdf,dalh" w," laIdr yd we;e ,jK jeks
mdil idOl tll fyda je .Kkl n,mEu ksid nyqwjhjlhl fyda
nyqwjhl mok lr .;a h ksIamdokhl Yla;sh" jKh" yevh wdoS .=Kj,
fjkiaSuls'
Nds;fha oS fjkiaSu" msmsre we;s u yd ksIamdokh s-nyqwjhlrKhg
Ndck u wdoS f fjkiaS fndfydag wys;lr h' tfy;a l,d;=rlska th
ys ; lr o f' nyq w jhjlj, ffcjydhkh yd m% ; s p l% S l rKh i|yd
nyqwjhjlj, wKql ialkaOh my; fy<Su g ksoiqka h'
fndfyda ix>kl nyqwjhjl m%n, w, yd m%n, laIdr jeks iqsfYaI ridhk
jH siska ydhkh flf' f ydhkh" tajdfha ixYaf,aIK m%;sl%shdj wdmiq
yerula jk w;r c,sfokh hkqfjka ykajkq ,ef'
179
kso( khsf,daka w,j,ska ydhkhg md;% f' m%n, w,j, m%ydrhg b,lal
jQ l,ays khsf,daka wpq m`M fjhs'
Tlaisldrl iu`. wka;l%shdj yd mdrcnq, lsrKj,g ksjrdjrKh u
wfkl=;a ydhk ud. f'
fidaksfokh
jd;fha wxY=ud;% jYfhka we;s fidaka jdhqj" iajdNdl rn" fmd,siagka

jeks nyqwjhjlj, oS> ldnka iels,af,ys oa;aj nkaOkj,g m%ydrh lrhs'
TlailrKh
s
fYaIfhka yevhlg ilia lsf oS Ndck flfrk by< WIaK;aj hgf;a oS

nyqwjhjl jdhqf.da,Sh Tlaisckaj, m%ydrhg b,lal h yels h'
;dm ydhkh
tk w;s ;dmkfha m%;M,hla f,i we;s jk wKql ydhkh hs' by< WIaK;ajfha
s
oS nyqwjhjlhl oS> odu fldkdrfha ixrpl fjkaug mgka .kakd w;r
^wKql fNaokh& tajd tlsfkl yd m%;sl%shd u ksid nyqwjhjlfha .=K
fjkia f'
mdrcnq, ydhkh
fuh iQh;dmhg ksrdjrKh jQ jH Ndck jk Wmjhls' fuys oS mdrcnq,

lsrKj, m%ydrh ksid ydhkh wdrN jk w;r ;dm ydhkh ksid we;s jk
l%shd oduh fuys oS o we;s f'
u;=msg wdjrKhla f,i nyqwjhjl Nd; lsu
jKl" djl fyda fjk;a wdl,k jH iu`. mg, idok jHj, kE u
Y%Khla mDIaGhla u; wdf,am fldg" ms<shug yd h<Sug md;% lrk ,o
l,ays l%shdldjkakd jQ;a fndfyda g w,xldrj;a jkakd jQ;a mg,hka
ksudKh f k th u;=msg wdf,amhla f,i ye|skaf' fuys oS m%Odk
mg, idok jH f,i Nd; flfrkqfha nyqwjhjl jHhka h'
idh" h`M f;,a j." jdksIa" lD;%Su kso fmfkk mg, yd h
jia;=jla mDIaGh mirfhka wdrlaId lsu m%d:l lD;Hh jkakd jQ fjk;a
ksIamdok u;=msg wdjrKj,g wh;a f'
iajdNdl rn j,alkhsia lsu
i,a* fyda Bg iudk fjk;a ms<shldrl tl;= lsfuka iajNdl rn fyda
tn fjk;a nyqwjhjl jvd;a l,a mj;akd jH njg m;a lsf ridhksl
l%shdj,sh j,alkhsia lsu hkqfjka ye|skaf' f wdl,k jH fjka fjka
nyqwjhjl odu w;r yria nkaOk ^fia;& ;ekSfuka nyqwjhjlfha .=K fjkia
=
lrhs' j,alkhsia lrk ,o jHfha wef,k iq`M nj wvq h' th hdka;%sl .=K
w;ska jvd Wiia h'
180
ms<sh ld,h
tk" fok ,o WIaK;ajhl oS rn ixfhda.hlg Wmu iai%d;dj fkdfyd;a

udmdxlh lrd t<ug .; jk ld,h hs'
rn lmjqka lsu
iajdNdl fyda fjk;a rn fYaI ldhhla i|yd tf,iska u Nd;hg .ekSu
wmyiq h' tfy;a Bg fjk;a jH W; mos Y% lsfuka fyj;a lmjqka
lsfuka rn wjYH .=Kdx.j,ska hq;a m%fhdackj;a jHhla njg mj;kh
lr .; yels h' rn lmjqka lsf oS Nd;hg .kakd jH" tajdhska is
flfrk ldhh wkqj j.SlrKh l< yels h' tfia Y% flfrk m%Odk
l%shdld jH my; oelaf'
1' m%;Hdia: wjhjl
2' j,alkhsia lrk jH fyj;a yria nkaOk idok jH
3' ;ajrl
4' il%shl$ukaol
5' l%shdj,s iydhl
6' uDldrl yd iqldrl
7' i.ekakq jH$msrjq jH
8' wejE m%;sfrdaOl
j.=j ( jdyl m wdjrK jHhl ixhq;sh
jHh
fldgia
l%shdld j.h
iajNdl rn
ldnka ,ela
iskala Tlaihs
iahla w,h
rn meiqre f;,a
friska
100'0
45'0
4'0
2'0
4'0
2'5
0'5
161'5
m%;Hdia: wjhjlh
i.ekakq jHh
il%shlh
il%shlh
uDldrlh
wejE m%;sfrdaOlh
;ajrlh
j,alkhsialdrlh
CBS*
i,a*
* N - Cyclohexylbenzothiozole-2-sulphonamide
w.h tl;= lsrSu
fuhska woyia jkafka NdKavhl wdl jkdlu by< kexf yd mfNda.sl
b,au je lsf l%shdj,sh hs' Y%S ,xldf rn ksIamdok ludka;h 1991 isg
ie,lsh hq;= jOkhla fmkakq lr we;' foaYSh fjf<|fmdf<ys iajdNdl
rn mfNdackh 6]l wvq w.hl isg f jk g 70] olajd l%ufhka jOkh
we;' f ksid rn" mfNdack jHhl isg ldl ksIamdokhla njg
mj;kh lrkq jia w.h tl;= lsf m%h;akh fkdlvjd is l< hq;= j
;sf'
3R ixl,amh (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
181
3R ixl,amfha uQ,sl woyi jkafka w;Hl mfNdack iudchla jk pl%h

mdol lr.;a" jHj, ldhlaIu .,d hEu ;yjqre flfrk iudchla njg
mjr;akh lr,Su hs'
jH Ys I a g whq ka pl% S h lrKh

flfrk iudch
wl Nd; iudch
- mirh yd wdlh
ifudaOdkh lsu
- 3R m%jOkh
- wju lsu(reduce &
- m%;sNd;h ^reuse& yd
- m%;spl%SlrKh ^recycle&
- ukd wmjH l<ukdlrKh
- wl ksIamdokh
- wl mfNdackh
- wl bj;,Eu
- mirh u;
megfjk wl nr
wvqSu
- iajdNdl im;a
mfNdackh wju u
- mirh u; wl nr
megu
- wl iajdNdl
im;a mfNdackh
182
ksmqK;dj 15'0
( iuyr uQ,jH yd ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr" ldl

j ksiaidrKh$ksmou iy Nd; uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 15'5
( Ydl jH u; mok jQ iuyr ridhksl ludka; uYkh

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
t;fkda,a ksIamdokh lsug fhdod .kakd Ydl jH k lrhs'

Ydl jHj,ska t;fkda,a ksIamdokh lrk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
h jHhla bkaOkhla f,i fhdod .ekSug k tys ;sh hq;= .=Kdx. ia;r
lrhs'
bkaOkhla f,i t;fkda,a Nd;fha jdis$wjdis bosm;a lrhs'
l=re" lrdnq" b`.=re" .ia iy ly jeks tajdhska ksiaidrKh lrkq ,nk
iajdNdl M,j, Nd; i|yka lrhs'
i.kaO f;,aj, wka;.;h fndfyda g ridhksl ixfhda. lsysmhl Y%K
jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
i.kaO f;,aj, wka;.; jk ixfhda." ixlSK jHqy iys; ldnksl ixfhda.
nj m%ldY lrhs'
i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKhg fYaI l%ufo wjYH nj fmkajd fohs'
i.kaO f;,a ksIamdokh lrkq ,nk yqud, wdijkfha uQ,Ou myod fohs'
lvodis ksIamdokfha uQ,sl woshr ia;r lrhs'
iSks ksIamdokfha uQ,sl woshr ia;r lrhs'

t;fkda,a ksmof l%shdj,sh inkaO isiqkaf.a oekqu uikak'
t;fkda,a ksmof l%shdj,sfha uQ,sl mshjr meyeos,s lrkak'
bkaOkhla i;= ,laIK idlPd lr ta wkqj t;fkda,a bkaOkhla f,i
Nd;fha jdis$wjdis uid ne,Sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

i.kaO f;,a ,nd .efkk Ydl jH" tajdfha wka;.;h ms<sn| f;dr;=re
/ia lr .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh i|yd yqud, wdijkh fhdod .efkk wdldrh;a" ta
inkaO uQ,Ou;a idlPd lrkak'

yqud, wdijkh iy fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh w;r inkaO;dj fuys
oS bosm;a lrkak'
l=re f;,a ksIamdokhg yqud, wdijkh fhfok wdldrh iqiq wegjqula o
Wmfhda.S lr f.k bosm;a lrkak'
lvodis ksmof uQ,sl mshjr ia;r lrkak'
iSks ksmof uQ,sl mshjr ia;r lrkak'

t;fkda,a ksIamdokh
meiSu u`.ska t;fkda,a ksIamdokh i|yd ;s`.=" iy,a" nd,s jeks msIagh iys;
weg j.;a" iSks wvx.= os" rgb|s jeks m,;=re j.;a iSks ksIamdokfhka
183
wk;=re j ,efnk ujq djKh;a" Wlafrdvq wdoS Ydl jH;a Nd; flf'
t;fkda,a ksIamdokh i|yd msIagh we;s jH Nd; lrk g tajdfha wka;.;
msIagh WKq j;=ka ksiaidrKh lr" 55 0C - 60 0C w;r oS vhiafia tkaihsuh

tl;= lrkq ,ef' tg tu msIgh iSks njg m;af' ^fuu vhiafia tkaihsuh
a
m%frdayKh jQ nd,sj,ska ,nd .efka'&
iSks iys; jHj,g hSia tl;= jQ g hSia ;=< we;s fuda,afia tkaihsuh
u`.ska iSks ir, iSks njg c,fokh f' ^f i|yd m%Yia; WIaK;ajh 35
0
C muK f'&
by; wdldrhg ieKq .afldaia" hSia ;=< we;s ihsfia tkaihsuh u`.ska
t;fkda,a njg c,fokh f'

t;fkda,a idkaKh 10] muK jk g meiSu kj;S' îEfok t;fkda,a hSia
ffi,j,g Iu g fya;=j hs'&

wdijk l%shdj,sh u`.ska t;fkda,a idkaKh by< kxjd .kshs' ksh; ;dmdxl
Y%Khla Âzeotropic mixture& iEfok ksid" wdijkfhka Wmu f,i ,nd .;
yelafla 95'6] t;fkda,a iys; djKhla muKs ^m%;fYda; iam;= fyj;a rectified
s
S%
spirit&'
wdijkfhka miq b;s jk Y%Kh *shqi,a f;,a (fusel oil) f,i ye|skaf'
O djl yd Ic kdYl ksmoug *shqi,a f;, (fusel oil) jeo.;a f'
95'6] t;fkda,aj,g fnkaiSka tl;= lr" wdijkfhka 99'5] olajd idka lr
.; yels h' wc, uoHidrh wjYH jQ g ms<siaiQ yqkq iu`. 99'5] uoHidrh
wdijkh flf'
h jHhla bkaOkhla f,i Nd; lsug" ta jH ;=< my; i|yka .=Kdx.
;su jeo.;a f'
- iu; oyk tka;e,amsh ie,lsh hq;= ;r by< u
- myiqfjka oykh u ^j,k wxlh ie,lsh hq;= ;r my< w.hla .ekSu&
- oyk m%;sl%shdj iafMdagkh fkdjk mos is l< yels u
- oyk M,j,ska is jk mir IKh wju u
by; lS ,laIKj,ska fy t;fkda,a bkaOkhla f,i Nd;hg .; yels h'
i.kaO f;,a ksIamdokh
l=re" lrdnq" b`.=re" .ia" ly wdosh fYaIfhka wdydr i|yd iqj|ldrl
f,i o Nd; flf'
i.kaO f;,a j." iqj| ,jqka ksIamdokhg fhdod .efka' lrdnqke f;,a
wdosh oka;df,am ksmof oS Nd; f'
ffcj lDkdYl f,i;A T!IO ksIamdokfha oS;a fuu Ydl jH fhdod .efka'
^ksoiqka - fldfydU f;,a" kag.%Ska f;,a&
lD i;=ka m,jd yeug i.kaO f;,a Nd; f' ^Wod( fldfydU f;,a&
,nd .kakd Ydl fldgi wkqj iajdNdl M,fha ixhq;sh fjkia f'
WodyrK ( l=re f;,aj, m%Odk ix>gl
m;% f;,a
- bhqfkda,a
184
fmd;= f;,a - iskue,ayhs

uqf,ys f;,a - le*
iajdNdl ksIamdok lsysmhl we;s m%Odk ridhk jH my; olajd we;'
l=re
- bhqfkda,a" iskue,ayhs" le*
lrdnq
- bhqfkda,a
fiar
- isg%e,a
ySka me.s - fcrksfhda,a$isfg%dfkf,da,a$isfg%dfk,e,a
idoslald - iaka$iekska
lrouqx.= - g'mskhs,a weisf
mhskia
- -mhskSka $ -mhskSka
.ia - -mhskSka $ -lefhd*s,ska
b`.re
=
- iskanka$kacfrda,a
i.kaO f;,aj, ix>gl ixlSK ldnksl jHqy nj fmkajd oSug my; oelafjk
WodyrK f,i .; yels h'
CH
OH
CH CHO
O CH3
iskue,ayhs
CH2 CH
bhqfkda,a
OH
CH2
isfg%dfk,e,a
by< WIaK;ajj, oS i.kaO f;,a fhdackh u fyda jHqy lD;s u fyda
nyqwjhlrKh u is f'
t neka 100 0Cg wvq WIaK;ajhl oS i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh lr.; yels u
ksid ta i|yd yqud, wdijkh is flf'

c,fha wY% i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh i|yd yqud, wdijkh fhdod .kshs'
lvodis ludka;h
lvodis ksIamdokfha oS wuqjHh f,i Ydl jH fyda bj; ,k lvodis fyda
Nd; l< yels h'

Ydl jH Nd; lrk g m%Odk ldhh jkqfha" Ydl ffi, tlg n|jd ;nk
m%Odk ix>glh jk ,s.akska bj;a lsu hs'

,s.kka bj;a lsu i|yd" wod< Ydl jH NaOH iu`. 170 0C muK WIaK;ajhl
a s
oS wka;l%shd lrjkq ,ef' fug ,s.akSka NaOHj, osh fi,shqf,daia
;ka;= ,ef'
,s.akska bj;a lsug hdka;%sl l%u o Nd; flf'
,s.akska NaOH ys osh iEfok jh ;=<" mSfka whk ;sf' fjd jd;h
u`.ska TlaislrKh lafkd,Ska wdY%s; ixfhda. njg m;a f' fuu ixfhda.
iys; jh Black liquor f,i ye|skaf' lvodis ludka;fha ,efnk m%Odk
wmjHh fuh f'
,s.akska bj;afuka iEfok lvodis m,amh rxck ldrl u`.ska rxckh
lrkq ,ef'
fuu lvodis m,amhg CaO fyda kue msrjq jH ^Filler& f,i tl;= flf'
185
jKl" lvodisfha l,a meje;aug fya;= jk ridhk jH wdosh o f wjia:df

oS tl;= lrkq ,ef'
wk;=rej m,amh frda, hka;% ud.fhka f;rmqulg ,la lr" c,h bj;a
flf' wjYH muKg ;=kS lsu o f wjia:df oS u is l< yels h'
c,h bj;a lsfuka miq h<Sf l%shdj is flf'
iSks ksIamdokh
iSks ksmoug m%Odk jYfhka Nd; jkafka fyda Wla fyda f'
Y%S ,xldf" iSks ksmof oS Wla Nd; f'

ksis jhfia oS lmd.;a Wlao~q" frda, ud.fhka ;,d Wla hqI ,nd .efka'
Wla hqIfha we;s wmjH bj;a lsug osh .eiQ yqkq Nd; f' fuys oS wd,sl
wmjH bj;a u o isf'
,nd.;a Wla hqI" jdIamSlrK lsrSfuka c,h bj;a lr idka lr .kq ,ef'
idka Wla hqIj, we;s c,h ;jrg;a jdIamSlrKh lr Wla meKsh ^Syrup&
keu;s iai%d;djfjka je Wl= djKh ,nd .kshs'
iSks isrma djKh kgjd" ;j rg;a c,h jdIam lr iSks iaMl jOkh ug
iqiq ix;Dma; ;;a;ajhg m;a lr.kq ,ef' fuu djKhg l=vd iSks iaMl
fhoSfuka iaMlSlrK l%shdj,sh myiq lr .efka'
iSks iaMl ,enqKq miq j - flakadmirK l%u Wmfhda.S lr f.k ujq jfhka
^Mother liquor& iaMl fjka flf' fuu ujq jh fud,EIia f,i ye|skaf'
WKqiq jdhq Odrd Nd; lr" by; ,nd .;a iSks iaMl h<d .efka'
by; l%shdj,sfhka ,efnkafka Uqre iSks h' tajd Y=oaO lsfuka ^refine& iq iSks
ksmojkq ,ef'
merKs uKa ^molasses& iSks ksImdokfhka ,efnk jeo.;a w;=reM,hls' fuh
a
i;a;aj wdydr ksIamdokhg iy uoHidr ksIamdokhg fhfoa'
186
ksmqK;dj 15'0

ksmqK;d ugu 15'6
( Lks c im;a u; mok jQ iuyr ridhks l ludka ;

uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
fmda,ka isfuka;s yd re ksIamdokhg wjYH wuqjH u;lhg ,ehsia;=.;
lrhs'
fmda,ka isfuka;s yd re ksIamdokfha oS is jk m%Odk ridhksl mhdi
ia;r lrhs'
isfuka;s i f l%shdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
ixhq;sh fjkia lsfuka rej, .=K fjkia l< yels nj m%ldY lrhs'
b,aukhsj, yd rEghs,aj, m%fhdack ia;r lrhs'
fmfrda,sh |Sf l%shdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
inka yd fkdinka laId,l ^soapless detergent& ii|hs'

isiqka ,jd Y%S ,xldf is;shul" isfuka;s yd re ksIamdokhg wuqjH iq,n
j we;s m%foaY ,l=Kq lrjkak'

isiqka ,jd Y%S ,xldf is;shul b,aukhs" rEghs,a yd ifldaka hk Lksc
iq,n j we;s m%foaY ,l=Kq lrjkak'

mdil n,mE wjOdkhg ,la lrka Y%S ,xldf isfuka;s yd re ksImdokh
a
wLKav j is lsf jdis yd wjdis we.hSu i|yd idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

