ORDER NUMBER EA-356

AIRCRAFT RADIO SYSTEMS

By J. Powell BA, C Eng, MIERE, GradIMA

Reprinted in India by

HIMALAYAN BOOKS
New Delhi-110001. Distributed by: The English Book Store The Aviation People 17-L, Connaught Circus New Delhi-110001 (India)

Contents

Preface 1

Instrument landing system Introduction 69 Basic principles 69

69

Historical, technical and legal context 1 Introduction 1 Historical background 1 Basic principles of radio 2 Digital systems 8 Categorization of airborne radio equipments Navigation nomenclature 13 Interference 13 Maintenance 17 Regulating and advisory bodies 18

Simplified block diagram operation Installation 74 Controls and operation 76 Characteristics 77 Ramp testing 78 6 Hyperbolic navigation systems General principles 79 83 105 79

72

Omega navigation system 7 Distance measuring equipment Introduction 105 Basic principles 105 X and Y channel arrangements

Communication systems 20 Introduction 20 V.h.f. communications 20 H.f. communications 29 Selcal 35 Audio integrating systems - (Intercom) 37 Testing and trouble shooting the audio systems 43 Automatic direction finding 45 Introduction 45 Basic principles 45 Simplified block diagram operation 4.7 Block diagram detail 47 Sources of system error 49 Installation 52 Controls and operation 54 Characteristics 55 Calibration and testing on the ramp 55 V.h.f. omnidirectional range (VOR) 58 Introduction 58 Basic principles 58 Doppler VOR (DVOR) Aircraft installation

110

The link with v.h.f. navigation 110 Installation 111 Controls and operation 112 Simplified block diagram operation 112 Range measuring and mode control 114 8 ATC transponder 121 Introduction 121 Basic principles 121 Installation 126 Controls and operation 127 128 Simplified block diagram operation Block diagram details 128 Characteristics 135 Ramp testing 136 9 Weather avoidance 139 Introduction 139 Weather radar 140 Choice of characteristics and features 140 Installation 146 Controls 147 Operation 148

61 63

Controls and operation 65 Simplified block diagram operation 65 Characteristics 65 Ramp testing 67

Block diagram operation Scanner stabilization 157

150

Aircraft installation delay Interface 198

197

Other applications for weather radar 160 Weather radar characteristics 162 Maintenance and testing 164 Ryan storniscope 168 Appendix Factors affecting weather radar performance 169 10 Doppler navigation 172 Introduction 172 Doppler effect 173 Antenna mechanization 174 Doppler spectrum 175 ` Beam geometry 175 Transmitter frequency 176 Modulation 177 Over-water errors 178 Navigation calculations 179 Block diagram operation 179 Installation 182 Controls and operation 184 Characteristics 185 Testing 185 Appendix Relationships between aircraft and earth co-ordinates 186 The Doppler shifts for a four-beam Janus configuration 187 The aircraft velocity in earth co-ordinates expressed in terms of Doppler shifts 188 Radio altimeter 189 Introduction 189 Basic principles 189 Factors affecting performance Block diagram operation Monitoring and self-test Indicat or 196 Installation 196 192 195

Multiple installations 199 Characteristics '00 Ramp testing and maintenance 20 0 Appendix Sinusoidal frequency modulation 201 12 Area navigation 202 Development of airspace organization 202 Generalized area navigation system 202 VOR/DME based RNAV. principles 204 Bendix nav. computer programmer NP-2041A 206 King KDE 566 210 Standardization 213 Testing RNAV 215 13 Current and future developments 216 Introduction 216 The state of the art 216 The flight deck 217 Multi-systern packages 219 Data link 219 ADSEL/DABS 2 21 Satcom and satnav 223 Microwave landing system 2 24 Microwave aircraft digital guidance equipment 225 Collision avoidance 2 29 The current generation of ARINC characteristics 230 Concluding remarks 231 Recommended reading 232 Glossary 234 246

11

191

Exercises Index 252

Preface

The cockpit and equipment racks of modern aircraft, large and small, are becoming filled with ever more sophisticated systems . This book attempts to describe a certain class of such systems, namely those which rely for their operation on electromagnetic radiation. The subject matter is complex and wide-ranging, hence not all aspects can be covered in one volume In deciding where the treatment should be light or perhaps non-existent, I have asked myself two questions: (1) which aspects can most usefully be covered in a book; and ( 2 ) at which group of people involved in aviation should a book covering such aspects be aimed? The answer to (1) must be `describe the theory'. One can, and indeed must, read or be told about how to operate the systems: how to navigate using the systems; how to solder, crimp and change items; how to use test equipment, etc. but proficiency is impossible without practice. On the other hand gaining an understanding of how a particular system works is more of a mental exercise which can be guided in a book such as this. This is not to say that more practical matters are neglected, since it would not help one's understanding of the theory of operation not to see, at least in words and pictures, how a particular system is controlled, presents its information, reacts to the environment, etc. Having decided the main line of attack the more difficult question of depth of treatment must be answered: in other words which group should be satisfied'.' Pilots need a superficial knowledge of how all the systems work; maintenance engineers on the ramp and in the hangar a more detailed knowledge; workshop engineers must have an understanding of the circuitry for perhaps a limited range of equipments; while designers should have the greatest depth of knowledge of a11. It is virtually impossible to draw dividing lines, but it is hoped that if enough theory is given to satisfy the aircraft radio maintenance engineer then the book might be useful to all groups mentioned. The depth of treatment varies, it being impossible to cover everything, or indeed anything, to the depth I would have liked. In particular few details of

circuitry are given since I feel most readers will be more interested in the operation of the system as a whole. Nevertheless, some circuits are given purely as examples. Should the reader need circuit knowledge, the equipment maintenance manual is the best place to find it, assuming he knows the system and he has a basic knowledge of electronics. The state of the art of the equipment described is also varied. 1 did not see the point of describing only equipment containing microprocessors, since the vast majority of systems in service do not use them as yet. On the other hand if the life of this book is not to be too severely restricted, the latest techniques must be described. Within the pages that follow, analogue, analogue/digital, hardwired digital and programmable digital equipments all find a place. As stated previously, the book is aimed primarily at the maintenance engineer. However, I hope several groups might be interested. This poses problems concerning the background knowledge required. For what I hope is a fairly substantial part of the book, any reasonably intelligent technically minded person with a basic knowledge of mathematics and a familiarity with aircraft will have no difficulty that two or perhaps three readings will not overcome. There are parts, however, where some knowledge of electronics, radio theory or more sophisticated mathematics is needed. In three chapters where the going gets a bit tough, I have relegated the offending material to an appendix. Some background material is covered in Chapter 1, in particular, basic radio theory and a discussion of digital systems in so far as coding and computers are concerned. If you are one of the few people who plough all the way through the Preface to a book, you may have decided by now that this book is concerned with theory and little else. That this is not so may be clear if I outline briefly the contents of each chapter. An introduction saying a few words about the history and function of the system is followed by a fairly thorough coverage of the basic principles. In some chapters the next item is a discussion of the installation, i.e. the units, how they are interconnected, which other systems they interface

with and any special considerations such as cooling, positioning, type of antennas and feeders, etc. This, together with a description of controls and operation, puts some practical meat on to the bare bones of the theory which continues with a consideration of the block diagram operation. In certain chapters the order: installation - controls and operation -- block diagram, is reversed where 1 thought it was perhaps to the reader's disadvantage to break up the flow of the more theoretical aspects. A brief look at characteristics, in practically all cases based on ARINC publications, and -testing / maintenance concludes each chapter. Most chapters deal with one system; none of them is exclusively military. The exceptions are, in reverse order, Chapter 13 where I look at the current scene and review some systems we should see in the next few years; Chapter 12 which is a bringing-together of some of the previously covered systems: Chapter 6 covering Omega, Decca Navigator and Loran C'; Chapter 2 which covers both radio and non -radio communications; and Chapter 1 where some chosen background material is given. I should point out that this is not a textbook in the sense that everything is examinable in accordance with some syllabus. The reader will take from the book however big a chunk he desires, depend ing on his background knowledge, his profession, the examinations he hopes to take and, of course, his inclination. Some will have, or end up with, an understanding of all that is included herein, in which case I hope the book may be seen as a source of reference.

Communications Components Corporation The Decca Navigator Company Limited Field Tech Limited Hazeltine Corporation IFR Electronics Inc King Radio Corporation Litton Systems International Inc., Aero Products Division

Marconi avionics Limited MEL Equipment Company Limited RCA Limited

Rockwell-Collins (UK) Limited Ryan Storm scope Tel-Instrument Electronics Corporation (TIC) Although I am grateful to all the above, I must reserve a special word of thanks to Mr Wayne Brown of Bendix, Mr. A. E. Crawford of King and Mr. T. C. Wood of RCA, who arranged for the dispatch of several expensive and heavy maintenance manuals in reply to my request for information. These manuals, and indeed all other information received, were used in the preparation of this book and continue to be used in the training of students at Brunel Technical College, Bristol, England. I also wish to thank all my colleagues at Br unel who have helped, often unwittingly, in conversation. In particular my thanks go to John Stokes, Clive Stratton and Peter Kemp for proof-reading some of the chapters and also Leighton Fletcher for helping with the illustrations. May I add that, although I received technical assistance from the above, any mistakes which remain are obviously mine. I would be grateful to any reader who might take the trouble to point out any errors. Finally, my thanks to Pauline Rickards, whose fingers must be sore from typing; to the publishers who displayed great patience as the deadline for the submission of the typescript came and went; and, most of all, to my wife Pat and son Adam who showed even more patience and understanding than Pitmans. Bristol, England J. P.

Acknowledgements A number of manufacturers have given valuable assistance including the supplying of material and granting permission to reproduce data and illustrations. Without the generosity of the following, this book would have been of very limited use. Bendix Avionics Division Boeing Commercial Aero plane Company British Aerospace

I Historical, technical and legal context

Introduction

This book deals with airborne systems that depend for their operation on the generation and detection of that intangible discovery the radio wave. Such systems split naturally into two parts: communications and navigation. The former provide two-way radio contact between air and ground, while the latter enables an aircraft to be flown safely from A to B along a prescribed route with a landing safely executed at B. An understanding of such systems requires a working knowledge of basic electronics, radio, computer systems and other topics. A book of this length cannot provide all that is necessary but it was thought that some readers might appreciate a review of selected background material. This is the objective of Chapter 1. It may be that on consulting the list of contents, the reader will decide to omit all or part of this chapter. On the other hand, some readers may decide that more basic information is needed, in which case, the list of recommended books will help point the way to sources of such material.
Historical Background

1904 1904 1906 1911 1912 1936 1939 1948

Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company Limited (England), later the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company Limited. Fleming's (British) discovery of the thermionic valve - the diode. First patent for a radar-like system to a German engineer, Hulsmeyer. Workable but not accepted. De Forest's (American) invention of an amplifying thermionic valve (triode). Direction-finding properties of radio waves investigated. Discovery of the oscillating properties of De Forest's valve. The first workable pulse radar. Invention of the magnetron in Britain.

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell, Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge, proved mathematically that any electrical disturbance co uld produce an effect at a considerable distance from the point at which it occurred. He predicted that electromagnetic (e.m.) energy would travel outward from a source as waves moving at the speed of light. In 1888 Hertz, a German physicist, demonstrated ,hat Maxwell's theory was correct, at least over distances within the confines of a laboratory. It was left to the Italian physicist Marconi to generate e.m. waves and detect them at a remote receiver, as he did by bridging the Atlantic in 1901. Other notable landmarks in the development of radio include: 1897 First commercial company incorporated for the manufacture of radio apparatus: the

Invention of the transistor by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley (Bell Telephone Laboratories, USA). To bring us up to date, in the early 1970s the first microprocessor appeared from Intel (USA) leading directly to present-day microcomputers. Paralleling the progress of radio was the second of the three great developments of the twentieth century, i.e. powered flight in heavier-than-air machines. (The other two developments referred to are electronics and applications of nuclear physics; the reader is concerned with two out of three.) There can be few people who have not heard of Wilbur and Orville Wright; who designed and built the first successful powered aircraft which Orville flew for the first time at 10.35 on 17 December 1903, making a landing without damage after 12 seconds airborne. Since then landmarks in aviation, with particular reference to civil aviation, include: 1907 First fatality: Lieut. T. E. Selfridge, a passenger in a Wright Fly er. 1909 Bleriot (French) flies the English Channel. 1912 Sikorsky (Russian) builds first multi-engined (four), passenger (sixteen) aircraft. 1914 World War I. The years 1914-18 saw

advances in performance and a vast increase in number of aircraft, engines and pilots. 1919 Sustained daily scheduled flights begin in Europe. 1928 Whittle (British) publishes thesis on jet engine. 1929 First blind landing by Doolittle (American) using only aircraft instruments. 1937 Flying-boat service inaugurated from Britain to the Far East. Britain to Australia took 8 days in 1938, either by KLM or Imperial Airways. 1939 First jet -powered flight by He 178 (German). 1939 Inaugural air-mail service between Britain 1939 World War II. The years 1939 -45 saw the growth of world-wide military air transport services, and the USA established as the postwar leader in civil aviation. 1944 1945 International Civil Aviation Organisation formed at Chicago conference. American Overseas Airlines operate scheduled flights over North Atlantic with landplane (DC 4). First civil jet aircraft, the Comet 1, goes into service with BOAC. First civil turboprop aircraft, the Viscount, goes into service with BEA. Previously unknown problem of metal fatigue discovered in Comet 1. Withdrawn. 1956 Tu 104 first jet aircraft to commence sustained commercial service. First transatlantic jet service by BOAC with the Comet 4. (PAA's Boeing 707 -120 follows three weeks later.) First short -haul jet to enter service, the BAC 1 -11. Boeing 747 introduced; the first of the Jumbo Jets. First civil aircraft supersonic flights, Concorde and the Tu 144.

with the crowded skies. In 1910 the first transmission of e.m. waves from air to ground occurred. Speech was conveyed to an aircraft flying near Brook lands Airfield (England) by means of an e.m. wave in 1916. By the 1920s, radio was being used for aircraft navigation by employing rudimentary direction -finding techniques (Chapter 3). The introduction of four -course low-frequency range equipment in 1929 provided the pilot with directional guidance without the need for a direction -finder on the aircraft. Steady progress was made up to 1939, but it was

world War I I which gave the impetus to airborne Radio innovations . Apart fr om very high frequency
(v.h.f.) communications, introduced during the war, a number of radio navigation aids saw the first light of day in the period since 1939. These systems are described in the following chapters.

Basic Principles of Radio Radiation of Electromagnetic (e.m.) Waves and Antennas If a wire is fed with an alternating current, some of the power will be radiated into space. A similar wire parallel to and remote from the first will intercept some of the radiated power and as a consequence an alternating current will be induced, so that using an appropriate detector, the characteristics of the original current may be measured. This is the basis of all radio systems. The above involves a transfer of energy from one point to another by means of an e.m. wave. The wave consists of two oscillating fields mutually perpendicular t o each other and to the direction of propagation. The electric field (E) will be parallel to the wire from which the wave was transmitted, while the magnetic field (H) will be at right angles. A 'snapshot' of such a wave is shown in Fig. 1.1 where the distance shown between successive peaks is known as the wavelength. The velocity and wavelength of an e.m. wave are

1952 1953 1954

1958

1965 1970 1970

From the time of the Wright brothers to the present day, the non -commercial side of civil aviation, known as general aviation (business and private) has grown with less spectacular firsts than its big brother, so that now by far the largest number of civil aircraft are in this category. It was inevitable that the new toys of radio and aircraft should be married early on in their history. Later the vast increase in air traffic made it essential that radio aids, in both communication and navigation, should be made full use of, to cope safely

Fig. 1.1

An electromagnetic wave

directly related through the frequency of the alternating current generating the wave. The law is: c= Y`f where : c is the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s). Y` is the wavelength in metres. f is the frequency in Hertz (cycles/s). A radiating wire is most efficient when its length is equal to half a wavelength. Thus for a frequency of 100 MHz the wire should be (3 X 10 8)/(2 X 100 X 106 ) = 1.5m long, in which case it is known as a dipole. In practice many airborne radio systems do not make use of dipole antennas since their size is prohibitively large, except at very high frequencies, and the radiation patt ern is not suited to applications where energy needs to be transmitted in or received from a certain direction. A close relative of the dipole is the unipole antenna which is a X/4 length conductor mounted vertically on the metal fuselage which acts as a ground plane in which a reflection of the unipole is `seen' to form a dipole. Thus a v.h.f. communication (comm.) unipole would be less than 60 cm long (centre frequency of the band is 127 MHz). Two unipoles are sometimes mounted back to back on the vertical stabilizer to function as a dipole antenna for use with VOR (Chapter 4) or ILS (Chapter 5). At frequencies in the region of 2-30 MHz (h.f.) a dipole would be between 5 and 75 m. Since the dimensions of aircraft fall, roughly speaking, within this range of lengths it is possible to use the aircraft as the radiating or receiving element. A notch or slot cut in a suitable part of the airframe (e.g. base of vertical stabilizer) has a large oscillating voltage applied across it, so driving current through the fuselage which in turn radiates. The notch/airframe load must be `tuned' to the correct frequency for efficient transmission. Without tuning, little energy would be radiated and a large standing wave would be set up on the connector feeding the notch. This is due to the interaction of incident and reflected energy to and from the antenna. An alternative type of antenna for this band of frequencies is a long length of wire similarly tuned, i.e. with variable reactive components. F or frequencies within the range 10-100 kHz the maximum dimension of even large aircraft is only a small fraction of a wavelength. At these frequencies capacitive type antennas maybe used. One plate of the capacitor is the airframe; the other a horizont al tube, vertical blade or a mesh (sometimes a solid plate). The aircraft causes the field to become

intensified over a limited region near its surface. The resulting comparatively strong oscillating E field between the capacitor's plates causes a current to flow in twin feeder or coaxial cable connected across the antenna. The airborne systems operating in the relevant frequency band are the receive-only systems covered in Chapter 6 (Omega, Decca and Loran C). Although ADF (Chapter 3) receives sign als in the band of frequencies immediately above those considered in this paragraph, one of its two antennas (sense) utilizes the principles discussed. An alternative to the capacitance antenna is the loop antenna which is basically a loop of wire which cuts the H field component of the e.m. wave. The field is intensified by use of a ferrite core on which several turns are wound. Use of two loops mounted at right angles provides a means of ascertaining the direction of arrival (ambiguous) of an e.m. wave. Such antennas are used for ADF (loop) and may also be used for Omega. At frequencies above, say, 3000 MHz the properties of waveguides may be used. A waveguide is a hollow metal tube, usually of rectangular cross section, along which an e.m. w ave can propagate. If the end of a waveguide is left open some energy will be radiated. To improve the efficiency, the walls of the waveguide are flared out, so providing matching to free space and hence little or no reflected energy back down the guide. Such an antenna is called a horn and may be used for radio altimeters (Chapter 11). Associated with the wave propagated along a waveguide are wall currents which flow in specific directions. A slot, about 1 em in length, cut in the waveguide so as to interrupt the current flow will act as a radiator. If several slots are cut the energy from them will combine several wavelengths from the antenna to form a directional beam. The direction depends on the spacing of the slots. Such antennas may be used for Doppler radar (Chapter 10) and weather radar (Chapter 9). The theory of some of the more esoteric antennas used on aircraft is a little sketchy and design is finalized, if not based, on empirical data. However the antenna is designed, it will only s ee service if it performs its function of transmitting and/or receiving e.m. waves in and/or from required directions. The directivity of an antenna, or the lack of directivity, is most clearly defined by means of a polar diagram. If we take a transmitting antenna and plot points of equal field strength (one value only) we have such a diagram. The same antenna used for receiving would, of course, have the same polar diagram. If the diagram is a circle centred on the antenna, as would be the case if the plot were in the plane perpendicular

to a dipole, then the antenna is said to be omnidirectional in the plane in which the measurements were made. A practical antenna cannot be omnidirectional in all planes, i.e. in three dimensions. The e.m. Spectrum and Propagation As can be seen from the previous paragraph, the frequency of the radio wave is an important consideration when considering antenna design. In addition the behavior of the wave as it propagates through the earth's atmosphere is also very much dependent on the frequency. However, before considering propagation, we will place radio waves in the spectrum of all e.m. waves (Table 1.1). In doing so we see that the range of frequencies we are concerned with is small when Table 1.1 The electro magnetic spectrum Hz Region 10 25 10 21 Cosmic rays Gamma rays

Table 1.3 Approximate bands for microwave frequencies Letter designation L S C X K Q Frequency range (GHz) 1-3 2-5-4

3.5-7.5 6-12.5 12.5 -40 33-50 Table 1.4 Airborne radio frequency utilization (exact frequencies given in relevant chapters) System Omega Decca Loran C ADF h.f. comm. Marker ILS (Localizer) VOR v.h.f. comm. ILS (Glideslope) DME SSR Radio altimeter Weather radar (C) Doppler (X) Weather radar (X) Doppler (K) Frequency band 10-14 kHz 70-130 kHz 2-25kHz 100 MHz 75 MHz 108-112 MHz 108-118 MHz 118-136 MHz 320-340 MHz 960-1215 MHz 1030 and 1090 MHz 4.2-4.4 GHz

10' 9 X rays 10 17 Ultraviolet 10 15 Visible 10 14 Infra-red 10 11 Radio waves compared with the complete spectrum. By general agreement radio frequencies are categorized as in Table 1.2. There is less agreement about the letter designations used for the higher radio frequencies which are tabulated with approximate frequency ranges in Table 1.3. Finally, Table 1.4 lists the frequencies used for airborne radio systems by international agreement. Table 1.2
Name
Very low frequency Low frequency Medium frequency High frequency Very high frequency Ultrahigh frequency Superhigh frequency Extremely high frequency

Radio frequency categorization

Abbreviation Frequency VIE
l.f. m.f. h.f. v.h.f. u.h.f. s.h.f. e.h.f. 3-30 30-300 300-3000 3-30 30-300 300-3000 3-30 kHz kHz kHz MHz MHz MHz GHz

30-300 GHz

In free space, all radio waves travel in straight lines at the speed of light. Such a mode of propagation is known as the space wave. In addition, two other modes of propagation are used with airborne radio equipment: the ground wave and the sky wave. A fourth mode known as tropospheric scatter is used only for fixed ground stations since elaborate and expensive. equipment must be used at both ends of the link due to the poor transmission efficiency. The ground wave follows the surface of the earth partly because of diffraction, a phenomenon associated with all wave motion which causes the wave to bend around any obstacle it passes. In addition, the wave H field cuts the earth's surface, so causing currents to flow. The required power for these currents must come from the wave, thus a flow

of energy from wave to earth takes place causing bending and attenuation. The attenuation is a limiting factor on the range of frequencies which can be used. The higher the frequency the greater the rate of change of field strength, so more attenuation is experienced in maintaining the higher currents. Ground waves are used for v.l.f. and l.f. systems. Radio waves striking the ionosphere (a s et of ionized layers lying between 50 and 500 km above the earth's surface) are refracted by an amount depending on the frequency of the incident wave. Under favourable circumstances the wave will return to the earth. The distance between the transmit ter and point of return (one hop) is known as the skip distance. Multiple hops may occur giving a very long range. Above about 30 MHz there is no sky wave since insufficient refraction occurs. Sky wave propagation is useful for h.f. comm. but can caus e problems with l.f. and m.f. navigation aids since the sky wave and ground wave may combine at the receiver in such a way as to cause fading, false direction of arrival or false propagation time measurements. At v.l.f. the ionosphere reflects, rather than refracts, with little loss; thus v.l.f. navigation aids of extremely long range may be used. Above 30 MHz, space waves, sometimes called line of sight waves, are utilized. From about 100 MHz to 3 GHz the transmission path is highly predictable and reliable, and little atmospheric attenuation occurs. Above 3 GHz attenuation and scattering occur, which become limiting factors above about 10 GHz. The fact that space waves travel in a straight line at a known speed and, furthermore, are reflected from certain objects (including thunderstorms and aircraft) makes the detection and determination of range and bearing of such objects possible. Modulation Being able to receive a remotely transmitted e.m. wave and measure its characteristics is not in itself of much use. To form a useful link, information must

be superimposed on the e.m. wave carrier. There are several ways in which the wave can carry information and all of them involve varying some characteristic of the carrier (amplitude or frequency modulation) or interrupting the carrier (pulse modulation). The simplest, and earliest, way in which a radio wave is made to carry information is by use of Morse Code. Switching the transmitter on for a short time -interval, corresponding to a dot, o r a longer time -interval, corresponding to a dash, enables a message to be transmitted. Figure 1.2 illustrates the transmission of SOS, the time-intervals shown being typical. In radar the information which must be superimposed is simply the time of t ransmission. This can easily be achieved by switching on the transmitter for a very short time to produce a pulse of e.m. energy. When transmitting complex information, such as speech, we effectively have the problem of transmitting an extremely large number of sine waves. Since the effect of each modulating sine wave on the radio frequency (r.f.) carrier is similar, we need only consider a single sine wave modulating frequency. The characteristics of the modulating signal which must be transmitted are the frequency and amplitude. Figure 1.3 shows three ways in which a pulsed carrier may be modulated by a sine wave while Figs 1.4 and 1.5 show amplitude and frequency modulation of a continuous wave (c.w.) carrier. Both amplitude modulated (a.m.) and frequency modulated (f.m.) carriers are commonly used for airborne systems. With a.m. the amplitude of the carrier represents the amplitude of the modulating signal, while the rate of change of amplitude represents the frequency. With f.m. the amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal is represented by the frequency deviation and rate of change of frequency of the carrier respectively. Both a.m. and f.m. waves have informative parameters associated with them. With a.m. if the

, Time y

x = 0 .1s, y=0 -3 s Fig. 1.2 Morse code: SOS

Radio frequency transmitted

--, Time

Fig. 1.4 Amplitude modulation

Fig. 1.3 Pulse modulation - from top to bottom: unmodulated carrier, modulating waveform, pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation

carrier amplitude is Y"e and the modulating signal amplitude is V, then the modulation factor is Vt,-,, , 'C. This fraction can be expressed as a percentage, in which case it is known as the percentage modulation or depth of modulation (note sometimes depth of modulation is quoted as a decimal fraction). Figure 1.4 shows 100 per cent modulation. With f.m. the parameter is the deviation ratio which is given by the ratio of maximum frequency deviation (fd max) to maximum modulating frequency (fm max). The ratio fd/fr is called the modulation index and will only be constant and equal to the deviation ratio if the modulating signal is fixed in frequency and amplitude. In Figs 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 the modulated signal is illustrated in the time domain, i.e. with time along the horizontal axis. It is instructive to look at the frequency domain representations as shown in

Fig. 1.5 Frequency modulation

Fig. 1.6 where a single sine wave of frequency fT , is the modulating signal. It can be seen that several frequencies are present, so giving rise to the idea of bandwidth of a radio information channel. The most significant difference between a.m. and f.m. is that the a.m. bandwidth is finite whereas, in theory, the f.m. bandwidth is infinite. In practice the f.m. bandwidth is regarded as finite, being limited by those extreme sidebands which are regarded as significant, say 10 per cent of amplitude of the largest frequency

frequency component is 3000 Hz we need only transmit a sample of the instantaneous amplitude every 1/6000 = 0-000 166 7 s (= 166.7 ps). Thus we have time-intervals during which we can transmit samples of other signals. The number of signals we can time multiplex on one carrier link depends on the duration and frequency of each sample. The shorter the sample duration the greater the bandwidth required, confirming the statement made earlier that more information requires wider bandwidths.
Carrier (fc ) Fig. 1.6 Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation spectrums for a pure sine wave modulating signal of frequency fm

Basic Receivers and Transmitters A much simplified transmitter block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7. This could be called the all-purpose block diagram since it could easily be converted to a

component. The relative amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands depend on modulation factor and index for a.m. and f.m. respectively. In any information link there is a relationship between the bandwidth and the amount of information which can be carried, hence high-fidelity stereo broadcasts occupy a wide bandwidth. It is not, however, desirable to have as wide a bandwidth as possible since (a) the number of available channels is reduced; (b) electrical noise, generated at all frequencies by electrical equipment and components, and by atmospheric effects, will be present in the receiver channel at a greater power level the wider the bandwidth. The signal power to noise power ratio is a limiting factor in the performance of receiving equipment. The information in an a.m. wave is repeated in each of the sidebands; the carrier frequency component has no information content. As a consequence, at the expense of more complicated transmitting and receiving equipment, we need transmit only one sideband. Single sideband (s.s.b.) transmission conserves bandwidth, with attendant advantages, and is found in airborne h.f. comm. systems. Multiplexing In most airborne systems the required number of channels is obtained by allocating non-overlapping bands of frequencies centred on specified discrete carriers. This is known as frequency multiplexing. Shannon's sampling theory shows that a sine wave of frequency fm can be completely specified by a series of samples spaced at no more than 1/2 f m second (s). To transmit speech where the highest

Fig. 1.7

Basic radio transmitter block diagram

low-level a.m. transmitter, (little if any amplification of the carrier before modulation), a high-level a.m. transmitter (little if any amplification of the carrier after modulation), an s.s.b. transmitter (introduce a band pass filter after the modulator) or an f.m. transmitter (introduce a frequency multiplifer after the modulator). Obviously in the above examples the circuit details would vary greatly, particularly in the modulators, and if detailed block diagrams were drawn the underlying similarities in structure would be less obvious. The most basic type of receiver is a tuned radio frequency (t.r.f.), however this is rarely used. The standard receiver configuration is the superheterodyne (superhet) shown in Fig. 1.8. The desired r.f. is converted to a constant intermediate frequency by taking the difference frequency after mixing the received signal with the output from a local oscillator (Lo.). Since most of the amplification and selectivity is provided by constant frequency and bandwidth stages the design problem is eased. In both the transmitter and the receiver, r.f. oscillators have to b e tuned to different frequencies. In the transmitter it is the m.o. (master oscillator), while in the receiver it is the Lo. Modern practice is

Fig. 1.8 Basic superhetrodyne receiver block diagram

to usea frequencysynthesizer with a singlecrystal to providestability dnd accuracy.

