394

determination of the appropriate Wiener filter. The analgticdresults obtained for t.he general scalar problem indicate that there are relatively few instances when t.he Kalman filt.er provides a significant improvement over the performance of t,he corresponding Wiener filter. This is an indication that the bounds provided should be calculated before a commitment to implement a Kalman filter is made. Since Wiener filters can often be approximated by simpler filters without substantially increasing the mean-square error, t.he resulk of this paperindicate when t,hese simpler filt.ers can be used to replace Kslman filters. The authors would like to point out that the main t,hrust of this paper is not a criticism of the Kalman filter theory, but rather a criticism of its misuse. We have demonstrated quantitatively that the K h a n fiher will not generally give a substantially bet.ter performance than the simpler time-invariant Wiener filter. However, the Kalman filt,er is applicable to time-varying systems where t.he Wiener theory cannot be used. Indeed, this time-varying sit.uation is essentially the proper domain of the Kalman t,heory. A major object,ive of the work reported here was to provide a stimulus for research concerned with using the Kalman theory as a basis for evaluating subopt,imal filter design in both timevarying and timeinvariant, sit.uations. Some interesting results in this direction have recently been obtained by the second author and mill be reported shortly.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS

ON AUTOXLITIC CONTROL, AUGUST

STEP - TO- STEP POSITIONING

1969

j\
I I

I
I

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 4
I

STEPPING MOTOR POSIT!ONIKG LOAD

I
STEP -TO -STEP POSITIONING PLUS FINE POSlTlONlRG

II
I
I

i
I

I
I
I

II
I
I

I
1: 0

4 POSITION),

6,;iSTEP POSlTlONl,

- I OESIRED

Fig. 1. Two posidoning problems. In upper case desired positions evenly spaced; in IoTer case interspaces are not equal.

are

INTRODUCTION
There are two basic families of stepping motors: t.he mechanical detent andt.he magnetic detent [l], [2]. The mechanical detent types are primarily rotary solenoid-operated indexing devices. They have a mechanism that transformsdc pulses into discrete predet.ermined shaft angular displacements. At the end of each step, the shaft is secured by a mechanical detent.. The magnetic detent types are recognizable electric motors, usually ac motors specially adapted for dc service. In these, detenting is accomplished magnetically by the int.eraction of t,wo magnetic fields: a permanent oneand a dc pulse excited one. A very interest.ing stepping device of the magnetic detent t,ype is an adaptation of the acsynchronous induct.or motor. This motor has a permanent magnet rotor, and the stepping operation is accamplihed by esciting hhe st.ator windings m-ith a sequence of square wave de pulses. The particular device studied in this paperis a synchronous inductor mot.or [3], [4] (SLO-SYN HS50) i n which 200 switching operat.ions or steps cause one revolut.ion of t.he rotor. As specified by the manufacturer, t.he motor has an accuracy of =!=3percent of one step displacement, t.hat is, of 1.8 degrees, andthe error is noncumulative. The digital driving sequence of t.he motor permits direct interface m-ith many types of digital control networksKith a minimum of hardware [ 5 ] . This, together with ease of use, reliability, high values of driving and detent, (holding) torque, and great accuracy, makes it very attractive for a large number of open-loop positioning control systems. A typical application of t.his kind would be the posit.ioning of a load in discret,e, accuratelyinterspaced, desired positions. However, there are many cases where high positioning accuracy is required along withunevenly spaced positions (Fig. l ) , when it. becomes necessary to use some form of h e podt.ioning after the load has been stepped close to t,he desired location in an open-loop fashion. The purpose of this paper is to show a fine posit.ioning concept, and its application t.0 the synchronous inductormotor and to develop a linear mathematicalmodel of the motor operat.ing in this mode.