mq;;,f yd .d,af,a isfuka;s ly,a" kd;a;kafha re ly," imq.ialkafoa
a
f;,a msmyj yd mq,auqf Lksc je,s ksiaidrKh keru i|yd wOHdmk
pdld ixOdkh lrkak'
lk c,h iu`. inka yd laId,l l%shd lrk wdldrh wdoYkh lrkak'

fmda,ka isfuka;s
idudkHfhka isfuka;s ^cement & hkafkka len,s fyda fldgia tlsfklg ne|
;nd ms~qjla f,i ilia l< yels wdila; jHhla woyia flf' f.dvke`.s,s
ludka;fha oS Nd;hg .efkk iq,n; u isfuka;s ye|skafjkafka fmda,ka
isfuka;s hkqfjks'
fmda,ka isfuka;s ksIamdokfha oS wuqjH ;=ka j.hla Nd; f'
pQKuh jH ^Calcareous component&
uD;a;lduh jH Ârgillaceous component&
s
isfuka;sj, i u md,kh lrk jH
pQKuh jHj,ska isfuka;s ixhq;shg CaO odhl flfrk w;r fuh tl;=
lrkq ,nkafka yqkq.,a f,i h' tys m%Odk jYfhka wka;.; jkafka CaCO3
h' yqkq.,a fjkqjg ls.re~" fldr,a wdosh o Nd; l< yels h' uD;a;slduh
ûe& ixrplfhka SiO2" Al2O3 yd Fe2O3 isfuka;sj,g tl;= flf' ue"
187
Y,al ^Shale& yd m;=re mdIdK ^Slate& Bg ksoiqka h'

fmda,ka isfuka;s ksIamdokfha oS h<s l%uh yd f;;a l%uh hkqfjka l%u
folla Nd; f' Wiia .Kfha isfuka;s ksIamdokhg Nd; jk f;;a l%ufha
oS l=vq lrk ,o wuqjH ^yqkq.,a yd ue& ksis wkqmd;fhka c,h yd Y% fldg
Wl= oshdrejla ^slurry& njg m;a flf' wk;=rej th N%uK fmdarkqj ;=< r;a
lrkq ,ef'
Y%S ,xldf o Nd;hg .kakd h<s l%ufha oS h<s ;;a;ajfha we;s wuqjH
Nd;hg .efka' yqkq.,a yd ue l=vq lr" h<d 1(5 wkqmd;fhka Y% lr N%uK
fmdarkqjg we;=`M flf' fuu fmdarkqj ;srig wxYl lsysmhl wd;;sfhka
hq;a wlaIhla jgd N%uKh jk ;dm iy ^refractory& wdia;rKhlska hq;a jdfka
is,kvrhls' we;=`M lrk ,o jH fmdarkqj ;=< 600 - 1500 0C w;r WIaK;ajhlg
s a
r;a flf' f WIaK;ajfha oS Y%Kfha ixrpl j fuka f;dr j ,Sk f'
f l%shdj,sh iskag lsu ^sintering& hkqfjka ye|skafjk w;r tys m%;sM,hla
f,i la,skal hkqfjka ye|skafjk l=vd m%udKhg leg iEfohs' N+ jdhqj"
Wka f;,a fyda .,a w`.=re" Y%Kh r;a lsug Nd; f'
N%uK fmdarkqj fldgia y;rlska iuka; h'
mQj;dmk l,dmh ^Preheating zone &
NialrK l,dmh ^Calcining zone &
la,klr idok l,dmh ^Clinkering zone&
s a
isis,k l,dmh ^Cooling Zone&
mQj;dmk l,dmfha oS ksoyia c,h bj;a f' 1000 0C muK WIaK;ajhla
mj;sk NialrK l,dmfha oS le,aish ldnfka yd ue fhdackh u;a
ldnksl jH TlaislrKh u;a is f' la,skalr idok l,dmfha oS 1300 1500 0C l WIaK;ajhla hgf;a ksoyia Tlaihsv m%;sl%shd le,aish is,sflag
yd le,aish wefkag we;s f'
CaO
+
SiO2
+
Al2O3
+
Fe2O3
3 CaO.SiO2
+
2CaO.SiO2
+
3CaO.Al2O3
+
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
(g%hsle,aish is,sfla)
(vhsle,aish is,sfla)
(g%hsle,aish wefka)
(fgrdle,aish wefkdaf*rhs)
fmdarkqfjys my< fl<jka ,nd .kakd la,skalr isis,a lr" mai ksh;
m%;sY;h ^4 - 5]& iu`. fnda, fuda,la ;=< weUug ,la lsfuka isfuka;s
ksmojd .efka'
isfuka;sj, ne| ;nd .ekSf yd i f .=Kh we;s jkafka" isfuka;s c,h
iu`. msh lsf oS ksmfok ic, M, ksid h'
Ca3Si2O7.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
kso ( 2Ca3SiO5 + 6H2O

(Ca3SiO5 = 3CaO.SiO2)
isfuka;sj, i u md,kh lrkafka mai ^CaSO4.2H2O & h' th fkdue;s
g isfuka;s b;d blaukska i f'

188
my; oelafjk wkqmd; isfuka;sj, ;;a;ajfhys oYl f'
is,sld nr
wekd nr + whka Tlaihsv nr
wekd nr
whka Tlaihsv nr
re
>khla f,i fmfkkakg ;snqK o re we;a; jYfhka u wYS;" tk
jdxlfhka my< WIaK;ajhlg isis,a we;s" Wl= jhls' idudkH rej,
uQ,sl ;ekq tallh jkafka is,slka mrudKqjlska yd ta jgd we;s Tlaiscka
mrudKq y;rlska hq;a p;=ia;,hls' fun p;=ia;, tlsfkl iu`. wE|Sfuka
;%sudk jHqyhla we;s jk w;r th rej, wl iai%d;djg fya;= f' tfia
jqj o i;H >kj, fuka rej, jHqyfhys mq`M,a mrdi olajd me;sfrk l%uj;a
njla ke;'
re" f,day tll fyda je .Kkl is,sflagj, ld; Y%Khls^divitrified
mixture&' fndfyda g f f,day Na, K, Ca yd Pb f' re idokq ,nkafka

99] lg jefhka is,sld wvx.= jk msis iq je,s îs,sld je,s& by; lS
f,dayj, Tlaihsv fyda ldnfkag fyda iu`. 1500 0C l muK WIaK;ajhl oS
,Sk lsfuks'
je,s fjkqjg l=vq lrk ,o ;srejdKd fyj;a lafjdaia o
md l< yels h' ,Sk Y%Khg ksmojkq ,nk re j.fhys len,s
lsysmhla o tl;= lrkq ,ef'
O ix>gl Nd;fhka O j.j, re ksmojkq ,ef' idudkH uD
re Na2O.CaO.5SiO2 hk o< ixhq;sfhka hqla; jk w;r idokq ,nkafka

je,s" yqkq.,a yd ksc,Sh fidah ldnfka ,Sk lsfuks'
CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) + CO2(g)
NaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) Na2SiO3(s) + CO2(g)
blaukska isis,a l< fyd;a re f|kiq jk w;r tksid msmsre we;s h
yels h' fuh j<lkq ,nkafka re fifuka isis,a ug yefuka fyj;a uD

lsfuks'
WKqiq j ;sh oS re mqnd fyda wpq u`.ska fyda yev.eiah yels h' re
;yvq ksmojkq ,nkafka re" j ka u;g .,d taug ie,eiafuks'
O ix>gl" rej,g O .=K wdfrdamKh lrhs'
189
,laIK
ix>gl
re j.h
m%fhdack
fidavd re
SiO2, CaO, Na2O
wvq ,Ssk WIaK;ajh" wvq ;dm re k<"

ikakdhl;dj" by<
fnda;,a" cfk,a
m%idrK;dj
re
fndafrdis,fla
s
^mhsfrlaia&
re
SiO2, CaO, Na2O,

B2O3
by< ldpk WIaK;ajh" wvq

m%idrK;dj" ;dmhg yd
lmkj,g Tfrd;a;= oSu"
ridhksl ia:dhS;dj" by<
oHq;a m%;sfrdaOh
r;a lsug
fhdod .kakd
oHd.dr
WmlrK" wdydr
msisk nka
*a,ska re
SiO2, PbO, K2O
by< j;kdxlh" by<

wmlsrK n,h
m%ldY ldp
l%jqka re
SiO2, K2O, Na2O,

ZnO, B2O3
by< j;kdxlh
m%ldY re"
ldp
fndyShka re
SiO2, K2O
oe nj" ridhksl jHj,g

m%;sfrdaOh
ridhksl
WmlrK
kd re
SiO2, N2O, B2O3 ,

Al2O3, ZnO
Yla;su;a nj yd l%shdj,g
Tfrd;a;= oSu
WIaK;ajudk"
kq WmlrK
j rej,g O f,day ixfhda. tl;= lsfuka fkdfhl=;a jKj,ska hq;a
re ;kd .kq ,ef'
jKh
ixfhda.h
ks,a
fldafnda,a Tlaihs
r;=
fldmÎ& Tlaihs" f.da,a Tlaihs
fld<
fldmÎI& Tlaihs" lafrdahÎII& Tlaihs
uex.kSia vfhdlaihs
l`M
whkaÎII& Tlaihs" ksl,a Tlaihs
ly
leh i,a*hs
;e,s
fidah fi,fka
Lksc
mdIdK rKh ksid ksoyia jk Lksc .x.d wdosh Tiafia uqyqo lrd f.k hkq
,ef' b,aukhs" rEghs,a yd ifldaka >k;ajfhka je ksid;a ridhksl
jYfhka ia:dhS ksid;a myiqfjka uqyq fjrf<ys ;ekam;a f' b,aukhs"
rEghs,a" ifldaka" .dk" fudkihs" is,sukhs" iamsfk,a yd f;dahkhs
^w,am ud;%& Y%S ,xldf ner Lksc w;r f'
190
Lksc je,s ksj, m%Odk ixrplh jkafka b,aukhs h' l`M meyefhka hq;a
th hlvj, yd ghsfkshj, Tlaihsvhls ^FeO.TiO2&' tys hlv +II yd +III

wjia:dj, mj;S' yeu g u TiO2 m%;sY;h 52 -54] w;r f'
b,aukhsj, m%Odk m%fhdackh ghsfksh vfhdlaihs fyj;a ghsfkshd
^TiO2& ksmou hs' TiO2 j,ska je fldgila m%fhdackhg .efkkqfha Wiia

;;a;ajfha idh ksmof oS jKlhla f,i fhoSug h' th" lvodis"
wdjrK" ms`.ka nvq yd f*frdaghsfksh jeks Y% f,day ksIamdokfha oS o rn
yd ma,diala lmjqka lsf oS o lD;%su frosj, Tmh bj;a lsug o Nd;
f'
rEghs,aj, ^TiO2& ghsfksh vfhdlaihs 95 - 96] w;r mj;S' th ghsfksh
f,dayh ksmou i|yd Nd; f' ghsfksh f,dayh .=jka hdkd ludka;fha
oS o" mEiaiq l+re wdjrKh lsug o laf,darhs l%ufhka ghsfksh jKl
ksmoug o fhdod .kq ,ef'
fndr f;,a yd fmfrda,sh |Su
f;,a <sxj,ska ksiaidrKh lr .kq ,nk Lksc f;,a O yhsfrdldnkj,
o N, P yd S wvx.= pl%Sh ldnksl ixfhda.j, o ixlSK Y%Khls' fuh

fndr f;,a hkqfjka ye|skafjk w;r tys we;=<;a yhsfrdldnk m%Odk j.
;=klg fnosh yels h'
jD; odu we,aflak
we,spl%Sh yhsfrdldnk
wefrdauel yhsfrdldnk
fndr f;f,ys Nd.sl wdijkfha m%;sM,hla f,i h WIaK;aj mrdihla ;=<
kgk yhsfrdldnk Y%Khlska hq;a Nd. fY%aKshla ,ef' tla tla Nd.h ;j
rg;a Nd.sl wdijkhg Ndck lsfuka h Nd.hl wvx.= ixfhda. fjka lr
.; yels h'
Yd, wKq iys; yhsfrdldnk fudag r:j,g fl<ska u fhosh fkdyels h'
f;,a msmyjl is flfrk b;d jeo.;a ldl l%shdj,sj,ska tlla jkafka

tu Yd, wKq" l=vd wKqj,g |s fy<Su hs' uq,a wKqj we,aflakhla jk w;r
m%;sM, wKq we,aflakhla ut we,alSkhls'
kso(
C8H18(l) C6H4(l) + C2H4(g) fyda

C8H18(l) C5H12(g) + C3H6(g)
|Su ;=ka wdldrhlska is l< yels h'
;dm |Su (
we,aflakh tys ;dmdxlhg jvd by< WIaK;ajhlg"

we;eg w;ma; yqud,h iu`. ;;amr nd.hla muK r;a
flf'
W;afm%arl |Su ( is,sld" wekd" jeks W;afm%arlhla yuqf yhsfrdldnkh
idfmalaI jYfhka wvq WIaK;ajhlg r;a flf'
yhsfrd |Su ( yhsfrdldnkh" by< mSvkhla hgf;a we;s yhsrcka jdhqj
;=< r;a flf'
191
laId,l
ljr fyda fYdaOkldrlhla laId,lhla f,i ye|skah yels jqj;a bka
idudkHfhka woyia jkafka inka fkdjk" lk c,h iu`. Wvq ux we;s

fkdlrk lD;%su f,i ixYaf,aIs; fYdaOkldrl h'
laId,l wKqjl jHqyh" fndfyda rg inka wKqjl jHqyhg iudk h' tajd o
os.= yhsfrdldnk 'j,.hlska' yd 'whksl' ysilska hqla; h'
O
O
S
C
O-Na+
O-Na+
fo w,j, fidah ,jK

înka&
we,als,ai,af*dksla w,hl
fidah ,jKh ^laId,l&
fnfyka Nd;hg .efkk laId,l" we,als,afnkaiSka i,af*dfkag f'
l=Kq hkq f;,a xjla jgd tl;= jQ ,s wxY+ka f'

laId,lj, fYdaOk l%shdj" inkaj, fYdaOk l%shdjg iudk h'
tys oS o
laId,l wKqj, wO%eh j,. f;,a |s;sj, jKh jk w;r i,af*ag fyda
i,af*dfkag fl<jr wjg c,h fj; fhduq j mj;S' t u`.ska fi,a,d
iEfohs'
tfia jqj o fuu i,af*agj, yd i,af*dfkagj, le,aish yd ue.akSish
,jK c,djH h' tneka tajd lk c,h iu`. Wvq ux fkd idohs'
YdLkh jQ j,. iys; laId,l myiqfjka ffcjydhkhg Ndck fkdjk ksid
mir IKhg fya;= f' tfy;a fh ^YdLkh fkdjQ& we,als,a i,af*dfkag

laIqka iska jvd myiqfjka fhdackhg ,la flfrk fyhska jvd mir
-;=re f'
192
ksmqK;dj 15'0

ksmqK;d ugu 15'7
( ldl ksmehq yd fiajd imdokfha oS kefkda mudKfha

jeo.;alu uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
kefkda ^ksks;s& ugu w: olajhs'

kefkda ugf widudkH .=Kj,g fya;= meyeos,s lrhs'
jeo.;a kefkda jH ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
jeo.;a kefkda jHj, jHqy - lD;H inkaO;dj wjOdrKh lrhs'
fhda; bf.kqb.eka l%shdldrl yd

isika iu`. wjge';s ;ru y`.jk O mudK .ek idlPd lr my; oelafjk
q
j.SlrKhg t<fUkak'
ufyalaI ^Macro& - msh weig fmfkk oE ^ > 1mm &
wkalaISh ^Micro& - m%ldY wkalaIhlska oelsh yels oE ^ > 1m &
kefkda ^Nano&
- m%ldY wkalaIhlska fkdfmfkk oE ^1nm - 100 nm&
mrudKql Âtomic&- mod:fha ;ekq tall - mrudKq wKq ^ < 1nm &
by; i|yka mo isiqkg ykajd oSu i|yd iajdNdl fia u ksid iska ks;
lD;%su f,dalfhka O WodyrK f.k yer olajkak'

isiqkg "kefkda" mudKh .ek woyila fokak
"kefkda" hk jpkh .S%la NdIdfjka ,enqKls' 'w`.=gq' hkq tys wre; f'
fuys oS isiqkg" grh os. ms<sn| jvd l=vd mudKj,g fnfok wdldrh
ykajd fokak'
wNHdih (
1 mm = 10-3 m
1 m = 10-6 m
1 nm = 10-9 m
1 pm = 10-12 m
1 fm = 10-15 m
ridhk oHd{fhda fndfyda g l=vd kq i|yd A0 tallh Nd; lr;s'
1 nm = 10 A0
193
oeka "kefkda" fl;r l=vd oe hs meyeos,s lrkak'

wNHdih (
i Tf Wi kefkdagrj,ska .KKh lr m%ldY lrkak'
ii Tf flia .il IalNh uek kefkdagrj,ska m%ldY lrkak'
kefkda ;dlaIKh hkq l=ula oe hs idlPd lrkak'
"kefkdagrh" kq mudKfha ia; wjia:djls' ksid iska ;kk ,o
l=vd;u fuj, yd kaf.ka Yd,;uhka uqK .efik ;ek kefkda jHqy

msysfha f'"
- Mike Roco, 2001
th" kefkda mudKfha ixisoa yd jH ms<sn| uQ,sl wjfndaOhla iemhSug;a"
l=vd yd$fyda w;rueos ;ru fya;= fldg kj ,laIK m%lg lrk jHqy" fuj,
yd moaO;s ksudKhg yd Nd;hg;a Wmld jk os. inkaO mudKfhys
wdikak jYfhka 1 - 100 nm mrdifha jQ mrudKql" wKql yd uydwKql ugf
mfhaIKd;aul yd ;dlaIKsl ixjOkhls'
YsIHhkg yqqremqre O ma,h Ys,amSh l%u idlPd lrkak' kj;u ma,h
;dlaIKh kefkda ;dlaIKh nj iksgqyka lr .kak'