(positive In all of the abovethe logic may be reversed logic). Thus we can represent and negative a binary digit (bit) by an electricalsignal,but if the number to is largerthan l, we must combinebits be represented into some intelligible code. DigitalSystems Binary code hasbeenmentioned;this is simply counting to the base2 rather than the basel0 Coding (decimalcode) aswe do normally. Unfortunately, Most of the airborne systems in use are basically binary numberssoon becomevery large,for example analogue, i.e. they dealwith signals which represent 9 l r o = I 0 I I 0 I 1 2( t h e s u b s c r i p t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e variousquantitiescontinuouslyand smoothly. For 8 = 23) and hexadecimal so octal (base examplein DME a very smallincrease in rangeresults base), = 24) may be used. The machinemay still (base l6 in a corresponding increase in time;we say time is an aremore dealwith a 1/0 situationbut the numbers analogue of distance. With a digital system, when written down, for example manageable information is represented by a numberencodedin given, 91 ro = l33s = 5816. Note, in the examples if somesuitableway. we split the binary number into groupsof three from Sinceit is difficult to detectmany different voltage the right (leastsignificantbit, l.s.b.)we have or current levelsonly two are used,and this leads l , 0 l l , 0 1 1 2 = 1 , 3 , 3 s , i . e .e a c hg r o u pi s t h e b i n a r y naturallyto expressing numbersto the base2 (binary code)wherethe only digits are 0 and l. It remainsto code for an octal digit. Similarly l0ll2 =5,816. defineelectronicrepresentations r 101, of 0 and I in an and hexadecimal Binary codesare usedin digital unambiguous way. Various methodsare usedwith code is used for the ATC octal computers, (a) beingby far the most common,in the (Chapter 8). task of frequency The transponder non-exhaustive list which follows. selectionis one which lendsitself to coding,and which havebeenused,the two most amongseveral - 0 commonarebinarycodeddecimal(b.c.d.)and two (a) Voltagelevel no voltage - t from five (2/5). Both of thesecodesretain the high voltage = l decimaldigit 'flavour' of the number to be encoded (b) Pulse polarity positive = Q at the expense negative of usingextra bits. To represent 9l 16 (c) Pulse position a time interval is split in we considerthe decimaldigits 9 and I separately to two halves: give: = | pulse in first half 9lro=1001 00016.9.6., pulsein secondhalf = 0 (d) Phase at specified read time a change 9l ro=10001 11000275 sinewave: phase changes for all the codesmentionedare givenfor Equivalents = (180"C) | numbers 0 to l5 in Table 1.5. decimal . doesnot change It can be seenfrom the abovethat more bits than = Q are absolutelynecessary phase are usedfor b.c.d. and2l5.

Tabh 1.5 Variouscodeequivalents

Base
Code

4. conversionfrom binarYto b.c.d.; 5 . b.c.d. fed to frequencysynthesizer; code; from b.c.d. to special 6 . conversion 7 . specialcode fed to readoutdevice.

1 0 2

8 1 6

BCD

2ls
0000 0001 0010 001I 0100 0l0l 0l 10 0lll 1000 l00l 0000 0001 0010 00lt 0100 0101 0l001 l 1000 10100 0l 100 0 l0 l q l0 001 00101 I 0001 10010 10001 01001 11000 10100 01100 01010 00110

0 0000 0 0 I 000r I I 2 0010 2 2 3 00ll 3 3 4 0100 4 4 5 0l0l 5 5 6 0 1 1 06 6 ? 0lll 7 I 8 1000 l0 8 9 1 0 0 1I I 9 l0 l0l0 l2 A ll l0ll l3 E 12 I 100 14 c 13 ll01 15 D 14 lll0 l6 E 15 llll l7 F

0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001

11000 11000 11000 11000 11000 u000

the coding of So far we haveonly discussed Standards (lnternational ISO The numericaldata. word code seven-bit a 5 is No. alphabet Organisation) which can be usedto encodeupper and lower case letters,punctuationmarks,decimaldigits and various and control symbols' The full code other characters in may be found most of the latest ARINC here,however' and will not be repeated characteristics are A = I 0 0 0 0 0 I' examples O I 0 0 10,etc. Aparitybitmaybeadded n=i to give a byte. Wh"r. . limited numberof actualwords needto be 'distance','speed','heading',etc' special e.g. encoded, in codesmay be designated'Suchcodesare described ation fo rm in AR INC specification 429'2 digital in transfersystem(DITS) which is discussed 13. Chapter Microcomputers The microprocessorhas brought powerful computers on to aircraft to perform a number of functions, equations,in a includingthe solution of navigation way than before' A more sophisticated and of a microprocessor microcomputerconsists (chips), to help circuits integrated peripheral several perform its function' the microprocessor There are four basicparts to computers,micro or otherwise:memory, arithmeticlogic unit (ALU)' control unit and the input/output unit (l/O)' In a microcomputerthe ALU and control unit are usually or combinedon a singlechip, the microprocessor a illustrates l '9 Figure (CPU)' unit centralprocessing basicsystem. The memory containsboth instructionsand data in the form of binary words' Memory is of two basic (RAM)' types, ,ead only (ROM) and random access state previous any remember not does The ROM which may haveexisted;it merely definesa functional betweenits input lines and its output relationshrp lines. The RAM could be termed readand write memory; sincedata can be both readfrom memory urd written into memory, i.e. its statemay change' trnformation in RAM is usually lost when power is switched off. circuitry to allow The ALU contains the necessary such asaddition operations, it to carry out arithmetic such as Boolean functions and logical and subtiaction, (combinationsof NANDs and operations algebra NORsetc.).

If the bits are transmitted serially, one after the other in time down a line, then more time is neededfor the of a number than would be neededif transmission. binary codewere used. If the bits are transmittedin parallel,one bit per line, then more lines are needed. in that the redundancy This hasa certain advantage errors, for may be usedto detect transmission I 0 I I Ocouldnotbea2/5 codeand example I 0 I 0 could not be b.c.d. Error checking can also be used with binary codes. We will alwaysbe restrictedto a certainmaximum a numberof bits, one of which can be designated we parity bit usedsolely for error detecting. Suppose eachgroup bf eight-bitswould had eightbits available, a word of length 8 (commonly calleda be call-ed bits of the word would be used byte). Ttrefirst seven to encodethe decimal digit (0 to 127) while the eighthwould be the parity bit. For odd parity we set the parity bit to 0 or I so as to make the total numberof onesin the word odd; similarly for even parity. Thus61e= 00001l0l odd parity or j 3,o oooot 100 evenparity. Error correcting(as to detecting)codesexist but do not find use opposed in airborneequiPmentasYet. To considera practicalapplicationqf the above on a a particular frequencyis selected Srppose of control unit, we may havethe following sequence events: l. information from controller: 215 code', 2. conversionfrom2l5 to binary; binary data; 3. microcomputerprocesses

f':

FA. t.9 Basic microcomputer organization The control unit providestiming instructionsand from memory, on the data bus, to the control unit synchronization for all other units. The control whereit is decoded. The programcounter signals causethe other units to move data, manip_ulate automaticallyincrementsby one count, and after the numbers, input and output information. All this current instruction has been executedthe next instructionis fetched. This basiccvcle of: activity dependson a set of step-by-step instructions (known as the program)which residein memory. The l/O unit is the computer'sinterfacewith the fetch outsideworld. decode From Fig. 1.9 it can be seenthat the units are increment interconnected by three main buses. A bus is several execute electricalconnectionsdedicatedto a particular task. A unidirectionalbus allowsdata flow in one direction continuously. During the executionof an only, unlike a bidirectionalbus where flow is two-way. is repeated instructiondata may have to be fetched from ln a microcomputer we usually have: memory, for exampleto add two numbersthe instructionwill need to tell the CPU not only that an l. address bus: sixteenunidirectional lirfes; additionoperationis necessary, but the location.in 2. databus: eightor sixteen bidirectional lines; 3. control bus: the numberof linesvaries with the the memory,of the numbersto be added. areexecuted The rate at which instructions systemand may haveboth unidirectional and and the depends on the complexityof the instrtrction bidirectional lines. pulse the Each from frequency of the systern clock. .: several clock initiatesthe next actionof the system; To operate, eachstep-by-step instructionmust be per instructionareneeded.Often the clock actions fetched, in order,from memoryand executed by the CPU. To keeptrack of the next stepin the program, circuitis on the CPU chip. the only external a programcounter is usedwhich incremelts eachtime component beinga crystal. The I/O data flows via logicalcircuits calledporrs. an hstruction is fetched. Before an instruction can be executed.it must be decodedin the CPU to Theseports may be openedin a similar way to that in determinehow it is to be accomplished. In somesystems the I/O which memory is addressed. On switch-on,the programcounter is set to the ports are treated as if they were RAM - an address (location) of this opensa particularport and data flows in or out of first storedinstruction. The address first instruction is placedon the address bus by the that port dependingon whether a read or write signal pro$am counter causingthe instruction to be fetched is present. A variety of chips are used for l/O, some 10

of whi_ch are very basic; others (programmable ports) more flexible. The program which is resident in ROM is srbdividedinto routines. Someroutineswill be runningcontinuouslyunlessstopped;others may only be called for when the need ariseJ. For example, a navigationcomputer will continuously compute the aircraft position by running the mainioufini (or bop) which instructs the ALU as to which calculationsmust be carried out using data available in memory. This data must be updated periodically by acceptinginformation from, siy, u ,"dio navigationsensor. When data is available from the extemalequipment,an interrupt sigral is generated and fed to the microcomputer on an interiupt line. Such a signalcauses the computer to abandon the main routine and commencea serviceroutine which will supervisethe transfer of the new data into rrrmory. After transfer the main routine will rccommenceat the next step, rememberedby a CpU register. The topics discussed in the paragraphsabove can all be classifiedashardware or softwaie. The hardware is the sum total of actual components up the computer: chips,active and passive T"king discrete components, and interwiring. Software comprises_programs, procedures and the languages or codesusedfor internal and external commu-nication. Softwaredeterminesthe stateof the hardwarear any particulartime. In an airbornecomputer both the software and hardware are fixed Uy itre designer. The operatordoesnot haveto program the computer in the sense that he must write a routine; however, he plays his part in how the computer will function b1,,for example,selecting a switChposition which will cause certain data to be preseniedto him by the computer,insertingatard (hardware),on which codedinstructionsor data (software)havebeen *Titten, into a cardreader, etc. Examples of the use of microcomputersare coruidered in someof the chaptersto follow. These applications, and the abovebrief discussion. should givethe readera basicidea on how computerswork; for detailsof circuitry and programminj consult the readily availablespecialistliteriture.

which it operates(seeTables1.2 and 1.3) and as being pulsed, a.m. or f.m. From both the desigr and maintenancepoint of view, the frequency at which equipmentoperates is perhaps more important than the modulation used, at least in so far ai the choice of componentsand test equipmentis concerned. The higher the frequency the greaterthe effect of stray capacitanceand inductance, sigral transit time and skin effect in conductors. In thi microwave region(s.h.f. and the high end of u.h.f.) wavezuide replaces co-axialcable,certainly above5 GHz] and special components whosedimensions play a critical part in their operationareintroduced(klystrons, magnetrons, etc.). Analogue-Digital Theseterms have alreadybeen mentioned and certain aspects of digital systems havebeendiscussed. In modern airborne systemsthe information in the radio and intermediatefrequencystages, including the 'wireless' r.f. link, is usually in analogueform (the exception being secondarysurveillan ce rcdar (see Chapter8), to be joined in future by microwave gtail8 systems, data link and the replacement for SSR(seeChapter l3)). In addition Commonlyused transducers such as synchros, potentiometers, microphones,telephonesand speakers are all analogue devices.Not all transducers arein the analogue Tlegory, a shaft angleencoderused in encoding altimetersis basicallyan analogue to digital converter. With the exception of the above almost everything . elsein current equipmentis digital, whereas previouslysystems were all analogue.There is a further subdivisionwithin digitaliquipment into thoseusinga combinationof hardwareand software (computer-controlled) and thoseusingonly hardware (hardwiredlogic). The trend is towardsthl former. Function The two basic categorieswith regardto function are communications and navigation. If navigationis definedin its widest sense assafe,economicalpassage from A to B via selected points (waypoints) then communications systems eould be considered as belongingto the navigationcategory. If, however, communications systems are regarded as those systems capableof transmittingspeech over radio or wire links, and all other systems as navigation,we iue obeyinga sensible convention. The introduction of data links will requiresomeamendmentto the definition of communications systems, since , non-navigational data will be transmittedbut not as a speech pattern. Navigationsystems may be subdividedinto radio

CaGgorization of Airborne Radio Eqripments Frcqucy and Modulation involvedvary greatlywith the T* 9" techniques r.f. andtypeof modulation used, itls ofien useful to crtegonze equipment asto the bandof frequencies in

t1

concemls but only the radiosystems andnon'radio, t i on-t txmg p osi is on si i iv d sub ;;;":'-A;;ih.i possible

category; belongto the landing-aids systems landing category the of subdivisions these itfr*t?i',vpes of in will be considered Chapters systems lf nuuigution ui9: systems r'ndlnc, Position-fixing 111 "^.,. S. f f uiO 5 respectively' ffi; ;;rfieiiht-nndrng, d and the latter we nave ntaine For self'co into d environment-monitoring' I ^"' u.'i" t,ft.i subtlivide a]tim,etlrs radio dead while uses former systems' The -l.i-ghlri"olng weatheravoidance rument ilffi;;,i"t-tutta' go rv andinst cate

fi "* ; ;it

(@er4''l.j$*

(VOR/DME/RNAV/ILS) SYSTEM NAVIGATION re{S80 IIITEGRATED

<-NAV & GS RECEIVER

\COI,IPUTER

BOARD

navigationsystem Fh. l.l0 KNS 80 integrated CorP') Radio (JurtesY King

12

reckoning to compute the aircraft's position while the latter usesa variety of methods:rho'theta, rho-rho, rho-rho-rho,theta-thetaand hyperbolic. The Greeklettersp (rho) and 0 (theta) areusedto (range)and angle(bearing)to a distance represent fixed point of known location. The pilot can determine(fix) his positionif he knows: (a) p and 0 to one fixed Point: (b) p to three distinct fixed Points; (c) 0 to two distinct fixed Points. A rho-rho systemgivesan ambiguousfix unlessthe aircraft is at the midpoint of the line joining the two stationsto which the rangeis known. With by position-fixingis achieved hyperbolicsystems in range;ambiguitymay be differences measuring (Chapter6). avoidedby varioustechniques the overlaps equipment One item of navigation betweenthe different methodsof positionboundhries fixing, namelyOmega;this usesdeadreckoningin conjunctionwith rho-rho, rho-rho'rhoor hyperbolic VOR (Chapter4) andDME methods. Two systems, (Chapter7) are usedtogetherto gfuea rho-thetafix. With miniaturizationof circuitry, it is now possible which were previously systems, to houseseveral into one box' It is still possible physicallyseparate, by function, but we must bearin mind to categorize that the circuit implementationmay be intimately connected.Suchan exampleis givenby the system(Fig. I ' l0) King KNS 80 integratednavigation 4, ILS (Chapters and VOR, DME which incorporates 7 and 5) aswell as areanavigationfacilities(Chapter systems may grouptogether l2). Other equipment such operatingwithin the sameband of frequencies asv.h.f.comm.and v.h.f.nav.(VOR and ILS). in use systems Figure l.l I illustratesthe navigation on a Boeing747 with a typical fit; different operators may takeop different options. This diagramincludes non-radio(mainly in the top half) aswell as radio the interrelationships and illustrates systems, with regardto display betweenthem especially (right-handside). A similardiagramfor the is includedin Chapter2 systems communications (Fig. 2.15). The largenumberof radionavigation systems, someduplicatedor eventriplicated for safety,presentthe problem of whereto position the antennas.The solution for the Boeing747 is shown i n F i g .1 . 1 2 .

usedterms in aircraft navigation. All of the quantities can be found defined,with the exceptionof heading, or areinput by the pilot at some usingradio systems, stageof the flight, usually prior to take off.

Interference The e.m. environment of an aircraft radio system is suchthat it may suffer from interferingsignals-and/or interference or natural,ind cause noise,man-made may be either itself to other systems.Interference radiatedor conducted. it As the aircraft fliei through the atmosphere, due to frictional contact picks up electricalcharge (precipitationstatic) and particles with atmospheric alsowhile flying through cloud formations,within which very strongelectricfieldsexist (electrostatic will induction). An unevendistribution of charge currentsto flow in the aircraft skin; possiblyin cause the form of a spark,betweenparts of unequal potential. Any sparkresultsin a wide band of radiatedr.f. which will be picked up by radio systems asnoiseand possiblymaskwantedsigrals. To avoid this type ofinterference,a bondingsystemis used numerousmetal stripswhich presentvery comprising links betweenall parts of the aircraft. low iesistance within the aitcraft,a In addition to discharges if a sufficiently to atmosphere occur will discharge largedifferencein potential exists. The discharge but in an attempt to keep the cannotbe avoided, static as possible, activity as far from antennas edge of the trailing to the fitted are dischaigers in order to tailplaneand verticalstabilizer mainplane, providean easypath for it. By providinga numberof the voltageis kept points at eachdischarger discharge largecurrents the carries system bonding low. The involvedto thoseparts of the airframewherethe are fitted. Lightningconductors, static dischargers of the non-conducting such ason the insidesurface to connected noseradome,and lightningdischargers and somenotch the lead-inof wire antennas help conduct any strike to the bulk of the antennas, to equipment. A wire damage airframe,so preventing path between resistance a high antennawill alsohave static of any leakage allow to airframe and the it build-up on the antenna. enginc Sparksoccur in d.c. motors and generators, areusedto provide etc. Capacitors igrition systems, commutators brushes, r.f. path across a low resistance and contacts, a form of protection known as nrppression. and Another form ofinterferenceis capacitive adjacent between and cross-talk pick-up inductive

Nomenclature Navigation
Figure I .13 and Table I .6 definethe most commonly

13

Wcathcr radar systcm Loran indicetors Radio rnag indic6tors

instrurnant

dircctor in.

lbcrqr

3yst. I

lffic'_l

lbcacon ird.l

Fig. l.l I Boeing747: typical navigationsystemsfit (courtesyBoeingComntrcial AeroplaneCo.)

cables. Pick-up is the term usedwhen the interfering source is a.c.power (400 Hz in aircraft),while cross-talkis interferencefrom a nearby signal-carrying cable. The problem arisesout of the capacitance and mutual inductancewhich edsts betweenthe cables.A pair of wiresmay be twisted togetherto reduceboth types ofinterference- the pick-up or cross-talk on adjacent loops,formed by the twist, tendingto cancelout. An earthedmetallic screenor shield will provide an effective reduction in capacitiveinterferencebut low-frequency inductive 14

pick-up is not appreciably affected by the non-magneticscreen. At high frequenciesskin effect confines the magneticfields of co-axial cablesto their cablesareboth screened interior. Most signal-carrying and twisted;some,whereintegrity is especially important, e.g. radio altimeteroutput, may have double screening. around a wire must be earthedin order The screen to be effective. Howeverif both endsof the screen are earthed,an earth loop may be formed sincethe remoteearth completecircuit through the screen,

Wirthor ndu Locrlizrr No.

Locrlizcr No. 1 end tlo. 2

Loft tnd right AFT nos. 9e8r door glidc slopo tracl end capturr antcnna sy3tams Ccntor .furolegcJ aqulpment cantcr

Low rmgc rrdio altimotrr

ADf loop No. 1

l{rrtrr batcon ADF loop llo. 2 ADF srnse entcnnaNo. 2

ADF rns. antoma t{o. 1

VORNo.1 VOR No. 2

Fig.l.l2 Boeing747.. typical navigation systems aerial (courtesy locations Boeing Commercial Aeroplane Co.) points and the airframe is of non-zero resistance. As a consequence, interferingsources may causea potential differenceto edst betweenthe endsof the screen.The resultingcurrent flow and its associated H field would cause interference in the inner conductor. Earth loops are a particularproblem in audio systems and must be avoided. The earth pointsfor screened cables and a.c.power must be remote from one another. If a screen wereto be connecteddirectly to an a.c. power earth, conductedmainsinterference may result. Another form of conductedinterference is cross-talk where a number of signalcarryiqg wires are brought together, e.g.audio signals beingfed to an interphoneamplifier. potential divider networkskeep Suitably designed this conducted cross-talkto a minimum (Chapter 2). Adequateseparation of antennas operatingwithin the samefrequencyband is necessary to prevent mutual interferenceby radiation. Frequency and time domain filtering may be usedin helping to avoid suchinterference, the former in c.w. systems, the latter in pulsedsystems.Different polarization(E field direction) will assistin preventing cross-coupling betweenantennas.

15

,/ WPTO

\Mnd dircction dnd velocatY

On tnck \Mnd dircction and velocity

Fit; l.l3 Navigationnomenclature(courtesyLitton Systems lnternational lnc., Aero hoducts Division)

16

Navigation nomenclature - abbreviations electrical equipment will interfere with the magnetic compass. Units are marked with their 'compasssafe distance' as appropriate but care should also be taken Abbreviation Meaning particularlyfor d.c. power. with cables, Table 1.6
HDG Heading - angle,measured clockwise betweenNorth and the direction in which the aircraft is pointing, Track - direction in which the aircraft is moving. Desired'Track- direction in which the pilot wishesthe aircraft to move. Drift Angle - anglebetweenhcadingand track measured to port (left) or starboard (right). Track Angle Error - angle bctween track and desiredtrack, usually quoted as left or rght. Ground Speed - spdedof the aircraft in the directionof the track.in the'plane' parallel to the earth's surface(map speed). . Comparewith air speedwhich is the speed of the aircraft relative to the air mass through which it is moving. Position. Waypoint - a significant point on the route which may t c usedfor reporting to Air Traffic Control, turning or landing. Distanceto go from position to waypoint, CrossTrack - the perpendiculardistance from the aircraft to the line joining the two waypoints betweenwhich the aircraft is flying. Estimated time of arrival

TK DTK

Maintenance

This is not the placeto go into greatdetail on this important practicaltopic but somenotesof a general DA natureare in order to supplement the notes included in most of the following chapters.In practicethe maintenance engineer relieson his training and TAE experience and also regulations, schedules and procedures laid down or approved by national bodies responsible for aviationin generaland safetyin GS particular. The aircraft maintenance enginber, of whatever specialism, for regularinspections is responsible of equipmentas laid down in the aircraft schedule.For the radio engineeran inspection will consist of a POS thorough examination of all equipment comprising WPT the radio installationfor cracks,dents,chafing,dirt, oil, grease, moisture,buming, arcing,brittleness, breakage, corrosion,mechanical bonding, freedomof DIS movement,springtension,etc" as applicable. In XTK carrying out specific tasks the engineershould look for damage to parts of the airframeor its equipment which are not directly his or her responsibility. Vigilance is the key to flight safety. ETA Carrying out functional tests when called for in th0 schedule, or when a fault hasbeen reported,should be done in accordance with the procedurelaid down Adjacent channel interference occurs when a in the aircraft maintenance manual. A word of receiver's bandwidth is not sufficiently narrow to waming should be givenhere,sinceprocedures arenot attenuate unwantedsigralscloseto the required alwayswhat they shouldbe: often testingof certain sigtal. Secondor imagechannelinterferencemay aspects of a system'sfunction are omitted and, occurin superhetreceivers when an unwantedsigral rarely, there m.aybe errors in the procedure. froin the required sigrralby twice the A thorough knbwledge of the system is the best { separated intermediate frequencyand lies on the oppositeside guardagainst mistakesor omissions which, if noticed, of the local oscillatorfrequency. A high intermediate strouldbe amendedthrough the proper channels. frequency will help reduce secondchannel Modern equipmentusuallyhassufficient built-in interferencesince the image will be outside the r.f. test equipment(BITE) and.monitoringcircuits to bandwidth,the separation beinggreater. carry out a comprehensive check of the system. With Unfortunatelyfor a given Q factor, the bandwidth of portable test radio systems, however,special the intermediate frequency amplifiers will be wide for equipmentmust be usedin addition to BITE in order this solutionto the secondchannelproblem. to be in a position to certify the system asserviceable. Increasing channelseparation is not really acceptable Test setsshouldbe capableof testingby radiationand sincedemand for more channelsis forever rising. of simulating the appropriate sigrals to test all Somereceivers employ two intermediatefrequencies functionsnot coveredby BITE. producedby two mixer stages and two local The r.f. circuits,includingantennas and feeders, oscillators;this can give good adjacent and second are often neglectedwhen functional tests are carried drannel rejection. shouldbe out. In particulartest set antennas Magrretic fields associated with electronic and correctly positioned if a false impressionof the

receiver sensitivityor power output is to be avoided. Whenfault-firtdhg a completefunctional test shouldbe carriedout as far as posible in order to obtain a full list of symptoms. Naturally symptoms suchasa smell of burning or no supply must call a halt to the procedure. Fault-findingchartsin maintenance manualsare usefulbut there is no substitutefor knowledgeof the system. One shouldnot forget the possible effects of non-radiosystems and equipmentwhen investigating reported defects.Poorbonding, brokenstatic dischargers, open circuit suppression capacitors, low or inadequately filtered d.c. supplies, low voltageor etc. will all give rise lincorrectfrequencya.c. supplies, \o symptomswhich will be reportedby the pilot as radiodefects. Sometimes symptomsare only presentwhen the aircraft is airborneand the systemis subjectto vibration, pressure and temperature changes, etc. A functional test during engineruns will gc part way to reproducingthe conditionsof flight. One should mention the obvioushazardof loose articles;so obviousthat many aircraft accidents have beencaused in the past by carelessness. Tools and test equipment,including leads,must all be accounted for when a job is finished. A well-run store with signing-in and signing-out of equipmentis an added safeguard to personalresponsibility. Installationof equipmentshouldbe in accordance with the manufacturer's instructionswhich will cover the following, l. Weight of units: centre of gravity may be affected. 2. Current drawn: loadingof supplies should be carefully considered and the correct choiceof circuit-breaker made. 3. Cooling: more than adequate clearance should be left and forced air-cooling employedif appropriate. Overheating is a major cause of failure. 4. Mounting: anti-vibrationmounts may be necessary which, if non-metallic, give rise to a need for bonding straps. 5. Cables:length and type specified. Usually maximum length must be observed but in some particular cases lengths are necessairy. Types of .' cableusedmust provideprotection against interference and be ablerohandle current drawn or supplied. Current capabiltiesare reduced for cablesin bunches. 6. Antenna: approvedpositionsfor particular types of antenna or particular types of aircraft are laid down by aviation authorities. t8

Strengthening of the structurearound the antenna in the form of a doublerplatewill probablybe necessary. A groundplaneis essential and must not be forgotten if the antenna is to be mountedon a non-conducting surface. If the antennais movable,adequate should be left. Any alignment clearance requirements must be met. 7. Interface: qompatibility with other systems/ units must be ensured. Both impedance matching(including allowing for capacitive and inductive effects) and signalcharacteristics should be considered. Loading of outputs should be within limits. Particularcareshould be taken in decidingwhere synchro devices obtain their reference supplies. Programming pins for choiceof outputs and/or inputs must be correctlyconnected. 8. Compass: safedistance. 9. Radiation hazards. The last item in the abovenon-exhaustivelist raises the topic of safety. Electric shock is an obvious hazardw'ren working on aircraft and it shouldbe remembered that one is liable to receivea shockfrom radiatingantennas, particularly h.f. antennas. A radiation hazardexistswith all transmitting thus the operator should ensureno-oneis antennas, working, particularly doping or painting, near an antennawhen the associated transmitter is on. The particularhazardsof microwaveradiation are considered in Chapter9. It is up to all personnel working on aircraft to becomeawareof the dangers of harmful substances, the use(and position) of fire extinguishers, the dangers of mixing oil or grease with oxygen,elementaryfirst aid, warning symbols,etc.