ACKKOWLEDGNENT
Helpful discussions with Prof. G. F. Franklin are gratefully acknowledged.
~FEFLEXCES

[ l ] R. E. Kalman A new approach tolinear filtering and prediction problems. Trans. ASME,J. E a s i Engrg., ser. D, vol. 82, pp. 3545. March 1960. [a] R. E. Kalmap and R. S. Bucy New results in linear filtering and predietlon theory. Trans. ASME, j . BasicEngrg., ser. D. v 01.83, pp. 95-105, March 1961. [3] K. Wiener, TheExtrapolation.Interpolation.andSmoothing of Stationary Time Sertes. Kern York:Wiley,1949. 141 J. E. Potter, hiatrk quadratic solutions, S I A M J. Applied .Mathematics, vol. 14 pp. 49&501 May 1966. [5] B. D. O;,Anderson:-Analgebraicsolut.ion to the spectral factorization problem. IEEE Trans. Automatic Conirol, vol. AC-12, pp. 410414. hugust 1967. H. W. Sorenson, On the error behavior in linear minimum variance estimation problems, IEEE Trans. Automatic Control. 1-01. XC12, pp. 557562 October 1967. R. i . Singer, The design and synthesis of linear multivariable spst.ems mith application t o state estimation, Stanford Electronics Laboratories, Stanford Univers$y, Stanford, Calif., Tech. Rept.. TR-6302-8. June 1968. oflineardvnamicalsystems. [8 1 R. E. Kalman,Mathematicaldescription S I A M J . Control ser. A vol. 1, no. 2 pp. 152-192, 1963. R. Zurmuhl, k a t r i e e k und. ihre technischen Anwendungen. Berlin: 191 Springer, 1964. [lo] E. Isaacson and E. B. Keller, Analysis of X u m i c a l Methods. N e x York: Wiley, 1966, pp. 10-13. [ l l ] F. R. Gantmacher, TheTheory of Xatrices, vol. 1. New York: Chelsea,
14.50

[12]R.%ellman, Introdwtion to &fat& Analysis. NewPork: McGraxr~-Hill, 1960. (131 H. L.Van Trees, A. B. Baggeroer, and L. D. Collins. The application of state variable and optimal control techniques t o communication systems, presented a t t h e 1968 Wescon Conf., Los -4ngelw,Calii., August 20-23, 1968.

Mathematical Model of a Stepping Motor Operating as a Fine Positioner Around a Given Step
P I . A. DELGADO
Abstract-A h e positioning technique based on the small displacement that can be obtained around a stepping position by applying differential currents to the motor windings is discussed. A linear mathematical model of the motor operating in this fashion is derived from the analysis of the motor and coniirmed by a frequency response test of the motor.

STEPPISG OPERATION OF

THE

SYNCHRONOUS IKDUIXOR MOTOR

Manuscripb received October: 24,1968; revised December27. 1965. The author iswith the Umvac Division of the SperryRandCorporation, Blue Bell, Pa.

The charact,eristics of t,he synchronous inductor motor and t,he several excitation techniques for open- and closed-loop stepping have been described in the literature [3]-[7]. Here we are going to consider only a few fundamental det.ails regarding its design and basic st.epping operat.ion. Fig. 2 is a cross section of the motor. The design has a two-phase st.ator punched in eight 5-tooth poles. There are four field windings for each phase.

SHORT PAPERS

395

Fig. 4. Connection for operation a3phase-swit.ched stepping motor with single winding per phase.

ICY ROTATION

ICCX R O T A T l O N l

Fig. 2.

Cross section of sr.nchronous inductor motor. Flux path t.he phases is indicated.

for one of

Fig. 5.

Connection for operation as phase-switched stepping motor with bifilar windings.

each of the original windings has been center t,apped and the current is switched bet.n-eenthe t.wo legs. Linear transfer functions for a single step have been developed [2], [6], [SI. Morreale [i]and Segov [9] have approached the study of the single step dynamicsfroma nonlinear point of view, and Segov has also extended his study to the derivation of a nonlinear model for the dynamics of a series of steps.