194
kefkda ugfuys fYaI;ajh l=ula oe hs idlPd lrkak'
195
1' mDIah j. M,hg mud wkqmd;h by< h'

wNHdih ( f.da,dldr TiO2 1.0 g l mudj 0'25 cm3 ls'
;ru" mDIah j.M,h;a" mDIah j.M,h ( mudj wkqmd;h;a flfrys n,mdk

wdldrh f;are .ekSug my; oelafjk j.=j mqrjkak'
wxY=j,
wrh
^r&$nm
.a?uhg wxY= (N)
100
6 1019
= 0.25 10-4 m3
4/3 r3
.a ? uhg mDIa h
j.M,h Â&
= 4r2 10-4 m2 N
7543 m2
mDIah
j.M,h$mrsudj
= A 0.25 10-4 m3
3.0172 107 m-1
10
1
kefkda mudKhg im f oS mDIah j. M,h yd mudj w;r wkqmd;h
flfrys we;s jk n,mEu isiqkg wjfndaO lrug Tjqka my; oelafjk

wNHdifhys ksr; lrjkak'
wNHdih (
me;a;la grhla jQ >klhla Tn fj; we;e hs is;kak' tys"
mDIah j. M,h
} 1 m2 6 } 6m2
>klfha mudj
} 1 m3
mDIah j. M,h$mudj
} 6 m-1
>klh iudk len,s wglg lmk ,oafoa k"
tla lene,a,l mDIah j. M,h
} 0.5 m 0.5 m 6 } 1'5 m2
iuia; mDIah j. M,h
} 1'5 m2 8 } 12 m2
iuia; mudj 1 m3 u f'
mDIah j. M,h$mudj
} 12 m-1
km2 m-3
tmoafoka u Tn tu >klh len,s 27lg lemqjfyd;a mDIah j. M,h$mudj

wkqmd;h 18la jk w;r" len,s 100 lg lemqjfyd;a th 60la fyj;a fkdlemQ
>klfha wkqmd;h fuka 10 .=Khla f'
196
2' kefkda ugf oS lafjdkag wdprK m%uqL f'
is jeks ishji f;la jH ms<sn| fN!;sl oHdfjys wdm;Hh oeref whsiela

ksgkaf.a woyia yd fm!rdKsl hdka;% oHdfjys iQ;% h' f kshu iEfyk
ksrjoH;djlska hqla; j ufyalaI mrsudKfha ish p,k ia;r lrhs'
kso( fudag r:j, p,kh" .=re;ajdlIKfha M,
tfy;a kefkda mudKfha yd Bg my< b;d l=vd moaO;s ia;r lsug fm!rdKsl
hdka;% oHdf iuyr kS;s m%udKj;a fkdjk nj fN!;sl oHd{hkg fmkS
f.dia we;'
kso ( bf,lafg%dak wxY=uh yd mod:uh .=K oelau
tfyhska" fm!rdKsl hdka;% oHdf we;e woyia lafjdkag hdka;% oHdj
iska m%;sia:dmkh we;' os. inkaO b;d l=vd mudKj, oS mod:hg"
Yla;sh yd wdfrdamKh wLKav j tl;= lsu l< fkdyels jk w;r th l<
yelafla l=vd "fmdos" jYfhks' fuu 'fmdos' lafjdkagu hkqfjka ye|skaf'
kefkda jHqyj, yeisu w: olajk kS;sj,ska fndfyduhla lafjdkag hdka;%
oHdf kshu f'
kefkda ugf .=K
m<uq j isiqkg my; oelafjk wNHdi fokak'
wNHdih (
i jHj, fN!;sl .=K ,ehsia;= .; lrkak'
ii jH .=K flfrys n,mj;ajk idOl ljf o@
1' kefkda ugf oS ridhksl .=Kj, fjkia f'
r;arka wl%sh uQ,jHhla jqj o kefkda Au wxY= w;sYh m%;sl%shdYS,S h'
mekai,aj, olakg ,efnk wdldrfha .%e*hs" ldnkaj, uD iajrEmhls'
2'
3'
4'
5'
kefkda ugf oS ldnka jdfkaj,g o jvd Yla;su;a jk w;r tfuka ih

.=Khla ieye,a h'
mdk j. wdosh wiqrd ;nk nka iEoSug .kakd weksh f,dayh kefkda
ugf oS iajhxisoaO j oykh jk w;r frdl bkaOk f,i Nd; l<
yels h'
bf,lafg%dksl .=K - lafjdkag /|jqu ^quantum confinement&" l,dm mr;r
bxfkareluh ^band gap engineering &" bf,lafg%dk êlection tunneling &
a
is,sld ^SiO2& mjdrl jHhls' tfy;a kefkda is,sld wO ikakdhlhls'
pqnl .=K - kefkda mudK nyqi;r" pqnl md;%;dfjys ^magnetic susceptibility&
a
fjki
whka Tlaihs pqnl jHhls' 10 nm jvd my<ska we;s kefkda whka
Tlaihs wxY= wpqnl h'
kefkda ugf oS hdka;%sl .=K fjkia f'
ldnka kefkda kd<j,ska iEoS we;s jHqy jdfkaj,g jvd Yla;su;a h'
m%ldY .=K - kefkda wxY=" oDYH wdf,dalfha ;rx. wdhduhg jvd l=vd fyhska
tajdhska wdf,dalh m%lsrKh fkd f' tneka Yd, iaMlj,ska brd u
fjkia jQ kefkda iaMl moaO;sj, kj m%ldY .=Kj, is;a .kakd ,laIK we;'
r;arka wxY=j, ;ru wkqj O jK m%oYkh lrhs'
197
kefkda ksmehqu ^ Nano-Fabrication &

kefkda ksmehqu i|yd Wmfhda.S lr .efkk m%fY folla f'
1' by< isg my<g m%fYh ^ Top-dowen approach &
,S legh lrejl= leghula lmkafka fyda jvjl= fihla ;kkafka flfia
oehs idlPd lrkak' l%shdj,sh wdrN jkafka .ila lmd wjYH ,S imhd
.ekSfuks' wjidkfha wjYH oE ;kd .efka' l%shdj,sh wjika jkafka Yd,
m%udKfha kdia;shla o iu`. h'
tfia u Yd, jHqyj,ska wdrN fldg" m%udKh l=vd lsfuka kefkda jHqy
ksmojd .; yels h'
kso( h;a Nd;h ^milling&" ksfLkh êtching&
f m%fYfhka kefkda jHqy lrd t<fuys iSud .Kkdjla mj;S' tfia jqj
o laIq oHq;a hdka;%sl ^MEMs& yd kefkda oHq;a hdka;%sl ^MEMs& fuj,j,
f l%uh idudkHfhka Wmfhda.S lr .efka' isiqkg laIqlrKfhka
^miniaturization& ;kd.;a jHqy i|yd ksoiqka imhkak'
kso ( m.Kl m ^ Intel 2007 &" i - pod
198
2' my< isg by< m%fYh ^ Bottom up approach &

f iajNdj Ouh jHqy ;kk wdldrh hs'
fidnd oyu ksid ksudKh lf<a flfia o@
ffi, talrdYs u
my< isg by<g m%fYh hkq mrudKqj," wKqj, fyda mod:fha fjk;a
uQ,l ;ekq tallj, l%udkql, talrdYS fuka jHqy fyda fuj, f.dvkexu
s
+
hs' f m%fYh jvd ixlSK jqj o kefkda fuj, ;ekSfuys ,d jvd id:l
f'
l%mfgdka mrudKq yeisrfuka ;kk ,o 1BM

s a
,dxPkh - lD;%su j mrudKq yeisrfuka
kefkda jHqy ;ekSug ork ,o m%:u W;aidyh
- my< isg by< m%fYh
oHq;a wdf,amkh
iajNdl kefkda moaO;s lsysmhla
1' ffi,h
kefkda ;dlaIKh w;a fohla fkd f' ksia yd Ydl ffi, hk fol u
iajNdl kefkda ly,a f,i ie,fla' ffi,h ;=< is jk ish u
lD;H kefkda mudK l%shdldrl h'
kso (
î& Yajikh
îi& fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh
îii& m%NdixYaf,aIKh
2' fk`M fld<fha we;s c,NS;sldj ^fk`M wdprKh&
mDIaGh u; l=Kq
fkd/f|a'
iajhx msis ula ' ' ' '
fldfydu o@
199
fk`M wdprKfha ^Lotus effect & fN!;sl oHdj f;are .ekSug mDIaGhla u;
we;s c, jla u; l%shd;aul jk n, flfrys wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;= h'
>k mDIaGhla u; we;s j xjla u; l%shd lrk n,

mDIaGhla u; we;s j xjl yevh" >k-j l,dm w;r fLdj ^ S,L&" >kjdIam l,dm w;r fLdj ^ S,V& yd j-jdIam l,dm w;r fLdj ^ L,V & hk
l,dm iamY fLd ;ek Tiafia l%shd lrk n, iska ksKh flf' f n,
;=fkys m%;sM,h iska iuia; mDIal wd;;sh ^mDIah tallhlg Yla;sh& w:
oelaf'
iamY fldaKh" fl<ska u mDIal wd;;s ;=k fyj;a
w.hka u; /|S mj;S'
c,ld mDIaGj, ^ < 900 & r`M nj f;;a lsf yelshdj je lrhs' tfyhska
j xj mDIaGh ;=< .s,S hhs' c,NS;sl mDIaGj, ^ > 900 & f;;a f yelshdj
wvq h' r`M c,NS;sl mDIaGhla f;;a lsu" Yla;sh wl f,i jeh f
l%shdj,shls' m%;sM,h jkafka c,h flfrys lIKh je u hs' Yla;sh
w;ska j xjg jvd;a u ys;lr kHdih jkafka "weK we|l ksok
bkacd,slhl=" n lvf;d u; msysuls'
c,NS;sl r`M mDIaGhla u;

we;s j |s;s fkre u; ys|shs'
c,ld r`M mDIaGhla u; we;s

j |s;s lfmd ;=< .sf<hs'
(Ref: http://lotus-shower.isunet.edu/the_lotus_effect.htm)
An attempt to mimic the nature
Nano sphere - fidnd oyka ,nk bf.kqu fros ms<s h<s j o msis j o
;eug Wmld f'
Nano sphere ksudfjka hq;a frosm<s c,hg yd lror ld me,a,j,g wjia:dj
s
fkd fohs' kefkda ;dlaIKh mok jQ mshfuka frosms<s c,hg ixfrda
flfrk w;r th tajdfha iajhx-fYdaOk .=Khg yd l,ameje;aug fya;= f'
200
by< c, m%;sfrdaOh
l,ameje;au yd wdrlaIdj
3' yQkq mdoh
yQkkag re osf.a .uka lsug;a

hl=re j fkdje isug;a yels
h' flfia o@
n, fuka u fndfyda i,ld ne,Sj, oS fkdi,ld yeh yels jqj;a uhsfl%d

yd kefkda mudKfha oS jeka v' jd,aia n, ie,lsh hq;= f' yQkq m;=f,ys m;=
^spatulos& b;d l=vd fyhska mDIaGhg fnfyka im f' fuys oS tla m;a;la
yd mDIaGh w;r 0'4 N l muK jeka v' jd,aia wdlIK n,hla we;s f'
fuh ie,lsh hq;= Yd,;ajhla f,i fkd fmfka' tfy;a tla yQkq mdohl we;s
m;= ,shk ixLHdj ie,l+ g ta ish,af,ys tl;=fjka we;s flfrk uq`M n,h
10 N fyj;a rd;a;,a 2'25 la muK f'
is tla jeks ishji i|yd kefkda ;dlaIKh
p f*akauka ^1965 fN!;sl oHd fkdfn,a ;Hd. ,dNS& iska

1959 foien 29 jeks osk le,sf*dakshd ;dlaIKsl wdh;kfha
oS ^Caltech & weulka fN!;sl oHd ix.ufha jdIsl /iaf
oS mj;ajk ,o udye`.s foaYkfha fufia m%ldYs; h'
"m;af,ys fldf;l=;a bvlv we;"
"%geksld YajfldaIfha fj`M 24 wmg
w,afmfk;a;s ysil fkd,sh yelafla wehs@"
f wjia:df oS kefkda ;dlaIKfha
b;sydih meyeos,s lrkak'
201
kefkda ld,rduqj
kefkda jH
kefkda jH fufia j.SlrKh l< yels h'
1' ue mok jQ
2' ldnka mok jQ
3' wldnksl
kefkda jHhl hg;a msfihska tla udkhlaj;a 1 - 100 nm mrdih ;=< msysh
hq;= h'
udk mok j.SlrKh (
2-D jHqy ^1 - D /|jqu& ( tla udkhla muKla 1 - 100 nm mrdifha f'
;=kS mg,
;,Sh lafjdkag l+m ^Planar Quantum Wells&
1-D jHqy ^2 - D /|jqu& ( udk folla muKla 1 - 100 nm mrdifha f'
kefkda l
lafjdkag l
kefkda o~q
kefkda kd<
0-D jHqy ^3 - D /|jqu& ( udk ;=k u 1 - 100 nm mrdifha f'
kefkda wxY=
lafjdkag ;s;a
1' ue mok jQ kefkda jH
uej, jHqyh
O j.fha ue Lksc .Kkdjla f' ue Lkscj, jHqyh ksid mek k`.sk
wkkH ridhksl yd l%shdld ,laIK tajdg ys h' kuq;a" ish ue j.j,
we;af;a ieleiafuka fjkia jQ uQ,sl ixrpl folla muKhs' ue Lkscj,
we;s f uQ,sl ;ekq tall fol jkafka is,sld p;=ia;,h yd weksh wIag
;,h hs'
202
kso ( fudkafudf,dkhs ^Montmorillonite& hkq

;e jHqyhlska hq;a" iajdNdl j mj;sk 2(1 ia;N+;
iafulaghs ^smectite& ue Lkschls' ;ks ;ks m;=re
^platelets& ie,l+ g kefkdagrhl .klka hq;=
h' tfy;a tajdfha mDIaGSh udk idudkHfhka 300
nm isg 600 nm g je h yels h' f ksid tajdfha
wkqmd;h Âapect ratio& widudkH f,i by< f'
Aapect ratio } ;e IalNh$.klu
ue mok jQ kefkda jHj, Nd;

nyqwjhjl ue kefkda ixhqla; jH ^Polymer clay nanocomposites&
ixhqla; jHhla ^composite& hkq fN!;sl jYfhka tlsfklg fjkia jH
foll fyda je .Kkl iyl%shdld ixfhdackhls' ixhqla; jHfha .=K" tys

ix>gl jHj, .=Kj,g jvd Wiia h' nyqwjhjl ixhqla; jH ksIamdokfha
oS idudkHfhka fo jeks l,dmhla f,i wldnksl ia;N+; jH Wmfhda.S lr
.efka' kefkda ixhqla; jHj, ^nanocomposites& wldnksl jHfha hg;a
203
msfihska tla udkhla j;a 1- 100 nm ;rka hqla; h' nyqwjhjl$ue kefkda
ixhqla; jH iq,n;u ixhqla; jHj,ska tlls'
iajdNdsl fuka u lD;%su kefkda ixhqla; jH f'
iajdNdl ixhqla; jH ( wia" mgl
lD;%su ixhqla; jH
( khsf,daka 6"6$ue ^1988 fgdfhdgd lKavdhu iska
fidhd .kakd ,o m%:u kefkda ixhqla; jHh hs' fuh
fgdfhdagd jdykj, l,a fh m i|yd Nd; f'&
ue - rn kefkda ixhqla; jH
nyqwjhjl ue kefkda ixhqla; jHj, .=K
ud;D nyqwjhjl fyda idm%odhsl nyqwjhjl ixhqla; jH iu`. ii|k l,ays

nyqwjhjl ue kefkda ixhqla; jH fN!;sl .=Kj, oshqKqjla is lr we;' ;dm
yd hdka;%sl ia:dhS;dj" wvq jdhq - mdr.uH;dj" je djl m%;sfrdaOh yd j,k
m%;sfrdaOh je oshqKq jQ fN!;sl .=Kj,g we;=<;a f'
ldnka mok jQ kefkda jH
1980 ueola jk ;=re u Yajdih jQfha ixY=oaO >k ldnka" oshuka;s yd ksrka hk
fN!;sl iajrEm foflys muKla mj;sk nj h' oshuka;s yd ksrka fN!;sl
jHqyfhka o .=Kj,ska o fjkia h' tfy;a ta foflys u mj;skfka iy-nkaOkj,ska
a
neKq mrudKq cd,hls' ldnkaj, f tlsfklg fjkia fN!;sl wdldr nyqrEmS
wdldr hkqfjka ye|skaf'
fhdaO iyixhqc wKqjla jk oshuka;sj, ldnka mrudKq sp3 uqyqlrK wjia:df

mj;S'
ksrkaj, we;af;a ia;h jHqyhls' tla tla ia;rfha mrudKq ilia we;s
wdldrh;a ia;r tlsfklska wE;a j msysgd we;s ie;a my; oelafjk rEmfhka
fmkakq flf'
204
tla tla ldnka mrudKqj bf,lafg%dak ;=kla fhdod .kska hdno ldnka mrudKq
;=kla iu`. is.aud nkaOk ;khs' f ksid nkaOk ugfuys tla bf,lafg%dakhla
b;s f' tla tla ldnka mrudKqf we;s f "w;sfl" bf,lafg%dak" tla
ia;rhl we;s iuia; mrudKql ;,h mqrd ia:dk.; we;' tajd ;j rg;a tla
mrudKqjlg fyda mrudKq hq.,lg iSud fkdue;s w;r uq`M mrudKql ia;rh
mqrd is me;sf ksoyi tajd i;= h'
*q,ka ^Fullerene &
jI 1985 oS yQiagka rhsia Yaj oHd,fha p iaue,s

iy frdn l,a yd tx.,ka ; fha ifila i a
YajoHd,fha ye fl%dafgdaf.a kdhl;ajh hgf;a
mfhaIl lKavdhula iska wmQre fidhd .ekSula
lrk ,oS' Tjqyq ;shqKq f,ai lsrKhla Nd;fhka
ksrka ksheoshla jdIam lr" yS,sh jdhq m%jdyhla
fhdod ldnka jdIamh ialkaO jKdj,sudkhla fj;
fhduq l<y' fuys oS jKdj,sudkfha ldnka mrudKq
60lska hq;a wKqjl ^C60& fLdj jvd;a ;Sj% h' C60
fmdl=re fu;r myiqfjka iEoSug fya;j meyeos,s lsf oS mfhaIK lKavdhf
=
ks.ukh jQfha ldnkaj, kj nyqrEmS wdldrhla mj;sk nj hs' fuh yevfhka
f.da,Sh jQ w;r uqyqK;a 32lska hqla; h' yhg u mdmkajl fuka ka 12la
mxpdi% jQ w;r 20la Ivdi% h'
uq,ska u f.da,dldr mshisj,ska hq;a f.dvke`.s,s ^geodoms& ksudKh l< .Dy
ksudK Ys,amshd jQ "nlaksiag *q," isys ug f wKq Tyqf.a kduh wkqj k
flK' ta wkqj mdmka yeve;s C60 wKqjg nlaksig*q,ka hk ku mgne|sK'
a
s
nlsfnda, ^bucky ball& tys fl kduh h'
f fidhd .ekSfuka miq ldnka mrudKqj,ska muKla iuka; f yd iudk
;j;a wKq o ^C36 " C70 " C76 yd C84 & fidhd .kakd ,o w;r nlsfnda, iu`. tajd o
ldnkaj, kj nyqrEmS wdldrhla fia ykd .kakd ,oS' f kj ldnka wKq mx;sh
*q,k f,i ykajkq ,ef'
*q,kj, f.da,dldr yevh we;s jkafka mxpdi% yd Ivdi% tl;= fuks'
205
wNHdih ( isiqka ,jd nlsfnda,hl yevh f.dvk`.kak'
ldnka kefkda kd<
fjd 1991 oS bud iska fidhd .kakd ,oS' ldnkaj, kj nyqrEmh jk *q,ka
ys wkkH cHd;sl .=K mdmka yeve;s wKqj,ska fl<jr fkd h' ldnka
mrudKqj,g os. is,skavrdldr kd< o iEosh yels nj fidhd .eksK' uq, oS tajd
'nlS kd<' hkqfjka ye|skajqKq kuq;a oeka tajd ye|skafjkafka ldnka kefkda kd<
^CNT& hkqfjks' f wKq kd<dldr h'
kefkda kd< o f.da,dldr nlSsfnda, we;=<;a jk *q,k jHqy mjqf,a idudlfhls'
kefkda kd<hl fo fl<jr nlsfnda, wOhlska jeiS ;sh yels h' tajdfha
IalNh fia u os. o kefkda gr lsysmhla h yels w;r tajd k fl we;af;a
;ru wkqj h' kefkda kd< my; oelafjk mos j.SlrKh flf'
î& tal Nsla;sl kefkda kd< ^single waled nanotubes - SWNT &
îi& nyq Nsla;sl kefkda kd< ^multi waled nanotubes - MWNT&
kefkda kd<j, nkaOk iajNdjh ia;r flfrkqfha jHjydl lafjdkag ridhk
oHdj - fYaIfhka ldlaIsl uqyqlrKh u`.sks' .a/*hsj, fia u kefkda
kd<j, o ish ridhksl nkaOk sp2 nkaOkj,ska iuka; f' oshuka;sj, sp3
nkaOkj,g jvd je Yla;sfhka hq;a f nkaOk jHqyh wKqj,g wkkH Yla;shla
wdfrdamKh lrhs' kefkda kd< iajhxisoaO j ,Kq f,i tf;k w;r tajd r|jd
206
.efkkqfha jeka v' jd,aia n,j,sks'