Regulating and Advisory Bodaes

All countriesset up bodieswhich are responsible for mattersconcernedwith aviatione.g. CAA (UK), FAA (USA), BureauVeritas (France),etc. These bodiesdraft air law and issueregulations concerned with the hcensingof engineers and aircrew,aircraft operations, aircraft and equipment manufacture, minimum equipment fits (including radio), air traffic control, etc. They are also the bodiescharged with seeing, by meansof examinationsand inspections, that the law is obeyed. Aviation is an international activity and betweencountriesis essential.This co-operation co-operation is achieved mainly through the ICAO, an agencyaffiliated to the United Nations. All

nationswhich are signatories to the Chicago Conventionon Civil Aviation 1944 aremember-srates of the ICAO which was an outgrowth of that convention. Table 1.7 Organizations, ordersand conference concerned with aircraft radio systems
Abbreviation ARINC ATA AEEC CAA CAP FAA Orsanization Aeronautical Radio lnc. Air TransportAssociation AirlinesElectronicEngineering Committee Civil Aviation Authority Civil Aviation Publication FederalAviation Agency InternationalCivil Aviation Organization InternationalFrequencyRegistration Board InternationalRadioConsultative Committee InternationalTelecommunications Union TechnicalStandard Order World AdministrativeRadioConference

lcAo
IFRB CCIR ITU TSO WARC

The ICAO issues annexes to the convention. Annex l0 beingof particularsignificance to aircraft radio engineers sinceit is concernedwith aeronautical telecommunications and, amongother things,lays down a minimum specificationfor airborne radio systems.The materialpublishedby the ICAO does not automaticallybecomethe law or regulations in all member-states; ratification is necessary and may not take placewithout considerable amendment,if at all. In particular,systemspecifications emergdin forms considerably different from Annex 10, although similar in content. In the USA specifications are issuedin the form of TSOswhile in the UK there is CAP 208. Volume I with its companionVolume 2 listing approved equipmentunder variousclassifications. Licensing of engineers is one areain which, as yet, there is little internationalstandardization in accordance with Annex l. The licensedaircraft radio maintenance engipeer is unknown in the USA but, of course, organizations operatingwith the approval of the FAA do so only if they employ suitably qualifiedpersonnel. In the UK the [censed engineer reignssupreme, except in the certification of jets and supersonic wide-bodied transportswhere a systemof companyapprovalof personnelexists,the companyitself being approvedby the CAA for the operationand maintenance of such aircraft. France hasno systemof statelicensing, it being left to the operators to assess the compettncy of its maintenance personnel under the watchful eye of officials. Of further interestto those concernedwith aircraft

radio, the Chicagoconvration provides that aircraft registered in contractingstates may carry radio transmitting apparatusonly if a licence to install and operatesuch apparatus hasbeenissued by the appropriateauthoritiesof the statein which the aircraft is registered.Furthermore,radio transmitting apparatus may only be usedover the territory of contractingstates,other than the one in which the aircraft is registered, by suitably licensed flight crew. Various non-regulatory bodies exist with a view to extendingco-operation across national boundaries in respectto aircraft equipmentand maintenance. ARINC is one such organization. It is a corporation the stockholders of which are drawn from airlines and manufacturers, mostly from the USA. As well as operatinga systemof aeronautical land radio stations ARINC sponsors the AEEC, which formulates standards for electronicequipmentand systems designed for usein airlinersasopposedto general aviation. Characteristics and specifications published by ARINC do not havethe force of law but nevertheless are,in the main, adheredto by manufacturers who wish to sell their equipmentto the airlines. A specificationrelatingto the presentation of maintenance information is the ATA 100. A standard Iayout for technicalpublicationsrelatingto aircraft hasbeen promulgatedand widely adopted. Of particularinterestto readers are Chapters 23 and34 of the maintenance manualwhich cover communications and navigationrespectively.In addition to prescribing layout, a set ofstandard symbolsfor electricalwiring diagrams has beenissued. So far, bodiesconcerned with aircraft and their equipmenthavebeenconsidered; in addition organizations concerned with telecommunications strouldbe mentioned. The ITU is an agencyof the United Nations which existsto encourage internationalco-operation in the useand development of telecommunications.The CCIR is a committeeset up by the ITU to deal with radio communications. Among topics of interestto the CCIR arespectrum utilization and aeronautical mobile services.The IFRB has alsobeen set up.by the ITU for the assignment and registrationof radio frequencies in a masterfrequencylist. In November 1979 an internationalconference (WARC '79), with representatives from 154 countries,met in Geneva to considerradio regulations and re-allocate frequencies.The resultsof WARC '79 will not be publishedwhile this book is beingwritten but it is unlikely that the frequenciesallocated to aeronautical mobile services will suffer significant amendment the cost would be too great.

19

sYstems 2 Communication

on v.h.f. lrequenciesis often found; unfortunately are not to be satellites aeronauticaliommunications found (1979). There is a fundamental need for communication The audio integrating system (AIS) complexity beiweenaircrewand ground controllers,amongthe on the type of aircraft. A light aircraft depends External aircrew and between aircrew and passengers. for channels provide two transmit/receive may ,yrt.* by meansof is achieved communication u.h.f.iomms and receiveonly for dual v'h'f' dual (R/T) link while internal radio-telephone ADF, DME and marker. Each receivechannel or audio integratingsystem) nav., communication'(intercom hasa speakeroff'phoneswitch while the microphone is by wire as opposedto wireless.Although intercom' canbe switchedbitween v'h.f. comms I and v'h'f' is not a radio system,it is includedin this chapter comms 2. A multi-crew large airliner has very many of its intimate relationship with the aircraft because later. more facilities,as described and in-flight radio systems.Voice recorders sincethey arealso considered systems entertainment ofthe aircraft radio areusually the responsibility V.H.F. Gommunications technician/engineerThe first items of radio equipmentto appearon Basic Principles aircraftwerelow-frequency(l'f.) communications of is comprised An aircraft u.h.f. comrnstransceiver gap transmitters. setsin the World War I daysof spark receiver superhet conversion double either a singleor tube' lntercom was by meansof a Gosport(speaking) and an a.m. transmitter' A modern set provides720 By the 1930sthe early keyed continuouswave(c'w') between I l8 MHz and at 25 kHrzspacing channels by was beginningto be replaced (radio-telegraphy) was 50 kHz 'key-bashing'had 135'975MHz; until recently the spacing its placeaslong as R/T although is operation of mode The givingonly 360 channels. aircraft carriedradio operators. Early R/T was within and frequency one (s,c.s.), i.e. simplex iinglJ.itutntl the l.f. and h.f. bands,the setsoperatingon only one and transmitter' If With airfieldswidely spaced onJ antennafor both receiver or very few frequencies. provision for satellite communication is included in there was little transmission, and low-powered iccordancewith ARINC 566 then in addition to did and so the need for many channels interference we will have f.m' double channelsimplex a.m. s.c.s. not arise. for transmit and (d.c.s.), different frequencies i.e. The situation has drastically changedsinceWorld ceive.. re the with War II; air traffic and facilities have increased 'line of Communicationby v.h.f. is essentially which cannot demandfor extra channels consequent can wave. The rangeavailable sight'by direct (space) be providedin the Lf., m.f. or h.f. bands. '23 y'ft1)nm is ftt where + (\/.\ I by be approximated Fortunatelyv.h.f. equipmenthasbeensuccessfully receiver the of level sea above feet, in trilght, *re II developedfrom early beginningsin World Wu while ftl.is the samefor the transmitter' Thus, with figtrtercontrol. the ground station at sealevel, the approximate The current situation is the v.h.f. is used for ,nr*I*urn range for aircraft at l0 000 and 1000 ft *tort-range communication while h'f. is used for (30 000 and 3000 m) would be 123 and 40 nm long-range. A large airliner, such as aBoeing74T , respectivelY. in such three v.h.f.sand dual h'f. In addition, carries are (Selcal) facilities aircraft, selectivecalling ' trstallation provided by a dual installation such that a ground A singlev.h.f. installationconsistsof three parts' station can call aircraft either singly or in groups and antenna' In namJy control unit, transceiver without the need for constant monitoring by the are connected to the v'h'f' via crew. Provision for satellite communication (Satcom) addition crew phones

lntrodoction

Frg.2.1 KY 196 v.h.f. comm.transceiver (courtesyKing Radio Corp.)

Fi& a2 CN-201I v.h.f.comm./nav. equipment (courtesy BendixAvionics Division) selection switches in the AIS. Light aircraft v.h.f.s usuallyhavea panel-mounted combinedtransceiver and control unit, an examplebeingthe King KY 196 illustratedin Fig. 2.1. The current trend is for combinedCOM/NAV/RNAV; Fig. 2.2 illustratesthe BendixCN-2011, panel-mounted a general aviation unit comprising two commstransceivers, two nav. receivers, glidepathreceiver, marker receiver, frequency control for internal circuits and d.m.e. and switches.Such last but not least,audio selection in Chapter12. equipmentwill be considered Figure2.3 showsone of a triple v.h.f. comms installationas might be fitted to a largepassenger transportaircraft: VHF2 and VHF3 are similarto VHFI but aresuppliedfrom a different 28 V d.c. bus bar and feed different selectionswitchesin the AIS.

21

ATE
v.h.f.COMM

liitool

cO

rcool

Freq.

@
Mic

FWD MTR PWR REF oFF-\ \ t t . / fPwa

Ars

P.t.t. Rcv Audio Sidetone

\_./ DISABLE SOUELCH (o) PHONO E O MIC.

28 V d.c. Stby Bus

l \

r\

fo Aerial

v.h.f. No. 2

v.h.f No.

Rcv Audio To Selcal

v.h.f.l installation Fig.2.3 Typical by concentricknobs, Frequencycontrol is achieved the outer one of which variesthe tens and units while the inner pne variesthe tenths and hundredths. An is shownin Fig. 2.1 wherethere is one alternative frequencycontrol and two displays' On rotating the the frequencyknobs clockwiseor anticlockwise, standbyfrequencyonly will incrementor decrement respectively.Standbymay then becomein-useby operationof the transferswitch. Thereare many with only in-useselection. controllersin service may Someor all of the following switches/controls on request. be providedby manufacturers which allows Volume Control A potentiometer, variableattenuationof audio,prior to feedingthe AIS control or as a concentric may be fitted asa separate knob on the frequencyselector(s).Sucha volume coupledthrough it on control may havesidetone transmit. $uelch Control A squelchcircuit disablesthe so output when no sigralsare beingreceived receiver preventing noisebeingfed to the crew headsets The squelchcontrol is betweenground transmissions. pilot to set the level the which allows a potentiometer at which the squelchopens,so allowingaudio output from the receiver.Whenthe control is set to minimum squelch(fully clockwise) the Hi and l,o brought to the control unit leads, squelch-disable shouldbe shorted,so givinga from the transceiver, definite squelchdisable.

which is rack-mounted,contains The transceiver. all the electroniccircuitry and hasprovisionfor the to connectmic. and tels technician maintenance VSWR. and measure direct, disablethe squelch, for testingareby no meansuniversal Theseprovisions but if the systemconformsto ARINC 566 a plug is providedto which automatictest equipment(ATE) canbe connected.A protectivecoverfor the ATE plug is fitted when the unit is not in the workshop. The antennacan take variousforms: whip, blade In a triple vl.f. commsinstallation or suppressed. and thesemay be two top-mountedbladeantennas onebottom-mounted:an altemativewould be two within the fincap dielectric. bladeand one suppressed is to be found on smalleraircraft. The whip antenna and aremountedso asto receive All antennas transmitverticallypolarizedwaves. The blade antennamay be quite cornplex. It will nearthe centreofthe band with be self-resonant providedby a short'circuited bandwidthimprovement stub acrossthe feed terminal or a more complicated reactivenetwork built in which will permit height and hencedrag reduction. Controls and Operation It is common to have in-useand standby frequencies available,the former controlling the transceiver frequency. This is the situationin Fig.2.3 wherewe have two setsof frequency controls and two displays, the in-useone being selectedby the transfer switch and annunciatedby a lamp abovethe display.

z2

Mode Selector Control Providesselectionof normal range a.m.or Satcom.If the Satcom a.m.,extended antenna has switchable lobessuchswitchingmay be in the mode switch,or couldbe separate. included

ReceiverThe riceiver is a singleconversionsuperhet. The r.f. stage employsvaractordiode tuning, utilizing the tuning voltagefrom the stabilized master oscillator(s.m.o.). Both the r.f. amplifier and mixer (f.e.t.). The r.f. are dual gatefield-effecttransistors amplifier f.e.t. has the input signalappliedto gate I master power relay in On-Off Switch Energizes The switch may be separate, incorporated while the a.g.c.voltageis appliedto gate2. The transceiver. are: gate l, signal;gate 2, s.m.o. in mode selectorswitch as an extra switch position, or mixer connections ganged The differencefrequencyfrom the mixer, I l'4 MHz, with the volume or squelchcontrol. is passed by a crystalfilter, providingthe desired to the i.f. amplifiers. Two stages of narrow bandpass, ReceiverSelectivity Switch Normal or sharp i.f. amplificationareused;the first of sharpselectivity a.g.c.-controlled selectivity. WhenSatcomis selected which is a linear integrated circuit. automaticallyapplies. The detectorand squelchgateutilize transistors on an integratedcircuit transistorarray. A further array Block Diagram Operation (KY 196) is usedfor the squelch-control circuitry. Noiseat Ftgure2.4 is a simplifiedblock diagramof the King 8 kHz the output from detector is sampled and used v.h.f.comm.transceiver. KY 196 panel-mounted to closethe squelchgateif its amplitudeis as general for the aviation equipment, intended This expected from the receiveroperating at full gain. transceivers since market, is not typical of in-service When a sigral is received,the noise output from the with the aid frequencyand displaycontrol is achieved action;asa detector decreases due to the a.g.c. within the lifetime of of a microprocessor;however the squelchgate opensallowing the consequence this book suchimplementationwill become audio signalto pass. The squelchcap be disabledby commonplace.

display Frequency 118.70 Use 1 121.90 Standby

t ;:
I

F
F

F
MHz Code P.t.t. Fig. 2.4 King KY 196 simplified block diagram lncremenV Decrement

'__--__--.1

kHz Codc

a
t F A(
F F,

R.F. Input

Tuning Volts {s.m.o.}

Fig.2.5 KingKY 196simplified receiver blockdiagram

meansof a switch incorporated in the volume control. When the receivedsigral has excessive noise on the carrier,the noise-operated squelchwould keep the squelchgate closedwere it not for carrier-operated or backupsquelch. As the carrier levelincreases, a point is reached where the squelch gate is opened regardless of the noise level. The meandetectoroutput voltageis usedto determine the i.f. a.g.c.voltage. As the i.f. a.g.c. voltage exceeds a set reference the r.f. a.g.c.voltage decreases. The detectedaudio is fed via the squelchgate, low-pass lilter, volume control and audio amplifier to the rearpanelconnector. A minimum of 100 mW -audio power into a 500 O load is provided. Tiansmitter The transmitter(Fig. 2.6) feeds l6 W of a.m. r.f. to the antenna. Modulationis achieved bv superimposing the amplified mic. audio on the transmitter chain supply. The carrier frequency corresponds to the in-usedisplay. Radio frequency is fed from the s.m;o. to an r.f. amplifier. This input drive is switched by the transmit receiveswitching circuits, the drive being effectively shorted to earth when the pressto transmit(p.t.t.) button is not depressed. The 24

transmitter chain comprisesa pre-driver, driver and final stageall broad band tuned, operated in ClassC and with modulatedcollectors. The a.m. r.f. is fedvia harmonics,to the filter, which attenuates a low-pass the t.r. diode is forward biased antenna. On receive to feed the receivedsignalfrom the antenna through r.f. amplifier. filter to the receive the low-pass microphone The modulator chain comprises pre-amplifier, diode limiting, an f.e.t. switchingstage, integratedcircuit modulator driver and two modulator in parallel. The pre-ampoutput connected transistors is sufficient to subsequentlygive at least 85 per cent the depth of modulation,the limiter preventing 100 per cent. The mic. audio modulation exceeding line is broken by Jhe f.e.t. switch during receive. Stabilized Master Oscillator The s.m.o. is a conventional phaselocked loop with the codesfor the by a programmable dividerbeinggenerated Discrete components are usedfor microprocessor. the voltagecontrolledoscillator(v.c.o.)and buffers circuits(i.c.) areusedelsewhere. while integrated The referencesigrralof 25 kHz is provided by an oscillatordivideri.c. which utilizesa 3'2 MHz crystal of a to give the necessary stability. Only sevenstages ripple-carry binary counter are used to fourteen-stage

R.F. {s.m.o.}

P.t.t.

Fig. 2.6 King KY 196 simplified transmitter block diagram

Phase detector

v.c.o.

MHz cont. lrom pp

MHz cont. lrom gp

Fig. 2.7 King Ky 196 simplifiedprogrammabte divider bkrck diagram gtve the necessarydivision of 21 = l2g. This reference, is made;i.e. zeros after the displayed decimalpoint.

with the outpur of the programmable l9e9lner divider,is fed to the phasedetecior-whichis part of an i.c., the rest of which is unused. The pulsating d.c. on the output of the phasedetectortrasa a.O. componentwhich after filtering is used to control the frequencyof the v.c.o. by varactortuning. If there is a synthesizer malfunction, an out-ofloclisignal from "s.m.o. the phase detectoris usedto switch off the feedto the transmitter. The programmable divider consists basicallyof . thrce setsof countersas shownin Fig. 2.7. Tie v.c.o.output is first dividedUy "ittrei+O o, !r1f!rea41, the former being so when a discreti MHz selection

The prescaler which perlbrmsthis division is a u.h.f. programmable divider(+ l0/l l) followedby a divide-by-four i.c. The wholeMHz divicler uses a 7 4 L S l 6 2b . c . d . decade counter a n d a 7 4 L S l 6 3b i n a r y counterwhich togethercan be programmed to divide by an integerbetweenI l8 and 145,hencethe prescaler and whole MHz divider give a total division o,t^llSO (40 X I l8) to 5800 (40 X 145)in steps of 40. Thus a requiredv.c.o.output of, say, t IO.OO UHz would be achieved with a divisionof 5200 (40 X 130) since130 MHz + 5200 = 25 kHz = reference frequency. The 25 kHz stepsareobtainedby forcing the

25

prescaler to divide by 41, the requirednumber of timesin the count sequence.Each time the division ratio is 41, one extra cycleof the v.c.o.frequency is to achievean output of 25 kHz from the needed programmable divider. To seethat this is so, consider the previousexamplewherewe had a division ratio of 5200 to give 130'00MHz, i.e. 5200 cyclesat 130'00MHz occupies 40 ps = periodof 25 kHz. Now a prescaler divisionratio of 4l once during 40 ps 5201 cyclesof the v.c.o.output occupy40 ps means so the frequency is 5201/(40X 10-6) = 130.025MHz asrequired. The prescaler ratio is controlled by the fractionalMHz divider, againemploying a 7 4LS| 62 and 74LS163. The numberof divide-by-41 events in 40 ps is determinedby the kHz control code from the microprocessor and can be anywherefrom 0 to 39 times. Thereforeeachwhole megacycle can have N X 25 kHz addedwhereN ranges from 0 to 39. This produces 25 kHz stepsfrom 0 kHz to 975 kHz.

Microprocessorand Display The microprocessor used,an 8048, containssufficientmemory for the programand data requiredin this applicationto be storedon the chip. In addition to this memory and, of course,an eight-bit c.p.u.,we havean eight-bit timer/counterand a clock on board. Through twenty-seven I/O linesthe 8048 interfaces with the programmable divider, displaydrive circuits and non-volatilememory.

Clock

1024 words program memory

64 words data memory

8-bir CPU

__JI___J 'l
(
8-bit Timer/ evont counter

27 I/g lines

Fig. 2.8 8048 eieht-bit microcornputcr (courtery King Radio Corp.)

The 8048 has been programmed to generatea 'use' and 'standby' frequencies. binary code for the The code,aswell asbeing storedin the 8048, is also storedin a l40o-bit electricallyalterablereadonly memory (EAROM). This external memory is effectively a non-volatileRAM, the data and address being communicated in serial form via a one-pin mode being bidirectionalbus, the read/write/erase controlledby a three-bit code. When power is readsthe last frequencies appliedthe microprocessor stored in the EAROM which are then utilized as the 'use'and 'standby' frequencies.In the eventof initial will display failure of the EAROM the microprocessor 120'00 MHz as its initial frequencies.The EAROM will store data for an indefinite period without power. by clockwise The 'standby'frequency is changed or counterclockwise detent rotation of the frequency can selectknobs. I MHz, 50 kHz and 25 kHz changes a be made with two knobs, one of which incorporates push-pull switch for 50125kHz step changes.The is programmedto incrementor microprocessor 'standby'frequency by the appropriate decrementthe the operation of one of the stepwheneverit senses knobs. frequency-select The code for the frequency in use is fed to the programmable dividersfrom the microprocessor. 'standby' 'Use' on frequencies are exchanged and operationof the momentary transferswitch. When the transceiveris in the receivemode the 'us' frcquency microprocessoradds I l'4 MHz to the code since the local oscillator signal fed to the receivermixer should be this amount higher than the desiredreceivedcarrier in order to give a difference frequency equal to the i.f. 'standby'codesare fed to the Both luse'and the display drivers. The'use'code represents I l'4 MHz by frequency not increased and is transmit in the receive mode. Each digit is fed in tum to the cathode decoder/driver, an i.c. containing a sevensegmentdecoder, decimal point and comma drives and programmable current sinks. The decimal point and comma outputs (i and h) are used to drive the '.'and 'T' (seeFig. 2.10). segments displaying'l', 'T'is The illumfrrated when in the transmit mode. The display is a gasdischargetype with its intensity controlled by a photocell located in the display window. As the light reaching the photocell the current being supplied to the decreases programming pin of the cathode decoder/driverfrom so dimming the the display dimmer circuit decreases, display. Time multiplexing of the display dri'res is achieved to by a clock sipal being fed from the microprocessor

216

T
C

n s

t d d

llrito?y array IOO x 14

q
C2 C3

e s s LSB

1O-bits
Fig. 2.9 Electrically alterableread only memory, e.a.r.o.m. (courtesy King Radio Corp.) Display

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

Anode' driver

&'AA
Clocft

",, lf"
A8 Dimming current

A7

f l h l

tl'lo

.Ll.
d

Cathode decoder/driver A B C D

o h T h

1f
Multiplexer Anode drive B.C.D. code

I l T I T
B.C.D. code

A1

A7

I l

r_l

l-l l-1.

l-ll-ll-t ll

t_-t ll U. U

t-l
t:l

l/1lo sec. Fig.2.l0 King KY 195 simplifieddisplaydrive block diagram

arulofJurrsr/rrruuP

(Al to A8) are switched scquentially. As the anode b.c.d. information drivesare switchedthe appropriate from the microprocessor is beingdecodedby the the result being that the cathodedecodery'driver, of eachdigit are lighted one digit necessary segments at a time at approximatelyI l0 times per second. pulseis sent to the multiplexer A synchronization from the microprocessor every 8 cyclesto maintain display synchronization.

audiooutput shallnot ttrc resultant signal, dcsired -10 dB with reference to the output prcduced exceed 30 per cent sigralonly whenmodulated by a desired (under resonance conditions). sigtallevel/off specified UndesiredResponses MHzshall be responses in band108-135 All spurious image, including downat least100dB otherwise, at least80 dB down. Audio Output

Characteristics
The selectedcharacteristics which follow are drawn from ARINC Characteristic 566 coveringairbome v.h.f. communications and SatcomMark l. Details of Satcomand extendedrangea.m. are not included. System Units l. V.h.f. transceiver; - f.m. provision 2. modulation adaptor/modem for Satcom; 3. power'amplifier- Satcomand extendedrange; 4. pre-amplifier- Satcomand extendedrange; 5. control panel; 6. remote frequencyreadoutindicator - optional; - separate 7. antennas Satcomantenna. Note: I and 2 may be incorporatedin one line replaceable unit (l.r.u.). Frequenry Selection 720 channels from I l8 through 135.975MHz, 25 kHz spacing. Receiver muting and p.t.t. de-energization during channelling. 2i 5 channelselection. Channelling time: ( 60ms. Recciver Sensitivity 3 pV, 30 per cent modulation at 1000 Hz to give S+N/N>6d8. Selectivity Minimum 6 dB points at I l5 kHz (t 8 kHz sharp). Maximum60 dB pointsat I 31.5 kHz (t l5 kHz sharp). Maximum 100 dB points at i 40 kHz (t l8'5 kHz -sharp). Qoss Modulation With simultaneous receiver input of 30 per cent 2A

Gain at A 3 pV a.m.sigralwith 30 per centmodulation Q load. 100mWin a 200-500 1000 Hz will produce Frequmcy Response Audio poweroutput levelshallnot vary morethan Hz. range 300-2500 6 dB overfrequency by at > 5750Hz mustbe attenuated Frequencies 20 dB. least HarmonicDistortion [.ess than 7'5 percentwith 30 per centmodulation. Irss than2Opercentwith 90 per centmodulation. AGC from No morethan 3 dB variationwith input signals 5 gV to 100mV. Transmitter Stability within t 0'005 per cent under Carrierfrequency prescribed conditions. PowerOutput W into a 52 O loadat theendof a 5 ft 25-40 transmission line. Sidetone output With90 per centa.m.at 1000Hz the sidetone strall be at least100mWinto eithera 200 or 500O load. Mic. Input of Mic.audioinput circuitto havean impedance mic. mic.or a transistor 150O for usewith a carbon mic. from the (approx.) 20 V d.c.carbon operating supply. Antenna polarized Vertically andomnidirectional.

,J

'i6

,$

To match 52 O with VSWR ( l'5 : l. Ramp Testing After checking for condition and assemblyand making availablethe appropriate power suppliesthe following (typical)'checks shouldbe madeat each stationusingeachv.h.f. l. Disablesquelch, checkbackground noiseand operationof volume control. 2. On an unusedchannelrotate squelchcontrol just closes until squelch (no noise). Press p.t.t. button, speakinto mic. and checksidetone. 3. Establish two-way communicationwith a remotestation usingboth setsof frequency control knobs,in conjunctionwith transfer switch,if appropriate.Checkstrengthand quality of signal.