FINE POSITIONING MODE

Let 11s first define a st,epping position as t.he particular magnetic null obtained experimentally by circulating nominal st,eady state currents through two given windings of the motor A 1 or A Z and B1 or E?. It was found that a very small displacement of t,his magnetic null around the stepping position can he obhined by applying differential current,s to t.he Pame two windings of the motor, t,hat is, by superimposing +i, a small current increment. on the nominal steady state current in one of t.he windings, and 2 on t.he other winding. Reversing the different.ial currents reverses t.he direction of t,he displacement of the magnetic null. Let. us now define the desired position a5 the magnetic null --here t.he load is t.o be fine posit.ioned by the motor.
ANALOG MODEL

Fig. 3 . 3 Replacement o f sinusoid by square wave sequence. A-phase -4; and - represent tr:o possible opposite directions of B-phase B: signs circulation of current in a phase.

The rot,or has t.wo isolated and identical 50-t.ooth discs mounted on a cylindlical permanent magnet., magnetized axiall>-, creating 0pposit.epolarities inthe two discs. These t.wo disc.s are geomet.rically offset by one toot,h width. When operating on ac, t.his SO-tooth rotor design produces the same speed as a conventional synchronous machine with 100 poles. Therefore, {,heexpression for the speed of the synchronous inductor motoris

Fig. 6 is a n analog model of t.he synchronous inductor motor. For simplicity the size of t.he st.eps in t.he analog model is 90 degrees as compared to the1.S degrees step size of the motor. The variables indicated in Fig. 6 can be d e h e d as

s = 60 -f
n

where n is the number of teet,h on the rotor, f is the ac supply frequency, and S is the rpm. If the alternatingexcitation is replaced by a de excitation which is witthed in a +step sequence, the motor s6eps in increments of 1.8 degrees. I n Fig. 3 t.he two-phase sinusoidal excit.ation is shown replaced by an overlapping square wave excitation. In t,he operation of the synchronous inductor motor as a stepping motor, detent,ing is accomplished magnetically by interact,ion of the constant magnetic fields creat.ed by the dc excited two-phase stator windings and the unidirectional flux of the permanent, magnet rotor. Fig. 4 shows the basic connection and the required switching cycle for forward and reverse operat.ion. Most. types of electronic circuits employed for saitchingare simplified by using a single ended power supply. Consequently, bifilar windings are needed for saitching, as shown in Fig. 5 . Thus,

instantaneous angular position of rotor with reference to the siepping position (radians) angular distance betaeen desired position of rot.or and the stepping position (radians) nominal steady st.ate current inwindings (amperes) I current in winding B1 (amperes) I 1 current in winding AI (amperes) I 2 vector flux creat.4 bycurrent. I1 circulating in B1 (webers) dl circulat,ing in A I (webers) 4% vector flax creat.ed by currentIZ dl 42 dt d p m vector unidirectional flux due t.0 rot.or permanent magnetism (webers).

The vector dPmalways tends t.0 align itself winth vectm dt, accomplishing the alignment. in the steady st.ate. When currents are balanced, that is, when I1 = I2 = I , t.he direction of dt coincides wit,h t.he G d e g r e e line. In these condit.ions, the rotor is locked on the stepping position.

396
IYS'AKTA#EOUS POSITION
STEPPING ?OSITIOH

IEEE TR~XSACTIONS ON

AUTOMATIC

CONTROL, AUGUST

1969

DESIRED POSlTlOW

"'"'1,,~t
Fig. i . Synchronousinductor
M

motor operating i n fine positioning mode.

h.'
In thefolloxing equations, the initial conditions are assumed to be zero. The Laplacetransform of t.he voltageinone of the motor windings is
VAS) =

ds)

VAS)

(3 )

where
ff(s) = (E

+ sL)i(s)

v e ( s ) = K&(s).

Fig. 6. Analog model of motor.

The s m d angular displacement tJd of the magnetic null necessary to go from t.he stepping posit,ion to the desired position is obtained by applying differential currents +i and --i to windings AI and B,, respectively. The relationship between ea and i was experimentally proven to be linear
8d(S) =

I f two differential currents +i and --i are superimposed upon current I in windings I31 and d l , respectively, t.hen

Ri*i(S).