;ekq iajrEmh wkqj ldnka kefkda kd<j,g iqfYaI cHd;s ;=kla ;sh yels
h'
î& we|s mqgq Ârmchair&
îi& wla-jla ^Zig-zag&
îii& lhs/,a ^Chiral&
ldnka kefkda kd<

Ref: W.W.W. Phycomp.technion.ac.il
isiqkg ldnka kefkda kd<hl lvodis wdlD;shla ;ekSug wjia:dj fokak'
wNHdih (
î& m<uq j wxl rys; ysia .are*Sk ;,hla w|skak' .ard*Sk ;,j, wxl fhoSu
isiqkg mjrkak'
207
îi& wk;=re j" msg;ska u we;s Ivdi% odrh jgd l`M fLdj osf.a lmkAk' fuys
wjidkfha oS lvodisfha uq`M ndysr fldgi lsh;a o;l wdldrfhka fl<jr jkq
we;'
îii& oeka kefkda kd<fha wdlD;sh ;ekSug t<fUuq' fuys oS wm W;aidy lrkafka
by; rEmfha oelafjk wla-jla wdldr wdlD;shla ;ekSsug h'
wmf.a wruqKq tl u ,laIHhlska wdrN lsu yd wjika lsu is lsug h'
tla w;l we`.s,a,la yd udmge`.s,a, w;r wdrNl ,laIHh ^0" 0& ;nd f.k
wfkla w; frda,a lrk ,o ;,h jgd .Kka lsug fhdod .kska mgka .;a
;ekska wjika lsug W;aidy .kak' tk" wdrNl ,laIHh fj; h<s
mefKk ;=re k<h jgd tla tla ldnka mrudKqj - ^1"0& ^2"0& ^3"0& ^4"0& ^5"0&
hkdoS jYfhka .Kka lrf.k hkak' fuh is wef;d;a Tn iska ir,
ldnka kefkda kd<hl wdlD;shla idokq ,en we;' ^Ref: www.mrsec.wisc.edu&
ldnka kefkda kd<j, .=K
C-C iy-ixhqc nkaOk yd jd rys; Ivi%dldr cd,h lrKfldg jvd;a u
Yla;su;a jQ;a kuH jQ;a wKql jHh f'

hx udmdxlh b;d wl h; th 1T Pa ls' ^weksh i|yd th 70 G Pa
jk w;r ldnka fl|sj, 700 G Pa ls'&
;dm ikakdhl;dj by< h'
kefkda kd< j.h wkqj oHq;a ikakdhl;dj fjkia f'
ldnka kefkda kd<j, Nd;
ldnka kefkda kd<j, fN!;sl .=Kj,ska tlla k tajd tal mrudKql ia;rhl
.klulska ,nd .; yels u hs' tk tajdfha >klu ksia flia .ilska
1$50"000 ls'
me;,s mqjre oYk ;sr ^ Flat panel display screens &
kefkda kd<hla oHq;a lafIa;%hlg

fh l,ays" l=vd ld,;=jlal=jlska
fuka kefkda kd<h fl<jka
bf,la f g% d a k ks l = ; a f' tu
bf,la f g% d a k ia M q r oS m a ; ;s r hla
^phosphor screen & u; m;s; ug
ie,iqj fyd;a m%;snhla ksudKh
l< yels h' iud. lsysmhla u ^SI
Dianond, Samsung& f ;dlaIKh
Nd;hg .kska idm%odhsl
rEmjdyskS hka;%j, we;s Yd, bf,lafg%dak oskhla" ie,lsh hq;= ;rka l=vd
jQ ldnka kefkda kd< bf,lafg%dk oskj,ska m%;i:dmkh lr we;' oHd{hka
a
s a
fu jeks l=vd bf,lafg%dak osk f,i ,shk .Kkska ldnka kefkda kd<
Nd;hg fhdo;a k" udkj, wjYH fjkia l is lrka" ;a;sj, t,a,d
;eh yels me;,s oYk ;sr ksuug yels f'
208
kefkda ixhqla; jH
nyq lA;sl kefkda kd<j, ^MWNT& m<uq Nd;h f,i iksgqyka jkafka
nyqwjhjl ixhqla; jHj, oHq;a ikakdhl ixrpl f,i fhoSu hs' mQrl
nyqwjlfha iajNdjh wkqj 5] l msrjqulska 0'01 - 0'1 S/cm l ikakdhl;djla
,nd .; yels h' ia;s oHq;a wdfrdamKh W;aickh lsug jvd wvq
ikakdhl;d ug m%udKj;a h'
kefkda ixhqla; jH jvd fifukq;a taldldrj;a isis,a ug fya;= jk fyd|
;dm ikakdhl .=K ldnka fl|s i;= h' f ksid kefkda ixhqla; jH jvd
fyd|ska jd;a;= l< yels f'
l% s ' j' 900 - 1750 g wh;a

kefkda ldnkaj,ska ie,;a
Y%S ,dxlSh wism;la
yhsrcka .nvd lsu
bkaOk fldaIhl yhsrcka yd Tlaiscka m%;sl%shd lsf oS oHq;h ckkh jk

w;r w;=reM,hla f,i ,efnkafka c,h hs' ludka;hla i|yd yhsrckaTlaiscka bkaOk fldaIhla wjYH j wef;d;a Bg wjYH yhsrcka wdrlaIs; j
.nvd lr ;ef l%uhla fiug oHd{hkag yd bxfkarejkag is f'
ldnka kefkda kd< fuhg iqiq l,amhls' ldnka kefkda kd<j,g yhsrcka
ix; lr .ekSf yelshdj we;s fyhska f wruqK bgq lr .ekSug wdrlaIs;"
ldhlaIu yd msjeh - M,odhl;ajfhka hq;a l%uhla iemfha' yhsrcka
mrudKq" kefkda kd<fha ldnka mrudKqj,g nkaOkh f' WIaK;ajfha yd
mSvkfha iq`M fjkilska th miq j ksoyia lr .; yels h'
kefkda mudK bf,lafg%dksl oHdj$kefkda .Kkh ^nanocomputing&
oHd{hka ldnka kefkda kd<j, hdka;%sl yd oHq;a .=K Wmfhda.S lr .kska

wKql bf,lafg%daksl fuj, ksmojd we;' kefkda kd< .%svhl msysg jQ l,ays
kefkda kd<j, fok întersections&" f;dr;=re fmd;s ^bits of information&
njg m;a jk w;r tajd uelS hdulska f;drj .nvd lr .; yels h'
209
3' wldnksl kefkda jH

î& TiO2 kefkda wxY=
ghsfksh vfhdlaihs m%ldY W;afm%rlhls' ghsfksh Tlaihsv" W;afm%rlfha
a
a
l,dm mr;r Yla;shg jvd je Yla;sfhka hq;a mdrcnq, lsrKj,ska
^1< 380 nm& m%lsrKh l< l,ays ikakdhl yd ixhqc;d l,dmj, ms<sfj<ska
bf,lafg%dak yd isre we;s f' bf,lafg%dak by< m%;sl%shdfjka hq;a TlaisyrK
Njhlska hql; jk w;r isre by< m%;lh;djlska hq;a TlailrK Njhlska
a
s s%
s
hql; f' f fol taldnoaO fuka ldnksl jH fhdackh flfrk W;afm%;
a
a
m%;sl%shd fm%arKh f' f yereKq g" m%ldY W;afm%arl iska jH mDIaG u;
we;s flfrk w;sc,ld .=K" m%;sIl" m%;sOQul" jdKqyrK" .kaO kdYl"
c,h m;% lsf yd jdhq m;% lsf ixfYdaO lr ,laIKj,g fya;= f'
TiO2 kefkda wxY= ^40 nm & m%ldY W;afm%a; TlaislrKfhka ldnksl Il" CO2
yd H2O njg mj;kh lrhs'
TiO2 ys Nd;
iQh fldaIj, fhoS
210
iQh fldaIj," kefkda TiO2 ys jKdj,s m%;spdrh ;Sj% lsug m%ldY ixfoS
idhula fhdok w;r wdf,dal wjfYdaIK bf,lafg%dvhla f,i idh wdf,am;
a
s
kefkda TiO2 Nd; f' m%;s bf,lafg%davh f,i ma,ek bf,lafg%davhla
md f' m%ldY ixfoS idhu f,i nyq, j fhdokq ,nkafka Ru f,dayh
mok fldg .;a f,day - ldnksl idhuls' ^lxl=xj,ska .;a laf,dafrda*s,a jeks
iajdNdl jKl o Nd; l< yels h'& jKlhg wdf,dalh wjfYdaIKh jQ
g N+ wjia:df ;snQ bf,lafg%dak W;af;ackh by< Yla;s ug lrd
.uka lrk w;r N+ wjia:df Ok isre b;s f' fuu w Yla;s bf,lafg%dk
a
kefkda TiO2 j,g udre jk w;r iuia; kefkda wxY= ;=<g irKh f' ta
iu`. tajdg ;j;a kefkda wxY= yuq f' W;af;a; bf,lafg%dak uq,a wxY= ;=<
.uka l< moafoka u f kefkda wxY= yryd o .uka lrhs' f w;r;=r miq
oHq;a inkaO;dj lrd wefok bf,lafg%dak oHq;a Odrdjla ckkh lrka
ndysr mm:fha .uka lrhs' ôHq;a Odrdjla hkq bf,lafg%dk Odrdjls&' jKlfha
a
b;s jk Ok isre udOHfha frfvdlaia hq.auhlska ^fuys oS k I- whk&
yqjudre jk bf,lafg%dak iska WodiSk flf' fu khska mm:fha wdfrdamK
pl%h imQK f'
jd;h msis lsu
TiO2 j,g m%ldY W;afm%arK TlaislrK yelshdj jd;fha Il bj;a lsug yd

fhdackh lsug fhdod .efka' Nd; flfrk m%;lhdldrl ldnksl ixfhda.
s s%
isr fldg" ridhksl j m%d:l jYfhka CO2 yd c,h njg TlaislrKh lrhs'
f m%;sl%shdldrl l%shdlrkafka ldur WIaK;ajfha oS yd fkdie,lsh yels ;r
l=vd mSvkhl oS h' tneka tajd myiqfjka mj;akd ;dmk" jd;k yd jdhq
ilrK moaO;s iu`. taldnoaO l< yels h'
m%;snelahd wdjrK
m%ldY W;afm%arlh nelahd ffi, urkq muKla fkdj tajd fhdackh o

lrhs' nelahd ffi, mDIaGh jid f.k isk g;a ffi, fkdlvjd
.=Kkh jk g;a m%ldY m%;sl%shdj is jk neka fjk;a lsis m%;snelah
ldrlhlg jvd TiO2 m%ldY W;afm%arlh ldhlaIu f' ffi, h hdfuka
211
miq wjidk M, f,i we;s jk OQ,l ^toxine& mjd m%ldY W;afm%arK l%shdfjka
kdY f hehs wfmalId flf' mydkshg m;a fkdjk fyhska tys m%;nelah
a
s
wdprKh oS>ld,Sk h' idudkHfhka TiO2" IckdYl .=Kh w;ska laf,daka
fuka ;=ka .=Khla o fidaka fuka 1'5 .=Khla o n,j;a h' ghsfksh
vfhdlaihs mdol wdjrK wdidok jHdma;sh wvq lsug;a m%;sYla;s moaO;sh
n, jQ frda.Ska flfrys we;s jk ;ck wju lsug;a frday,aj, yd iq/l=
ia:dkj, Nd; f' uyck fi!LH jeoshqKq lrkq jia th mdi,a wdoS fmd
ia:dkj, o mjq,a fi!LHh kxjkq jia uq`M;eka f.j,a" kdk ldur wdosfhys o
th Nd;hg .efka'
îi& pqnl kefkda wxY= (MNP)
pqnl kefkda wxY= ndysr pqnl lafIa;%hlska yeisrh yelsh' tu wxY= hlv"
ksl,a yd fldfnda,a jeks uQ,jHj,ska yd tajdfha ixfhda.j,ska iEoS we;'
W;afm%arKh" ffcj ffjoH oHdj" pqnl wkqkdo m%;snlrKh" o;a;
ixLHdhkh yd mdil m%;sluh hk lafIa;%j, mfhaIKhkaf.a kdNsh
jQfha f wxY= h'
pqnl kefkda wxY= i|yd ksoiqka ( Fe, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, NiO, CoO2
whka Tlaihs kefkda wxY= ndysr

pqnl fC I;%hla u`.ska yerhh
yels h'
Nd;
ffcj wkqrEm;dj" l=vd ;ru" w;swkqlafIa;% pqnl yeisu yd Yd, mDIah

j. M,h lrKfldg ffcjffjoH oHdfjys fuu kefkda wxY=j, Nd;
wiS; h'
ms<sld wkdjrKh
ms<sldj udrdka;sl frda.fhka ug tla fya;=jla jkafka ms<sldckl ffi,

tla bkashlska ;j;a bkashla lrd me;s hdu iy tfia me;sreKq ;ekaj, kj
wnQo^tumors& yg.ekau hs' fuh ia:dkdka;rKh ^metastasis& hkqfjka ye|skf'
a
m%d:l wnQoj,ska le fjka jk m%ydrl ffi, rer Odrdjg tl;= jk
w;r tajd ixirK wnQo ffi, f,i ykajkq ,ef' f ffi, ykd
.ekSu;a kdY lr oeu;a w;sYh wNsfhda.d;aul .egjls' pqnl kefkda
wxY=j,g tajdfha l=vd ;ru fya;= fldg f.k ksia ffi, ;=<g we;=`M ug;a
tajdfha widudkH jOk ykd .ekSug;a yels h' tneka pqnl kefkda wxY=
212
hg lS wnQo ffi, wdrNl wjfha oS u wkdjrKh lr .ekSug Nd; l<

yels h'
md,s; T!IO uqod yeu ^Controlled Drug delivery&
;rfuys l=vd nj;a" ksiqka flfrys wvq IodhS nj;a" yereKq g pqnl
kefkda wxY=j,g ndysr pqnl lafIa;% wkql%uhla Tiafia .uka lsf yelshdj
we;' tfyhska tajdg ksia mgl kso .eUqrg .uka l< yels h' fukhska
md,s; ;;a;aj hgf;a b,lal ia:dk lrd T!IO mjykh l< yels h' ffcj
wkqrEm pqnl kefkda wxY= jdylhlg ^biocompatible MNP carrier & T!IOh hd
fldg" rer Odrdjg f*frda jhla ^ferro liquid& kslafIamkh lr" ndysr pqnl
lafIa;%hla fhoSfuka b,lal ia:dkj, T!IO-jdyl ixlSKh tla /ia ug
ie,ish yels h' ms<sldj,g m%;sldr lsf oS ffi,j,g I f,i l%shd lrk
T!IO ^cytotoxic drugs& Yr .; lsf oS f uQ,Ough Nd;hg .efka'
is,aj kefkda wxY=
Y; jI .Kkdjla ;sifia frda. .Kkdjla je<elaug;a tajdg m%;ldr lsug;a

a
s
oS Nd;hg f.k we;' oS oekg w;s me/Ksu laIq kdYlhla jk w;r th
id:l j nelahd" os,Sr yd jhsrij,g tfrys j fhdod we;af;a h' kefkda
is,ajj, widudkH m%;snelahd flfrys jk n,mEu tys m%udK wkqrEm;dj
(size compato bility) fya;= fldg f.k we;s jk Yajik tkaihsu ud. wjysr
lsu yd laIq DNA j, yd ffi, ;a;sfhys fjkia u ksid we;s jkakls'
O jHj, ksudj we;s lsfuys ^kefkda ksudj - nanofinishing & ,d kefkda
;dlaIKh kj hq.hla Wod lr we;' fros ms<s ludka;fha oS Nd; jk kefkda
ksudj fuhg ksoiqkls' fuys oS frosm<j, fyda we u; kefkda wxY= wdf,amkhla
s s
213
fhoSu idudkH jHjydrhla njg m;a j we;' fuhska mDIaGh il%sh thg
mdrcnq, lsrK wdjrKh lsf" laIqkg yd .skakg Tfrd;a;= oSf" c,h
lIKh lsf yd iajhx-msis f .=K wdfrdamKh f' m%;slaIq
,laIK kefkda is,j iska we;s flfrk w;r iskla Tlaihs fyda ghsfksh
a
a
vfhdlaihs fyda kefkda wxY= mdrcnq, wdjrK" iaj-msis yd .sks-m%;sfrdaOl
.=K jia;%hg wdfrdamKh lrhs'
oeka olakg ,efnk .kaO kdYl yd m%;snelah .=Kj,ska hq;a fia msh
lr we;af;a is,aj kefkda wxY=j,sks'
;j;a kefkda wxY= lsysmhl Nd; my; oelaf'

SiO2
nyqwjhjl ixhqla; jH ^fYaIfhka rn ludka;fha&
fros ms<s ludka;fha ^fYaIfhka Wiia .Kfha frosms<s&
wO ikakdhl f,i
CeO 2
wkd.; bkaOk fldaI
r;a;rka kefkda wxY=
frosms<s ludka;h
T!IO Yr.; lsu
ffcj oHd;aul fhoS
214
ksmqK;dj 16'0
( ridhk oHd oekqu" mdil iu;=,;;dj mj;ajd .ekSug

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'1
( mdil iu;=,s;;dj mj;ajd .ekSfuys ,d mirfha m%Yia;

ixhq;sfhys odhl;ajh mslaihs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 05 hs'
(
jdhqf.da,fha ixhq;sh ykd .kshs'

Wkak;dxYh iu`. jdhqf.da,Sh WIaK;ajh yd mSvkh p,kh jk wdldrh
ksoiqka weiqka fmkajhs'

c,f.da,fha ixhq;sh ykd .kshs'
mD lfndf,ys ixhq;sh m%ldY lrhs'
m%Odk pl% - ldnka pl%h" Tlaiscka pl%h" khsrcka pl%h yd c, pl%h - w|shs'
mdil iu;=,s;;dj flfrys jdhqf.da,fha" c,f.da,fha yd mD mDIaGfha
m%Yia; ixhq;sfhys jeo.;alu jgyd .kshs'

isiqka ,jd jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh j.= .; lrjd" tys tla tla wjYH ixrplfha
ujq, Nd.h .Kkh lrjkak'

iajdNdl pl%h ne.ska f.dv ke`.Sug tla tla YsIH lKavdhug Ndr fokak'
f.d`vke`.+ iajNdl pl%fha jeo.;alu idlPd lsug tla tla lKavdhug
mjrkak'
tla tla lKavdhu iska fidhd.;a lreKq uq`M mka;shgu bosm;a lsug
wjia:dj fokak'

jdhqf.da,fha ixhq;sh
j.=j 16'1'1 uqyq ugf oS IKh fkdjQ h<s jd;fha m%Odk ix>glj, ixhq;sh
ix>glh
mudj wkqj m%;sY;h
N2
78.08
O2
20.99
Ar
0.94
CO 2
0.03
f yer" l=vd m%udKj,ska Ne, He, CH4, Kr, H2, N2O jdhq o l=vd p,H
m%udKj,ska NH3, SO2, CO, NO2, O3, H2S jeks Il o we;' ishhg y;rla
muK we;s c, jdIam taldldrj jHdma; fkdue;s w;r id.r yd Yd, c,dY
wdikakfha by< idkaKhlska mj;S'
N N nkaOkfha m%n,;dj fya;fjka N2 wKqjg ,efnk ia:dhS;dj lrKfldg"
=
jdhqf.da,fha khsrcka m%;sY;h by< f' Tlaiscka" khsrckaj,g jvd

m%;sl%ShYS,S h' tneka jdhqf.da,fha O2 m%udKh" N2 m%udKhg jvd wvq h'
215
wE; w;S;fha mDfha WIaK;ajh by< j mej;sK' tneka H2 wKqj, m%f.h"
fhda. m%f.hg jvd by< h' f ksid fndfyduhla H2 wKq mDfhka

ksoyia j f.dia j;udkfha jdhqf.da,fha b;s j we;af;a iq`M m%udKhls'
Wkak;dxYh iu`. jdhqf.da,fha" idudkH ujq,sl ialkaOh" WIaK;ajh yd
mSvkh fjkia jk wdldrh 16'1'1" 16'1'2" 16'1'3 rEmigykaj,ska oelaf'
110
2500
100
1500
80
70
60
Wkak;dxYh (km)
90
1000
500
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
170
idudkH ujq,sl ialkaOh (g)