The current and future norm is to use single (s.s.b.) sideband mode of operationfor h.f. communications,although setsin servicemay have provisionfor compatibleor normal a.m.,i.e. carrier and one or two sidebands being transmitted respectively.This s.s.b. transmission and reception hasbeen described briefly in ChapterI and extensively in many textbooks. A featureofaircraft h.f. systems is that coverage of a wide band of r.f. and useof a resonantantennarequires efficient antenna tuning arrangements which must operate automatically on changingchannelin order to reduce the VSWR to an acceptable level.

Installation A typical large aircraft h.f. installation consistsof two systems, eachof which comprises a transceiver, controller, antennatuning unit and antenna. Eachof NB . Do not transmiton I 2l '5 MHz (Emergency). the transceivers are connected to the AIS for mic.. tel. Do not transmitif refuellingin progress. and p.t.t. provision. In addition outputs to Selcal. Do not interrupt ATC-aircraftcommunications. decoders are provided. Suchan installationis shown i n F i g .2 . 1l . The transceivers contain the receiver, transmitter, H.F. Communicataons power amplifier and power supply circuitry. They are mounted on the radio rack and providedwith a flow BasicPrinciples of cooling air, possibly augmentedby a fan. A The useof h.f. (2-30 MHz) carriersfor communication transceiver rated at 200 W p.e.p.needs to dissipate purposesgreatly extends the rangeat which aircrew 300 W when operatedon s.s.b. while on a.m. this canestablish contact with AeronauticalMobile figure risesto 500 W. Telephoneand microphone Service jacks may be providedon the front panel,asmight a stations. This beingso, we find that h.f. comm.systems are fitted to aircraft flying routes meter and associated switch which will provide a which are,for somepart of the flight, out of rangeof meansof monitoring variousvoltages and currents. v}t.f. service.Such aircraft obviouslyinclude public Coupling to the antennais achievedvia the transportaircraft flying intercontinentalroutes,but antennatuning unit (ATU). Somesystems may thereis alsoa market for general employ an antennacouplerand a separate aviationaircraft. antenna The long rangeis achieved couplercontrol unit. The ATU provides, by useof sky waves which arerefractedby the ionosphere automatically,a match from the antennato the 50 Q to suchan extent that they arebent sufficiently to return to transmission line. Closed-loop control of matching earth. The h.f. ground wavesuffersquite rapid elements reduces the standingwaveratio to l'3 : I attenuationwith distance (ARINC 559A). or less from the transmitter. Ionospheric attenuationalsotakesplace,being Since the match must be achievedbetween line and greatest at the lower h.f. frequencies.A significant antennathe ATU is invariablymountedadjacentto featureof long-range part of the the antennalead-in,in an unpressurized h.f. transmission is that it is zubjectto selective fadingovernarrow bandwidths airframe. For high-flyinga'ircraft(most jets) the ATU (tensof cycles). possiblywith nitrogen. Someunits is pressurized, The type of modulation used,and associated may contain a pressure switch which will be closed detailssuchas channelspacing and frequency wheneverthe pressurization within the tuner is channelling increments, havebeenthe subjectof adequate. The pressure switch may be used for many papers and ordersfrom users, both civil and ohmmeter checksor, providingswitch reliability is military, and regulating bodies. ARINC Characteristic adequate, may be connected with the key in series No. 559A makesinteresting reading,in that it reveals line thus preventing transmissionin the event of a how conflictingproposals from variousauthorities leak. Altematively an attenuatormay be swit;hed in (in both the legaland expert opinion sense) to reducepower. can exist at the sametime. Light aircraft h.f. systemsin serviceare likely, for

Mic. Tcl.

28V---2-

No. 1 Xmit

No. I

t.r.

No. I p.t.t. No. 2 interlock No. I interlock No. 2 p.t.t.

28V

2av

Mic. Tel.

28vl ruo z

Fig 2.1I Typical dualh.f. installatbn financial reasons, to have a fixed antennacoupler. on a restrictednumber of Sucha systemoperates (say twenty). As a particular channelis channels selected,appropriate switching takesplace in the coupler to ensurethe r.f. feed to the antennais via previously adjusted,reactivecomponents,which make the effective antennalength equal to a quarter of a wavelength, thus presenting an impedance of approximately 50 O. The required final manual adjustmentmust be carried out by maintenance personnelon the aircraft. The antennaused variesgreatly, dependingon the type of aircraft. For low-speedaircraft a long wire antennais popular although whip antennasmay be found on somelight aircraft employing low-powered h.f. systems. The aerodynamicproblemsof wire antennason aircraft which fly faster than, say, 400 knots, haveled to the useofnotch and probe antennaswhich effectively excite the airframe so that a radiatingelement. it becomes of are constructed Modernwire antennas steelor phosphorbronze,givinga reduced copper-clad with earlierstainless.steel compared r.f. resistance the effectsof ofpolythene reduces wires. A covering is normally a single precipitationstatic. Positioning spanbetween forward fuselageand vertical stabilizer. I:rger aircraft will have twin antennaswhile a single 'V' is more configuration, installation,possiblyin a r.f. feed is usually aircraft. The for smaller common at the forward attachment via an antennamast. The unit. of a tensioning rear tetheringis by means The aniennamaqtis subjectto pitting and erosion

c,

of the leadingedge;a neoprpnecoveringwill provide someprotection,nevertheless regularinspections are called for. Protection againstcondensationwithin the mastmay be providedby containers of silicagel which shouldbe periodicallyinspected for a change in colour from blue to pink, indicatingsaturation. Hollow mastsare usuallyprovidedwith a water-drain path which shouldbe kept free from obstruction. The two most important featuresof the rear tetheringpoint are that the wire is kept under tension and that a weak link is providedso asto ensurethat any break occursat the rear,so preventingthe wire wrappingitself around the verticalstabilizerand rudder. On light aircraft a very simplearrangement of a spring,or rubber bungee, and hook may be used. The springmaintainsthe tensionbut if this becomes excessive the hook will open and the wire will be free at the rearend. On largeraircraft a spring-tensioning unit will be usedto copewith the more severe conditionsencountered due to higherspeeds and fuselageflexing. The unit loads the wire by meansof a metal spring,usuallyenclosed in a barrelhousing. A serrated tail rod is attachedto the tetheringpoint on the aircraft and insertedinto the barrelwhereit is by a springcollet, the grip of which increases secured with tension. The wire is attachedto a chuck unit which incorporates a copperpin serving as a weaklink desigredto shearwhen the tensionexceeds about protection 180 lbf. Someunits incorporatetwo-stage overload. Two pins of different strengths are against (3/ 16 in.) used;shouldthe first shear, a smallextension of overalllength results,thus reducingtensionand exposinga yellow warningband on the unit. Notch antennas consistof a slot cut into the aircraft structure.often at the baseof the vertical o stabilizer. The inductanceof the notch is series-resonated variablecapacitor by a high-voltage driven by a phase-sensing servo. Signalinjection is via matching circuitry driven by a SWR sensing servo. 'Q' Since the notch is high the input is transformed to a voltageacross the notch which is ofthe order of thousandsofvolts. This largevoltageprovides the driving force for current flow in the airframe which serves as the radiator. A probe antenna, which is aerodynamically acceptable, may be fitted at either of the wing-tipsor on top of the verticalstabilizer. Againseries tuning providesthe necessary driving force for radiation. The probe antenna,aswell as the wire antenna,is liable to suffer lightningstrikes,so protection in the (sparkgap)is fitted. form of a lightning arrester Any voltagein excess of approximatelyl6 kV on the antennawill cause an arc across the electrodes of the hydrogen-iilled sparkgap,thus preventing discharge

through the h.f. equipment. Build-up of precipitation particularlyprobes, static on antennas, is dealt with by providinga high resistance static drain (about 6 MSl) path to earth connected betweenthe antenna feed point and the ATU. It is important in dual installations that only one h.f. systemcan transmit at any one time;this is achieved by means of an interlock circuit. This basic requirement is illustratedin Fig. 2.11 whereit canbe seenthat the No. I p.t.t. line is routed via a contact of the No. 2 interlock relay, similarlywith No. 2 p.t.t. The interlock relayswill be externalto the transceivers often fitted in an h.f. accessory box. While one of the h.f. systems is transmittingthe other systemmust be protectedagainst inducedvoltages from the keyedsystem.In addition, with some installations, we may havea probe usedas a transmitting antennafor both systemsand as a receiving antennafor, say,No. I system. The No. 2 receiving antennamight be a notch. It follows that on keying either systemwe will havea sequence of eventswhich might proceedas follows. HF I keyed: l. HF 2 keyline broken by a contactof HF I interlock relay; 2. HF 2 antennagrounded; 3. HF 2ATU input and output feedsgounded and feed to receiver broken. HF 2 keyed: l. HF I keyline broken by a contactof HF 2 interlock relay; from HF l; transferred 2. HF I probe antenna ATU to HF 2 ATU; 3. HF 2 notch antennafeed grounded; 4. HF I ATU input and output feedsgrounded broken. and feed to receiver C,ontrols and Operation Separatecontrollers are employed in dual installations, eachhaving'in-use'frequencyselection only. Older systemsand some light aircraft systemshave limited channelselectionwhere dialling a particular channel number tunesthe system,includingATU, to a pre-assigned frequency,a channel/frequency chart is required in such cases.With modern sets,indication ofthe frequency selectedis given directly on the controller. The controlsshownin Fig. 2.1 I arethosereferred to in ARINC 559A; variations are common and will be listed below. Mode Selector Switch. OFF-AM-SSB Thc'turn off' function may be a separate switch or indeed may not

31

be crnployed at all; snritchingon and offbeing achieved with the masterradio switch. The 'AM' 'AME'(AM positionmay be designated equivalentor compatible) and is selected whenever transmission and receptionis requiredusinga.m. or s.s.b.plus full carrier(a.m.e.). The 'SSB'position providesfor transmissionand reception of upper sidebandonly. Although useof the upper sidebandis the norm for aeronautical h.f. communications somecontrollers 'USB' 'LSB'positions. have and In addition 'DATA' and 'CW'modesmay be available.The former is for possiblefuture use of data links by h.f. using the - the receiver uppersideband is operatedat maximumgain. The latter is for c.w. transmission and reception, morsecode,by 'key bashing', being the information-carrying medium. Flequency SelectorsFrequency selecton consist of, typically, four controls which allow selectionof frequencies between 2.8 and 24MHz in I kHz steps (ARINC 559A). Military requirements are for a frequencycoverage of 2 to 30 MHz in 0.1 kHz steps, consequentlyone will find systemsoffering 280 000 'channels'meeting theserequirements in full or 28 000 channels meetingthe extendedrangebut not the 0'l kHz steprequirement. When a new frequency is selectedthe ATU must adjustitselfsincethe antennacharacteristics will change.For this purposethe transmitteris keyed momentarily in order that SWR and phasecan be measured and usedto drive the ATU servos.

Indicator A meter mounted on the front panel of the controller may be providedin order to give an indication of radiatedpower. Block Dhgram Operation Tlansceiver Figure 2.12 is a simplified block diagram of an a.m./s.s.b. transceiver.The operationwill be described by function. Amplitude Mo dulated Transm issio n The frequency on the controller determines selected the output from the frequencysynthesizer to the r.f. translatorwhich shifts the frequency up and provides sufficient drive for the power amplifier(p.a.). The mic. input, after amptfication, feedsthe modulator which produces high-level amplitudemodulation of the r.f. amplified by the p.a. The r.f. signalis fed to the ATU via the antennatransferrelay contact. The PA output signalis sampled by the sidetone detectorwhich feedssidetoneaudio via the contact of the deenergized sidetonerelay and the sidetone adjustpotentiometerto the audio output amplifier.

Single Sideband Transmission Low-level modulation is necessary sincethere is no carrierto modulateat the p.a. stage, hencethe mic. input, /n., is fed to a balancedmodulator togetherwith a fixed carrier frequency,/., from the frequencysynthesizer.The balanced modulator output consists of both sidebands f" + f^ andf" - f^, the carrierbeingsuppressed. The requiredsideband is passed by a filter to the r.f. SquelchControl Normel control of squelch translatorafter further amplification. threshold may be provided. As an alternativean r.f. Ifwe consideran audio response from 300 to sensitivity control may be used,but where Selcalis 3000 Hz we seethat the separation betweenthe utilizedit is important that the receiver operates at lowestEs.b. frequencyand the highestl.s.b. full sensitivityat all timeswith a squelchcircuit being frequencyis only 600 Hz. It follows that the filter employedonly for aural monitoring and not affecting usedmust havevery steepskirts and a flat bandpass. the output to the Selcaldecoder. A mechanicalfilter can be usedin which an input transducer convertsthe electricalsignalinto Audio Volume Control Providesfor adjustment of vibrations,theseare transmittedby mechanical audiolevel. Sucha control may be locatedelsewhere, mechanically resonant metal discsand coupling rods suchas on an audio selectorpanel, part of the AIS. and finally converted back to an electricalsignalby an output transducer. C:lanfter This control is to be found on some h.f. Frequencytranslationis by a mixing process controllers. With s.s.b.signalswhile the phaseof thc rather than a multiplicativeprocess sinceif the re-inserted carrier is of little consequence its u.s.b./, + /n' were multiplied by try' we would frequency shouldbe accurate.Should the frequency radiatea frequencyof//(/c + /n,') rather than be inconect by, say,in excess of t 20 Hz ft + f " + /.. The amount by which the u.s.b.is deterioration of the quality of speechwill result. translated, fi, is determinedby the frequencyselected A clarifier allows for manual adjustment of the on the controller. Final amplification takes place in re-inserted carrier frequency. Use of highly accurate the p.a. prior to feedingthe r.f. to the ATU. md stablefrequency synthesizers make the provision To obtain sidetonefrom the p.a. stagea carrier of such a control unnecessary. would needto be re-inserted.A simplermethod, 32

Sidetonc relay

To r.f./i.f. stages

f"+ff"f.

Fq.2.l2 Typicalh.f. a.m./s.s.b. trmsceiver blockdiagram

which nevertheless confirms that a sigral has reached the p.a.,is to usethe rectified r.f. to operatea sidetonerelay. When energizedthe contact of this relay connectsthe amplified mic. audio to the output audio amplifier. Amplitude Modulated Reception The receivedsignal passes from the ATU via the de+nergized antenna transferrelay contact to an r.f. amplifier and thence to the r.f. translator. After the translatornormal.a.m. detection takes place, the audio so obtained being fed to the output stage. A variety ofa.g.c. and squelch circuitsmay be employed.

signal,which is dealt with in the sameway as before. Antenna Tuning Unit Figure 2.13 illustrates an automatic ATU simplified block diagram. On selectinga new frequency a retune sigrralis sent to the ATU control circuits which then: l. keys the transmitter; 2. insertsan attenuatorin transceiver output line (Fig.2.t2); 3. switcheson the tuning tone sigral generator (Fig.2.l2) and drivesa tune warninglamp (optional); 4. switcheson referencephases for servo motors. The r.f. signalon the input feed is monitored by a loading servosystem and a phasingservo system. If the load impedanceis high then the line current, /L, is low and the line voltage ZL is high. This is dctected by the loading srvodiscriminator which

Single Sideband Reception The circrit action on s.s.b. is similarto that on a.m. until after the translatorwhen the translated r.f. is fed t6 the product detector along with the re-inserted'carrier' /". The output ofthe product detector is the required audio

El

Aru

Tune Tx Rctunc tone keY

Transceiver

p;g.2.13 Typical h.f. a.t.u. blockdiagrarn

appL:: the appropriate amplitude and polarity d.c. sigral to a chopper/amplifier which in turn provides the control phasefor the loading servomotor. The auto transformertap is drivenuntil the load impedrnceis 50 O. Should Iy and Vynot be in phasethis is detected by the phasingservodiscriminator which appliesthe approp:iateamplitudeand polarity d.c. signalto a chopper/amplifier which in turn provides the control phasefor the phasingservomotor. The reactive elemenis, inductanceand capacitance, are adjusted untri.Il and Vy are in phase. As a result of the action of the two servo systemsa resistiveload of 50 O is presentedto the co-axial feed from the transceiver. When both servosreach their null positions the control circuits removethe signals listedpreviously. Ctaracteristics The following brief list of characteristics are those of a systemwhich conformswith ARINC 559A. frequency Selection An r.f. nnge of 2'8-24 MHz coveredin I kHz increments. Method: reentrant frequency selectionsystem. Orannelling time lessthan I s. Mode of Operation Singlechannel simplex, upper singlesideband. g

Tlansmitter Poweroutput: 400 W p.e.p.(200 W p.e.p. operatiohal). Absolutemaximum power output: 650 W p.e.p. Mic. input circuit frequencyresponse: not more than I 6 dB variation from 1000 Hz levelthrough therange 350 Hz to 2500 Hz. Spectrumcontrol: components at or below /" -100 Hz and at or abovef" +29O0Hz shouldbe attenuated by at least30 dB. Frequencystability: ! 2OHz. Shop adjustmentno more often than vearly. Pilot control (e.g.clarifier) not acceptable. lnterlock: only one transmitter in a dual system 'first-come, strouldoperateat a time on a first-served' basis, this includestransmittingfor tuning purposes. Receiver Sensitivity:4 pV max.; 30 per cent modulation a.m. (l pV s.s.b.) for l0 dB signal and noiseto noise ratio. A.g.c.: audio output increase not more than 6 dB for input signalincrease from 5 to I 000 000 pV and no more than an additional 2 dB up to I V input signal level. Selectivity: s.s.b.,6 d-Bpoints atf"+ 300 Hz and /. + 3100 Hz, t 35 dB pointsat f"andf" + 3500 Hz. A.m.: toensureproper receiveroperation(no adjacent assuming operations ch4nnelinterference) on a.m. channels. 6 kHz spaced

giving a total of sixteen tones betwecn 312'6 and 1479.1Hz. The tonesare desigrated by lettes A to S omitting I, N and O so a typical code might b,: AK-DM. The re ue 297Ocodesavailablefor assigrmentusing the first twelve tones, the addition of tonesP, Q, R and S (1976) bring the total to on 10920. Codesor blocks ofcodes are assigned Ramp Testing ard Maintenance Whilst regularinspection of all aircraft antennasis requestto air carrier organizationswho in turn assigt called for, it is particularly important in the caseof codesto their aircraft'either on a flight number or h.f. antennasand associated components. Any aircraft registration-related basis. maintenancescheduleshould require frequent Figure 2.14 illustrates a singleSelcalsystem inspection ofantenna tensioning units and tethering transport aircraft would norma,ly' large passenger points in the caseof wire antennas,while for both carry two identical systems. The decoder will probe and wire antennasthe spark gap should be recognizea receivedcombination of tones on rny of in3pectedfor signsof lightning strikes (cracking five channelswhich correspondsto that combrnation . and/or discolouring). selectedon the code selectand annunciator pa:;el. A functional test is similar to that for vh.f. in that When the correct code is recogrized the chime switch two-way communication should be establishedwith a and appropriate lamp switch is made. The lamp .witch remote station: all controls should be checked for supply is by way of an interrupter circuit so that the lamp will flash. A constant supply to the chime satisfactoryoperation and meter indications, if any, svitch causes the chimes to sound once. Each lanrp strouldbe within limits. Safety precautions are a reset particularly important sincevery high voltagesare HF I , HF I I etc. incorporates holder, designated will release the latched presenton the antenna systemwith the resulting switch which when depressed lamp switch and chime switch. The tone filters in the danger ofelectric shock or arcing. No personnel decoderwill typically be mechanicallyresonant should be in the vicinity of the antenna when devices. transmitting, nor should fuelling operations be in Variations in the arrangement a change shown and progress.Remember with many h.f. systems describedare possible. Mechanicallythe control and of frequency could result in transmissionto allow annunciator panel may be separate units. Should the automaticantennatuning. operatorrequireaircraft registration-related codes there will be no need for code selectswitches.the appropriatecodebeingselected by jumper leadson Selcal the rear connectorofthe decoder. Although five resetleadswill be provided they The selectivecalling (Selcal.) system allows a ground may be connectedindividually, all in parallel to a group of aircraft using station to call an aircraft or singleresetswitch or to the p.t.t. circuit of the h.f. or vir.f. commswithout the flight crew having transmitter. In this latter case isolation associated continuously to monitor the station frequency. (within prevent'sneak' the diodes decoder) circuits, A coded sigral is transmitted from the ground and keying one transmitter causing one or more i.e. to the tuned the v.h.f. or h.f. receiver rcceivedby othersto be keyed. appropriate frequency. The output code is fed to a The lamp and chime srrpplies shown can be Selcaldecoderwhich activatesaural and visual alerts Possibilities at the operator's option. are to changed to the if and only if the receivedcode'corresponds and have lights and reverse the situation steady the aircraft. code selectedin multi-stroke chimes,or havesteady lights and Each transmitted code is made up of two r.f. single-stroke chime, in which casethe interrgpt by a eachof-l t 0'25 s separated bursts(pulses) not used. circuit is period of 0.2 t 0'l s. During eachpulsethe The Selcal systemswhich do not comply with per with two 90 modulated transmitted carrier is cent ARINC 596 may not providefacilitiesfor decodingof tones, thus there are a total of four tones per call; . five channelssimultaneously. A switch is provided on the frequenciesof the tones determine the code. the control panel with which the singledesired The tones available are given by the formula channelcan be selected;in this caseonly Selcalcodes receivedon the correspondingreceiverwill be fed to = antilog (0'054(/V- t) + 2O), [y

Overall response:compatible with selectivity but in addition no more than 3 dB variation between anv two frequenciesin the range300-1500 Hz (for satisfactory Selcaloperation). Audio output: two-wire circuit isolated from ground, 300 O (or less)output impedancesupplying 100 mW (0'5 Selcal)into a 600 O load.

w h e r e N= 1 2 ,1 3 . . . 2 7 ,

b L*-ntgs

35

Sslf test

[amp drive (5 wiresl

v.H.F.1

v.H.F. 2

V.H.F. 3

H.F.2

Fig. 2.f4 Typical Selcalblock diagram

the decodcr. Only one annunciator lamp is required. Codeselection in an ARINC 596 systemis achieved 'b.c.d.' format. Each the four tone by means of a of selectors with it; for any has four wires associated particular tone an appropriate combination of the wires will be open circuit, the rest grounded. If the

tones A to S arc numbered I to 16 (0) the open wires will be as given by the correspondingbinary number; e.g.tone M-12-l l(X), so with the wires designated 8,4,2 and I we see8 and 4 will be open. Note this is termed so. not really b.c.d. but is nevertheless Testing of Selcalis quite straightforward. If

3G

possiblea test rig,consistingofa tone generatorin conjunctionwith a v.h.f. and h.f. transmittershould he used,otherwisepermission to utilize a Selcalequipped ground station shouldbe sought. G

(AlS) - lntercom Audio Integrating Systems Introduction

All the systems in this book exhibit a variety of characteristics but none more so than AIS. In a light. aircraft the function of the audio systemis to provide an interfacebetweenthe pilot's mic. and tel. and the selected receiver and transmitter;sucha 'system' might be little more than a locally manufactured junction box with a built-in audio panel-mounted amplifier and appropriateswitching. ln contraSta largemulti-crewpassenger aircrafthasseveral

sub-systems making up the total audio system. The remainder of this chapterwill be concerned with the AIS on aBoeing747. It is unusual to considerall the systemsand sub-systems which follow as part of AIS, a term which should perhapsbe restricted to the system which provides for the selectionof radio system audio outputs and inpuis and crew intercommunications. Howevera brief descriptionof all systems which generate, process or recordaudio signals will be given. The following services comprisethe complete audio system: l. flight interphone: allows flight deck crew to communicatewith eachother or with ground stations; 2. cabin interphone: allows flight deck and cabin crew to communicate:

Attendant's chime call

PA bverride NAV VOR/ILS systom Markerbsacon systom Low range radioaltimeter systom ATC system DMEsystom ADFsystem
HF comnr un ication system

Visual Pass. ent. audio (motionpic.) system

lSatcom I sysrem

I I

Headsets and microph,

tjgg'"q"rlj
Fig. 2.15 Boeing747: typical communications fit (courtesy Boeing Aeroplane Commdrcial Co.)

37

3. serviceinterphone: allows ground staff to communicatewith each other and also with the flight crew; 4. passenger address(PA): allows announcements to be made by the crew to the passengers; 5. passenger entertainment system: allows the showing of movies and the piping of music; 6. gound crew call system: allows flight and ground crew to attract each other's attention; 7. cockpit voice recorder: meets regulatory requirementsfor the recording of flight crew audio for subsequentaccident investigation if necessary. It *rould be noted that the aboveare not completely separate sysrems asillustratedin Fig. 2.15 and describedbelow. The dividing lines between zub-systems of the total audio system are somewhat arbitrary, and terminologl is varied; however the facilities describedare commonplace. Flight Interphone This is really the basic and most esential part of the audio system. All radio equipments having mic. inputs or tel. outputs, aswell asvirtually all other audio systems,interface with the flight interphone which may, in itself, be termed the AIS. A large number of units and componentsmake up the totd systemas in Table 2.1 with abbreviated termsaslisted in Table 2.2. Figuie 2.16 showsthe flight interphone block diagram,simplified to the extent that only one audio selectionpanel(ASP), jack panel etc. is shown. An ASP is shown in F i g .2 . 1 7 . A crew member selectsthe tel. and mic. signals required by useof the appropriate controls/switches on an ASP. The various audio signalsentering an ASp a.ie'selected by twelve combined push selectand volume controls. Each ASP has an audio bus feeding a built-in isolationamplifier. The v.h.f. and h.f. comm. ADF, interphone and marker audio signalsare fed to the bus via the appropriate selectbuttons and -volume controls. The vh.f. nav. and DME audio is fed to the bus when voice and rangeare selectedwith the Voice pushbutton; with voice only selectedthe DME audio is disconnectedwhile the vJr.f. nav. audio is pased through a sharp 1020 Hz bandstop filter (FLl) before feeding the bus. With the flii-normal switch in the fail position only one audio channel can be selected(bypassingthe amplificr) and the pA audio is fed direct to the audioout lines. Radio altimeter audio is fed direct tb the audio-out lincs. The above audio switching arrangementsare illustrated h Fig. 2.18. Note the sericsresistorsin the input

Table 2.1

Flight interphone facilities UPT FlO FIE OBSI OBS2 M.E.

ASP Jack panel Int - R-T p.Lt. Handheld mic. llcrdrct Boom mic. headset Oxygen mask mic. lnterphone speaker

x x x x
Jack

x x

x i

x x

x x x x
Jack Jac*

X Jack

Jack Jack Jrct Iack

feck hck

x
Jack

x
trck lack Jrck J.ct

A'X'indicates the particular unit or component is fitted at that station (column), 'Jack' indicatesa jack plug b fitted to enableuseof the appropriatemic. and/or tel.

Table2.2 Abbreviations
CAPT F/O OBS m.e. Captain First Officer Observer Main Equipment Centre mic. - Microphone a.s.p.int. rlt p.t.t. tel. Audio SelectorPanel Interphone Radiotelephone hes to Transmit

- Telephone

a\dio lines which,together with loading in resistors the interphone accessory box, form an anti-cross talk network; if onecrewmember has, say,h.f.l selected on his ASPthen the resistive networkwill greatly attenuate sayh.f.2 whidr would otherwise be audible shouldanothercrewmember haveselected h.f.l and h.f.2. Six mic. select buttonsareprovided on an ASP; threevJr.f. @mm.,two h.f. cornm. andPA. Additiond sritchesasociated with mic. select and transmission aretheboom-mask andr.t.-int.p.t.t. on each ASPand alsop.t.t. buttonson the hand-held microphones. jack panels andthe captain's controlwheel (R/T-int.). To speak orrer interphone a crewmember should selectinterphone usingthe r.t..int. switchon the a.s.p. which will connect mic. high(boom or mask)

38

c.E@{r-8..|&
r^.&rEr.@*ccrd 'Eg-B

E]
lr. s lucu
O'El

or',a..,.r

D+-i

i I

l l i rrt

l l l

- - - - l

aaaaa

+= :l---+i
il--r---l

n ti !r

t t u g rrr,r l:JJ

l!lri4
!

| I

#--i il'F.'Li"ri-i

F.--di
t

i---r'"* T------1 ij-#S-.i i

I

| 1,. i,..*. L-re'g!'e$!sret-l :i i

i i

+ls#-." i I I

r
(courtcsy Boeiru Fi& 2.lt Ardb signel selectbn Aeroplane Commercial Co.)