(61

and vector $ 1 is displaced to the magnetic null which is deviated radians from the stepping position. The rotor follows this displacement set.t.ling on the new magnetic null. I f t.he differential currents are reversed: the direction of displacement of the rotor is reversed with respect to the stepping position.
tJd

The rotor, when separated by an amount ea from its rest position, manifests B rest.oring torque which tends to bring it.to a rest on the new magneticnull when d8erent.ialcurrentsare applied to the windings. The restoring torque is roughly sinusoidal, but in the region of interest itcan be approximat,ed by a straight. line

These equations define the block diagram of Fig. 5. The theoretical transfer function is

THEORETICAL TRASSFER

FUNCTION

The variables and constants involved in the equat,ions that describe the operation of the synchronousinductormotor in t.he fine positioning mode are d e h e d as Laplace t.ransform of t.he differential voltage applied to one winding of the motor (volts) Laplace transform of the back E M F voltage developed in one winding of the motor (volts)

The following numerical values of the constants involved in this transfer funct.ion were determined experimentally

K , = 4880 ounce-inches per radian

0.00837 radians per ampere 0.21 volt per radian per second T~ = 0.000909 second J = 0.01326 ounce-inch-seconds2 R = 5.7 ohms.

Ki

K,

= =

4s) - UdS)
Laplace transform of the differential current in oneminding of the motor (amperes) Laplace transform of t.he instantaneous angular position of the motor shaft with reference to the stepping posit.ion (radians) Laplace t.ransform of t.he angulardistance betaeen t.he desired position of the motor shaft wit.h reference to t,he stepping position (radians) W S ) - e(s) Laplace transform of the torque (ounce-inches) Laplace transform variable magnetic null displacement const,ant (radians per ampere) Back E M F constant (volts per radian per second) restoring torque constant (ounce-inches per radian) t,otal load moment, of inertia, referred to motor shaft (ounce-inch-seconds2) resistance of one winding (ohms) inductance of one minding (henries) LIR, time constant of winding (seconds).

The constant K , was found by measuring the torque developed when t.he rotor was slightly displaced from the stepping posit.ion. This stepping position wasobtained by circulating a dccurrent of 2 amperes in the two motor windings. Fig. 8 shows the restoring f u l l steps. torque curve for one step andFig. 9 for four The constant Ki was determined by measuring t,he angular displacement t?d obtained when differentid currents +i and -i were circulated in the motor windings, and theconstant. K , was computed by measuring the value of t,he back E M F voltage at Merent.rotor speeds. This back E M F voltage was defined by the crossing point, on the screen of an oscilloscope, of the two volt.age sine waves obtained from the motor when operated as a generat.or. Inserting these values into the transfer function we obtain
e(s) _ Y,(s)

0.00146 2469.10-l'~~ 4-2717.10-9~2 1 2 1 7 . 1 0 3

+ 1.

(9)

SHORT PAPERS

397
CHARACTERSTICS

TORQUE -ANGULAR DEVlATlON

W L -

2
#

0.00

r-

001

0.02 STEP 8, ANGULARDEVIATION (RADIAN1

The theoreticalt,ransfer funct.ion of the synchronous inductor motor, operat.ing in fine positioning mode, developed in this paper agrees very accurately with the experimental transfer function obtained from a frequency response test of the motor. Therefore, it can be concluded that thetheoretical t.ransfer function is an accurate representat.ion of the dynamics of the motor in t,he fine positioning mode. The next step in the studyof the synchronous inductor motor and its digital posit.ioning applicat,ions is the development of a nonlinear mathemat,ical model for the stepping opemtion using computer simulation. The int.emelationship between this stepping model and the fine positioning model offered here could also be considered in order to study the coarsefinecha.ngeover.
for

Fig. 8.

Resoring torqueversusangulardeviationcharacteristics different. values of dc current in rrindings of motor.

ACKNOWLEDGNEST
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of several of his colleagues at. Univac, and, in particular, that, of T. J. B. Hannom and R. Tickell.