16'1'1 rEmh
210
250
290
idudkH WIaK;ajh (K)

16'1'2 rEmh
20
15
Wkak;dxYh (km)
Wkak;dxYh (km)
2000
10
0
200
400
600 800
Pressure (torr)
16'1'3 rEmh
216
c,f.da,fha ixhq;sh
mD:s mDIaGfhka 70] la c,fhka wdjrKh f' f,dj we;s c,fhka osh
b;d l=vd m%udKhla ^2'6]& muKS' c,fhka je m%udKhla ^97'4]& we;af;a
id.rj, h' osfhka je uk;a ih ^76]& mj;skafka Kq whsia f,i
.a,eishrj, yd O%ejdikak whsia jeiau f,i h' ksidf.a mfNdackh i|yd
,nd .; yelafla bka b;d iq`M fldgila ^0'01]& muKs'
Oceans
97.41%
2.59%
ish,q c,h
Ice-caps
and
glaciers
1.984%
Ground
wataer
0.592%
osh
16'1'4 rEmh ( mDfha c, ixhq;sh yd osfhys jHdma;sh
mD lfndf,ys ixhq;sh
j.=j 16'1'2
uQ,jHh
Tlaiscka (O)
is,slka (Si)
weksh (Al)
whka (Fe)
le,aish (Ca)
fidah (Na)
fmdgEish (K)
ue.akSish (Mg)
fjk;a
mD ldfndf,a m%;sY;h
ixhq;sh
46.71
27.60
8.07
5.05
3.65
2.75
2.58
2.08
1.14
iuia; mDfha m%;sY;h

ixhq;sh
29.3
14.9
2.4
36.9
3.0
0.6
7.4
1.0
217
m%Odk pl%
jdhqf.da,Sh
CO 2
oykh
i;a;ajfhda
m%Ndixiaf,aIKh
Yajikh
yd
osrdm;au
Ydl
fifuka isjk
osrdm;au
fmdis, bkaOk
c,fha ; CO2
wjidokh
jKh
ldnfka mdIdK
16'1'5 rEmh ( ldnka pl%h
mir moaO;shl ldnka ;srlrk jk tl u l%uh m%NdixYaf,aIKh hs'

Ydl NlaIlfhda Ydl wdydrhg .ekSfuka ;u ldnka imhd .ks;s : udxY
NlaIlfhda fjk;a i;=ka wdydrhg .ekSfuka o ij NlaIlfhda Ydl yd i;=ka

wdydrhg .ekSfuka o iajlSh ldnka ,nd .ks;s'
fhdaclhka ldnka ,nd .kafka h .sh ka rKh lsfuks' u< ka
wdydr lr .ekSu uDf;dam fmdaIKh hs'
ish yq Yajikfha oS ldnka vfhdlaihs f,i ldnka jd;hg uqod y;s'
fhdaclhka fkdue;s ;kays Ydl yd i;=ka h .sh g tu foayj, we;=<;a
ldnka fmdis, bkaOk njg m;a f' fuh jI ,shk .Kka .; jk
l%shdj,shls' ^kso ( .eUqre id.rfha&
oykfha oS fmdis, bkaOkj, we;s ldnka ksoyia flf'
laIq yq o ldnka pl%fha jeo.;a fldgila bgq lr;s' Tjqyq u< foayj,
we;=<;a ldnka blaukska jdhqf.da,hg ksoyia lr;s'
218
Tlaiscka pl%h
iajikh
jdhqf.da,Sh
O2
i;a;=
wldnksl jHj,
TlaislrKh
kso; Fe2+
wdydr
oykh
Fe3+ + e
Ydl
ldfndyhsfg
m%Ndixiaf,aIKh
iajikh
CO 2 +H 2 O
mi yd c,dY
16'1'6 rEmh ( Tlaiscka pl%h

jdhqf.da,h Tlaicka oykfha oS ^ridhksl$fch& yd Yajikfha oS bj;a flfrk
S
s
w;r CO2 m%fhdackhg .efkk m%NdixYaf,aIKfha oS m%;smQrKh flf'
219
khsrcka pl%h
jdhqf.da,Sh
;srlrKh
NO
NO 2
Ydl
fm%dak
ldl
;srlrKh
ffch
;srlrKh
wdydr
i;a;aj
fm%dak
ftkash jHj,
khsrcka
NH 3
fmdfydr
osrdm;au
uq,aj,ska
wjfYdaIKh
osrdm;au
NO 2 -
mfiys khsrcka
NO 3 -
NH 4 +
khsld nelahd
khsfrdnelag(khsfrdfidfudkdia)
N+ .; c,hg
16'1'7 rEmh ( khsrcka pl%h
jdhqf.da,Sh khsrcka nelahd iska ;sr flf'
we;e nelahd ^kso(

wfidfgdnelag& mfia ksoyia j j;a f' fidahq jeks ;j;a j. mj;skfka
a
f,.=fkdafia Ydlj, uQ, .eg;sj, h' jdhqf.da,Sh khsg%cka wefudakshd njg
o wk;=re j khsrhsg yd khsfg njg o mj;kh flf' fjd Ydl
iska wjfYdaIKh lrkq ,en fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh i|yd fhof'
Ydl fm%dakj, wka;.; khsrcka wdydr odu Tiafia i;=ka fj; .uka
lrhs'
kaf.a urKfhka miq laIq l%shdld;ajh lrKfldg" foayj, ;snQ
khsrcka wefudaksh ixfhda. njg mj;kh h<s mig tla f' i;a;=
wlaudf isjk weuhskayrKfhka jemqr weuhsfkda w, | fy<;s' uQ;% my
lsu u`.ska tu khsrcka mig tl;= f'
khsld nelahd wefudaksh ixfhda. khsfg njg yrjhs' m<uq j
khsfrdfidfudkdia nelahd iska wefudaksh ixfhda. khsrhsg njg o
wk;=re j khsfrdnelag nelahd iska khsrhsg" khsfg njg o
mj;kh flf'
iQfvdfudkdia yd ;fhdaneis,ia jeks khsyd nelahd iska khsfg h<s
jdhqf.da,Sh khsrcka njg m;a flf'
220
khsyd nelahd
khsyd nelahd
jdhqf.da,Sh
N2
c, pl%h
jdIamSlrKh
mD
lfnd,
jdhq f.da,h
jIKh
jdIamSlrKh
N+ . ;
c,h
id.r
.x.d Tiafia .,kh
jIKh
16'1'8 rEmh ( c, pl%h
fmdf<dfjys iks;H;dj i|yd mirfha ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .ekSug jdhqf.da,fha"
c,f.da,fha yd mD mDIaGfha m%Yia; ixhq;sh jeo.;a f' f iu;=,s;;dj

| jeu my; oelafjk .egj,g fya;= f'
ksidf.a fi!LH msySu
Ydlj,g ydks meKSu
ls.re~ f.dvke.s,s" m%;sud kdY u
,jK;dj$laIdh;dj je u
mdIdK rKh
ksh`.$.xj;=r
221
ksmqK;dj 16'0

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'2
( m%Yia; mdil ixhq;sfhys fjkiau yd tys n,mE ms<sn|

j uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh fjkia lrk jdhq ykd .kshs'

jdhqf.da,hg jdhq tl;= jk l%u uihs'
jdhqf.da,hg tl;= jk jdhqj, n,mE meyeos,s lrhs'
fyka kshuh Nd; lrka jdhqf.da,fha wd,sl jdhq ixhq;sh yd pH w.h
w;r inkaO;dj jHq;amkak lrhs'
u;=msg c,fha idkaKfha fjkia fya;= fldg mD ixhq;sfha we;s jk
fjkia ia;r lrhs'

;u m%foaYfha jdhqf.da,hg jdhq uqod yefrk wdldr ykd .kakd f,i isiqkg
mjikak'
fufia tl;=jk jdhqj,ska we;s flfrk mdil n,mE isiqka iu`. idlPd
lrkak'
isiqka iu`." jdhqf.da,fha we;s Il jdhq wju l< yels wdldr ms<sn| j
idlPd lrkak'

CO(g) , H2S(g), SO2(g) , SO3(g), NOx(g) yd CO2(g) jdhqf.da,h ixhq;h fjkia
S
s
lrk wldnksl jH f' yhsfrdldnk yd fyaf,dyhsfrdldnk we;=`M

ldnksl jH o jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh fjkia lsug fya;= f'
iajdNdl j ldnksl jHj, ksjdhq ydhkfhka fuf;aka we;s jk w;r
jdhqf.da,Sh CO(g) h m%udKhla fuf;aka TlaislrKfhka we;s f' fudag

r:j, wNHka;r oykh we;=`M ish wimQK oyk l%shdj,sj, oS CO(g)
fudapkh f'
i,a* wvx.= fmdis, bkaOk oykh" .skl odrKh" ldnksl jHj, ffch
s
osu" i,af*agj, TlaisyrKh yd i,a*hsvj,ska f,day fjka lr .ekSu hk

l%shdj, oS SO2(g) jdhqf.da,hg we;=`M f' SO2(g) Tlaiscka iu`. m%;sl%shd lr
SO3(g) idohs' jdhqf.da,Sh SO2(g), SO3(g) njg TlaislrKh f YS>%;dj
NO(g) u`.ska je lrhs'
wl=Kq yd ,s fl" ffch l%shdj,s jeks iajdNdl ixisoa ksid o Il
m%Njj,ska o NOx (g) jdhqf.da,hg we;=`M f' NOx (g)j,ska nyq;rh ksmfokafka
fmdis, bkaOk oykfha oS h' NOx (g) j,ska jeuk;a m%udKhla jdhqf.da,hg
222
we;=`M jkafka wNHka;r oyk tkakaj,sks' wefudakshd jdhqj TlaislrKfha

oS o NOx (g) iEfoa'
H2S(g) ys iq,n; u m%Nj jkafka ldnksl jHj, laIq rKh yd i,af*ag
whkj, TlaisyrKh hs'
yhsfrdldnk Yd, jYfhka bkaOk f,i fhdod .efka' tajd fl<ska u fyda
wimQK oykfha w;=re M, f,i fyda jdhqf.da,hg mefKa' jdykj,
wmd,s; msgdr fuys we,aflak" we,alSk yd wefrdauel yhsfrdldnk wvx.=
f' c,fha we;s ldnksl jHj, ksjdhq fhdackfha oS Yd, m%udKj,ska
fuf;aka we;s f'
fyaf,dyhsfrdlndk
laf,dafrd*afjdfrd we,aflak fyda laf,dafrd*afjdfrdldnk CFC fyj;a
*%sfhdak ^Freons& hkqfjka ye|skaf' tajd thfrdfid, m%pd,l" YS;ldrl yd

fmK Wmojk jH f,i Nd; f'
fyaf,dak ^Halons& hkq imQKfhka ye,ckSlD; we,alSk ^kso( CBrClF2,
CBrF3 yd C2Br2F4& f' fjd .sks ksu i|yd Wmfhda.Slr .efka'
jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh fjkiafuys m%;sM,
y;d.dr wdprKh
iQhhdf.ka ,efnk Yla;sh yd mDfhka wdmiq lsrKh flfrk Yla;sh
w;r wkjr; wjia:d iu;=,;h iska mDfha WIaK;ajh ;sr flf' mDfha
s
WIaK;ajh md,kh flfrk tla hka;%Khla jkafka y;d.dr wdprKh hs'
ikakhkfhka" ixjykfhka yd lsrKfhka mDfhka ;dmh neyer f'
lsrKh u`.ska neyer ug m%:u" mD ;dmfhka fldgila ikakhkh yd

ixjykh u`.ska j,dl=`M fj; ifm%aIKh f'
ixjykfha oS ;dmh ixl%duKh jkafka c,fha jdIamSlrK tka;e,amsh f,i h'
c, jdIam >kSNjkfha oS tys we;=<;a ;dmh ksoyia f'

mDfhka ;dmh neyer lrk lsrK oS> ;rx. wdhdufhka hqla; jk w;r
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha wfOdarla; l,dmhg wh;a h'

neyer jk ish lsrK bj;a j h;a k" mD mDIaGfha WIaK;ajh- 18 0C jkq
we;' pkahdf.a WIaK;ajh o fuh f'

tfy;a ldnka vfhdlaihs" c, jdIam" fuf;ak" vhskhsrcka Tlaihs" fidak"
a
a
i,a* vfhdlaihs yd laf,dafrd*afjdfrdldnka mDfhka ksl=;a jk

lsrKj,ska je fldgila Wrd f.k bka wvla muK h<s mD mDIaGh fj;
m%;slsrKh lrhs' fuh mDh WKqiq j ;nd .ekSug;a tys jhg ys;lr
foaY.=Khla mj;ajd .ekSug;a fya;= f' fuh y;d.dr wdprKh hkqfjka
ye|skafjk w;r Bg odhl jk jdhq" y;d.dr jdhq f,i ykajkq ,ef'
y;d.dr wdprKfha m%Odk N+ldj bgq lrkafka CO2 (g) h'
tfy;a y;d.dr jdhq tajdfha m%Yia; ug blaujd hd yels h' tg mDfha
WIaK;ajh je f' fuh 'f.da,Sh WKqiqu' kka ye|skaf'

223
O%ejdikak whsia jeia u osh u;a tu`.ska my< ugj, msys rgj,a c,fhka
hg u;a f.da,Sh WKqiqfuys m%;sM, f'

WIaK;ajh by< hEug" id.r c,h jdIamSlrKh ug" ldnka vfhdlaihsj,
djH;dj wvq ug yd huy,a l%shdld;ajhg fya;= jkq we;'

fidaka ia;rh laIh u
wmj;S f.da,fha fidaka ia;rhla f' fu u`.ska" mdrcnq, lsrK wl
f,i mj;S f.da,hg we;=`M u j<lhs'
O2(g) yd O3(g) inkaO jk m%;sl%shdj,ska iuyrla k;
a)
iQh mdrcnq, lsrK O2 (g) >gkh lrhs'
b) mrudKql Tlaisckaj,ska Ô& fldgila vhsTlaiscka wKq Ô2& iu`.
ixfhdackfhka g%hsTlaiscka wKq Ô3& we;s f'
O (g) + O2(g)
O3(g)
c) O3(g) mrcnq, lsrK wjfYdaIKh lrka fhdackh f'
O3 (g) + h (UV)
O2 (g) + O(g)
d) O3 wKq O mrudKq yd m%;sl%shd O2 wKq idohs'
O3(g) + O(g)
2O2(g)
iajdNdl ;=,H;dj iska fidaka ia;rh ksh; >klka hqla; j mj;ajd .kq
,ef'
mdrcnq, lsrKj, m;kh yd ksidg je<f|k udrl jQ;a udrl fkdjkakd
jQ;a pu ms<sld w;r m%n, iyinkaO;djla mj;S' fidak ia;rh wm wdrlaId

lrhs'
H , NO , O yd fjk;a uqla; LKavl iu`. isjk m%;sl%shdj, oS fidaka kdY
f'
m%ldY >gkfha oS uqla; LKavl ckkh f'
O2(g)+ h
N2O(g) + h
N2(g) +
.
CH4(g) + h
CH3(g) + H.(g)
f uqla; LKavl fidaka iu`. m%;sl%shd f'
.
.
H (g) + O3(g)
OH (g) + O2(g)
.
.
OH (g) + O(g)
O2(g) + H (g)
khsrckaj, we;e Tlaihsv o fidaka iu`. m%;sl%shd f'
.
.
NO (g) + O3 (g)
NO 2(g) + O2(g)
.
.
NO 2 (g) + O(g)
NO (g) + O2(g)
my; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;d ksh; ii|kak'
O(g) + O3(g)
2O2(g)
k1 = 5x105dm3 mol-1s-1
.
O(g) + NO2(g)
NO (g) +O2(g) k2 = 5x109 dm-3 mol-1s-1
224
fo jeks YS>%;d ksh;fhys by< w.h O3 ia;rfha iajdNdl ;=,H;dj flfrys
NO n,mdk wdldrh fmkajhs'

NO(g) b;d m%;sl%shdYS,s fyhska th wmj;S f.da,h fj; fkd mefKhs'
tfy;a wvq m%;sl%shd;dfjka hq;a N2O wKq wmj;S f.da,h fj; meK NO
wKq ckkh lrhs'
.
O(g) + N2O(g)
2NO (g)
j;udkfha" ksid iska ksmojk ,o oE ksid fidaka ia;rhg ydks mefKa'
m%ldY-ridhksl OQldj
m%ldY-ridhksl OQldj ly meyehg yqre ;srhls' th fmkSug ndOd lrk
w;r weiaj, oe,a, we;s lrhs'
OQldjla ^smog& hkq fuys ^smoke& yd fuys ^fog& ixfhdackhls'
mdrcnq, lsrK yuqf oS yhsfrdldnk yd khsrcka Tlaihsv m%;sl%shd "
m%ldY-ridhksl OQldjg fya;= jk m%ldY-ridhksl Tlaisldrl iEoSf mshjr
my; oelaf'
î& NO2 iQhdf,dalh wjfYdaIKh lr m%Ndfokh u
NO2+h
NO + O
îi& m%ldY-ridhksl Tlaisldrl iska mdrcnQ, lsrK wjfYdaIKh lr
.ekSu
a)
^M hkq Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh lrk jdhq wjia:df we;s ;=ka jeks jHhls&
b)
O + H2O
2HO
(w, jeisj,g fya;= f)
c)
CO + OH + O2
îii&
îv&
CO2+ HOO* (fmfrdlais LKavh)
Tlaisldrl" yhsfrdldnk ^RH& iu`. m%;sl%shd uqla; LKavl iEoSu

O3 + RH
R. + RCO.2 + RCHO (fyda R2CO) + fjk;a oE
HO. + RH
R. + H2O
R . + O2
ROO. (m%n, Tlaisldrlh)
iEfok RCHO, R2CO yd fjk;a we;e ixfhda. >kSNjkh iEfok
thfrdfid, ksid fmkSu wmeyeos,s f'
odu m%udKh
HOO. + NO.
OH. + NO2
NO. + ROO.
NO2 + fjk;a M,
225
^v&
odu wjidkh
O
CH3
+ NO2
CH3
NO2
fmfrdlaist;fkdhs,a khsf (PAN)

O
C6H5
C6 H 5
+ NO2
NO2
fmfrdlaisfnkafidhs,a khsf (PBN)