Fig. 2.16 Boeirg ?4?: night intqphonc (courtcry Boeirg Aeroplane Commercial Co.)

tr trtr trtrtr
I t

i_prE
,r'i El

-Gql#

ooooo. l-oo'l l-"i"_.] s o o o CI --fio,,

rrr

l l t l l
**"
o

EOOM

rNr

atr@

xrt

r'
F .
l l f' IC'Off hIGN

.3

Fig.l.l7 Audioselection (curtesy panel Boeing Commercial Aeroplane Co.) to the interphone mic. high output feeding the flight interphoneamplifier in the interphoneaccessory box. Alternativelythe captaincan seiectinterphoneon his control wheel p.t.t. switch which will energize relay K2 thus making the mic. higft connectionas before. Note that the ASP r.t.-int.p.t.t. switchdoesnot rely on power reaching the ASP for relay operation (see

rrcw

rs

r|rrrftsa ro rLrcir

{rcaet{d rrtat,da

rg

E
r.Mro s* *rcx

Fi& 2.19 Microphone signalselection(courtesy Bocing CommercialAeroplaneCo.)

39

Fig. 2.19). Interphone mic. signalsfrom all ASh are fed to the flight interphone amplifier which combines them and feedsthe amplified interphone audio to all as required. ASPsfor selection Pressing a mic. selectbutton on the ASP will systemmic. input lines to connectthe corresponding relayK2 and to contactson the ASP r.t.-int. p.t.t. the mic. switch. Thus when a p.t.t. switch is pressed, lineswill be madeby either the contactsof K2 or by the ASPp.t.t. switchin the r.t. position. In Fig. 2.19 the h.f.2 selectswitch is shown as typical of all comni. selectswitches.Whenthe PA selectswitch is pressed the flight interphonemic. circuit is interruptedand PA audio is applied to the fail-normal switch; in additionthe mic. linesto the PA systemare made. Operationof any p.t.t. switch mutesboth interphone speakers to preventacousticfeedback. Cabin Interphonc The cabin interphoneis a miniatureautomatic several subscribers: telephone exchange servicing and the captain. In addition the cabin attendants the systeminterfaceswith the PA to allow to be made. announcements on the Numbersaredialledby pushbuttons telephone type handsets or on the pilot's control unit. Eleventwo-figurenumbersare allocatedto the plus additionalnumbersfor PA in subscribers, 'all-attendants' variousor all compartments, call an 'all-call'. and an Two dialling codesconsistof letters: P-Pis usedby an attendantto alert the pilot (call light flashes on control unit and chime soundsonce) while PA-PAis usedby the pilot to gain absolute priority over all other users of the PA system. The directory is listed on the push-to-talk switch incorporated in eachhandsetto minimizeambient noise. trunk All diallingcode decodingand the necessary switchingis carriedout in the centralswitchingunit, CSU(automaticexchange).The CSU also contains three amplifiers, one of which is permanently allocated to the pilot on what is effectivelya private trunks, two are trunk. Of the five other available two to the PA systemand allocated to the attendants, -onefor dialling. (Note a trunk is simply a circuit which can connecttwo subscribers.) interphone The cabin interphoneand service qystems may be combinedinto a common network by appropriate selectionon the flight engineer's interphoneswitch panel,captain'sASP and cabin interphonecontrol unit. Any handset may then be into the network (dial'all-call'). lifted and connected In a similarway the flight interphonecircuits may be usedto make specificcallsover.thecabin interphone system.

Crll light

Attondrnt's .t tion3 (typrcrl)

c.:to!:S"hin!
Itntcrphonc I lrudio acccrl lbox I
Ft. 2.20 Boeing 7rt7: cabin interphonc (courtcsy Boeitg Commercial Aeroplane Co.) .** --o;*

The systemis more complex than has been abovebut a basic description has been given, suggested zupportedby Fi1.2.20. ServiceInterphone jacks arelocatedin A total of twenty-two handset variousparts of the airframein order that ground with one anotherusingthe crew can communicate service interphonesystem. The systemis rather above. Mic. audio from simplerthan thoseconsidered are with 'pressto talk' depressed, all handsets, interphone combinedin and amplifiedby the service box. amplifier in the interphoneaudio accessory The amplified signalis fed to all handsettels. Volume control adjustmentis providedby a preset potentiometer. interphoneswitch With the flight engineer's to ON the input summingnetworks for both selected are combined. and flight interphonesystems service All mic. inputs from either systemare amplified and fed to both systems. Address' PassengQr three PA amplifiers,tape deck, The systemcomprises panel,attendant'spanel,PA accessory annunciator switch paneland speaker box, control assemblies, The variousPA messages fifty-three loudspeakers. to them: pilot's havean order of priority assigred announcements, ts, attendant's announcemen and finally boarding prerecordedannouncements over the speaker music. All PA audio is broadcast systemand also,except for boardingmusic,overrides

L--------

r----- -T----1

,:.*Q
I

*.*A
i

L-

L__------.J
fr aLaclioir6 cricull

l-*.,^f-J, .*,,"."
I ,".",*,.1-liii',T:f..
,"* lf,b__^-rc,

r!r6xr ,i[ma f euo'o

' i''' *llF^*.; ^*' l;n:'6--'"'"" ; *,,*,*

L____r (courtesy Boeing address ?4?:passenger Boeing F1g.2.22 Co') AeroPlane Commercial

?il6

interphone(courtesyBoeing Fig,2.2l Boeing?47: service Co.) AeroPlane Commercial

stethoscope audio fed to the passenger entertainment announcement emergency A prerecorded headsets. may be initiated by the pilot or an attendant,or in the event of cabin decompression' automatically 'fasten when the pilot tums on A chimeis generated 'no smoking' siglts. or seat-belt' amplifiersare fed via the address The passenger for pilot orflight or cabininterphone systems Distribution respectively. atiendantannouncements in various speakers to the amplifiers the from of audio on the classconfiguration,sincesome zonesdepends *noun.itntnts may be intended for only a certain of passengers. class by meansof distribution is achieved The necessaiy on the speakerswitchingpanel. Audio is also switches fed to the flight interphonesystemfor sidetone purposes. Number 2 and number 3 ampliliers ere slavedto Should number I for all'classannouncements. be requiredthe parallel classannouncements separate the number I so separating control relay is energized, The control and 3. 2 audio from that of number contain box PA accessory in the assemblies potentiometersused to set the gain of the PA

amplifiers. When the aircraft is on the ground with ;;;i;g gearlocked down and ground powgl applied audio is reducedby 6 dB' the lev-efofspeaker The tape deck containsup to five tape cartridges tape'{rive mechanism' apart from the necessary piaybackhead and a pre-amplifier' Boarding musicis Ltectea at an attendint'spanelwhile prerecorded by meansof twelve are selected imnouncements panel' annunciator the pushbuttonson Entertainment SYstem Passenger entertainmentsystemof the Boeing The pa-ssenger 747 andan! other modern largeairliner is perhaps also the mmt complex of 3ll airbome systems'lt is and, most trouble the systemliklly to caus the fortunatelv, teait litcelyto affect the safety of or a fire to leads aircraft unlessbad servicing ^ hazard. Evenon the sametype ol loose-article will be availablesince aircraft a variety of services different op.r"iott will offer different entertainment the in a bid to capturemore customers' In view of is description following abovecomments, the particularlybrief and doesnot do justice to the complexitY involved.

41

Movie audio

P.A. override

Other submultiplexers Seats 1 2 3 Channel select Other seat colurnns Other seat demultiolexers

1
Fig.2.23 Boeing 747: simplified passengerentertainment system

2 3 Seats

'system', Both moviesand music are provided,the movie as can be seenfrom the schematicdiagram audio being fed to individual seats via the music n Fig.2.?4. The horn and flight-deck call button are portion of the system.Ten tape-deck channels, four locatedin the nosewheel bay while tl'reground-crew movieaudio channels and one p.a.channel (total call(with illumination)and auralwarningbox areon fifteen) are provided usingtime multiplexing. A time the flight deck. Operation is self-explanatory from interval,ternreda liame, is divided into fifteen the diagram. Should horn or chinte sound, the ground channel timesduringwhich the signal amplitudeof crew, or flight crew respectively, will contact each eachchannel is sampled.The audiosigrral amplitudes other usingone of the interphonesystems. arebinary coded(twelve bits) and transmitted, togetherwith channelidentification, clock and sync. pulses, over a co-axialcablerunning throughout the aircraft. The music channels (five stereo,ten monauralor a mixture)aremultiplexed in the main multiplexer,the resulting digitalsignal beingfed to six submultiplexers CFO CiCW CALL +. in series, the final one being terminatedwith a suitable load resistor. Movie and PA audio are multiplexed with the musicchannels in the zonesubmuliiplexers, Fig.2.24 Boeing 747:ground crewcall(courtesy Boeing eachof which feedsthree or four columnsof seat Aeroplane Conrmercial Co.) demultiplexers. Channel selection is madeby the passenger who hearsthe appropriateaudio over his headset after digital to analogue Cockpit Voice Recorder - stethoscope conversion in the demultiplexer. Alternate zone An endless tape provides30 niin recordingtime for submultiplexers are usedasback-upin the event of audio signals input on four separate channels.The prime submultiplexerfailure (classpriorities exist if channelinputs are captain's,first officer's and flight failuresmean somepassengers must havethe engineer's transmitted and received audio and cockpit entertainmentservice discontinued). areaconversation.Passenger address audio may be The controls necessary for activationof the substitutedfor the flight engineer's audio in an entertainments system arelocatedon attendants' aircraft certified to fly with two crew members. control panels. The microphoneinputs should be from so-called 'hot mics', i.e. microphoneswhich are permanently Ground Crew Call Syrtem live regardless of the setting of ASP or control Ground crew call is hardly worthy of the title column switches. The areamicrophone(which may

42

Flt. eng. hot mic. tel. Record head

lst. off. hot mic. tel.

Area Mic.

Pre-amp-

lo
Q Playback I head parking

Erase Jack

Test

4,
Landing

P"::;

ffif

Essontirl flt. inst. bus bar

Ft1.2.25 Typical cockpit voice rccorder blockdiagram

be s.eparate from the control panel) is strategically situatedso that it can pick up night crew speechand general cockpit sounds. While the control panelis situatedin the cockpit, ., the recorderunit (CVR) is locatedat .:heother end of the aircraft where it is leastlikely to suffer damage in the event of an accident. The CVR is constructedso asto withstand shock and fire damage,and additionally is paintedin a fire-resistant orangepaint to assist in recoveryfrom a wreck. The recorded audio may be erasedproviding the landinggearand parking brake interloik relav' contactsare closed. As a further safeguard aiainst accidental erasure a delay is incorporited in the bulk erase circuit which requiresthp operator to depress the 'erase'switch for two secondibefore "r"a*" commences. Test facilities are provided for all four channels,

separately or all together. A playbackhead and monitor amplifier allowsa satisfactorytest to be observed on metersor heardover a headsetviajack plug sockets. Pressing the test button on the control panel or the all-testbutton on the CVR causes the channels to be monitored sequentially. The power supply for the system should be from a sourcewhich provideqmaximum reliabilitv. Sincethe tape is subjectto wear and thus has a limiied life, the CVR should be switchedoff when nqt in use. A suitable method would be to remove power to the CVR wheneverexternalground power is connected.

Testingand Trouble Shootingthe Audio Systems Various self-test facilities maybeprovided by which
tl:l

tonesmay be generated and heardover headsets. However, to testproperlyall switches shouldbe operated and all mic. and tel.jacks,aswell as shouldbe checkedfor the requiredaudio. speakers, This shouldbe sufficiently loud, clearand noise-free. Amplifier gainpresets in accessory boxesmay needto be adjusted. A full functional test is best done by two men, althoughit is not impossible for one man with two headsets and an extensionlead to establish two-way contact betweenvariousstations. Faults can be quite difficult to find owing to the Howeverthe complicated switchingarrangements. wide rangeof switchingcan be usedto advantage in order to isolatesuspect units or interconnections. Disconnecting units providesa good method of

finding short circuits or howls due to coffee-induced (i.e. spilt liquid providinga feedback tel.-mic. path betweentel. and mic. circuits). conducting e.g. Whereone has a number of units in series, in an entertainmentsystem, demultiplexers can be a particularly rapid method of disconnecting best to split the run in half, fault-finding;it is usually. then in half again,and so on until the faulty unit or connectionis found. Continuity checkson very long by shorting to earth at one end cablescan be achieved to earth at the the resistance and then measuring to earth should also be other. The resistance with the short removedin casea natural measured short exists.

3 Automaticdirectionfinding

Introduction
Most readers will havecome across the principle on which ADF is basedwhen listeningto a transistor radio. As the radio is rotated the signalbecomes weakeror stronger, depending on its orientation with respectto the distant transmitter. Of courseit is the antenna which is directionaland this fact has been known sincethe early days of radio. In the 1920sa simpleloop antennawas usedwhich could be rotated by hand. The pilot would position the loop so that there was a null in the signal from the station to which he was tuned. The bearingof the stationcould then be readoff a scaleon the loop. Tuning into anotherstation gaverise to another bearingand consequently a fix. Apart from position-fixingthe direction-finding loop could be usedfor homing on to a particularstation. This primitive equipmentrepresented the first use of radio for navigationpurposesand came to be known as the radio compass. The systemhas been much developedsince those early daysand in particularits operationhasbeen simplified. Within the band 100-2000kHz (I.f./m.f.) thereare many broadcast stationsand non-directional (NDB). An aircraft today would have twin beacons

receivers which, when tuned to two distinct stations or beacons, would automaticallydrive two pointerson an instrumentcalleda radio magneticindicator (RMI) so that eachpointer gavethe bearingof the station. The aircraft position is where corresponding the two directionsintersect. Sincesucha system requiresthe minimum of pilot involvementthe name by automatic radio compass hascome to be replaced direction finder (ADF).

BasicPrinciples
'l

TheLoop Antenna

he first requirementof any ADF is a directional were able to be rotated antenna. Early loop antennas by motor, first by hand and subsequently of havingno automatically. The obviousadvantage antennahas moving partsin the aircraft skin-mounted useof a fixed loop and goniometer led to the universal althoughsomeolder types are in modern equipments, still in service. of an orthogonalpair of The loop antennaconsists coils wound on a single flat ferrite core which the magnetic(H) field componentof the concentrates e.m. waveradiatedfrom a distant station. The plane

Athwartships loop Forc and aft loop Fb.3.l Loop entcnnaand goniometcr

Rotot (sctrch coil)

45

ol one coil is aligned with the aircraftlongitudinal axiswhile the other is alignedwith the lateralaxis. The currentinducedin eachcoil will dependon the directidnof the nragnetic field. Whenthe plane of the loop is perpendicular to the directionof propagation, no voltage is inducedin the loop since the linesof flux do not link with it. lt canbe seen that if one loop doesnot link with the magnetic field the other will havemaximumlinkage. Figure3.1 showsthat the loop currentsflow through the stator (resolver) windingof a gonionreter where.providing circuitareidentical, the characteristics o1'each the magnetic field detected by the loop will be recreated We now in so far asdirectionis concerned. effectivelyhavea rotating loop antennain the form rotor or search coil. As the rotor of the eoniometer and two turnstf,rough360otherewill be two peaks inducedin it. The output of the nullsof the voltage which thus sees rotor is the input to the ADF receiver is the rotor asthe antenna.Suchan arrangement system. known asa Bellini-Tosi backwith a rotatingloop Sincewe areeffectively we shouldconsider the polardiagram of situation in its directional aswe areinterested suchan antenna properties. polarized t.e.m. In Fig. 3.2 we havea vertically wavefrom the direction shown. Tl.ratcomponentof the H field linking with the loop will be H sin 0, so a plot of the loop current against I produces a sine curveasshown. The polar diagramof such an will be asin Fig. 3.3. It canbe seenthat antenna natureof the plot the nulls of the sinusoidal because arefar more sharplydefinedthan the peaks. a verticallypolarizedwave The abovehasassumed which is in fact the casewith NDBs and most

polardiagram Fig,3.3 Loopaerial polarized stations.However a vertically broadcast travelling overnon-homogeneous earth and signal objects, includingthe ionosphere, strikingreflecting can arriveat the loop with an appreciable horizontallypolarized component.The currentin the loop will then be due to two sources, the vertical give which will in general and horizontal cornponents, in the a non-zeroresultarrt null, not necessarily direction of the plane of the antenna. This polarization errordictates that ADF ihould only be which in the l.f./m.f. usedwith groundwavesignals hundredmiles. However. bandsare usefulfor several polarized they arecontaminated by non-vertically sky waves beyond,say,200m at 200 kHz and 50 m at 1600 kHz, the effect beingmuch worseat night (night effect) $*o read , The SenseAntenna The polar diagramof the loop (Fig. 3.3) showsthat the bearingof the NDB will be givenas one of twtr

Plane of looP

l
Direction of propagatron -------------+

tl
l,/

/
.-0,,

H field

(l
\

E fieldO

F8. 3.2 To illustrate degrccof coupling of loop acrbl

tt6

figures,l80o apart, sincethere are two nulls. In althoughnot as clearlydefinedas the nulls for the order to determinethe correctbearingfurther figure-of-eight (Fig. 3.4). information is neededand this is providedby an omnidirectionalsense antenna. In a verticaliv polarizedfield an antennawhich is omnidireitional in Simplified Block Diagram Operation the horizontal plarreshouldbe of a type which is excited by the electric(E) field of the t.e.m. wave Automatic direction finding (ADF) is achievedby i.e. a capacitance antenna. The output of suchan meansof a servoloop. The search coil is driven ro a antennawill vary with the instantaneous field stablenull position,a secondnull beingunstable. strengthwhile the output of a loop antennavariesas coil o-utput,after amplification,is the instantaneous - The search rate of change of field strength phase-shifted by 90" so as to be either in phaseor out (Faraday's law of inducede.m.f.). As a of phasewith the sense antennaoutput, dipending on consequence, regardless of the direction of the t.e.m. the direction of the NDB. prior to addingto the wave,the sense antenna r.f. output will be in phase sense signalthe phase-shifted loop signalis switched quadraturewith respect to the search coil r.f.butput. in phasein a balanced modulator at a rate determined In order to sense the direction of the NDB the two by a switchingoscillator,usuallysomewhere between antennaoutputs must be combinedin such a way as a 50 Hz and 250 Hz rate. Whenthe compositesignal either to cancelor reinforce,and so either the sense is formed in a summingamplifier it will be or the loop signalmust be phaseshifted by 90.. amplitude-modulated at the switchingfrequencysince A compositesignalmadeup of the searchcoil for one half period the two input signals will be in output phaseshifted by 90' and the sense antenna phasewhile for the next half period they will be in output would appearas if it camefrom an antenna antiphase (seeFigure3.6). the polar diagramof which was the sum of thosefor The amplitude modulation is,detected in the last the individual antennas.Now the figure-of-eight polar stageof a superhetreceiver. The detectedoutput will diagramfor the loop can be thought of asbeing be either in phase, or in antiphase, with the switching generated aswe considerthe output of a fixed search oscillatoroutput and so a further 90" phase-shift is coil for various n.d.b.bearings or the output of a required in orderto providea suitable controlphase rotatingsearch coil for a fixed n.d.b.beaiing, either for the servomotor. The motor will drive either separate halves of the figure-of+ightwill be clockwiseor anticlockwise 1v%the towardsthe stablenull. rdu out ot phase.As a consequence the sense When the null is reached therewill be no search coil antennapolar diagramwill add to the loop polar output henceno amplitude modulation of the diagramfor somebearings, and subtractfoiothers. compositesignalso the reference phasedrive will be The resultantdiagramis a cardiodwith only one null, zero and the motor will stop. Should the servomotor Le in sucha position that the searchcoil is at the unstablenull the sliehtest -a--\. disturbance will cause the motor to drive aiay fiom / t / \ \ \ \ , / l \ \ this position towardsthe stablenull. The senieof the / t l \ connections throughoutthe systemmust be correct / t l \ for the stablenull to give the bearing. / \ t (STTx),mountedon . A synchrotorquetransmitter the searchcoil shaft, transmitsthe bearineto a remote indicator.
'.

'.
\-

'l

l
/ z'

/
\ ./

-\-__-i--

Block Diagram Detail Tuning Modern ADFs employ so-called digital tuning wherebyspot frequencies are selected, as opposedto older setswherecontinuoustuning *.s usurl. A conventionalfrequencysynthesizer is usedto generate the local oscillator(first l.o. if double superhet)frequency. The tuning voltagefed to the v.c.o.in the phaselock loop is alsousedfor varicap

Fig. 3.4 Compositepolar diagram

47

Loop antenne Synchro.torque Tx o l P

S u m m i n ga m P .

blockdiagram Fig.3.5 An ADF simplified

tuning in the r.f. stages.Remoteselectionis by b.c'd. (ARINC 570) or someother codesuchas 215. BalancedModulator modulator usedin the Figure3.7 showsthe balanced CR 1 l3 and CR I l4 areturned King KR 85. Diodes on and off by the switchingoscillator(Q 3l I and Q 312) so alternatelyswitchingthe loop signalto one transformerT I 16. The of two sidesof the balanced output of Tl l6 is thus the loop sigral with its phase rate. 0o and 180" at the oscillator swiiched between Receiver A conventionalsuperhet receiveris usedwith an i.f. frequencyof 14l kHz in the caseof the KR 85 ; i.f. andr.f. gain may be manuallycontrolledbut in any case a.g.c.is used. An audio amp, with normal gain control, amplifiesthe detectsdsignaland feedsthe AIS for identificationpurposes.A beat frequency oscillator (b.f.o.) can be switched in to facilitate the identificationof NDBs transmittingkeyed c.w- The /t8

b.f.o. output is mixed with the i.f. so asto produce an audio differencefrequency. Good sensitivityis requiredsincethe effectiveheight of modern givesa low levelof signalpick-up' low-dragantennas Good selectivityis requiredto avoid adjacentchannel in the crowdedI'f./m.f. band. interference Indication of Bearing In all indicatorsthe pointer is alignedin the direction of the NDB. The angleof rotation clockwisefrom a lubber line at the top of the indicator givesthe relative bearingof the NDB. If the instrumenthas a fixed scaleii is known as a relativebearingindicator (RBD' More common is a radio magneticindicator (RMI) to the compass which hasa rotating scaleslaved heading. An RMI will give the magretic bearingof aswell as the relativebearingby the NDB on the scale of the pointer from the lubber of rotation the amount on RBI and line. Figure3.8 illustratesthe readings RMI for a givenNDB relativebearingand aircraft heading. An RMI normally providesfor indication of

A
NDB 1

A
NDB 2

from a combinationof two two magneticheadings and two VOR receivers.Figure 3.9 ADF receivers showsa typical RMI while Fig.3.l0 showsthe RMI which may circuit and typical switchingarrangements be internal or external to the RMIs.

Assumesearchcoil aligned with zero bearing

NDB 1 to left

NDB 2 to right

of SystemError Sources
Automatic direction finding is subjectto a number of sources of error, asbriefly outlined below.
hdg.

Loop

r.t. Switching voltage Balanced mod. O/P Sense r.f.

ra_
I

\A/\A I
I

M,|AA
AAA -iAA
I
I

N.D.B.

Composite signal Detected Rx out Reference phase

l-.-1

r i r R.M.l. Fig. 3.8 Diagramof RMI and RBI readings R.B.I

N.8. Waveshapes and relative time scalesare not exactly as shown. Fig. 3.6 DiagramshowingADF phaserelationships

T116
Astable multivibrator o311-312

Fig. 3.7 King KR 85 balancedmodulator - simplified

49

Night Effect This is the polarizationerror mentio,ned previously under the heading of the loop antenna. The effect is most noticeable at sunrise clr sunset when the ionosphere is changing most rapidly. Bearing errorsand instabilityareleastwhen tunedto an NDB at the low end of the frequency rangeof the ADF. Refraction The differing propertiesof land Coastal and waterwith regardto e.m.groundwaveabsorption leads to refractionof the NDB transmission. The effectis to change the directionof traveland so give riseto an indicatedbearingdifferent from the actual bearingof the transmitter. Mountain Effect If the wave is reflected by hills or largestructures, the ADF may mountains, the direction of arrivalof the reflectedwave. measure The nearerthe reflectingobject is to the aircraft the greater the error by the geometry of the situation.
Fig.3.9 KNI 581 RMI (courtesy King RadioCorp.) ADF No. 1 ADF No

Stotic Interference Static build-up on the airframe

VOR No.l

VOR No. 2.

No.1.

No. 2.

cto

cto

No. 2. R.M.l

26V 4OO Hz Ref.

t ---/ / Red

No'1 R'M'l' ,/tr\ (w E) \9/ A_-A

Fig. 3.10 Radio magneticindicator: simplified circuit

50

and the consequent discharge reducesthe effective rangeand accuracyof an ADF. Thunderstormsare alsoa sourceof static interference which may give rise to largebearingerrors. The ability of ADF to pick up thunderstorms hasbeenusedby one manufacturer to give directionalwarning of storm activity (Ryan Stormscope). Vertical or Antenna Effect The vertical limbs of the crossed loopshavevoltages inducedin them by the electric component of the e.m.wave. If the planeof a loop is perpendicular to the direction of arrivalof the signalthere will be no H field coupling and the E field will induce equalvoltages in both vertical limbs so we will havea null as required. Should, however, the two halvesof the loop be unbalanced, the current inducedby the E field will not sum to zero and so the direction of arrival to give a null will not be perpendicular to the plane of the loop. An imbalance may be due to unequalstray capacitance to earth either sideof the loop; howeverin a well-designed Bellini-Tosisystem,where eachloop is balanced by a centretap to earth, this is not a severe problem. Station Interference When a number of NDBs and broadcast stationsare operatingin a given areaat closelyspaced frequencies station interferencemay

result. As previouslymentionedhigh selectivityis requiredfor adequate adjacentchannelrejection. Quadrantal Enor (QE) It is obvious that the two fixed loops must be identicalin electrical characteristics, asmust the stator coils of the goniometer. If the signalarrivesat an angle0 to the planeof loop A in Fig. 3.1I the voltageinducedin loop A will be proportionalto cos0 and in loop B to cos(90-d)= sin0. If now the search coil makesan angled with the stator P then the voltageinducedin the search coil will be proportionalto - (sinOX sin@) (cosOX cos@) providedthere is no mutual couplingbetweenthe interconnecting leads. So when the search coil voltageis zero: cosOXcos@=sinOXsin@ or: cot0 = tan0 and: 0=6+ 90+ifX 180 wherey'y' is 0 or any integer. This is simply a mathematical model of the situationpreviously ddscribed under the headingof the loop antenna. Now considerthe two loopsnot electrically identicalso that the ratio of the maximum voltages inducpd in the two loops by a given signalis r. The condition for zero voltagein the search coil is now:

Direction of arrival

Fig. 3. I I Diagram showingsearchcoil signalas a function of direction of arrival

51

cotO=rXtan@' when 0=O therefore cotp=o

circuits and the loop connectionswill lead to errorsin the searchcoil Position.

lnstallation

A typical transport aircraft ADF installationis shown No' 2 being only isshown, in Fig.3.l2; No. 1 system sirnilir except that different power bus barswill be when used. Main power is 28 V d.c', the 26 V, 400 Hz cot0=0 0=90 being usedto supply the synchros' lt is vital that the 26 V 400 Hz fed to the ADF receiveris from the therefore samesourceas that fed to the RMI' tan6'=0 so 0'=0+NXl80 The loop antennaand its connectingcableform and so must g = part of the input circuit of the receiver 180 or 270) we (alsowhen two cases In these (C) inductance and capacitance known fixed p = n o a ' s t t irave a sb c l o r el . e . 0 situation t h es a m e have and type of loop cableis the length so being (L). This error. therewill be an error' so the ipecified by the manufacturerof the loop. The angles At intermediate but it can be coil will be incorrect' length specifiedmust not be exceeded, by the search indicated bearing and L are C compensating provided in tlnee shorter value made Sincethis type of errorhasa maximum the circuit. in placed correctly error' quadrantal it is called eachquadrant r'f' The QE corrector loop equalizercontainsthe Now the t.e.m.wavefrom the NDB will cause for a reactivecomponentsto compensate of the aircraft' necessary to flow in the metalstructure currents A correction' provide to and QE cable loop the from short direct signals Eachof the loops will receive 3.13. Cl,C2,Ll,L2 Fig. given in is ciicuit typical airframe' the trom signals NDB and alsore-radiated (loop una C:, C4,L3, L4 providecompensation and Sincethe aspectratio of the aircraft fuselage correction provide L6,L7 L5, QE while equalization) energy wingsis not I : I the effect of the re-radiated stator of appropriate the in current the attenuating by equivalent is on th. t*o loopswill be different:this is equalizer loop the goniometer.The QE corrector loopselectrically identical to makingtwo physically error could be up mounted closeto the IooP. quadrantal The resulting dissimilar. antenna apply to the sense Similar considerations to 20" maximum. to capacitance specified present a to required is a which by using can be nrade compensation Fortunately, of cable given length a we have Again receiver. the possibly and QE loop equalizer QE corrector but can be madeshorter the combined which must not be exceeded built into the loop. Nt>rrnaliy correction Often both an fitted. is iqualizer an in the longitudinal proviclecl voltage a gleater r.f. field produces are usedto achieve suscepti-former a and equalizer identical' loop than in the lateralloop if the loopsare receiver'The the to capacitance input statetl the more have antennas someloop This beingthe case which device matching passive is a locp, susceptlformer turnson the lateralloop than the longitudinal effective the to increase transformer auto utilizesan typical correctionUelngt Z|' in the middle of the antenna.Typicalunitsare of the sense capacitance quadrants. the necessary shbwnin Fig. 3.14. As an alternative in a single achieved be may Loop Alignment Error If the longitudinalloop plane matchingand equalization matching/equalizing The coupler. antenna sense is not parallelto the aircraft longttudinalaxis then a unit(s) are mounted closeto the antenna' errorwill exist. loop alignment constant coils Tire loop antennawill consistof the crossed a in encapsulated and slab wound on a ferrite Field Alignment Error If the loop antennais offset aircraft the loop will low-draghousing. On high-speed from the aircraft centreline the maxima of the aircraft the slower on but the skin with flush zeros' be will the as quadrintal error will be shifted, giving better signal housingmay protrude slightly, the situation wherethe NDB is at a Consequently pick-up. relativebearingof 0, 90, 180pr 2?0o will not give The senseantenna can take many forms' On large zeroerror. is c-apacitiveplate Ft transport aircraft a suppressed 'towel rail' a aircraft comrnon,whereason slower Loop Connector Stmy Coupling Reactive coupling type of antennamay be used. Generalaviation external between or connections the loop between t a n @ ' = es o Q'=90+NXl80 52

N o .1 2 8 V d . c .