I v
x

::{

TORQUE-ANGULARDEVIATIONCHARACTERISTIC e C U R RDIFFERENTIAL E N T PER CURRENT WINDING i =CONSTANT = 2 AMPERE =0

5 80

REFERENCES
[ I ] J. Proctor, Stepping motors moPe in. Prod. Engrg., 1.01. 34, pp. 74-78. Februarv 1963. 121 8. J.- Bailey, Incremental servos: pt. b-operation and analysis, Control Engrg., rol. 7, pp, 97-102, December 1960. I31 N. L. Morgan, Versatile inductor motor for industrial control problems, Plant Etwro.. vol. 16. DD. 143-146. dnnn 18fi2. a synchronous I41 +. E. Sno;vdon,,and*E. El. kladsin; Characteristicsof Inductor motor. A I B E Trans. (Applications and Industry), 001. 81, pp. 1-5. March l M 2 . [51 T..R:,..~-~.redriksen, N e n dere1opment.s and applications of the closer-loop steppmg motor, Preprints, 1966 JACC (Seattle, Wash.). pp. 7582. 161 R. 3 .Kieburtz. Step motor-t,he next advance in cont.ro1 systems, I E E B Trans. AutorndiqdControl.1701. AC-9, pp. 98-104, January 1964. [7] A. 0. Morreale, Theory and operation of stepsen-o motors, El%. Design News. Julv 1963. [8] J. P. ODinobue, Transfer function for a stepper motor, Conirol Engrg., pp. 103-104. NFvember 1961. 191 B. 0. Segov,Dinamiks sistemczifrovoho prohramnoho upravilinia z krokovim dvihunom (Dynamics of digital routine contro1,systems with a step motor). Automatiunanni Electroprimd Ukr. Acad. SCI..no. 4, pp. 38-61, 1959.
~

8 , ANGULAR DEVlATlON IRAOIANI

Fig. 9.

Restoring torque versus angular Characteristics of motor for I = 2 amperes. Four full steps are shown.

PHASE PLOT LOG MAGNITUDE PLOT ,.-40dB/DECADE

io :
--.
LT

--go
-

c3
W

-180

E 4
n

Finite Differences to Implement the Solution for Optimal Control of Distributed ParameterSystems
GEORGE L. K(UsIC, JR.,
NEMBER, IEEE

- -270

I,-60dBIDECAr

-360
-750LI
I
I

I , ,

I ,

100

1000

r0,000

w LRADIANISECOND)

Fig. 10. Frequency response

(Bode plot) of motor operating in s e n 0 mode.

MOTOR

FREQUENCY RESPOKSE

The frequency response of the motor (Fig. 10) shows a resonant frequency at 6iO radians per second with a damping ratio E = 0.1. It also shows a breakfrequencyfrom -40 to -60 decibels per decade at. approximately 1000 radians per second due to t.he motor windings, and a steadystate gain of 0.00146. The exyenmental transfer function was synthesized from this frequency response test as

Abstract-Finitedifference methodsare used toimplementthe of distributedparameter systems. The solutiontooptimalcontrol control is assumed to be intrinsic to thepartial differential equation (PDE) as well as continuous, such that the calculus of variations is used toobtain the controllaw. Several importantprinciplesare developed to formulate the difference approximations to the partial differentialequationswhichdescribethe system andthecontrol law. An iterativemethod of solution is employed on these t w o equations. The convergence of the iteration is assured by stability considerations of the finite difference expressions.

I. PROBLEM

fk4TEMENT

Consider the distributed parameter system described by the nonconstantcoefficient, linear partial differential equation (PDE) in two independent v a r i a b h

CONCLUSION A synchronous inductor mot.or operating a s a pha5e-saitched stepper has a wide variet.y of open-loop digital positioning applicamen the requires fine positioning about a given the principle of displacement, of the rot,or by application of differential currents to the st.at,orwindings can be employed snccessfllly.

where ai are nonconstant coefficient operatorssuch that f i l are cont,inuous on the domain of the problem R: { 0 5 t 5 T,0 X 11,
Manuscript received January 31, 1968; revised July 1,1968, and Hovember2g, 1968. The author is with the Department oi Electrical Engineering, University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh, pa.