PAN yd PBN m%n, wlaIs W;afldaIl jk w;r Ydlj,g b;d I h'
iQh Yla;s fhojqu
NO2 + h
NO 2
NO
.
NO O3 fyda RO 2 iu`.
m%;sl%shd NO2 idohs'
.
NO + O
O2
O yd O2 m%;sl%shd
O3 idohs'
.
.
O , OH yd O3 iu`. RH
m%;sl%shd m%;sl%shdYS,S uqla;
LKav idohs'
yhsfrdldnk uqla; LKavl
R uqla; LKavl
R uqla; LKavl NO2 wdosh iu`. m%;sl%shd

PAN, RCHO yd fjk;a ixrpl idohs'
NO 2
r:jdyk
16'2'1 rEmh ( m%ldY - ridhksl OQld wdY%s; l%shdj,s
226
m%ldY - ridhksl N+ldj, n,mE (

ksidf.a fi!LHh yd ikSmrlaIdj flfrys jk n,mE m%ldY - ridhksl
OQld Yajik moaO;shg n,mdk w;r leiai" weu jeks frda.dndOj,g
fya;= f'
jHj,g ydks u
oa;aj nkaOkj, LKavkhg fya;= jk ksid fidaka rnj, yd frosj,

.=Kd;aul w.h wvq lrk w;r jKl rxckh lrhs'
jdhqf.da,h flfrys we;s lrk n,mE
thfrdfid, wxY= wdf,dalh m%lsrKh lrka fmkSug ndOd we;s lrhs'

Ydl flfrys we;s flfrk n,mE
jeks ixfhda. Ydlj,g I iys; h' ;j o OQld wdf,dalh lmd yk

fyhska Ydlj, m%Ndixiaf,aIKhg ndOd lr wdydr ksIamdokh wvq lrhs'
fuh f,dal wdydr wnQohg o fya;=jla we;'
w, jeis
CO2(g) c,h iu`. my; oelafjk mos m%;lhd lrhs' ^; CO2 , H2CO3(aq)
s s%
fyda CO2(aq) f,i ,sh yels h'&
H2CO3(aq)
HCO3- (aq) + H+(aq)
HCO3-(aq)
CO32-(aq) + H+(aq)
SO2(g) o c,h yd m%;sl%shd f'
SO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq)
+
H2SO3(aq)
H (aq) + HSO3- (aq)
HSO3-(aq)
H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) + 1/2O2(g)
H2SO4(aq)
H2SO4(aq)
2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
NOx(g) o c,h yd m%;sl%shd f'
2NO(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
4NO2(g) +2 H2O(l) +O2(g)
4HNO3(aq)
+
HNO3(aq)
H (aq) + NO3 (g)
CO2 jKh u ksid iajdNdl jeis c,fhys pH w.h 5'1 - 5'6 w;r f' fuh
w, jeis f,i fkd ie,fla' tfy;a SO2^g&" SO3^g& yd NO2^g& jeis c,fha
jKh u ksid tys pH w.h 4'0 - 5'0 ;rug wvq f' th w, jeis fia
i,lkq ,ef'
w, jeis Ydlj,g ydkslr jk w;r je wdosfha jik uiqkaf.a urKhg o
fya;= f' w, jeisj, we;s i,af*a whk" ixlSK ixfhda.j, we;s weksh
iu`. ixfhdackfhka djH weksh i,af*a iEfoa' fuh u;aiHhkaf.a
lru,aj, l%shdld;ajhg ndOd muqKqjhs'
227
mi yryd .,d hk w, jeis c,h fmdaIl bj;a lrk w;r weksh whk
ksoyia lrhs' f ksid Ydlj,g Ca yd Mg jeks w;HjYH fmdaIl fjkqjg

weksh whk wjfYdaIKh f'
yqkq.,a ks" ls.re~ m%;sud" f,dayuh jHqy" md," ke yd fudag jdyk o
w, jeisj, n,mEug b,lal f'

fyka kshuh jhla yd jdhqjla w;r mj;akd iu;=,s;;dj ia;r lrhs' fok
,o WIaK;ajhl oS jhl ; jdhqjl idkaKh" tu jH yd iu;=,s; j we;s

jdhqf wdxYsl mSvkhg iudkqmd;sl nj bka m%ldY f'
tu ksid C = KH P.
fuys KH hkq Nd. ix.=Klh fyj;a jHdma;s ix.=Klh hs'
CO2(air)
H2CO3(aq)
iu;=,s;;d kshuhg wkqj"
fyka kshuhg wkqj"
ldur WIaK;ajfha oS pCO2 = 0.00032 atm = 32 Pa

KH = 3.8 10-7 mol dm-3 Pa-1
H2CO3(aq)
H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
HCO3-(aq)
H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
K1 = 4.5 10-7 mol dm-3

K2 = 4.7 10-11 mol dm-3
tu ksid fo jeks whkSlrKh fkdi,ld yeh yels h'
228
m<uq ilrKfhka"
[HCO3- (aq)] = [H+ (aq)]
32 Pa 3.8 10-7 mol dm-3

[H+ (aq)]2
[H+ (aq)]
pH
4.5 10-7 mol dm-3 = [H+ (aq)]2

= 5.5 10-12 mol2 dm-6
= (5.5 10-12) mol dm-3
= -log [H+(aq)]
= - log (5.5 10-12)
= 6 - log 5.5
= 5.6
tfia u" SO2(aq) fyj;a [H2SO3 (aq)] ie,l+ g (
K1 = 1.27 10-3 mol dm-3

K2 = 6.24 10-8 mol dm-3
KH = 1.24 10-5 mol dm-3 Pa-1
idudkH ugug Is; k.rhl
= 1 10-2 Pa
pH = 4.9
mD mDIaGfha ixhq;sfhys fjkia u
fvd,uhs" yqkq.,a yd ls.re~ wdosh wd,sl c,fha jKh f' Al2O3 yd
hlv Tlaihsv o wd,sl c,fha osh f' tneka fmdf<dj u;=msg .,d hk
wd,sl jeis c,fhys by; i|yka Lksc yd fmdaIl jKh f'
Al2O3 (s)+ 6H(aq)+
2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Fe2O3 (s)+ 6H+(aq)
2Fe3+(aq)+ 3H2O(l)
uD wd,sl ;;a;aj hgf;a oS(
CaCO3.MgCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq)

Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+ (aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)
CaCO3(s) + H+(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
MgCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq)
Mg2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
m%n, wd,sl ;;a;aj hgf;a oS
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)
MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)
CaCO3.MgCO3(s) + 4H+(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
229
mj; yd je,s wdY%s; j fjk;a fndfyda ,jK o w, jeiafia jKh f'
iajdNdl j isjk isoa odufha oS mi l%ufhka wd,sl f' Ydl iska mdxY=
djKfha legdhk bj;a flfrk w;r tajd H+ iska ia:dmkh f' i,a*hsv
jeks Lksc w, njg TlaislrKh f' wvq pH w.fha oS H+ iska mfia we;s
wfkl=;a legdhk ia:dmkh flf' Al3+ " Ca3+ " Mg2+ muKla fkdj ner
f,dayj, legdhk o fufia H+ iska ia:dmkh f' mi ;=<ska .,k wd,sl
c,h ksid Al3+ yd fjk;a Lksc laIrKhg ,la jk w;r mdIdK rKhg o th
fya;= f' f iu`. c,fha yd idkaKh by< f.dia c,fha lk;ajh je
f' u;=msg c,fha wd,sl;dj" ,jK;dj yd khsrcka idkaKh o ner
f,day whk idkaKh o ta iu`. je f'
230
ksmqK;dj 16'0

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'3
( jdhqf.da,fha m%Yia; ixhq;sh mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd l%shdud.

.ksh'
s
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh ie,lsh hq;= ;rka fjkia lsug fya;= jk l%shdj,s yd
jh yd fmdf<dj u; mirh flfrys tajdfha n,mEu wjfndaO lrhs'

jdhqf.da,hg CO2" CO" SOX" NOX" yhsfrdldnk yd tajdfha jHq;amkak ksoyia
u wju lsug ridhk oHd oekqu Nd; lrhs'

jdhqf.da,fha m%Yia; ixhq;sh mj;ajd .ekSug iqiq l%shdud. .kshs'

m%foaYfha IK m%Nj ykd .ekSu
m%foaYfha we;s m%Odk IK m%Nj ykd .ekSug isiqkg lshkak'
isiqkg ip, yd wp, m%Nj fjk fjk u ,ehsia;= .; lsug yd tajd mirh
flfrys we;s lrk n,mE ykd .ekSug isiqkg iydh jkak'
jdhqf.da,Sh IKhg tajdfha odhl;ajh idlPd lrkak'
we;e m%Njj,ska neyer flfrk Il m%udKh w,am jqj o tajdhska iudch
flfrys we;s flfrk n,mEu Yd, h yels nj fmkajd fokak'
iuyr m%Nj ;u m%foaYfha ia:dk.; j we;s tajd h yels h' tajdhska ksikf.a
q a
fi!LHhg o iajNdl mirhg o n,mE we;s h yels nj;a mjikak'
isiqkg Il lsysmhla f.k tajdfha n,mE" ydks yd mdil .egj,g we;s
odhl;ajh idlPd lsug mjrkak' ^fuh fmr lrk ,oaola jqj o h<s isysm;a
lrkak'&

CO2 fudapkh wju lsu
bkaOk oykh wju lsu
fudag r: Odkjkfha oS" ludka;j, oS yd bjq msyq jeks tosfkod
flfrk f.orfodr lghq;=j, oS mirhg Yd, ldnka vfhdlaihs
m%udKhla ksoyia f' fjdhska iuyrla md,k l< yels h' ksoiqkla f,i
uy u`. osfjk jdyk ixLHdj wmg Yd, f,i wvq l< yels h' fudag
r:h" wm iudcfha ;a;ajh y`.jk ixfla;hla fyhska fuh ixlSK iudc
yd foaYmd,k .egjls' ,s h yd ,s fudag r: iys; ldhlaIu
fmd m%jdyk fiajdjla we;s lsu fuhg tla l,am iula f' ldnkaj,g
yhsrcka wkqmd;h wvq bkaOk oykfha oS ksl=;a jk CO2 m%udKh wvq h'
f*dis, bkaOk Nd;h fjkqjg kHIal yd iQh Yla;sh jeks fjk;a
Yla;s m%Nj Nd; lsu ;j;a Wml%uhls' jdyk mlaId ksis mos is lsu;a
wjYH g muKla bkaOk oykh lsu;a Wmldrj;a h yels fjk;a ms<sh
f'
231
.ia iska CO2 wjfYdaIKh

Yajikfha oS yd ksidf.a fjk;a lghq;=j, oS neyer flfrk ldnka
vfhdlaihs" m%NdixYaf,aiKfha oS y; Ydl iska ;sr flf' m%Ndixiaf,aIl

yq y;m%o W;afm%arlh f,i f.k ldnka vfhdlaihs yd c,h
ldfndyhsf njg mjr;akh lsug iQh lsrK m%fhdackhg .ks;s'
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
y;m%o" iQh Yla;sh

fmdaIl
C6H12O6 + 6O2
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha oS Tlaiscka w;=reM,hla f,i ksmfok neka y; Ydl

iska wm jd;h msis lsula o flf'
ksj;k jeis jkdka;r WKqiq h; f;;a h' f ;;a;aj m%NdixYaf,aIKhg
w;sYhska ys;lr f' jdhqf.da,Sh CO2 ugu by< hEug n,mdk tla
idOlhla jkafka f jkdka;r kdY lsu hs' tneka jk j.dj yd jk
ixrlaIKhg" CO2 ugu md,kh lsug we;s fyd| u l%u jkafka h'
CO fudapkh wju lsu
mQK oykh
bkaOkj, wimQK oykh ksid ksmofjk ldnka fudfkdlaihs m%Odk
Ilhls' Yd, jYfhka CO mefKkafka fudag jdykj, msgdr u;a
iu`. h'
ksoiqkla f,i" hqfka oykfha oS yhsrcka ujq,hlg Tlaiscka ujq,
6'5la wjYH f' ;sfnkafka Tlaiscka ujq, yhla muKla k m%;sM, f,i
CO ujq,hla we;s f'
C4H10(g) + 6.5 O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)
C4H10(g) + 6O2(g) 4CO2(g) + CO(g) + 5H2O(g)
jd;$bkaOk wkqmd;h hkq ialkaOh wkqj jd;h yd bkaOkh w;r we;s
wkqmd;h hs'
Tlafkaj, imQK oykh i|yd ilrKh fufia h'
2C8H8(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
ilrKfha iafgdhslfhd;sh wkqj ^jd;fha ialkaOh$bkaOkfha ialkaOh&
s
wkqmd;h 14 (7 nj fy<s f' fuh jd;$bkaOk wkqmd;h hs'
ire Y%Khla ^tk iafgdhslsfhd;sl wkqmd;fhka fokq ,nk w.hg
jvd je yhsfrdldnka bkaOk m%udKhla fkdfyd;a wvq jd; m%udKhla
we;s Y%Khla& CO yd wimQK f,i oykh jQ ldnksl M, jemqr wvx.=
msgdr we;s lsug fya;= f' bkaOk m%udKh wvq fkdfyd;a w;sla;
jd;h iys; nd, Y%Khla ^lean mixtue& CO m%udKh wvq tfy;a je khsrcka
Tlaihsv ^NOx& m%udKhla iys; msgdr ula fohs' msgdr u md,kh i|yd
we;s fyd| u l%uh jkafka wekau iqir lsu ^jd;h yd bkaOk w;r
wkqmd;h m%Yia; ugul jk mos iSreudre& yd Il" ydks rys; M, njg
yrjk W;afm%arl mj;lhla ^ Catalytic Convert & Nd; lsu h'
CO ugu my; fy<Su i|yd we;s fyd| u l%uh jkafka wNHka;r oyk
tkakaj, msgdr u md,kh lsu u h'

TlaislrKh W;afm%arKh lr CO
we;e mdxY= laIqka i;= h'

232
jdhqf.da,fhka bj;a lrk tkaihsu
wd,sl jdhq fudapkh wju lsu

khsrcka yd i,a* hk uQ,jH fol u O wd,sl Tlaihsv idohs' tneka
N yd S wvx.= kEu jHhla jd;fha oykh lsu SO2 yd NOx ksmojhs'
khsrcka mrudKq fol w;r we;s m%n, nkaOkh ksid jdhqf.da,Sh khsrcka
m%;sl%shdYS,S fkd f' tfy;a WIaK;ajh 900 0C g je k tu nkaOkh |S
NOx ^NO yd NO2& iEosh yels h' tkakaj, wNHka;r oykh" je oykh
yd wdydr msisk Wkaj, oykh we;=`M fndfyda oykj, oS oyk WIaK;ajh 900
0
C blaujhs' ,s fl yd wl=Kq .eiS wdY%s; j iajdNdlj o fuh is f'
SO2 yd NOx tl;= u wju lsug we;s fyd| u l%uh k oyk l%shdj,sfha
WIaK;ajh wvq lsu yd N yd S wvx.= bkaOk oykh wvq lsu hs' my; oS we;s
l%u o jdhqf.da,hg wd,sl jdhq ksoyia u wju lsug Nd; l< yels h'
wjfYdaIK l%u
Niau yd m%;sl%shd lrfuka wd,sl jdhq WodiSk l< yels h' jd;fhka
wd,sl jdhq neyer lsu i|yd fhdod .; yels yqkq .,a ^CaCO3 & yd
ue.akSish Tlaihs ^MgO& jeks iajdNdl Niau wm i;=j we;' fuys oS
iEfok M," jkd ldl ridhk jHhla jQ i,a*shqla w,h njg
mj;kh l< yels h'
I. yqkq.,a yd yqkqj,ska hq;a Wl= Y%Khla ^slurry& wd,sl jdhq bj;a lsug
^scrub& Nd; l< yels h'
CaCO3(s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3 (s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)
2 CaSO3 (s) + O2 (g) + 4 H 2O(l) 2 CaSO4.2H 2O(s)
II. ue.akih
S s
Tlaihsj, Wl= oshdrejla o ^slurry& wd,sl jdhq wjfYdaIlhla

^scrub& f,i fhdod .; yels h'
MgO(s) + SO2(g) MgSO3(s)
MgO(s) + SO2(g)
MgSO3 ;dm lsfuka ,efnk MgO m%;spl%ShlrKh l< yels h' by<
idkaKhlska we;s SO2 i,a*shqla w,h ksmoug fhdod .; yels h'
III. fidah
i,a*hs djKhla o 'scrubbing' i|yd fhdod .; yelafla h'

Na2SO3(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) 2NaHSO3(aq)
,efnk NaHSO3 r;a lsfuka ,efnk SO2 m%;spl%SlrKh l< yels
w;r i,a*shqla w, ksIamdolhkag wf, l< yels h'
SO2 + CaO CaSO3
yhsfrdldnk yd tajdfha wO oykfha M,j, fudapkh wju lsu

fudag r: msgdr fuys Il jdhq wju lsu'
jdykj, msgdr fuys wvx.= m%Odk;u Il jdhq jkafka CO, NOx yd
fkdoejqKq fyda wv jYfhka oejqKq yhsfrdldnk h' wO oykhg fya;=j
Tlaiscka W!k;dj hs' fuh" by; ia;r lrk ,o jdykfha iqir lsu
^tune up& hkqfjka ye|skafjk jd;-bkaOk wkqmd;h iSreudre lsfuka wvq
lr .; yels h' jdykj, msgdr k< ;=< W;afm%arl mj;l i lsfuka
tajdfha msgdr fuys we;s I jdhq m%udKh wvq lr .; yels h' ldhlaIu
W;afm%arl mj;lhlska CO yd fkdoejqK yhsfrdldnk" CO2 yd c,h
233
njg TlaislrKh h hq;= w;r NO yd SO2 khsrcka yd Tlaiscka njg

TlaisyrKh h hq;= h' W;afm%arl mj;kh" jdykj, ihs,kairhg i
lrkq ,nk WmlrKhls' tys W;afm%rl mDIaG u; oS mshjr follska TlailrK
a
s
yd TlaisyrK m%;sl%shd is f' mj;lh ma,ek jeks wl%sh f,dayhl ;=kS
ia;rhlska yd fldm Tlaihs fyda fl%dah Tlaihs jeks wka;l uQ,jH
Tlaihsvj,ska hqla; h' WKqiq msgdr u f W;afm%arl msif.k .uka lrhs'
2NO(g) + 2 CO(g) N2 (g) + 2 CO2(g)
2 CO(g) + O2(g) 2 CO2(g)
C7H16(g) + 11 O2(g) 7 CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)
;=ka ux W;afm%arl mj;l ^Tlaiscka fudksgr wka;.;& msgdr fuys we;s
ydkslr CO, NOX yd CxYy idfmalaI jYfhka Wmj rys; N2, CO2 yd H2O
njg mj;kh lrhs' W;afm%arl mj;l" W;afm%arlfha WIaK;ajh 200 0C
muK jk ;=re l%shd;aul fkd f' tfyhska tajd tkau WKqiq jk f;la
wl%sh h'
fyaf,dyhsfrdldnk m%udKh wju lsu
fidaka ia;rh iq/lSug k wm iska laf,dafrd*afjdfrdldnk ^CFCS& yd

ye,ckSlD; yhsfrdldnk Nd;h k;r l< hq;= h' mj;S f.da,fha oS wl%sh
j mj;sk f jdIamYS,S ixfhda. isis,a mj;S uKav, udhsu yryd .uka lr
wmj;S f.da,fha oS mdrcnq, lsrK yuqf il%sh f' tys oS fjdhska
ksmfok laf,daka LKavl Tfidaka ia;rh kdY lsu W;afm%arKh lrhs'
ridhk{hka iska fjd fjkqjg l,am ixfhda. fhdackd lr we;s w;r
tajdfha ksIamdokh oekgu;a wdrN we;' hg;a msfihska wKqjlg tla
ye,ck mrudKqjla wvx.= ye,cfkdawe,aflak fyaf,dyhsfrdldnk f,i
ye|skaf' HCFC iska kdYhg m;a jkafka CFC iska kdY flfrk
fidaka m%udKfhka ;=fkka mx.=jls'
ixfhda. kdY lsf jdKsc l%uhla jkafka tajd by< WIK;aj hgf;a oS"
idudkHfhka isfuka;s Wka ;=< oS oykh lsu hs'
laf,dafrd*afjdfrdldnk ^CFC&
fjd jdKscH jYfhka ye|skafjkafka *afrfhdak ^Freons& hkqfjks'

kso (
Feron 11
CFCl3
Feron 12
CF2Cl2
Feron 113
C2F3Cl3
Feron 114
C2F4Cl2
yhsfrdlaf,dafrd*afjdfrdldnk ^HCFC&
kso ( CHCl2CF3
yhsfrd*afjdfrdldnk ^HFC&
kso( CH2FCF3
m'*afjdfrdldnk kso( CF4
234
ksmqK;dj 16'0