4OOHz

Panel lights supply

Corrector box

No. I VOR

From No. 2 ADF or No. 2 VOR

Compass hdg

Sense aerial Fig.3.l2 TypicalADF installation

o i -cc

Fig. 3.13 Quadrantal error corector/loop equalizer (straight-through connections not shown)

aircraft might usea wire antennaor, asan alternative, now producea a whip antenna. Somemanufacturers antennafor the general combinedloop and sense market. aviation is important. The The position of both antennas loop shouldbe mounted on, and parallelto, thecenire line of the aircraft with nomore than 0'25" alignmenterror. While the loop may be on top or

Sense ae. cable equalizer lnsulated sense ae. terminal

lnner screen Fig; 3.t4 Sense aerial matchin!

53

bottom of the fuselage it shouldnot be mountednear the nose,tail, largeor movable protuberances or near othersystem antennae. Similarconsiderations apply to the sense antenna, although beingomnidirectional alignment is not a problem. Ideallythe sense antenna will be mountedat the electrical centreof the aircraft in orderto giveaccurate over-station turn-around of the bearingpointer. The interconnections in the systemmust take into Fig. 3.15 ARINC 570 control panel (typical) account that the phasing of voltages produced by sense and loop antennas will be different for top and bottom mounting. The methodusedwill dependon the manufacturer but if the system conformsto Functiort Switch. OFF-ANT-ADF In the antenna ARINC 570 the synchrorepeater connections will be position(ANT) the receiver operates fronr the sense asin Table3.1. If, asin somelight aircraft antenna o n l y , t h eb e a L i np g o i n t e rb e i n gp a r k e d at 90" r e l a t i v e p o s i r i o n b e a r i n g . T h i : m a y b e u s e d l b r Table3.1 Synchroconnections for alternate aerial t u n i n ga n d N D B , l s t l t i o n i d e n t i f i c a t i o nI.n t h e A D F locations.Indicatorsynchroreceiver corrections positionsignals frorn both loop and sense antenna p r o v i d e n o l n r a l A D F o p e r a t i o n , t h e R M I i ndicating Aerial position Bottom Bottorn Top Top t h e b e a r i n g o l ' t h e s t a t i o n . loop, loop, loop,

ottO'oo'

bottorn sense

top scnse

top sense

loop, bottom sense S3

SI Synchro 52 transmitter S3 corrections Rl R2

sl s2 s3
RI R2

sl s2
S3 R2 RI

S3 S2
SI RI R2

s2 sl
R2 RI

Fretluenq,St,/ecl(rrobs Threeknobsareused; one is nrorrnted co-ariallywith the functionswitch,to s e l e cf tr e q u e n c y in , 0 . 5 , l 0 a n d 1 0 0k H z i n c r e m e n t s . Digitrltvpet'requen ye display s e g m e n ti s ndicate the selected flr'qrrencv. The informationis passed to the r e c e i r eu r sp l r l l k ' l b . c . t i .

Ilcat F-requt'rtct' Oscillatr'r Sx,itch Selects the BFO installations, the goniometeris in the indicator and lirr useu'henthe NDB selec:ted is identifiedby the bearing is presented directlyratherthan by synchro t ' r n - o lk e -i -r i n g o l ' t h e ea r ri e r . feed then the following correctionsare necessary: A nurrrber of other su,itches nraybe found on various c o r r t r o l l e r a s s . b L i e l l y d c s c r i b eb de l o w . l. loop from top to bottom: longitudinal coil connections to goniometer statorreversed: Ftur<'tit,rr Srt,irclr. OFI-'-ANT-ADI:-l.OOPAn extra 2. sense from top to bottom: search coil p o s i t i o n r r l'tlre functiotr s w i t c hn t a l b e p r o v i d e d to conneCtionS reverSed. ()pr'rilethe receiver fronr the loop ;rc.rial only. This Obviouslyone must check fcrrwhich positior.r. t()p (rr p o s i t i o nL . OOP. w o u l db e u s e di n c o n i u n c t i o n with a bottom, the connections arernadtin tht supplicd I o o pc o n t r o l . unit. Protection from interference is of vital intportance. Ittop Corttrol Springloadedto ot'f. Whenop!'rated and to this end adequate screening of cables shouldbe clockwise or anticlockwise the search coil rotates in employed.ARINC 570 callsfor four individually t h e s e l e c t e d i r e . c t i o nT . h i s c o n t r o lc l n b r .u s e d for shielded co-axial cables insulated and twisted.then n r a n u ad l i r e c t i o n - l i n d i nt g .e s h - e a L cc ho i l b e i n g rotated jacketed.The sense antenna connector shoulduse until an audionull is achit'ved or. il'pr,rvidcd. I visual doubleshielding (tri-axial)cable. Thc.cableruns t u n i n gi n d i c a t o r i n d i c a t eu s null. Althotrgh r t o tu s e d shouldbe clearof any high-level trlnsrrritting cables in most rnodern equipments this doeshuvethe or a.c.powercables. advantage overADF that the nulls arr.sharper; ADF operation would lraveto be usedto scnse the correct null. Controls and Operation Gain Cotttntl An auiliogaincontrol is usually A standard ARINC 570 control prrrcirsillustrated irr providedand rnayhe annolated volume. On at least F i g .3 . 1 5 . one svstr'nr the gain0f'tht' R.F. ampsis manually 54

adjustable wherrANT or LOOP is selected, whereas audio gain is controlled on ADF. Beat Frequency Oscillator Tone A rotary switch, givingb.f.o. on-off,and a potentiometer may be mounted on the sameshaft turned by the b.f.o. control. Whenswitchetlon the frequencyof the b.f.o. canbe adjusted, so varyingthe tone in the headset. heselect Frequency Capability Provision can be madefor in useand standby frequencies sele'cted by means of a transfer switch. Whenfrequency selection is madeonly the standbyfrequency changes. Switchingthe transferswitch (TFR) will now reverse the rolesof in-useand standby frequencies.Both frequencies are displayedand clearannunciationof which is in useis required.

Sensilivity Signal+ noiseto noiseratio 6 dB or better with 35 pV/m field strength moduiated 30 per cent at = l'0. 1000Hz and l.ri-root-cap Station Interference An undesired signalfrom a source90o to that ofthe. desiredsignalat the frequencies and relativcsignal levelslisted in Table 3.2 shallnot cause in a change indicated bearing of more than 3". Receiver Selectivity Passband at leastl'9 kHz at -6 dB pointsnot more than 7 kHz at -60 dB points. Resonantfrequency within 1 175 Hz of selected frequencv.

Calibration and Testing on the Ramp

Loop Swing The procedurefor determiningthe signand sizeof errorsin an ADF installationis known as a loop swing. On initial installation a swingshouldbe ;arriedout at l5o heading intervals.Checkswings should be carriedout whenever calledfor in the maintenance schedule, after a lightning strike, when an airframemodification closeto the ADF antennais completedor when a new avionicsystemis installed. The checkswingis carriedout at 45o intervals. A sving should not be carriedout within + 2 h of sunset or sunriseto avoid night effect. The loop swingmay be carriedout in the air dr on the ground. The advantage of an air swingis that the aircraft is operatingin its nclrmalenvironmentaway from external disturbances but, in someways, a ground swingis to be preferred,sincereadings may be taken more accurately. If the loop is mounted on the bottom of the t'uselage the swingmay be affectedby the closeproximity of the ground,in which casean air swing should be carriedout. An installation should be checkedby air test after q.e.shavebeen corrected. Ground Swing A groun{ loop swing must be carried out at a site known not to introduce bearingerrors. A basesuitablefor compass swingswill not necessarily be suitable for loop swings. A survey using portable direction finding (D/F) equipmentmust be carried out if the site is doubtful. The loop may be swung with referenceto true or magneticnorth. Using true north hasthe advantage that the loop swingingbasemay be permanently marked out. If the swing is with referenceto magretic north the loop should be calibrated using a

Characteristicrs
The following characteristics are selected and summarized from the ADF SystemMark 3 ARINC 570. Frequency Selection Range:190-1750 kHz; spacing: 0.5 kHz; channelling time less than 4 s; parallel b.c.d.frequency selection with provision for serial b.c.d. ADF Accuracv + 2o excludingq.e. for any field strengthfrom 50 !V/m to 100000 pV/m, assuming a sense aerial quality factor of 1.0. (Sense aerialquality factor = effectiveheight X squareroot of capacitance, i.e.ii-root-cap). 13- excluding q.e.for a field strength aslow as 25 pYlm. + 3" after q.e.correction. ADF Hunting k s s t h a nI 1 " . Table 3.2 Station interferenceconditions.with reference to desiredfrequency Undesiredfrequency Unde sired sig nal stre ngth

t2kHz t3kHz t6kHz t7 kHz

-4 dB -10 dB -55 dB -70 dB

55

suchas the medium landingcompass' datum compass, whic,hshouldbe alignedwith the longitudinalaxis of the aircraft and positionedabout 100 ft from the aircraft. To sight the longitudinalais, sightingrods or clearlyvisibleplumb linesmay be fixed to the aircraft centreline. Use of an upright nose'mounted propellerand the verticalstabilizermay suffice providingsightingis carriedout carefullyfrom a suitabledistance. For a checkswingthe aircraft gyro may be usedprovidedthis hasbeen magneticcompass recentlyswung,correctedand a calibrationchart madeout. The aircraft must contain its full complementof equipment. Doors and panelsin the vicirfity of the must be closed. Internal power ADF antennas sincethe shouldbe usedwheneverpossible supplies errors in the cause may generator lead and external readings. The ADF is tuned to a station or NDB within rangeand of a known magneticbearingfrom the site. With the aircraft on the requirednumber of headings the ADF readingand the aircraft magneticheading

are recordedon a loop swingrecord chart, a specimen of which is shownasTable3.3. The correction(D) is the sigred anglewhich must be addedto the indicatedmagneticbearingof the station (B + C) in order to give the true ma^gnetic adding-5'5o to 41" + bearing ie). So, for example, 389'5' = 29'5oasrequired. 354' gives When completedthe valuesobtainedin the final column shouldbe plotted as a q.e- correctioncurve, of the absolute asshownin Fig. 3.16. The average of correction amount gives the peaks the of values required.the polarity being givenby the sign of the correctionin the first quadrant. So in the example givenwe have: 12.5+ 12.5+ 16 + l7'5 = +14'625" 4

asthe requiredcorrection. The correctionis made by in the QE corrector suitablechoiceof components the manufacturer. by instructed as equalizer loop The correctionshouldbe more or lessthe samefor in a particularaircraft type. identicalinstallations Once the prototype hashad a calibrationswingand swings subsequent the componentvaluesare chosen, Table 3.3 Loop swing recordchart aircraft shouldshow the error boundedby on series I 3" asrequired. A/CType............-.. A/CTailNo ............. of the Loop alignmenterror is givenby the average Time10.00 Base'..'...........-......'. Date....................,.... (A)029'5 we have: peaks. So in the examPle Station Droitwich Freq.200kHz Mag'Brg
Autornattc direction linding relative bearing Correction (D)

Magneticheading datum compass

(B)
028 041 054.5 073 089 105'5 r22 135 153 t72 184 198 213 230 242 257 271.5 286 302 317 332 34s 358

(c)

l2'5 - 16+ l2'5 - l7'5 = -2'125 4 of t 0'25o this error should be Sincethis is in excess of the loop. taken out by re-alignment = -2'125 has beendrawn on The line correction this line curveshouldcross Fiq. 3.16. The correction atb, gO, 180 urd 270' if thereis no field alignment error. Within the limits of the accuracyof the plot and the scalewe can seethat this is the casein our error it example.If therewerea field alignment alongthe horizontal axis. would be measured Air Swing An *ir swing should be carried out in smooth air conditionsin order to eliminatedrift errors. There are variousmethodswhich may be employedbut all involveflying a particular pattern over a clearly definedpoint or points sgmedistance from the transmitterwhich is to be usedfor the swing' Magneticheadingand ADF relativebearingare noted every 10" or I 5o,depending forl number of headings, on the pattern flown. The aircraft should be inland are taken to avoid of the transmitterwhen readings and plotting Recording coastalrefractionproblems' ground swing. the for is as

001.5 354 346 333 318 298 272 247 224 206 197 187 179 169 160 r48 134 115 088 063

u5
032 02l

0 -5.5 -l1.0 - l6'5 - 17.5 -14.0 -4.5 7-5 12.5 I1.5 8.5 4.5 -2.5 -9.5 -12.5 - 15.5 - 16.0 -11.5 -0.5 9'5 12.5 t2'5 ' 10.5

s6

various headinp when overhead of the referenoe point. SenseAntenna CapacitanceCheck of the sense antennaand feeder The total capacitance shouldbe checkedwhen calledfor in the maintenance whenever the sense antennaor feederis schedule. fault upon initial installationor if a possible changed, bridgeor Q condition is suspected.A capacitance meter operatingat 650 kHz shouldbe usedfor the measurement. Functional Test Ideally there will be at leastone station or NDB within rangein each quadrant; in busy regionsthis will ccrtainly be so, for example,at London Heathrow under good can be received more than twenty beacons those bearing of magnetic true The conditions. to be usedmust be known. An accuracy beacons checkis performedby tuning into a beaconin each quadrantand ensuringthat for eachthe pointer Fig.3.16 Quadrantal errorcorrection curve for Table 3.3 indicatesthe bearingto within the limits laid down in say t 5o. The figure givenwill only be the procedure, if the aircraft is well away from largemetal achievable Two possible methodsare position-lineswinging objects,and if the test is not carriedout within 2 h of and single-point swinging. With the first method a give ground or sunset. Useof externalpower may also series of landmarkswhich a reference line sunrise giveerroneous readings. aligned with a distant transmitterare chosen. A zig-zag pattern is flown, both toward and away from All controls shouldbe operatedto ensurecorrect if a loop control is^ the transmitter,the readings functioning. In particular being taken'asthe be displaced170" first pointer should aircraft crosses providedthe the line at variousheadings.With the from the correct second method a clearly defined point, some distance clockwiseand then anticlockwise from the transmitter,is chosen. A cloverleaf pattern reading,to which the pointer shouldreturn without hunting. is flown centredon this point, readings being takenon excessive

6'

(voR)
lntroduction

4 V.h.f.omnidirectional range

Prior to World War II it was realizedthat the propagation anomalies with low- and experienced medium-frequency navigation aidslimited their usefulnes3 asstandard systems for a sky which was evermore crowded. A systemcalled becoming four-course low-frequency waswidely range in the United States implenrented duringthe 1930s; this gavefour courses to or from eachgroundstation and fltted in quite nicelywith a system of fixed with the four-course airways.A problenr systemis that eachstationonly provides for two intersecting airways; a more complexjunction requires rnore The above, courses. coupledwith increased altitude of flying rnaking lineof-sightfrequencies usefulat longerranges, and the developtnent of v.h.f. comms, led to the adoptionof v.h.f.omnidirectional range ( V O R ) a ss t a n d a r d i n t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s i n 1 9 4 6a n d internationally in 1949. The competitionftrr an international was fierce,the leading standard system after VOR beingDecca contender Navigator.lt is whetherthe technically debatable superiorsvstem waschosen, but certainlyVOR wascheaper. had the advantage of a largehome market,and hasdone the job adequately eversince. The VOR system operates in the 108-l !8 MHz band with channels spiced at sO kHiffiT[ with ILS localizer shared tt. ffiing allocated to 160of the 200 available channels. Of these160 12Oareallocated cfrannels to VOR stations intended for en route navigation while the other forty are for tClrn!ryLYQR statim!_(TVORL The output porver o f a n e n r o u t es t a t i o n w i l l b e a b o u t2 0 0 W p r o v i d i n s up tL49-laulieal n,iles.itTfleouency wilf a service b e w i t h i n t l r eb a n d I l 2 - l l 8 M H z . A T V O R w i l l h a v e an output power of Ebgnl5)-t{-providing a service of up to about ]5_!sg.l[sal miles,its frequency will be

to, or departure from, a stationon a particular bearing, steering informationcanbe derivedfrom the received VOR signals.It is this latter facility which VOR so usefulin airways flying, stations can makes Victor airways alongso-called be placedstrategically of the appropriate and the pilot can then, by selection fly from stationto stationeitherby obeying radials, or by feedingthe sameto the steering commands autopilot. To obtain a position fix liom VOR one needs when usedin this stationst bearings to two separate way VOR can be considered system.If a a theta-tl-reta VOR stationis colocated with a DME stationan \ i aircraftcan obtain a fix usingthe pair asa rho-theta VOR/DME system.The system ircurrentliTil international short-range standard.ln navigation recentyearsthis systenr hasbecomeevenmore u'ith the adventof airborneequipment which versatile an existingVOR/DME caneffectivelyreposition s t a t i o nt o g i v ea ' p h a n t o mb e a c o n ' c o m p l e tw ei t h radials which can be flown usingVOR-derived steering inforrnation. This development is considered i n C h a p t e r1 2 .

Basic Principles

A sinrpleanalogyto VOR is givenby imagining a which enritsan omnidirectional pulseof lig;hthouse light everytime the beam is pointingdue north. If the speed of rotation of the beamis known, a distant observer could recordthe time intervalbetweerr the onrnidirectional seeing flashand seeing the beam, and l'rence calculate the bearing of the lighthouse. v.h.f. energy In realitya VOR stationradiates with a retbrence phase modulated signal- the light - and a variable phase omnidirectional signal of the aircraft the rotatingbeam. The bearing within the bundI9&I2_I4I&, thisbelngthe part of depends on the phasedifference betweenreference -- time difference thetotalbandshared with ILS localizer. phases between light and variable The crew of an approp.iately equippedaircraftcan a n db e a m . tune into a VOR stationwithin range and readthe The radiation frorn a qgnventionalVOR (CVOR) to the stationand the relative bearing bearing of the v.h.f.wave stationis a horizontallypolarized station. Should the flight plan call for an approach as follows: modulated

58

$el{*,!

Sin pt coc

\
a/

Cos nt
Cos qrt

rcos I

I I

2r.3OHz 2n.1"MHz

Fig.4.l Ground station blockdiagram, v.o.r,

modulatedat 30 Hz with a deviation of 1480 Hz. The 30 Hz signalis the reference phase' 3 . l02Q Fz a'm': identification signalkeyed to providemorse code identification at least threegjnes each39-s. Wherea voR and5ffitreco-located the identificationtransmissions are synchronized (associated identity,see Chapter7). 4. Voice a.m.: the VOR systemcan be usedas a ground-to-air communicationchannelas long as this doesnot interfere with its basicnavisational function. The frequency rangeof the vo]ce modulation is limited to SQOXZ-

t . 30 Hz a.m.: the variablephasesignal. at Xo magneticbearing/roz the station the variable 2 . 9 9 6 0 H 2 a . m . : t h i s i s a z u b c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y , p h a s e w i l l / a g t h e r e f e r " e n c e p n u t " u y i ;r.i g u r e s + . t ,
4.2 and4.3 illustrate th. b.ii" priniiples. The airborneequipmentreceives the composite signalradiatedby ihe station to which the receiver is tuned. After deiection the variousmodulatingsignals are separated by filters. The 30 Hz reference iigrul is
Variabled 3O Hz a.m.

The 30 Hz variablephaseis spacemodulated in that the necessary amplitude variation in the received signalat the aircraft is achieved by radiatinga cardioid patternrotatingat 1800 r.p.m. The frequency modulated9960 Hz sub-carrier amplitude modulates the r.f. at sourcebefore radiation. It is arransedthat an aircraft due north of the beaconrryillreceiie variableand referencesignalsin phase,for an aircraft Flg 4.2 Frequency spectrum:CVOR spacesignals

59

:l

1 ,s I PHASE SIGNAL (FM) ALL RAOIALS

REFER'{CE

V A R I A E L P H A S E S I G N A L( A M )

ib

sEcoNo

FESULI ilI PATTERil ROTATTNG

UNIO0ULATE0
ROfAT ING

I O oR A D i A L I

996otsr SU8CAnRIER FRO MOO AT 3oxt

oIPOLE PATTRI

+sEcoro -"2to'

stcono

r-f-F-1o

-rr tttono

R E f E R E T C EP H A S V O L T A G E I A F T E Rf X O E T E C T I O N )

= ' .
c < l Z a

VOLTAGESAT AIRCRAFT ON 24O' RADIAL 240"

.l
vaRrAEL IHASE VOLTIGE o TAFTERAT OETECTIOtr)

.
O F P O Sr r V E L O S E orRcTlON ATTENNA OF ROTATING

King Radio CVOR (courtesy relationships, Fig 4.3 Phase Corp.)

to the pilot' Figure 4'4 be presented variablesignal,the difference station ian the with phase compared to the stationis the bearing 'ln itfurt*t.t thatihe relative the station ohaseeivinethe bearingfrom the station' The Aiii.r.n.. betweenthe magneticbearing-to to the pilot is the bearingto actualreiding presented to.display used is RMI An .na tn. aircraftheading. in in the station ralher than from, so if the difference are considered the information. Suchinstruments 135' is signal and reference bet*een variable ohase drivenby is card the application this In 3. 'to' bearing would be 135 + 180 = 315", asshown air;;i.r at ift" reading th. .n*putt, asnormal,so that the card in -- Fig.4.4. same the At heading' lubber line is the aircraft information (heading)is combinedwith ttre liio.p*s by u pointtr is driven to a position determined titnt the of the VORderived bearingthe relativebearing 60

fly-left or fly-right signalsare derived and presentedto the pilot. A complicationis that radial information depends 135"(Froml only on the phasedifferencebetweenmodulating and is independent ofheading; hencethe signals fly-right or fly-left information may sendthe aircraft 'long way the round'. Further, when an aircraft is on commandis nulled, the course,i.e. the steering aircraft may be headingeither toward or away from radial. A TO/FROM the station on the selected the ambiguity. With the aircraft indication removes heading,roughly, towards(away from) the station and the TO/FROM indicator indicatingTO (FROM), the steeringinformation givesthe most direct path in radial. order to intercept the selected (R) is phaseshiftedby the phase If the reference with the selected course(C) and then compared bearing Fig.4.4 To/frommagnetic bearings andrelative variablephase,a fly-right indicationwill be givenif R + C lagsV, while if R + C leadsV, the command will be fly-left. If we now add 180 to the the differencebtweenthe bearingto the station and phase we haveR + C + 180 phase-shifted relbrence is used the heading. A differentialsynchroor resolver either cancelV, partially or will, addition, which on to give the requiredangulardifference. Figure4.5 indicationwill be whict a TO in case completely, to the strows the RMI presentation corresponding situationdiagramshownin Fig.4.4. Only one pointer given,or reinforceV, partially or completely,in which casea FROM indication will be given. is shown,for clarity. 'automatic' situations. ln both Figure4.6 showstwo possible The previoustwo paragraphs refer to the selected courseis 042,i.e. the pilot wishes cases VOR, so calledsincethe pilot needdo no more than to fly towardsthe station on the 222 radial or away svitch on and tune in to an in-range station in order 'Manual'VOR from the station on the 042 radial. With aircraft A to obtainbearing information. we havea fly-left and a TO indication;with aircraft B requires the pilot to selecta particularradial on which we havea fly-right and a FROM indication. Note that he wants to positionhis aircraft. The actual radial on the of the aircraft were reversed, if the headings with the which the aircraft is flying is compared the them so sending be the satne, would indications desiredradial. If the two are different the appropriate 'long way round'. Figure4.7 showsan electronic to aircraft B. The deviationindicator corresponding to be on the aircraft shows the top right at indication 022 radialfrom a secondVOR station.

VOR (DVOR) Doppler

site errors The useof CVOR leadsto considerable where the station is installedin the vicinity of obstructionsor where aircraft are requiredto fly over mountainousterrain while usingthe station. The by multi-path receptiondue to error is caused and givesrise to reflectionsfrom the obstructions, and/or bendswhen the roughness coursescalloping, commands.The aircraft is flown to follow steering these under the course terms useddescribing conditionsrefer to the nature of the departurefrom a to straightline course. DVOR is relativelyinsensitive siting effectswhich would renderCVOR unusable. Although the method of modulationis completely different DVOR is compatiblewith CVOR in that

Fig. 4.5 RMI presentation

61

Flv right
O42 (Froml

Fly left

From

R+420

v.From fly right (R + 42' lags V) R+1800t42'

R+42'

il, :;ii ,'i'

O42 (To)

To fly left (R + 42' leads V)

R+1800+42" Fig' 4.6 Fly'left/flv-right and'to/from' situation diagram

,i*: aroundthe ring of antennas. at 30 Hz anticlockwise airbome equipment will give the correct indications asif the the site,it appears from remote a receiver, To when usedwith stationsof either type. In the DVOR receding, and and are approaching sources signal the variable while Hz a.m. is 30 sigrral the reference hencethe receivedsigral suffers a Doppler shift sigrral is 30 Hz f.m. on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier.Since (see Chapter l0). -With a diameterof l3'5 m and with respect the rolesof the a.m. and f.m. are reversed of 30 r.p.s.the tangentialspeedat the speed rotation the to CVOR the variablephaseis arrangedto lead X l3'5 X 30 = 1272m.p.s. At the is n periphery X" magtetic at an aircraft phase X" for by reference centrefrequencyof the v.h.f. band, I l3 MHz, one bearingfrom the station (cf. CVOR). approximately2'65 m, thus the rycle occupies In a double sidebandDVOR (DSB'DVOR) the = 480 Hz. shift is 127212'65 Doppler maximum carrier,/", with 30 Hz (and identification)a.m. is mix with the the sidebands ln the airbornereceiver antenna. Two radiatedfrom an omnidirectional sigrals,one 9960 Hz above carrierat /. to produce9960 t 480 Hz. Single unmodulatedr.f. sideband DVOR are possible, and altematesideband sideband /c, the other 9960 Hz below /", are radiatedfrom performance of the the they compromise since but of about in a ring diametricallyopposite antennas systemthey will not be discussed. fifty antennas. Theselatter sigtals are commutated 62

Fig.4.7 IN-2014electronic course deviationindicator (courtesy BendixAvionicsDivision) ry' Reference 30 Hz a.m.

instrumentson which VOR information is displayed aremulti-function hencequite complexswitching arrangements are involved. Figure4.9 showsone VOR/ILS systemof a typical dual instatlation;only thoseoutputs from VOR are shown. The antennamay serve ILS aswell asVOR but someaircraft haveseparate particularlyif antennas, all-weather landingis a requirement when the. optimum position for the localizerantennamay not suit VOR. If separate antennas are usedwith a common r.f. feed to the receiver the switchinglogic will be derivedfrom the channelselectionmadeat the control unit. The VOR antenna employs horizontal polarizationwith an omnidirectional radiationpattern. A horizontal dipole is often used with the dipole elements forming a 'V' shapeto givea more nearly omnidirectionalpattern. Sincethe dipole is a balanced load and the co-ax.feederis (with respect unbalanced to earth) a balun (balanced to unbalanced line transformer) is used. The dipole may be mounted on the verticalstabilizeror on a stand-offmast, top-mountedon the fuselage. The VOR/ILS receivercontainsa conventional superhet, a filter for separation of signiils and a converterto providethe requiredoutputs which aro l. 2. 3. 4. 5. audioto AIS; bearinginformation to two RMIs; deviationfrom selected radial; TO/FROMsignal; flag or,warningsignal.