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'4
( N+ . ; c,fha yd mDIa l c,fha m% Y ia ; ixhq ; s h mj;a j d

.ekSug lghq;= lrhs'
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
Y%S ,xldf O m%foaYj, N+.; c,fha ixhq;sh flfrys n,mdk iajdNdl
idOl ykd .kshs'

O jHj, ifodia l<ukdlrKh ksid is jk N+.; c, ixhq;fha fjkial
s
meyeos,s lrhs'
N+.; c, ixhq;sfha fjkia md,kh lsf l%u meyeos,s lrhs'
jej, jd c,fha ixhq;sh Y%S ,xldf jdud. wdY%s; lDIsluh flfrys
n,mdk nj ykd .kshs'
jd c,fha ixhq;sh fjkia je<elaf mshjr meyeos,s lrhs'

Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fha ixhq;sh fjkia ug n,mdk
idOl ms<sn| j
idlPd lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
N+ . ; c,fha ixhq ; s h flfrys n,mE flfrk O o$jHj, ifodia
l<ukdlrKh ms<sn| meyeos,s lrkak'
N+.; c,fha ixhq;sh fjkia u md,kh l< yels l%u ia;r lrkak'

Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fha ixhq;sh
c,h ksidf.a meje;aug w;HjYH jQ jHhls' mdkh lsug" wdydr msiSug"
lDIsluhg" .ukd.ukhg yd ludka; i|yd th Nd; f' c,fha jKh

we;s jH" c,h Nd; flfrk ldhhg n,mdkafka h' u;=msg c,fha
.=Kd;aul nj N+.; c,h flfrys n,mdhs' mdIdKj, iajNdjh o N+.;
c,fha ixhq;sh flfrys n,mdhs'
16'4'1 j.=j ( cd;Hka;r jYfhka ms<s.;a u;=msg c,fha ;;a;ajh ms<sn| iSud
f,dal fi!LH ixOdkh
Lksc
F- (mg dm-3)
f,dal fi!LH
ixOdkfhka
ksfoaYs; iSudj
cd;Hka;r jYfhka
ms<s.;a iSudj
1.5
1.0 - 1.5
Ca (mg dm-3)
200
Mg (mg dm-3)
150
Fe (mg dm-3)
0.3
1.0
235
oef iSudj
16'4'1 rEmh ( Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fha *afjdrhs whk jHdma;sh
16'4'2 rEmh ( Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fha iuia; hlv jHdma;sh
236
16'4'3 rEmh ( Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fha uq`M lk;ajfhys ^Ca2+, Mg2+& jHdma;sh
îs;sh iS' ' osidkdhl yd tia' ' whs' riQh isks&
Mg2+(aq)/Ca2+(aq)
lk;ajh hkq c,fha ; Ca2+ yd Mg2+ m%udKh hs' lk c,h fi!LHhg
ydkslr fkd f' fiaoSu i|yd je inka m%udKhla jeh u tys wjdishls'
th Wvq uKa iEoSug fya;= jk w;r msiSf oS t<j`M oe njg m;a lrhs' ;jo"
th fndhsf,arej, yd WKq c, ;dml yd k< ;=< Y,al ^scales) we;s ug fya;=
f' iajdNdl j N+.; c,fha ixhq;sfhka Bg miq jQ N+ oHdj" mdIdKh
;=< ksoka j mej;s ld,h" N+.; c,fha mQj ixhq;sh yd we;e wjia:dj, .,d
hk ud.h ms<sUq f' c,Orhla ^N+.; c,h ord .kakd ijr" mdr.uH
mdIdKhla& ;=< c,h .,d hkafka u;=msg c,h .,d hk f.hg jvd wvq
f.hlsk' tneka ld,hla iu`. c,Orhla ;=<mj;akd c,fha ixhq;h fjkia
s
s
jkafka fkdie,lsh yels ;r w,am f,i h'
Ca2+(aq) / Mg2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) CaCO3(s) +MgCO3 (s) + CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
^Y,al&
hlv ^Fe&
hlv f,damia iys; mdIdK ;gq c,fha wvx.= hlvj, m%d:l m%Njh f'
oYSh jYfhka hlv c,fha ; j mj;sk w;r u;=msgg f.k wd g hlv
u, f,i wfhys ;ekam;a f' j;a u i|yd hlv u; hefmk" hlv
TlaiyrKh lrk nelahd ;j;a hlv m%Njhls' r;= meyeh" wej, me,a,
s
we;s lsu" f,dayuh rih yd k< ;srl+rj, meyehla we;s lsu hlv wvx.=
c,fha iq,n;u ,laIK f' fuhg fya;=j c,fha hlv idkaKh 0.3 mg
dm-3 g jvd je u hs' hlv ksid mdkSh c,fha rih fjkia f'
237
*afjdrhsv ^F-&
Y%S ,xldf O m%foaYj, N+.; c,fhys *afjdrhs O m%udKj,ska yuq
f' iar o;a tk iufhys" *afjdrhs o;a flfrys n,mdkafka h' *afjdrhs
m%udKh 1'0 - 1'5 mg dm-3 ugf mj;sk l,ays fi!LHh flfrys n,mE we;s
jk njg jd;d ke;'
O jHj, ifodia l<ukdlrKh fya;=fjka N+.; c, ixhq;sfha is jk
fjkial
ukqIHhdf.a we;e l%shdldrl ksid N+.; c,h flf,fia' tn c,h ksia
mfNdackhg kqiqiq h; wkdrlaIs; h' ixpdhl gexls" u, wmjyk moaO;s"
>k wmjH fy<k " Wmj we;s lrk wmjH neyer flfrk ia:dk" f.dv
lrk ,o bv" wl f,i ,jK fhdokq ,nk mdrj,a" fmdfydr" m,sfndaO
kdYl" kd.l li< lDIsldl wmjH yd ludka;j, oS neyer jk wmjH
m%Odk c, Il m%Nj f'
khsfg ^NO3-& tl;= lsu
khsfg m%Odk jYfhka N+.; c,fha yuq jk iq,n Ilhls' rerfha
Tlaiscka mjyk l%shdj,shg jeo.;a jk neka" by< khsf idkaKh
fYaIfhka udi yhg jvd wvq jhia we;s <orejkag ydksodhl f' khsfg
ms<ldldrlhla o f' fmdfydrj, yd ksia iy i;a;j u,-uQ;j, khsrckSh
s
a
%
ixfhda. m%udKh wl h' laIrKh u`.ska fjd N+.; c, ix; lrd mjykh
f' fYaIs; mdxY= nelahd" wefudakshd" khsfg njg mj;kh lrhs'
16'4'4 rEmh ( Y%S ,xldf N+.; c,fhys khsf whk jHdma;sh
238
N+.; c, ixhq;sfhys fjkia md,kh

ikSmdrlaIl N+ msr (Sanitary land fills)
jvd;a m%p,s; jQ wmjH bj;a lsf wdldrh f,i i<ld we;af;a th uQ,slj th
,dNodhSj >k wmjH bj;a lsf l%uhla neks' kd.l >k wmjHj,ska
mfyka y;rla u fuu l%ufhka neyer lrhs'
ikSmdrlaIl N+ msru hkq bxfkare ;dlaIK l%u mok lr.;a >k wmjH
neyera lsf l%uhls' fuys oS idudkHfhka wdka;sl fyda Wm wdka;sl ;Sre u;g
>k wm jH ia;r f,i m;=rejkq ,ef' fuys wruqK jkafka ia;r f,i me;sru
iy iqixys;j weisu u.ska wmjHj, mudj Yd, jYfhka wvq lsuhs' bka miq
mia u.ska fuu wmjH ia;r wdjrKh lrkq ,ef'
by, N+.; c,h we;s m%foaYj, N+ msr msysgqu fkdl< hq;=hs' ikSmdrlaIl N+
msrj, we;s fndfyda wmjH ffcj oHd;aul iy ridhksl ls%hdj,s u.ska
fhdackh >k" j iy jdhquh M, we;s lrhs'
NialrKh
li< NialrKh i|yd TlaislrKh l< yels jH mQK oykhg ,la lsug
m%udKj;a WIaK;ajhla wjYH h' fuys oS w`M" re" f,day yd wfkl=;a
fkdoefjk jH b;s f' fhdokq ,nk WIaK;ajh 770 - 970 0C w;r f'
frday,aj,ska neyer lrkq ,nk wmjH NialrKhg Ndck l< hq;= njg
ksfoaY flf' Y%S ,xldf le,sli,j,ska 80]la muK u ldnksl jH ksid
>k wmjH ,sh W;amdokh lsf bkaOk f,i fhdod .; yels h'
m%;pl%lrKh
s S
fndfyda rgj,a .DydY%s; yd ldl wmc,h m%;spl%ShlrKh l%u iA:dms; lr
we;' Y%S ,xldf we;e ludka;j, oS uyd mudKfhka N+.; c,h md
flfrk neka" tu c,h tlS ludka;h i|yd m%;spl%SlrKh lsug Wkka
lsu jeo.;a ms<sfj;ls'
m%;sNd;h
mdkh" fYdaOkh"
lDIsluh yd
ludka; i|yd
wjYH c,h
wmc,h
mlaIdj
msh msh;
;;a;ajh fyda
fhda.H;dj
mslaiu
S
ixpdhl gexlsh
16'4'5 rEmh ( c,fha m%;sNd;hg oelafjk mmdl rEm igyk
je c,fha yd jd c,fha ixhq;sh

je .Kkdjla mej;Su Y%S ,xldf wkkH ,laIKhls' jd lghq;= i|yd
fhda.H;dj ksYaph lrkq jia jd c,fha ;;a;ajh ms<sn| oekqu jeo.;a f'
jd c,fha ;;a;ajh idOl lsysmhla u; /f|a'
ikakdhl;dj yd ,jK;dj
fidah wfYdaIK wkqmd;h ^SAR&
239
kqiqiq ;;a;ajfha c,h iska mdxY= moaO;s flfrys we;s flfrk wys;lr
n,mE uq`M ,jK idkaKh" fidah whkj,g wfkl=;a legdhk

ork idfmalaI wkqmd;h" fndafrdaka idkaKh yd nhsldnfka m%udKh
hk idOl u; /|S mj;S' Na+ whk yd wfkl=;a legdhk w;r we;s
idfmalaI wkqmd;h SAR w.fhka fokq ,ef'
jd c,fha SAR w.fha jeu mdxY= djKfha SAR w.h je lsug
fya;= f' fuys wjika m%;sM,h jkafka mfiys yqjudrejg md;% h yels
fidah m%udKh je u;a mdr.uH;dj wvq u;a h'
mfiys mdr.uH;dj wvq u fnda. jeu flfrys n,mdhs'
^whksl idkaK m mol dm-3 j,sks&
,jK;dj md,kh lsu

jk wdjrKh ,jK;dj md,kh flfrk l%uhls' h<s N+j, ,jK;dj
md,kh i|yd lDIs jk j.d moaO;s we;s flf' wmjyk ;;a;aj je
oshqKq lsu yd ld,Sk j fNda. udre l%u Nd; lsu o l,am l%u f'
mdxY= ,jK;dj hkq;
iEu milu c,fha djH ,jK wvx.= f' djH ,jK wdldrfhka we;s
fmdaIl Ydl u`.ska wjfYdaIKh flf' Ydl jOkh nd, lrka
c,fha djH ,jK w;sla; jYfhka tla/ia u mdxY= ,jK;dj k
f'
laIdh;dj } [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-]
^fuys oelafjkafka C mol dm-1f,i m%ldYs; idkaK hs'&
[HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] hkafkys by< w.h CaCO3(s) wjlafIam
ug ;=vq foa'
Ca2+ (fyda Mg2+) + 2HCO3-(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

fuu u`.ska djK.; Ca2+ (yd Mg2+) m%udKh wvq f' tys m%;sM,h f,i
SAR w.h by< hkq ,ef'
jd c,fha ixhq;sh fjkia u j<lajd .ekSf mshjr
ikakdhl;dj" laIdh;dj"
jeks mrd;s ks;sm;d kshdukh lsu
fNda. udrej jeks mshjr .ekSu
wju ,jK;djlska yd b;d wvq SAR w.fhka hq;a jeis c,fhka N+h
fiaoSug ie,eiau
jeu" c,dY yd jdud. wjg jk wdjrK m%udKh by< kexu'
240
ksmqK;dj 16'0

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'5
( lDIs ridhk jHj,ska we;s jk mdil ydks wju lsug

l%shdud. .kshs'
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
m,sfndaOkdYl w: olajhs'
m,sfndaO md,k l%uh wkqj m,sfndaO kdYl j.SlrKh lrhs'
I ;;a;ajh ^ridhksl iajNdjh& wkqj ^kso( LD 50 w.h& m,sfndaO fnod
olajhs'
l%shdld;ajh wkqj m,sfndaO fnod olajhs'
m,sfndaO Nd;fha oS we;s jk .eg ykd .kshs'
fmdfydr ^NPK& mirh flfrys we;s lrk m%Odk n,mE meyeos,s lrhs'
^ NPK } khsrcka" f*diamria" fmdgEish&

;u m%foaYfha iq,nj Nd; flfrk m,sfndaO kdYl idlPd lr tajdfha
mdil n,mE ,shd oelaug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

m,sfndaO kdYl
kEu m,sfndaOhla md,kh lrk" j<lajk" kdY lrk" lIKh lrk
fyda yqhk ^mitigate& jHhla m,sfndaO kdYlhls'

m,sfndaO kdYl iajdNdl yd lD;%su hkqfjka fo wdldr h' fldfydU
ksiaidrlh iajdNdl m,sfndaO kdYlhlg ksoiqkls'
Nd;fha we;s m%Odk m,sfndaO kdYl jkafka j,a kdYl yd lD kdYl h' j,a
kdYl iska fnda. iu`. wdf,dalh yd fmdaIl i|yd ;r. lrk me<E kdY
flf' lD kdYl" fnda.j,g ydks lrk lDka kdY lrhs'
lD m,sfndaO m%Odk l%u follska wiajekak wvq lrhs' wiajekak f,i .kakd
Ydl fldgia ld oeu tla wdldrhls' Ydl m;%j,g ydks meKfuka
m%Ndixiaf,aIKhg ndOd lr Ydlfha wdydr ksIamdokh my; fy<Su wfkla
l%uh hs'
lD kdYl ^lD;%su& m%Odk ldKav ;=klg wh;a f'
laf,dakSlD; yhsfrdldnk
kso ( ^vhslaf,darhsf*ks,a g%hslaf,dafrdtf;aka& DDT
ldnksl f*diafmag kso( fu,;shka
ner f,day ,jK kso( fldm vhs;fhdaldnfg
wdoY m,sfndaO kdYlhl ;sh hq;= ,laIK
b,lal m,sfndaOh muKla kdY lsu
mirfha oS yd mdxY= - c, moaO;sj, oS myiqfjka ffcjydhkhg Ndckh
u
m,sfndaOfha m%;sfrdaO jOkh fkdlsu
241
ksidg I fkdu yd ,dn odhl u

m,sfndaO kdYl Nd;fha oS u;= jk .eg
wdydrj, m,sfndaO kdYl ;ekam;a h yels h' th ksidg ydkslr h
yels h' wl ud;%dj,ska fhoSf oS I h yels h'

l,a mj;sk m,sfndaO kdYlj, ffcj ixpdhkh fya;= fldg f.k wdydr
oduj, wkqhd; ugj, tajdfha idkaKh wkql%ufhka je f' tneka
wjidk mqreflys m,sfndaO kdYl idkaKh b;d by< h yels h' ' ' '
fuhg ksoiqkls'
m,sfndaO mirhg ydks muqKqjhs' m,sfndaO kdYl fndfyda g m,sfndaOh
muKla fkdj Wmj rys; yd m%fhdackj;a ka o kdY lrhs'
h ld,mfohl oS m,sfndaO" m,sfndaO kdYlj,g m%;sfrda h yels h'
we;e m,sfndaOj, wLKav Nd;h" iajdNdl jrKh u`.ska m,sfndaOfha
m%;sfrdaOh
je lsug fya;= f' tg m,sfndaO kdYlh M, rys; f'
m,sfndaO
kdYl iajdNdl f,damSka o kdY lrhs' fuhska fmrg
jvd je jHikhla is h yels h'
mlaI; m,sfndaO fYaIhl .ykfhka 50] la kdY lsug wjYH ridhksl
s
ud;%dj LD50(Lethal Dose 50) f,i ye|skaf'
fmdfydr
fmdfydrj,ska Ydlhlg wjYH Lksc yd fmdaIl iemfhk neka tys
jOkh f.j;a flf' kso( NPK

Ydlj,g jvd;a jeo.;a Lksc whk jkafka khsf" f*diaf*a yd
fmdgEish h' f yer w,am m%udKj,ska wjYH jk wxY= ud;% uQ,jH o f'
fmdfydrl we;s NPK ixhq;sh N%, P2O5%, yd K2O%, f,i m%ldY flf'
fmdfydr" iajdNdl yd lD;%su hkqfjka foj.hls' ta tl tllg tajdg
wdfKsl jdis we;'
iajdNdl fmdfydka mq`M,a mrdihlg wh;a fmdaIl iemfhk w;r tajd
ksoyia jkafka l,a mj;sk m%;sM, we;s lrka fifuks' tajd mirhg
ydkslr jkafka wvqfjka jk w;r ldnksl j.d i|yd fhda.H h' tajd ,dn
h' thska mfiys jhkh oshqKq f' ldnksl fmdfydr m%jdykhg yd
fhoSug je uqo,la jeh jk w;r fmdaIlj, m%Yia; ;=,khlska o f;dr h'
lD;%su fmdfydr jyd l%shd;aul jk iq h ; fhoSug yd m%jdykhg myiq h'
b,lal .; Lksc whk iemhSu i|yd tajd fhdod .; yels w;r iemfhk
tla tla Lkscfha m%udKh ksjeros j md,kh lsug o yels h' tajd mfia
;=,H;dj flfrys n,mdhs' myiqfjka fiaoS hhs fuh u;=msg c,dYj,
iqfmdaIKhg fya;= f' lD;%su fmdfydr N+.; c,fha ;;a;ajh flfrys
n,mdhs' kso ( khsf m%udKh'
lD;%su fmdfydr fufia j.SlrKh l< yels h'
lD;%su fmdfydr
ixlSK
ir,
kso( hqhd
Y
kso( hqhd" KCl
242
ixfhda.
kso( fmdgEish f*diafma
ksmqK;dj 16'0
( ridhk oHd oekqu" mdil iu;=,s;;dj mj;ajd .ekSug

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'6
( c,fha ;;a;ajh ksKh lrk p,H ykd .kshs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
c,fha ;;a;jh ksKh lsf oS ikakdhl;dfjys" pH w.fhys" ; Tlaickaj,

a
s
yd iuia; ; >k m%udKfhys ^ Toal Dissolved Solid - TDS& jeo.;alu ykd
.ksh'
s
by; i|yka mdrd;s uek" c,h m%fhdackhg .ekSf wruqK mok fldg
c,fha iu; ;;a;ajh yd ii|hs'
c,h m%fhdackhg .ekSf wruqK mok fldg c, ksheoshl iuia; ; >k
m%udKh ^TDS& ksKh lrhs'

mka;sh lKavdh ;=klg fnod tla tla lKavdhug c,fha ;;a;ajh ksKh
lrk p,H fol ne.ska mjrkak'

f idOl c,fha ;;a;jh ksKh lrk wdldrh idlPd lsug yd Yaf,aIKh
a
lsug wjia:dj fokak'
wkqudmk l%uh ^kala, l%uh& Nd; lr ,s|l c,fha djH Tlaiscka m%udKh
ksKh lsu mjrkak'

ikakdhl;dj
ikakdhl;dj" c,Sh djKhl oHq;a Odrdjla ikakhkh lsf yelshdj
ms<sn| kquls'
ikakdhl;dj w;r inkaO;dj fmkajk ilrKhg ksoiqkla k;
NaCl ys ikakdkh;dj ^c,Sh djKfha& } Na+ ys ikakdhl;dj + Cl- ys
ikakdhl;dj
ikakdhl;dj" my; oelafjk idOl u; /|S mj;S'
1' whkj, idkaKh
2' whkj, ip,;dj
3' TlaislrK wjia:dj
4' c,fha WIaK;ajh
wd,sl yd laIdh djK b;d by< ikakdhl;djla fmkajhs' g fya;=j
c,Sh udOHfha H+(aq) yd OH-(aq) whkj, ip,;dj b;d by< u hs'

ikakdhl;dj }
1
m%;sfrdaOh
ikakhk;dfjys tallh -1 fyj;a S îSukaia& f'
fuh whksl n,fhys kqula jk kuq bka mj;akd whk ykd .ekSula fkd
flf'
WodiSk djKhl ikakdhl;dj TDS w.hg iudkqmd;sl h' ^wd,sl yd
laIdh djKj, ikakdhl;dj widudkH f,i by< f'&
243
mdil n,mEu
LksclrKh - idudkHfhka TDS w.h - ksKh lsu i|yd ikakdhl;dj
Nd; l< yels h'

c, m%Njhl iuia; whksl M,h ksKh lsu i|yd ikakdhl;dj
m%fhdackj;a f'
WodiSk djKhl ikakdhl;dj TDS w.hg iudkqmd;sl f'
ikakdhl;dfjka c,fha ,jK;dj oelaf'
ikakdhl;dj TDS w.fha yd ,jK;df kquls'
wdiQ; c,fha ikakdhl;dj Y+kH ^fyda b;d wvq& h hq;= h'
; >k m%udKh wl u lDIsldl lghq;= i|yd c,h m%fhdackhg .ekSu
iSud lrhs'
jdud. lghq;= i|yd Nd; lrk c,fha ; >k m%udKh wl fuka
.eg we;s f'
pH n,mEu
mdil n,mEu
6'0 - 9'0 w;r pH mrdih ;=< osh uiqkaf.a yd ks;,jdiS wmDIaGjxYSkaf.a
;h iqrlaIs; h'
jd;fha we;s CO2 yd SO2 jeks jdhqj, jKh ksid o ldl wmjdy Y% u
ksid o c,fha pH w.h fjkia f' m%fhdackj;a N+.; c,fha idudkH pH

w.h 6'0 - 8'5 mrdifha msysghs' pH w.h 6'5 g jvd wvq c,h wd,sl jk w;r
Ldol f' f wd,sl;dj WodiSk lsug fidavd w`M fhdod .efka'
lDIslufha oS fvd,uhs o Nd; f'
th fifuka c,fha wd,sl;dj

WodiSk lrhs'
2H+(aq) + CaCO3.MgCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)
; Tlaiscka m%udKh yd c,fha .=Kd;aul ;;a;ajh

Tlaicka wKqj iajdhq kaf.a mjD;a;hg wjYH jk w;r th we;e ridhksl
s
s
m%;sl%shdj,g o n,mdhs'
jd;fha Tlaiscka c,fha jKh f' Tlaiscka ksmojk l%shdj,sh jkafka
m%Ndixiaf,aIKh hs'
WIaK;ajh je jk g ; Tlaiscka idkaKh wvq f'
idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a c,fha ; O2 i|yd fyka kshuh fh g"
KH WIaK;ajh u; /|S mj;S'

[O2 (g)] } c,h yd iamY j mj;sk jd;fha we;s O2 ys wdxYsl mSvkh
20 0C oS O2 i|yd KH } 1'34 10-8 mol dm-3 Pa-1
jdhqf.da,fha Tlaisckaj, wdikak wdxYsl mSvkh 2 104 Pa fjf;d;a idudkH
c,fha ; j we;s Tlaisckaj, ixhq;sh 8'6 mg dm-3 f'

244
WIaK;ajh je fj;a u KH wvq f' tfyhska c,dYhl WIaK;ajh je k
tys jKh jk Tlaiscka m%udKh wvq f'
ksu.ak c,c Ydl yd w,af.a osjd ld,fha oS c,dYj, ; Tlaiscka m%udKh
je lrhs'
c,dYj, osrdm;a jk ftkash jH ksid c,fha ; O2 m%udKh wvq f'
iuia; ; >k m%udKh ^TDS&
c,fha jKh we;s Lksc" ,jK" f,day" legdhk yd wekdhk ; >kj,g
wh;a h'
wj,; >k wxY= yd whk we;=`M c,fha wvx.= ixY=oaO c, wKqj,g w;sfl
ish foa fuhg we;=<;a h'
ikakdhl;dj TDS
TDS ueksh hq;af;a wehs@
c,fha CaCO3 m%udKh 100 mg dm-3 blaujhs k th ksia mfNdackh
i|yd kqiq h' I whk" Bh" wdiksla" leh yd khsf o c,fha
jKh f'
TDS m%udKh wvq l< yels l%u
ldnka fmryka Nd;h
wdijkh
m%;sj;S wdi%e;sh ^Reverse Osmosis &
whkyrKh ^Deionisation &
245
ksmqK;dj 16'0

s
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 16'7
( wmjH l<ukdlrKh i|yd ridhk oHd oekqu Nd;

lrhs'
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
mQK oykh is lsfuka fudapkh wvq l< yels nj wjfndaO lr .kshs'

jd;kh yd wjlafIamkh" wmjyk c,fha ridhksl Tlaiscka b,au wvq lrk
nj wjfndaO lr .kshs'
>k wmjH neyer l< yels O l%u ia;r lrhs'
c,h ixY=oaO lsf O l%u ia;r lrhs'

Tn mirfha li, l<ukdlrKh i|yd Nd; l< yels l%u idlPd lrkak'
by; l%uj, jdis yd wjdis idlPd lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
COD yd BOD ms<sn| j f;dr;=re /ia lrk f,i isiqkg mjikak'

fudapkh
ish bkaOk oykfha oS CO2, SO2 khsrckaj, Tlaihsv"
yd fkdoejqKq
yhsfrdldnk ksmfoa' mQK oykh is jk g fudapkh jk CO yd
fkdoejqKq yhsfrdlsnk m%udKh wvq f' tneka imQK oykfhka
fudapkh wju l< yels h'
ridhksl Tlaiscka b,au (COD)
my; oelafjk ldnksl wmjH TlaislrKh ridhksl jYfhka is lsug mg
dm-3 j,ska wjYH Tlaiscka m%udKh ridhksl Tlaiscka b,au f,i ye|skaf'
md jk Tlaiscka m%udKkh myiqfjka m%udKkh lsug fkdyels neka
oHd.dr ksKhkh i|yd vhslafrdaf Nd; flf' fuu ksKhkfha oS

ksheosh" wd,SlD; fmdgEish vhslafrdaf djKhla iu`. kgjkq ,ef'
fuys oS TlaislrKhg Ndck jk ish ldnksl jH vhslafrdaf iu`.
m%;sl%shd lrhs' idudkHfhka is,aj i,af*a W;afm%arlhla f,i tl;= lrkq
,ef'
Wla; ;;a;aj hgf;a vhslafrdafgfhka c,fha wvx.= laf,darhsv" laf,daka
njg TlaislrKh h yels h' tfy;a laf,darhsv" >gkh fkdjk u'lshqla
laf,dahs njg m;a lsfuka fuh j<lajkq ,ef' m%;sl%shd fkdjQ jemqr
vhslafrdaf m%udKh ksKh lrkq ,nkafkawh;a ^ & wefudaksh i,af*a
iu`. wkqudmkh lsfuks'
246
w, udOHfha ;
ldnksl jH" wd,sl vhslafrdafgfhka TlaislrKh f k, tg
ffioaOdka;sl Tlaiscka b,au ^ThOD&
Tlaif,ag i|yd"
ldnkaj, u;a TlaislrK wjia:d
H
O=C=O
+IV
-IV
H
H
=
HO
C +III
OH
2CO2+ 2e
+IV
+III
C=
O
fmdgEish yhsrcka;ef, m%d:l jHhla f,i Nd; f'
-I
COO-K+
+III
-I
8CO2 + xH2O + K+ + 3Oe
-I
-I
COOH
+III
247
O2 + 4e + 4H+
2H2O
-I
+IV (5e
4) = 20e
+IV (4e
2) = 08e
+III
+IV (1e
2) = 02 e
30 e
====
O2 , 30 mol
fmdgEish yhsrcka;ef,a 4 mol
ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,au$ffcj Tlaiscka b,au ^BOD&
(CHO)n(aq) + O2(aq)
xCO2(g) + y H2O (l)
laIqka iska is lrkq ,nk by; TlaislrKh i|yd wjYH Tlaiscka
m%udKh ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,au hkqfjka ye|skaf'

ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,afuys wx.h ksKh lsu i|yd md jQ fyda
; Tlaiscka m%udKh fhdod .; yels h'

; Tlaiscka Nd; lrk jH
w.h flfrys n,mdhs' ksia yd i;a;aj

wmjH" wdydr weiqre ly,aj,ska bj; ,k oE" uia ud`M wdoS Il fuhg
ksoiqka f'
c, ksheoshla Tlaisckaj,ska ika Dma; jQ l,ays ; Tlaisckaj, idkaKh

;
oek.; yels h' th 20 0C l WIaK;ajh hgf;a okakd ld,hla" idudkHfhka

osk myla fc!IKh l< g c,fha laIqyq ldnksl jH TlaislrKh
lr;s' c,fha b;s j we;s Tlaiscka m%udKh ueksh yels h' tu`.ska wod<
c,dYh iska m%fhdackhg f.k we;s Tlaiscka m%udKh fyj;a w.h .Kkh
l< yels h'
h c, ksheoshla i|yd iEu g u BOD g w.h COD w.hg jvd wvq h'
wjlafIamKh
Ilh ldnksl wekdhkhla k f,day whk Nd; lr wjlafIam l< yels h'
Wod (
Ca2+, Fe3+, A13+ wdosh

M2+(aq) + X2- (aq)
MX (s)
^ldnksl wekdhkh&
MX ys Ksp w.h 10-7 mol2 dm-6 g jvd wvq h hq;= h'
MX wjidokfhka
fyda fmfuka fjka lr .; yels h' th COD yd BOD w.hhka wvq lrhs'
fldfmdaia lsu
w;a Ydl ffcjialkaOh C : N wkqmd;h 100 ( 1 ls' >k wjia:df we;s
ldnksl jH laIqka ^nelahd yd os,Sr& iska fhdackh lrkq ,nk w;r

tys oS we;s jk yshquiaj, C : N wkqmd;h 10 (1 ls' mfiys we;s ldnksl jHj,
wkqmd;h by< k" ldnksl jH fhdackh lrka fmdaIl m%;spl%SlrKh
248
lrk kaf.a .=Kkh md,kh lrk idOlh khsrcka h yels h' mig
msre ^ C : N wkqmd;h } 80 ( 1 & tl;= flf k idudkHfhka C : N wkqmd;h
my< oeu i|yd khsrckSh fmdfydrla tl;= flf' C : N wkqmd;h wvq
lsug fldfmdaia lsu o fhdod .; yels h' fldfmdaia f.dvla ;=<
f;;ukh yd jd;h iu`. ldnksl jH .nvd lr ;ef oS ldnka vfhdlaihs
yd c,h neyer jk w;r" khsrcka" laIqkaf.a weuhsfkda w, yd fm%dak
f,i b;s f' fldfmdaiaj,g fmdfydr tl;= lsu laIq .ykh je
lr osrdm;a f f.h by< kexug fya;= f'
m%;spl%SlrKh
f,day" jkd im;ls'
j<,d oeu fjkqjg f,dayuh wmjH tl;= lr

m%;pl%lrKh lsu {dkdka; h' fuhska fojeoEre b;shla is f' ksoiqkla
s S
f,i hlv ie,l=jfyd;a hlv iqka-nqka tl;= lr WKq lr h<s m%fhdackhg
.ekSfuka fmdf<df hlv im; b;s f' ta w;r" hlv iqkanqka
m%;spl%SlrKhg jeh jk Yla;sh" hlv ks lekSug" m%jdykhg yd reug
jeh jk Yla;shg jvd lSm jdrhla wvq h'
m%;spl%SlrK l%shdj,sfhys m%;s,dN

Yla;sh ixrlaIKh u
iajdNdl im;a b;s u
wmjH neyer lsf msjeh wvq u
mirfha le<sli< ^re lgq" f,day iqkanqka& wvq u
m%dfoaYSh wldj,g wdodh ud.hla u
fjk;a ksIamdok i|yd wuqjH f,i fhdod .ekSu
O jH ksmoug >k wmjH Nd; l< yels h'
ue.akSish Tlaihs Nd; lr i mo lsf ly,aj,ska neyer flfrk
wmjdyfha we;s lafrdah wmjH" Cr(OH)3 f,i wjlafIam lr tu l%hdj,sh

s
i|yd h<s Nd; l< yels h'
Yla;s ckkh i|yd wuqjH f,i Nd;h
h<s le<sli< bkaOkhls' Y%S ,xldf le<sli<j,ska 80] la muK ldnksl
jH f' tajd Yla;sh ksmou i|yd Nd; l< yels h'

;dmh
^le<sli<& ^jd;h&
;dmh" ludka; i|yd Nd; l< yels h'

c,h msis lsf l%u
le .eiSu
Yd, c, iemhq fhdackd l%uj, oS weksh ,jK ^we,& fhdod uv iys;
.x.d c,h le .eiah yels h'
c,h Yd, gexlsj, .nvd lr ;nd Al(III) fyda Fe(III) fhdod le .eiah
yels h'
fuys oS weksh yhsfrdlaihsvfha fyda whka(III) yhsfrdlaihsvfha
fc,kuh wjlafIamhla iEfoa' th m;=,g ls|d nei ;ekam;a f oS wj,;
jH o wjlafIamh iu`. frdka fndr f,i ;ekam;a f'
249
wjidokh
>k wxY=j, wj,nkhla" idka oshdrejla ^slurry& f,i fjka jkakg ie,eiau
hs' wjidokfhka miq Wvq.sh djKh meyeos,s h'

wmjykh" c, ud.j,g uqod yef; ke;fyd;a oa;Shsl mshulg Ndck
flf'
fmu
je,s fmryka yryd c,h fifuka jEiaiSug i,ikq ,ef'
isyska je,s
o< je,s
fndr`M
.,a
fmf oS c,fha wj,; wxY= yd laIqyq bj;a fj;s' fndfyda fmryka
c,fha we;s wys;lr ridhk jH o neyer lrhs'
ldnka u`.ska wfYdaIKh
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jk w;r ldnka mDIaGh h<s mqkckkh f' wfYdaIKh fkdjk ;
ldnksl jH" fidaka" H2O2" O2 yd Cl2 u`.ska TlaislrKh l< yels h'
iajdhq yd ksjdhq nelahd mshu
f mshu msie,iq lr we;af;a BOD w.h wvq lsug h' fuhg mok jk
uQ,Ouh jkafka jd;h iemhsh hq;= iajdhq nelahd iska iajdNdl j is

flfrk ffch TlaislrKh hs' fuys oS rKh jk ldnksl jH Wmj rys;
ldnka vfhdlaihs" c,h yd frdka fndr jeks M, njg m;a flf' ldnksl
jH TlaislrKh lsfuka nelahd ish ;h mj;ajd .ekSug wjYH Yla;sh
ksmojk w;r ldnksl jHj,ska iuyrla ffcjialkaO ixYaf,aIKhg fhdod
.kshs' fuys oS ukd Tlaiscka iemhqula we;s jd;k gexlsj, /ia lr we;s wm
c,hg ldnksl wmjH rKh lrk nelahd kslafIamkh flf' ;ekam;a
jk frdka fndfrys il%sh laIqka we;=<;a jk w;r th m%;spl%SlrKh l<
yels h'
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fuys oS ksjdhq nelahd le<sli< rKh lrka tajd CH4, H2O, H2S, yd
fjk;a wl%sh >k jH njg mj;kh lrhs'
ridhksl mshu
ldl wm c,fhys O j.fha ridhksl Il wvx.= jk w;r th msh
lsf l%u o O h' djKfha f,day whk" wdjH yhsfrdlaihsv fyda

Ndial ,jK f,i wjlaIam lrkq ,nkafka le,aish yhsfrdlaihs fyda
fidah ldnfka fyda ue.akSish Tlaihs fyda fvd,;sl w`M yqkq
^CaO.MgO& fyda tl;= lsfuks'
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i,a*hs fyda fjk;a djH i,a*hsv u`.ska fuu i,a*hsv wjlafIam ug
ie,eiah yels h'
wekdhksl laId,l le,aish ,jK f,i wjlafIam l< yels h'
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kso (
legdhk yqjudre frisk legdhk bj;a lrhs' ^Wod ( Cu2+, Cd2+& wekdhk
yqjudre ldrl wekdhk ixlSK bj;a lrhs' ^Wod ( [(Ni(CN)4]2-" CrO42- &
m%;swdi%e;sh
m%;swdi%e;sh wl f,i Yla;sh jeh jk l%uhls'
wdi%e;sh w: oelafjkqfha wO mdr.uH mg,hla yryd djKhla ;=<g is jk
djlhl iajhxisoaO .e,Sula f,i h' wO mdr.uH mg,h ta yryd djl

^c,h& wKqj,g .uka lsug bv
fok w;r djH wKqj,$whkj,g irKh
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bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekafuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= iska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS
uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk kEu wjia:djl
oS ish yels nj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<sfj, yq Nd. l%uhla fyda mlaIK meje;aula fyda
fkdf' th ykajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekau;a je oshqKq
lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag mm j iska Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy n,;d ykdf.k tajdg ms<sh fhdoka isiqkaf.a Wmu jOkh <d lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"
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wfmalaIs; wkaoka isjkafka oehs .=rejrhd iska ;yjqre lrkq ,eh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekau u.ska ish hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelS ,nd foka tajd isiqka
iska ksis mos w;am;a lr f.k ;sf oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis udf.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSf ^;lafiare lsf& fhoS isk .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
udf.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu udf.damfoaY fmdf ykajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
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wkdjrKh lr.;a g Tjqkaf.a bf.kq .eg u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
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ix
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ridhk oHdj

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

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m%:u uqo%Kh - 2010

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