The RMI feed is the result of the automaticVOR operation. Sincethe pointer on the RMI movesto a position givingrelativebearingwith respect to the lubber line the magneticbearing(omnibearing) must be combinedwith headinginformation aspreviously 9960 t +8oHz described.The necessary differentialsynchroor resolver will be in the receiver or, in the caseof Fig.4.8 Frequency spectrum- DVOR space signals equipmentconformingwith ARINC 579,in the RMl. ln the former case magneticbearing(mag.)is required by the receiver, this beingobtainedfrom the compass Aircraft lnstallation systemvia the RMI. The necessary switchingfor VOR as opposed to ADF information, on displaying SinceVOR and ILS localizers occupythe same either or both of the pointers,is on the RMI. band of frequencies they invariablyshare the samereceiver are the result The deviationand TO/FROM signals which will alsocontain the necessary circuits to of manualVOR operation. Thesesteering commands extractthe required information. It is not aredisplayedon a coursedeviationindicator(CDI) an uncommonfor v.h.f. comm. and v.h.f. nav. to share electronicversionof which is shownin Fig.4.7. The the samereceiver, particularlywith general aviation CDI, however,may not be a stand-alone unit; it is equipment.It is expected that the 'all v.h.f.in one likely to be part of a multi-function indicator known box' trendwill continueby a variety of namessuchashorizontal situation A largeairliner,and indeedmost aircraft from indicator(HSl) or pictorial navigation indicator PNL twins up, hasa dual v.h.f. nav.installation. The In the installationshownin Fis. 4.9 an HSI is used

63

Captain'scontrol panel

DME1 Comprss

l1lo
Power

Norm S/byt ) Test DME

RF
-----f

Captain RMI

-:-|
F----------,-----

N o .1 V O R / I L S R x

Audio ,.
Fl

ight interohone

FlO RMI

To From

DEV

Flag

I J

transfer relay

oBs

Captain'sVOR/ILS transfer relay lentral nstrumenl rarning panel

rNs

Captain'sRAD/INS relay

Captain'sHSI

Fig 4.9 TypicalVOR installation

indicator Fig.4.l0 KPI 552 pictorialnavigation (courtesy King RadioCorp.) il

(o.b.s.- omnibearing with remote courseselection director fitted, say,on an autopilot/flight selection) the panel. Figure4.10 illustrates mode select King KPI 552 PNI wherethe built-ino.b:s., knob),hasbeensetto 335", a iniolporated(course fly-right commandis beinggivenby the deviationbar and we havea TO indication(largearrow'headabove aircraft symbol). those arepossible; arrangements Variousswitching choiceof VOR/lLS I ' the captain's shownillustrate (lNS) system VOR/lLS2 or inertialnavigation HSI. Switching on his displayed informationbeing of the by means VOR/lLS I or 2 is achieved between relay(TFR/RLY) while VOR/lLS or INS transfer of the radio/lNS(R.AD/lNS) is by means switching (F/O) hasa similar first officer relay. The from at his disposal.Deviationsignals arrangement to F/O'sHSI and from number2 numberI system systemto captain'sHSI may be via isolation amplifiers. The flag signalis of vital importance since it gives

.ir*

warningof unreliabledata from the VOR/ILS receiver. It will be fed to all instruments selected to displayVOR/ILS information and often to a central instrument warningsystem (CIWS). Shouldthe deviationsignalbe fed to the automatic flight control system (AFCS),then obviouslyso must the flag or warningsignal.

Controls and Operation The controller is not particularly complicated. Frequency selection is achievetl by roiation of two knobs,mountedco-axially or separately, so determining the appropriate2/5 code fed to the receiver.It is normal for DME frequencyselection to be madefrom the sarne controller with DMg standby,normal and test switchingalsoprovided (s-ee Chapter7). Self-testswitchingfaciities for the YOR/ILSareprovided. Additiona]controls,other than thoseshown in Fig. 4.9, may be provided, namelyVOR/lLS on-off and audio vo-lume. The locationof displayswitches and the course . selector hasbeentnentioned previously, ashas the interpretationof indicationsgiven to itre pilot.

Simplified Block Diagram Operation Received signals are selected, amplified and detected by a conventional singleor doubie superhetreceiver. The detectedoutput is a compositesignalwhich must be separated into its cornponent partsby means of appropriate filtering circuits. The audiosignal,1020Hz identification, is routed . via an amplifier and possiblya volume contiol on the v.h.f. nav.controller to the flight interphone sub-system of the AIS. The associated audio filter may be switchable to give a passband of 300-3000Hz when the VOR systemis being usedas a ground-to-air communication link. phasechannel(CVOR) consistsof a ^^ lh9_reference 9960 Hz filter, a discriminatorto deteci the 30 Hz not shown, amplifier circuits. Limiting of l.m. and,the signaltakesplace before the discriminatorto remove unwantedamplitude variatipns. The 30 Hz reference signal(R) then undergoes variousphaseshifts. For manualVOR operation,as previously mentioned, we need to shift R by the selectld course.This is achieved by the phase-strift resolver, the rotor of which is coupledtqthe courseor OBS knob. A digital readoutof the selected courseis provided. The phase-shifted R is now comparedwith the variablephasesigrral. If they are in phaseor lg0"

out of phasethere is no lateralmovementof the deviationbar. Sinceit is simplerto determinewhen two signals are in phasequadrature (at 90.) a 90" phaseshifter may be inclutledin the reference channel prior to feedingthe phasecomparatorwhere detectionof phasequadrature will giveno movement ofthe deviation bar. In the absenci ofeither or both of the signals the flag will be in view. 'To'or 'from' informationis derived by comparing the variablephasewith the reference phaseshifted bi the OBSsettingplus l80o It follows-thar if the reference phasehas beenshifted by 90o before feedingthe deviationphasecomparatorwe only reqrrirea further 90" phaseshift before feedingthe 'to/from'phase comparator ratherthan a lgOdphase shift asillustrated in Fig. 4.1l. If the inputs to the 'to/from' phase comparator arewithin, say,+ g0o of beingin phasethen a TO indicationis given;if within t 80'of being in anri-phase a FROM intication is given;otherwiseneither a TO nor a FROM indication is given. For automaticVOR operationthe reference channelis phase-shifted and compared with the variable phase.If the two inputsarein phase quadraturethere is no drive to the motor, otherwise the motor will turn, changing the amount by which the reference phaseis shifted until phasequadrature is achieved.The motor connections are arranged so that the stablenull of the loop givesthe requirei shaft position which represents the magneticbearingto the station. Compass informationis fed to a differential synchro,the rotor of which is turned by the motor following station magneticbearing. ThL difference signalrepresents relativebearingwhich positionsthe appropriateRMI pointer via.asynchrorepeater. The RMI card is positionedby compass information.

Characteristics The following characteristics are selected and summarized from ARINC characteristic 579-1 . li shouldbe noted that there are radicaldifferences in outputs,between ARII{C 579-l and the older ARINC 547 with which many in-servicesystems conform. Frequency Selection 160 channels, 50 kHz spacing, range108-117.95MHz. Standard2/5 selectionsystem. Channelling time lessthan 60 ms. Receiver Satisfactory operationwith 1.5 pV sigral.

65

To AIS

Ref. channel

Deviation bar

Flag

cDt/oBS
To/From
-------l

Compass

VOR blockdiagram' Fig.4.lI Simplified

Nomorethan6dBattanuationat/.i|7kiz;atanaloguesigralprooortionaltoperpendicularlinear

'5kHz' nat f "t 31 attenuatio dB 60 reast

"

"t:mmfll i"pr1""l'it'-i: fri?:n|;Tfii:"' requtrt is station

outputs . ^^n .nn Q , of 200-500 Audio:at least100mWinto a load "' per ..nt'lt -:30 t:: I modulated from a 3 pV input ,ignuirnoaututed it 1000Hz. blli:'fo'*

of the of whichis ananalogue 'Tt;digh-leutl o*'' the spaiing give2 V across should output ffiil; within adjustable i ziio ii r*a.fo'?"ou'* deviation corresponding rhe miles' ;;;; t s to t lb nautical

infractional ouJput digital omni-bearing:

io*i'u'r ":f:;.'lfi1.Ti;:'%tti\;b"o*;l*"

:J"'i,*:::i1!";;;;;:;r'.'^'n3-n1 flightcontrolsystem by the automatic #:'fi:iJffift,:ft1,;Tlsts":lT{:: i;;; ;t used ""'"' bearing, the of of lossof -ih. event the In proportiori?,rr."rt. one voltages, moi.iocprt'
Gat-l 19 .nulogu.ou,puti, DMEthe deviation theotherto its cosine. iistanctinfotmationfrom the t*o ;i;l''"'*irnu*'of OBS revertto an angular to feed"t automatically desiened 'r^6-*-'- o;tp"t should. uigruute lnt"r.t not friiJn'.;. v for 10" off nr'" purau.lconnected er-vi1g^z atui'tion *"d;;'f;;;;'n outputs 547' ARINC deviation 579 with . used ARINC to Wts *i*, "out"' (Note:iti"i voltage d'c' ani'f-.*-i**f a trigh-levef Deviation: 66

Fig.4.l2 Ttc T-308VOR/ILS testset(courtesy Tel-lnstrument Electronics Corp.)

represented angular displacenrent.) TO/FROM:groundreferenced providing2 mA for eachof two 200 Q loadsin parallel. In additiona lowlevel output of 200 gA may be provided to feed olderinstruments. Warning:high level,28 V d.c. valid, absentinvalid. low level,between300 and 900 rnV valid, lessthan 100 mV invalid. The low level signalshould be capable of driving frorn one to five 1000 Sl parallel loads. The VOR digital output should also include warningbits. Ramp Testing Testing of VOR shouldalways be carriedout with a ramp test set capableof being tuned to any VOR frequency,radiatingsufficient energyto allow satisfactory operationof the VOR and providing a means of simulatingvariousVOR radials. Most test setsincludeprovisionfor testingILS aswell as VOR. Among thoseavailable are the CossorCRM 555. IFR NAV4OIL.

The CRM 555 operates on any of the 160 VOR channels with a frequencyaccuracy of 10.0035 per cent(--10'C to +30oC).Modulationof the carrieris suchthat the simulatedbearingmay be set to any readingbetween0 and 360o with a calibrationaccuracvof t l" or mav be switchedin 45o steps with an u..uru.y of t 0.3". Carrierpower canbe attenuated in I dB steps between 0 dBm and -120 dBm (0 dBm corresponds to an output of I mW). A self-testfacility is provided. The NAV-401L offers similarfacilitiesbut is more 'state of the art' and so offersStighttymore in the way of performance. The TIC T-278 is part of the T-308 test set illustrated in Fig.4.12. The facilities arenot as 'extensive as either of the previouslymentionedtest setsbut it has the advantage ofeaseof operationand less cost. It is FCCtype accepted. Operation is on 108'00MHz radiatedfrom a telescopic antenna. Bearings of 0,90, 180 and 270" canbesimulated both TO and FROM, alternately variation, 90-l l0' 'to' or270-290o'from', is available. A J lo switch

6'

*:;

givesa usefulsticky needlecheck. Actual testingshouldbe carriedout in accordance with the procedures laid down, but briefly it would involvecorrectly positioningthe test set antennaand radiatingon sufficient frequencies to test frequency selection of the VOR. Sensitivitymay be checkedby reducingthe r.f. levelreceived either by use of the test

set attenuatoror moving the test set antennafurther shouldbe simulated(check away. Various bearings 'to'or 'from' whether they are station), the appropriatereadingshouldbe checkedon the RMI and the OBS operatedso as to check the manual mode of VOR.

68

5 lnstrument landingsystem

Introduction
In order to be able to land the aircraft safelyunder visualflight rules(VFR), i.e. without any indication from instrumentsasto the aircraft'sposition relative to the desiredapproachpath, the pilot must haveat least3 mileshorizontal visibility with a ceilingnot lessthan 1000 ft. Although most landingsare carried out under theseconditionsa significantnumber are not; consequently, wereit not for instrument aidsto landinga considerable amount of revenue would be lost due to flight cancellations and diversions. One method of aidingthe pilot in the approachto an airport is to usea precisionapproachradar(PAR) systemwhereby the air traffic controller,havingthe aircraft 'on radar',can giveguidance over the v.h.f.-r.t. The alternative method is to provide instrumentation in the cockpitgivingsteering information to the pilot which, if obeyed,will cause the aircraft to make an accurate and safedescentand touchdown. The latter, which may be complemented/monitored by PAR, is the method which concerns us here. Early ILS date back to beforeWorld War II; the GermanLorentz beingan example. During the war the currentILS wasdeveloped and standardized in the United States. The basicsystemhasremained unchanged eversincebut increased accuracyand reliability haveresultedin landing-minimum visibilityconditions beingreduced. The ICAO havedefinedthree catesories of visibility.the third of which is subdivided . All categories are definedin termsof runway visualrange (RVR) (seeICAO Annex 14) and,exceptCategory III, decision height(DH), belowwhich the pilot must havevisual contactwith the runwayor aboit the landing(seeICAO PANS-OPS). The various categories are definedin Table 5.1 where the standards aregivenin metreswith approximate equivalents in feet (in parentheses). Sometimes categories IIIA and B arecalled'see to land'and 'see to taxi'. The ILS equipmentis categorized usingthe same Romanirumerals and lettersaccording to its

Table5.1 ICAOvisibility categories Category

I II IIIA IIIB IIIC d.h.

r.v.r. 8 0 0 m2 ( 600ft) 400 m l 200ft) 200m 700 ft) 3 0 m l 50 ft) Zerc

60 m (200ft) 30 m (100ft)

operationalcapabilities.Thus if the ILS facility is categoryII, the pilot would be able to land the aircraft in conditionswhich corresponded to those quotedin Table5.1. An obvious extension of the idea of a pilot manuallyguidingthe aircraft with no extemal visualreference is to havean autopilot which 'flies' the aircraft in accordance with signals fronr the ILS (and other sensors includingradioaltimeter) i.e. automaticlanding.

BasicPrinciples
Drectional radio beams, modulatedsos to enable airborne equipment to identify the beamcentres, define the correct approachpath to a particular runway. In addition verticaldirectionalbeams providespot checksofdistance to go on the approach. The total systemcomprises three parts,eachwith a transmitteron the ground and receiverand signal processor in the aircraft. Lateralsteering is provided by the localizerfor both front-course and back-course approaches; provides the glideslope vertical steering for the front courseonly while markerbeacons givethe distance checks. [,ocalizer Forty channels in the areallocated at 50 kHz spacing band I 08' 10-l I I .95 MHz usingoniy thoseliequencies wherethe tenthsof a megacycle count is odd; so,for example108'I0 and 108.I 5 MHz arelocalizer channels while 108.20and 108'25MHz arenot. Thosechannels in the band not usedfor localizerare

69

allocatedto VOR. The coverage of the beaconwill normally be asshownby the hatchedparts of Fig. 5.1,but topographical features may dictatea wherebythe ! 10" sectormay be restricted coverage to l8 nautical milesrange. reduced

(extendedcentreline) and limited by the lineson which thereis a d.d.m.of 0'155. The change in d.d.m.is linearfor I 105 m alongthe line perpendicular to the course through line and passing the IIS datum point on the runway threshold;these points 105 m fronr the course line lie on the 0'155 as Fig. 5.2. The beacon is d.d.m. lines, shown in Azimuth situatedsuch that the abovecriterion is met and the course sectoris lessthan 6'. Outsidethe course thed.d.m.'is not less t h a n0 ' 1 5 5 . sector The ICAO Annex 10 specification for the pattern is more complicatedthan localizer-radiated the descriptionaboveindicates,in particularin the various tolerances for category I, II and iII facilities; points for our howeverwe havecoveredthe essential purposes. equipment the 90 and 150 Hz The airborne detects tonesandhencecauses a deviation indicatorto show deflection a fly-left or fly-right command. Full-scale when the d.d.m.is 0'155, i.e. the aircraft is achieved and is 2-3ooff course.Figure5.3 showsa mechanical electronicdeviationindicator both showingslightly overhalf-scale deflectionof a fly-right command. Providedthe pilot flies to keep the commandbar at zero,or the autopilotfliesto keepthe d.d.m.zero, Fig.5.l Localizer frontbeam coverage the aircraft will approachthe runway thresholdalong the courseline. The horizontally polarizedradiatedcarrieris In addition to the 90 and 150 Hz tonesthe modulated by tonesof 90 and 150 Hz suchthat an localizercarrieris modulatedwith an identification aircraft to the left of the extendedcentreline will be tone of 1020 Hz and possibly(exceptionallycategory in a regionwherethe 90 Hz modulation predominates. III) voicemodulationfor ground-to-air Along the centreline an airbornelocalizerreceiver communication. The identification of a beacon will receive the carriermodulated to a depth of 20 consists of two or threeletterstransmitted by keying per centby both 90 and 150 Hz tones. Deviation the 1020 Hz tone so as to give a Morsecode from the centreline is givenin d.d.m.(difference representation. The identification is transmittednot in depthof modulation), i.e. the percentage modulation lessthan six times per minute when the localizeris of the largersignalminus the percentage modulation operational. of the smaller signal dividedby 100. The localizercoursesectoris definedas that sector Glideslope in the horizontal planecontaining Glideslope channels arein the u.h.f. band, the course line
15OHz > 90 Hz

DDM 0.155 Bercon

Course sector < 6o ILS datum point

0 ' 1 5 5D D M
150 Hz < 9O Hz

Fig. 52

Localizer ooursc,lelector

70

Fig. 5.3 Electromechanical and electronic course deviatron indicators (courtesy Bendix Avionics Division)

s p e c i f i c a l l3 y2 8 . 6 - 3 3 5 .M 4 H z a t 1 5 0k H z s p a c i n g . Eachof the forty frequencies allocated to ihe glideslope system is pairedwith a localizer frequency, the arrangement beingthat localizer and glidesiope beacons serving the sarne runway. will haveliequencies takenfrom Table5.2. pilot selection ol'the required localizer frequency on the controllerwill cause'both localizer and glideslope receivers to tune to the appropriate pairedfrequencies. Table5.2 Localizer/glideslope frequency priring (MHz)
Lot'alizer ()li<lepatlt

Localizer

Glidepath

l0e.-s0
1 0 9 .5 5 l0e 70 109.75 109.90 109.95 I10.10 l 10.15 110.30 I10.35 I l0'50 I 10.55 l10.70 110.7s I10.90 l10.95 ll l.l0 lll'15 I I 1.30 l l 1.35 I I 1.50 l I 1.55 I I1.70 I I1.75 I I 1.90 I l l.9s

108.10 1 0 8 .5 1 t08.30 r08.35 r0 8 ' s 0

r0u.55 r0 8 . 7 0
108.75 108.90 108.95 109'10 109.15 109'30 109.35

334.70 -r,r4.55 3 3 4 .0 r 33.r.95 329.90 329.7 5 330.50 330.35 329.30 329.15 33r .40 .25 331 332.00 .85 331

332.60 332.3s 333.20 333.05 333.80 333.65 334.40 334.25 335.00 334.85 329.60 329.45 330.20 330.05 330.80 330.65 .70 331 331.55 332.30 332'15 332'90 332.75 333.s0 3 33 . 3 5 3 3l . 1 0 330.95 71

The principle of glideslopeoperation is similar to that of localizerin that the carrieris modulatedwith 90 and 150 Hz tones. Above the correctglidepath while on the the 90 Hz modulationpredominates correctglidepaththe d.d.m. is zero,both tonesgiving and a 40 per cent depth ofmodulation. The coverage shown in Figs 5.4 and 5.5 are beamcharacteristics givenin termsof the glidepathangle,typically 2|-3'. CategoryI facilitiesmay haveasymmetrical the figure of 0'0875 d.d-mupperand lower sectors, of betweert to an angulardisplacement corresponding III facility a category 0'070 and 0'140 0. By contrast of + 0'02 0 on is asshownin Fig. 5.5 with a tolerance the 0'12 0 lines. Althoughd.d.m.= 0lines occur al2 0,30 and4 0 that if the pilot obeys thev are not stablein the sense

the steeringcommandshe will not maintain the of descent.The first stablenull angles corresponding o".un at S 0 wtrich for a glidepathof 3" is at l5o. This is sufficiently different from the desireddescent to avoid angleto createfew problems;however 'captured' beamshouldbe confusionthe glideslope from below. Oncein the correctbeam fly'up and fly-down are indicatedto the pilot in much the same signals *-uVur with the localizer. Figure5.3 illustratesa deflection. fly-up commandof just over half-scale than localizer sensitive is more output The glideslope give glidepath will off the a typically in that |' (about0'175 d'd.m.) compared deflection full-scale with about 2t off the courseline for full'scale deflection. Marker Beacons directly upwardsusinga A marker beaconradiates carrierfrequencyof 75 MHz. The modulatingsignal on the function of the marker. depends fan or'Z'marker is a position aid for airways, An locatedon airwaysor at holding en-routenavigation points. As suchit is not part of ILS. The carrieris a modulatedwith a 3000 Hz signalwhich causes white lamp to flashin the aircraftwhile station identificationin Morsecode is fed to the AIS. The outer marker is normally located4f miles from the runway threshold. The carrieris by 400 Hz keyed to give two amplitude-modulated which can be heardvia the AIS and per second dashes a blue (or purple) lamp to flash. causes The middle marker is located3500 ft from the runway threshold. The carrieris amplitude'modulated pair 95 timesper by 1300Hz keyedto givea dot-dash an minute which can be heardvia the AIS and causes amberlamp to flash. The ILS markerbeamwidths are sufficiently wide to the courseline to cover in the planeperpendicular the coursesector.

t o n 'n

Course line Azimuth

Fi;. 5.4 Glideslopecoverage

DDM : 0.0875

SimplifiedBlock DiagramOperation

Fig. 55

Glideslopebeamcharacteristics

occupy the Sincethe localizerand VOR frequencies sameband it is normal to havea v.h.f. navigation and detectssignals which selects,.amplifies receiver the frequencyselected. on depending either aid, from Figure 5.6 illustratesthe basicblock diagramof a singleor double localizerreceiver.A conventional o.0875 is employed.A.g.c.is importantsincean superhet by the in the 90 and 150 Hz output signals increase the magnitudeof the samefactor would increase difference,so givingmore deflectionof the deviation

72

3OO-3OOOHz

I Deviation indicator Fig. 5.5 Localizer simplified block diagram

r__ _ ___:=___

__J

Fig.5.7 KingKN 72 bandpass filter,simplified

indicator for the samed.d.m. Sigral separation is achieved by threefilters:audio,90 and 150 Hz. The audio signal,identification and possiblyvoice,is passed via audio amplifiers(incorporatinga noise limiter)to the AIS. The 90 and 150 Hz iignalsare full waverectified, the differencebetween-the rectifieroutputsdrivingthe deviation indication while the sum drivesthe flag out of view. The 90 and 150 Hz filters,together with the rectifienand any associated circuitry.are often part of the so-calied VORi LOC converter which may be within the v.h.f.navigation receiver or a separaie unit. A combined converter will usually enrployactive filters which serve aseither 30 Hz bandpissfilters for VOR operation or 90/ I 50 Hz bandpassfiltersfor

localizeroperation. Figure5.7 showsthe circuit used in the King KN 72 VOR/LOC converter. Whena VOR frequencyis selected the ILS Hi line is low, so turning off Ql which effectivelydisconnects R2 from the circuit, the centrefrequencyof 30 Hz is set by R3. Selection ofa localizer frequency causes the ILS Hi line to go high,so turningon Ql and placingR2 in parallel with R3. R2 is setto givea centrefrequency of 90 or 150 Hz asappropriate. The glidepathreceiver converterblock diaeramis similarto that of the localizer exceptthat the-audio channel is not required.A separate receiver may be usedor all navigationcircuitry may be within the same unit. In any eventseparate antennas areused for localizerand glidepath.

3
White Blue

5 :t

Amber

To AIS

blockdiagram simplified Fig.5.8 Marker The marker is fixed tuned to 7 5 MHzand may employ a t.r.f. (tuned radio frequency)or superhet to three filters for .r..iu.r. The detectedaudio is t-ed fed to the AIS' and amplified also and tone separation the causes output gives en which The filtir circuit to give an - . lamp-switching appropriate lamp' d.c. output to drivethe associated interrupted receiver the of sensitivity the Hi to When sq'itched to airwaysmarker beacons is such that it responds eventhough the iircraft is at a relativelyhigh altitude. Wittr trigtrsensitivitythere is a dangerthat when at lower altitudes,for examplewhen flying over the outer and middle markerson approach,the lamps is may be lit for longerthan the maximumof 10 s' It lamps marker middle and outer for the evenpossible to be lit simultaneously.To avoid this, low sensitivity in (i0 dB) is piaced wherebyan attenuator is selected, take may input. Switching line with the receiver placeat 10000 ft.
Fig.5.9
"l*': J'

Typical attitude director indicator

the and scaleconventionallyon the left-handsideof rising a drives localizer the ADI the tn instrument. runway laterally tc displaydeviation(vertical. in Chapter4 an installationincorporatinga radio altitude) while the movementrepresenting and illustrated was discussed VOR/IiS receiver over a scale,againon the pointer a drives glideslope in ILS we areinterested (Fig. a.9). In considering instrument' of the side left-hand ouiputs derivedfrom the localizer'glidepath itro"se arealso and marker signals Localizer,glideslope and marker receivers.Localizerand glideslope localizer The fitted' when fed to an autolandsystem deviation(fly-leftifly-right, fly-up/fly-down appropriate the supply to used deviationwill be or will be fed to a conventional respectively) signalto the roll (aileron) and yaw (rudder) an HSI ciemand and/or (Fig' 5 '3) indicator ieviation Lt.it.onic will respond channel ihe pitch (elevator) channels. (Fig.a.l0) and an attitudedirectorindicator'ADI touchdown approaches aircraft to glideslope.As the localizerdrivesa iateral ieii. s.sl. In the HSI the glideslope to pitch channel the of while thJresponie aril.tion bar right and left of the coursearrow reduced;this is progressively deviatiln signals pointer deviation a given by is deviation glideslope Installation 74

reductionis triggeredby the outer marker and thence deviationoutput circuit hasan output impedance of controlledin accordance with the radio altimeter 200 O and suppliesthe required current to five output. A modern ILS will provide dual parallel indicators in parallel then when lessthan five outputsfor both localizerand glidepathdeviationin indicatorsare usedthe deflectionwill not properly orderthat the AFCS.may acceptinformation only correspond to the d.d.m. Consider a d.d.m.of 0.155, when the samesignalappears on eachfeed of a then 750 pA must be suppliedfor five loadsin parallelpair. parallelfrom a generated deviationvoltageof A general aviationinstallationis illustratedin 300 mV. Now considerfour loadsfed from a 300mV, Fig. 5.10 incorporatingKing equipment. The 200 Cl source,the total current will be KX 175Bis panel-mounted and containsa 300 x 103(200 + 250) = 666.7ptA divided equally 720-channel v.h.f. comms receiver, a 2O0-channel amongthe four loadsso that eachload has v.h.f. nav. receiver and all necessary controls with 666'7 l4 = 166'7 pA, i.e. the indicatorswill over-read digitalreadoutof comm. and nav. frequencies on the by about I I per cent. Unless the receiveroutput is a front panel. The KX 175B alsoprovidestuning constantvoltagefor a variety of loads(ARINC hformation for the DME and glideslope receiver. 578-3)we must compnsate for loadingvariations. Various methodshavebeenusedfor loading in the past. One possibilityis to compensation output impedances choosedifferent receiver on the numberof loads;inthis case depending the receiver and the mounting rack shouldbe suitably labelled. Another possibilityis to fit a shunt resistor in an aircraftjunction box throughwhich the deviation signalis fed. With two indicatorsa 330 O shunt would be neededgivinga 330 O and two 1000 Q i.e. total load of 200 (-). Finally, loadsin parallel, the possibilities, five separate but not exhausting buffered outputs may be provided,eachindicator beingfed from one of the buffer amplifiers. Similar considerations apply to flag circuitswhere using procedure. four 1000Q loadsin parallel is standard F8. 5.10 Kirg general aviation comm./nav. system vary betweendifferent Antenna arrangements VOR/ typesof aircraft. Mentionof combined The KN 72 andKN 75 are remote-mounted VOR/LOC converterand glideslope receiver respectively. The KN 72 gles localizer deviationand flagsignals (aswell asVOR deviation, TO/FROM and flag),while the KN 75 givesglideslope deviationand flag. The KMA 20 is an audio control console providingspeaker/phone selectionfor sevenreceive channels and mic. selectionfor two transmit channels aswell as containinga marker receiverplus its controls Phillip3 hcad scrcw andlamps.The indicator,Kl 206, showslocalizer (16 pt.ccs) deviation(verticalbar) and glideslope deviation (horizontalbar) aswell as showingVOR deviation and TO/FROM indication if a VOR frequencyis selected, the deviationrelatingto the OBS setting also on the KI 206. lf a Kl 204 is usedinsteadof the Lo[r l@rlirct antennt KI 206 then the KN 72 may be omitted sincea VOR/LOCconverter is built in. Typically a deviationindicator movementwill be of 1000S) impedance and require150 pA for Fig. 5.t I Boeing747 localizer aerials (note Bendix weather full-scale deflection(f.s.d.), thereforethe voltage radar scanner with spoiler grid on parabolic reflector for across the deviationoutput of the receivershould be mapping purposes - see Chapter 9). (Courtesy Boeing 1 5 0m V f o r a d . d . m .o f 0 . 1 5 5 . I f t h e r e c e i v e r C o m m e r c i a l A e r o p l a n eC o . )

75

hasbeenmadein Chapter4 but localizer antennas will alwaysbe and marker antennas the glideslope aircraft, separate.As an exampleof a largepassenger considerthe Boeing747. ThreeVOR/ILS receivers areinstalledfed by one V-type VOR antennaat the top of the verticalstabilizer,two dual localizbr in the noseand a total of six glideslope antennas doors. One marker in the nose-wheel antennas is instalied,fed by a flush-mounted beaconreceiver of the aircraft. antennaon the bottom centreline are mounted aboveand The localizerantennas below the weatherradarscanner.The lower antenna I and 2 while receiver3 is fed from feedsreceivers the upper antenna. Antenna switchingbetweenVOR by either solid stateor is achieved and localizeraerials mounted behind the switches electromechanical VOR/ILS receivers. antennas are split into two The six glideslope door. groupsof three,one group in eachnose-wheel slot (track antenna)dual unit is A non-tunable

installed in each door leading edgewhile two tunable of are mounted on the sides arrays(captureantennas) eachdoor. A total of four hybrid antennacouplers antennas combinethe r.f. outputs of the glideslope matching. impedance suitable providing

Controlsand Operation
Normallya combinedVOR/ILS/DME controlleris employed(Fig. a.9). Such a controller is briefly in Chapter4. The marker receiver described switchingis likely to be remote from the combined above. controllerand its action hasbeendescribed In usethe glidepathshouldbe capturedfrom by from a direction determined below, approaching for the particular airfield. the approachprocedures The marker sensitivityshouldbe on low for the approach.The appropriateselectionshould be made on the audio control panel.

VOR/ILS receiver No. 3 Glide slope antenna hybrids 8554 and 8555 and attnuators 8582 and 8583 Trrck antenna coaxial cable Capture antcnna coaxial cable { Coaxial recbiver No. 2 cable 9uard Antcnna coaxial connectors D8558

G/S track antenna B 561

Antenna coaxial connector D8561

See@r
G/S capture a n t e n n a8 5 5 8 G/S capture antenna hyg49-{-\ -8560 c/S;;t';; \ .antennaarray . \\ t \

G/S capturc a n t e n n a8 5 5 8

Right aft nose gear door

Tuning "trg, .

t -]\'*. -.\\ . .\\.

Attachins (5 places) screws

S rwo

Aft door shown in retraciedposition (6t

\J

(courtcsyBoeing aerials Fig.5.l2 Boeing?47 glideslope Co.) Aeroplane Commercial

76

Track antennas

Capture antonnas

Right door

Track aerials

Fig.5.l3 Boeing747 simplified glideslopeaerial coupling alrangements

Characteristics The basisfor the following is ARINC Characteristic 578-3 althoughmuch of the detail hasbeenomitted and not all sectionscovered. Units Tlte receivershouldcontain all the electronic circuitry necessary to providedeviationand flag signals for both localizerand glideslope.The control unit should provide for frequencyselectionof ILS, VOR and DME using2/5 coding.

carrierwithin I l2 kHz of tuned frequency. Sensitivityis such that the flag shouldclearwith a 5 pV 'hard' input sigral ('hard' pV: the output of a signalgeneratorcalibratedin terms of open circuit load). The receivershouldbe protectedagainst undesired localizersignals, VOR sigralsand v.h.f. comm. signals.The a.g.c.shouldbe such that the receiver output shouldnot vary by more than 3 dB with an input signallevel rangeof l5-100 mV.

Gli<leslope Receiver Forty channels at 150 kHz spacing, 328'6-335.4MHz. Channels to be paired with localizer channels for frequency Antennas Separate selection localizerand glideslope antennas purposes.The selectivityis specifiedin a similarway shouldbe provided coveringthe appropriate to localizerbut the 60 dB points are at + 80 kHz frequency bands(108.00-l12.00 MHz and while the 6 dB points are at t 2l kHz. The flag should 328'6-335.4MHz respectively) and both having clearwith a20 pY'hard'.sigral. Protectionagainst characteristic impedances of 50 O with a VSWR of unwanted glideslope less t h a n5 : l . sigralsmust be guaranteed.The a.g.c.should be suchthat the input signallevel to the Power Supply I l5 V, 400 Hz, singlephase. tone filters shouldnot vary by more 163n+| to -2 dB for an increase in input from 200 to Localizer Receiver Forty channels at 50 kHz spacing 20 000 pV and should not vary by more than *3, 108'00-l I l'95 MHz. Maximum channeltime 60 ms. -2 dB thereafterup to an input of 100 000 pV. Selectivityis such that a carriermodulated30 per cnt at 1000 Hz shouldprovidean output at least Deviation Outputs 60 dB down when separated from tuned frequency Localizer:.high-level2 V for 0.155 d.d.m.,low-level by t 3l'5 kHz; response shouldbe within 6 dB when 150 mV for 0.155 d.d.m. Dual outputsin parallel for

77

shouldnot vary for AFCS. Output characteristics between200 Q and no load. When90 Hz loadS 'hot' sideof all deviationoutputs the predominates 'common' side; shouldbe positivewith respectto the 'fly-left'is given. in this case similarto localizerbut high- and lowlevel Glideslope: for outputsare2Y and 150 mV respectively 0 ' 1 7 5d . d . m . (super Flag Outpu* Two highJevelwarningsignals flag) and one lowlevel waming signalshould be providedby both localizerand glidepathreceiversis 28 V d.c. for valid flag characteristic The high-level 25 mA for AFCS statuswith current capabilities; wamings.The waming;250 mA for instrument low-levelflag shouldprovidea voltageof between 300 and 900 mV into up to five parallel1000 Q loads. Monitoring when: no r.f., either90 or 150 Hz Warning sigtals o1'composite total depthof modulation missing, than 28 per cent,etc. is less 90/150 Hz signal

e.g.: beingmarkedin decibels, 6'6 dB fly-right(+ 0'1549 d.d.m.)' 4 ' 0 d B f l y - l e f t ( - 0 ' 0 9 2 ed . d . m . ) ' ' tc. 3 ' 7 6d B f l y - u p ( + 0 ' 1 7 5d ' d . m ' ) e Further switch positionson the d.d.m. switch allow one or other of the tones. ln additiona for deleting Stepped is available. 1 150gA deviation to 0 variable between variable provideoutput levels attenuators in orderthat 0 dBm and - 120 dBm in I dBrn steps, (test setaerial may be checked sensitivity receiver tones Modulating this check). will affect positioning fbr marker of 400. 1300and 3000 Hz are available for checks.Finally, l0l0 l-lzmodulationis available 4 the in Chapter audiochecks.As menticlned CRM 555 canalsobe usedto checkVOR. signal IFR NAV402 AP Conttinsa modtrlated and glideslope VOR, localizer, generator for marker, t e s t s e ti s < r l ' t h e o u t p u t The te communication ss t i n g . frecluencies all on I l0 dBnr 7 and between variable ad t t ) e q u e n cc y o n t r o l( p h a s e - l o c k e s e tb y a v a r i a b l e whcre 25 kHt.on eacltblnd exceptfor glidepatlt canbe deviatitln is 50 kt-lz). The localiz-er irrterval w hile d . d . n r . 0 ' 1 0 0 o r 0 ' 1 5 5 to 0'09-1. switched a n d0 ' 4 0 0 ' 0'091,0'175 de . d . t no . flers glideslop . l l t l r r e cr t t a r k ctro n c s c a nb e s e l e c t e dA T o n ed e i e t i o n . si s 1 0 2 0t l z .f o r l u d i o c h c c k ' a r ea v l i l a b l ea

RampTesting
testsetmustbe usedwith a basic A radiating capabilityof simulatingoff-glidepathsignals.In on one or more additionthe testsetshouldoperate for and providefacilitics accurate spot frequettcies frequencies. deleting eitherof the modulating TIC T-308 This test set wasmentionedin Chapter4 with VOR testing.In additionto the in connection VOR testset modulewe havethe T-268,T-288 and and glideslope T-298 for testing the marker,localizer at least The T-268 provides receivers respectively. for the 400, 1300and 7Cper centmodulation on 108'I MHz 3000Hz tones. The T-28Boperates d . d . m . l e f ta n dr i g , h t 0 d.d.m.,0'155 a n dc a ns i m u l a t e The (switched) or 0 to t 0'199 d.d.m.(variable). on 334'7 MHz and cansimulate T-298 ooerates )r b a.a.m.,0.175 d . d . m .u p a n dd o w n( s w i t c h e do 0 to t 0'280 d.d.m.(variable).Eitherthe 90 or the with both the T-28B 150Hz tonesmay be deleted and the T-298.

WM,n*#]"
-EFf,Gr,t

F r c r 6+ . -,' ; - , ,

Fig. 5.14 NAV402 AI' tcst sct (cotrrlcsyllrR l'llcctrontcs lnc.)

htrcedure The prdredure for a lunctional checkis of ILS is understood if the operation straightforward of the testset areknown. In practice, and full details will be listedin the aircrllt nlaintcnance the procedure manual. Carefulattentionmust be paid to testsct with low sensitivity if receivers positioning CossorCRM 555 Forty localizer and forty glideslope antenna facilities Self-test passed as serviceable. to be not are all crystalcontrolled. channelsmay be selected, should Thereare seven d.d.m. settingsfor localizer-simulated on both the testset and the aircraftinstallation be usedif available. deviationand five for glidepath,the d.d.m. switch

78

navigation systems 6 Hyperbolic

Principles General
The needfor a co-ordinatesystemfor navigation purposes the most important being the is self-evident, geat circlelinesof longitudeand the linesof latitude parallel itself a greatcircle. Figure6. I to the equator, suitablefor usein illustratestwo alternativesvstems ndio navieation.

we usethe terms circularl.o.p. (lines of be discussed position)and hyperbolic l.o.p.are not suitablefor The patternsconsidered position fixing sincetwo circularLo.p. intersectat two places whilst knowing the differencein rangeto two points simply places one anywhereon one of two hvperbolic l.o.p. Knowing the startingposition and subsequently the track and ground speed(or heading will make it possible to usethe and true airspeed) by dead rho-rho system,sincea position caiculated reckoningwill identify at which of the intersections l.o.p.we must the aircraftis. To usethe hyperbolic generate anotherfamily of linesby taking a third system fi;red point, we then havethe co-ordinate shown in Fig.6.2. A fix is givenby the unique point wheretwo hyperbolic the use l.o.p.cross.Of course of three fixed points givesthe possibilityof a rho-rho-rhosystemwhere three rangecircles intersect at a uniquepoint.

Fig.6.l Circular andhyperbolic co-ordinate systems of If two fixed pointson earthhavea sequence concentriccirclesdrawn around them, eachcircle representing a particularrangefrom the fixed centre, then points of intersectionare definedbut ambiguous excepton the line joining the two points (baseline) where they areuniquely defined. Sucha systern is (rho) measurements calledrho-rhosincetwo distance areinvolved. We can usethe concentriccirclesto define hyperboliclines. Whereany two circlesintersectwe will havea differencein rangedefined;for example, the rangeto point A lessthe rangeto point B. I,he locusof points which havethe samedifferencein range will describe ahyperbola. Thusin Fig. 6.1 the hyperbolic line hh' is the locusof the point X such that AX - BX = constant.By plottingthe linesfor several different constants we obtain a family of hyperboliclines. In the radio navigation to systems

position Litton fix (courtesy Fig.6.2 Hyperbolic navigation Division) Inc.,AeroProducts Systems International patternsdescribed aboveare The co-ordinate equipments, currently usedin three radio navigation Navigator and Omega. namelyLoranC, Decca Predecessors include GEE, a British of thesesystems to navigate World War II hyperbolicsystemdeveloped to Germany. bomberson missions

79

It shouldbe clearby now that the requirementof difference a hyperbolicsystemis that it can measure in rangewhile a rho-rho-rhosystemmust nleasure absoluterange. Two methodsare in use: time for Loran C and phase differencemeasurements for Deccaand Omega. Thesemethods measurements dictatethat Loran C is a pulsedsystemwhile the wave(c.w.). other two arecontinuous is phase systems measuring A basicproblem with that rangecan only be determinedif the whole the between of e.m. radiation numberof cycles aircraft and the transmittingstation are know. This is the illustratedin Fig. 6.3. An aircraft at X measures phase of the signalfrom station,4 which is

'r" r"l
'Raceivor

,fi
LOPS Tg

l0^-06l./

navigation uiave hyperbolic Fig.6.4 Continuous Inc., AeroProducts (courtesrInternational LittonSystelns Division)

( | / l00th of a lane) into say.centilanes subdivided on which l.o.p.the aircraftis and so determining counting llying is sirnplya matterof laneand centilane a separate known point. A lix requires liorrrsonre between and centilanes of the lanes count to be rnade nlay be onc transmitter anotherpair of transnlitters. to the two pairs. The two l.o.p' will conlrnor.r position. ai the aircraft's intersect I lane i.e. missing of laneslipexists; The possibility Fig. 6.3 Received signal phase measurement the correctlanetttttstbe in the count. lf this happens laning. beingterrned this prt'rcess established, arewidcr. wlten liures laningis easier Obviously A is l0 kHz of transmitter of l0 kllz. The the frequency transmitting at a frequency Suppose wavelength, L, is givenby C/ I 0 000 where C is the while that of B is l5 kHz. tltenwe havea dit'ference to a lanewidth of light; thustr = l 6 nauticalnriles.lf the ot'5 kt{z which corresponds speed frequency for l0 kHz and l5 000 m opposed to phase nreasured as is. sayt)0", the distancc,4X is 30 000 nr of ( l6// + 4) nauticalrniles whereN is the nurnberof l0 000 m for l5 kHz. In this way lanewidth canbe low occupying lhe space betwccn A andX. wlrolecycles madewide without havingto transmitimpossibly is of and While the useof wide lanes Wcsav that thc lanewidth is l6 nauticalrniles fiequencies. of laning.narrowlanes l'ronrA. for tlte purposes thc lircr:rl'tis (N + i-) l:rnes inrportance potential and hencegreater givegreater resolution ContinuousWaveHyperbolic Principles accuracy. signals between in phase W i t l rl h y p c L t r o l iscv s t c nw the dift-erence r c a r cc o n c e r n ew dith Measuring if the will only be nreaningful in nrngcnrthcr than ubsolute rurge: dil'lr'rcrrcc from two transntitters phase t'ixed knowtr and tlrt' uirlrornc' a crluiirrnent rnust nleasure ltave consctyrrcrrtly transnrissions exist: in phlsc bt'twcenrrdio waves fronr two relationship. thc'rlil'li'rcrrcc Tyo possibilities r o t r n ts l t a t i o r r sl." ' i g u r6 e. 4 s h o w s l n r n s r r r i t l i rg rg tltat the canbe tlesignated zcrrrplrlsedil'lert'ncc tlrcrcrvill br.' bctwcen l. one of'tl'retransntitters which. clnreceivittg svrrchltlrt izctl t nrnsrrtissions r'vc ry lrll [' l wavelength. the other the slave master, will ensulc frotrttltc'ntaster. An lircrll'i nrcusuring a phlsc dil'ti'rcncc olthe transnrission is synchronized: c o r r l d b c o n u n y o l ' t h c d r s l r r d own transtnissiott l . o . p . . i . e . i n its d l | 0A to sotrre aresynchr-oniz-ed a n y o l ' t l r c I l n c sl r c t w e e rl r a r r s r r r i l t cA rs a n dl l . e a c h 2. both transntittcrs suchasprovidedby an tinrescale h i d c a t t l r eb l s c l i n e . standard o l ' w h i c hi s h l l l ' a w u v c l c n g tw a n ci s i t l c r r t i c a to atontic clock. S i n c c ' c v c rly l t l r r 'r e c c i v eo rn the luircrll't a lunt'corrntnruslbc cstlblishcd citlrcr ll'orn p o i n l o r , t l u r i n gl l i g h t .l ' r o n r an PrrlsedHyperbolic PrinciPles lhc lircrul't's tlrtirrg a problclttsitrcc' laningis.rrot positionlix. lilch lanerrray be lrr suchsystertts indcpcndt'rrt 80

d<T<2t+d

T = 2t+d

Extended base line

-Master Slave

Extended-----t:o base line

L.O.P.= line of constant time ' difference.T

Fig.6.5 Pulsed hyperbolic navigation

unambiguous l.o.p.sare obtained. Considerthe two transmitters at A and B in Fig. 6.5. One is designated the master;this transmitspulsesof energyat a fixed published p.r.f. On receiptof the masterpulsethe will transmit, usually after somefixed delay,say slave d ps. If the propagationtime from masterto slaveis I gs then we c.ul seethat an airCraftat the master stationposition, or anywhereon the extendedbase a time line outward from the master,will measure differenceof (2t + d) gs when comparingthe tinre of An arrivalof the masterand slavetransmissions. aircrafton the extendedbaseline outward from the slave would record a time differenceof d ps. Should an aircraftbe anywhereother than on the extended baseline the time differencewill be someunique reading betweend and (2t + d) ps. Disadvantages of hyperbolic systems are that lane width varieswith distancefrom baseline and that signalgeometryis important. With a hyperbolic co-ordinate systemthe angleof cut betweentwo l.o.p. canbe suchthat the tangentsto the lines at the aircraftposition are almostparallel;for other aircraft positions the hyperbolicI.o.p.may cut almostat right angles.Of courseif more than two l.o.p. are available the geometryproblem is of little consequence sincea most probableposition can be computed. Figure6.6 illustratesthe variousl.o.p. geometries. Continuous Wave Rho-Rho and Rho-Rho-Rho Systems To measurethe phaseof a receivedsigral a suitable reference generated within the must be available, receiver.Let the phaseofthe reference signalbe @r, the phaseof the receivedsignal be @"when the aircraft is at point A and fu when the aircraft is at

3 L.O.P.

).P.2 L.O.P. Best geometry very accurate L . O . PI.

Worst geometry poor accuracy

Fig. 6.6

Multiple L.O.P. good accuracy due to redundancY

Various geometrics for hyperbolic systenrs

tlre will tncasurc point B. The airborne equipment and signal the receivcd in phase between difference signal, i.e.: the reference Q^=Qr-Qr when the aircraft is at point A, while: Qm=h-Q, in phasc when the aircraft is at point B. The change of the asthe aircraft moveswill providea measure we in range, have: change

@.:(0" -Q)=Qa-Qb

( 0 b- 0 ' )
(6.1)

Theseideasare illustratedin Fig. 6.7. that the reference The aboveworking hasassumed doesnot drift in the time it takesfor the sigrral phase aircraft to travel from A to B. If the reference when the aircraft is at point A and B is @r.and @16 respectively, then equation(6.1) must be modified

81

AtB

+ 0 ^ : Q a- 6 u phasewith afucraftmoveinnenl Fig. 6.7 Changein measured

to accountfor this drift, it becomes:

Q^=(0^-@u)-(0'"-0'u)

(6.2)

3. estimate the phaseoffset throughout flight by utilizing signalsfrom more than two transmitters(this is the rho-rho-rhoapproach)' The operation of a rho-rho system is illustrated in Fig. 6.8. As the aircraft flies from I to 2 the phase A receivedfrom transmitters in the signals changes this allowsthe andB are continuously measured; airborneequipment to count the number of range with respectto both traversed lanesand centilanes sincereference Equation(6.1) applies, transmitters. oscillatordrift is negligible. Thus if the aircraft position at point I is known it can be computedat 2.

Thus an equipmentcontinuouslymonitoring the phasein order to calculatechange in measured change in rangewill be in error by an amount dependingon oscillatordrift. the reference signal At the moment of switch-onthe reference to the on board the aircraft is not phaseJocked gound transmitter'sfrequency. Further, sincethere path, is a signalphaseshift due to the transmission between therewill be a phaseor clock offset (@o) signaland the local reference.If at received switch-onboth the transmitterand receiverpositions and if at subsequent areknown @ocan be calculated, aircraft positions this phaseoffset remainsthe same phasedifferenceas described then by measuring in rangefrom the known starting earlierthe change oscillatordrift point may be computed. Reference in phaseoffset' as a change can be considered Errors arisingdue to a changein phaseoffset can be minimized in three ways: l. usc difference in phasebetween synchronized in which from two remote transmitters, sigrrals phase out cancels reference in any change case (this is the hyperbolic approach); oscillatorof atomic clock 2. a precisionreference standardcan be carried on the aircraft, in which casdrift is negligible over the duration of the flight (this is the rho-rho approach); 82

\dIA-(6A2-aLO2)

- l c l 1 1- d s 6 1 )

l 6 M O ' l d 3 2 - O ! O 2 l- t o g l - C 1 g 1 ; -tc62-ca1l-16192-{1611

.t.'12-6A1t-{6192-cLg1) rclE LGAL mnLUrOn OrrFt ' t6LO2 - 6LOtl

Fig. 6.8 Rho-rho navigation (courtesy Litton Systems International Inc., Aero ProductsDivisio')

With a rho-rho.rho s),stenltwo range(circular) l.o.p. givea position fix while a third can be usedto eliminate error in phase offset,@". ln Fig.6.9 it can be seenthat a non-zero@,givesus the situation where at one point but-form a threel.o.p.do not intersect trianglewithin which the aircraft is positioned.

hyperbolic and rho-rho-rho methods require three ground transmittersfor a fix but the geonretryof the will degrade the accuracy of aircraft and transmitters the hyperbolicsystem moreso than eitherrho-rho-rho or rho-rho. A hyperbolic systenr hasthe most complexcomputerprogram, but is nevertheless

o
Transmitter 2

x
True position

Transmitter

,'\1
\

True position

Ptc-

- -

P. P^ P.

Kncwn points

--- Calculatcd L.O.P. - T r u eL . O . P . Fig.6.9 Rho-rho-rho navigation of this positiontrianglcshou.s Consideration that the probably the leastcostly sinceits local oscillator p e r p e n d i e u ld a irs t a n c els i o r r rt l r c t ' r u e p o s i t i o nt o t h e stabilityrequirenrents areless stringent than eventhe . o . p .u r ee q u a lt o e l c h o t h r . -l r c a l c u l a t eld n d g i v ea rho-rho-rho system. n l c e s u ro c f 'f " . S u l ' l i c i c nitr r t i r r n r a t i oi r sra v a i l a b l e l i o n r t h e t h r e el . c l . p t .o e v a l u a tp e " . a s s u n t i nte hat rr-fercnce oscillator drift is the orrlv sorrrce of t'rror. Omega Navigation System (ONS) Should o t h e re r r o r s contribute to thecalculated airs t a n c els l . o . p .t h e p e r p e n d i c r r ld ' r o mt h e t r u e is a very low-frequency. Omega c.w.,long-range p , o s i t i otn o t h e c a l c u l a td el . o . p .w i l l n o l n c c e s s a r i b he , navigation system.Threetime-multiplexed signals of L-qual and an approxinrate solutionnrustbe sought. l 0 ' 2 , I l ' 3 3 a n d l 3 ' 6 k H z a r et r a n s n - r i t t e d omnidirectionally from eachof eight stations Cdmparison of Systems strategically locatedaroundthe world. Althoughthe Thereis no clear-cut bestsystemto enrploy,and in conceptwaspatented in 1923it wasnot until the fact all are in useas follows: mid 1960sthat the US Navy established the first experimental stations. By 1968 it was established pulsed hyperbolic I-oranC that ONS was t'easible and the setting-up of a c.w. hyperbolic DeccaNavigator,Omega worldwidenetwork commenced. The USA is c.w. rho-rho Omega responsible for the stations in North Dakota,Hawaii, c.w. rho-rho-rho Omega Liberiaand a temporarystationin Trinidad,while It is interestingto observethat manufacturers of stations in Norway,Japan, Argentina, La Reunion Omeganavigationsystems haveopted for different and,by 1980,Australia arethe responsibility of methods of calculating position,illustrating that nationswhich haveestablished bilateral agreements thereis no universally accepted bestmethod. with the USA. Although the responsibilityfor The rho-rhomethodis certainlythe simplest of co-ordination wasoriginallyallocated to the US Navy the three,needing only two qroundtransmitters and it hasnow beentaken overby the US CoastGuard. employinga relativelysimplecornputerprogram. 'The Omega Stations and Broadcast Patterns It does, however, havethe costlydisadvantage of requiringa very stablereference oscillator. Both Eachstationhasa transmitter Dowerof l0 kW with

83

5.1 Sigralformat,o.n.s. Table

{_-Ios
Stations

0 ' 9s <---' A B C D E F G H

1 ' 0s
<|*.'

l'l s H

1.2s
H

I'I s <----}

0 ' 9s e

1 - 2s H

I'0 s <'_}

Norway Liberia Hawaii North Dakota [: Reunion fugentina Trinidad/Australia Japan

r0.2

r3 ' 6 t0.2

I1.33 13.6 to.2

I 1.33 13.6 10.2

I l-33 13.6

ro.2
I 1.33 r3.6 l 1.33

I1.33 13.6 to.2

I 1.33 13.6 10.2

I I '33 13.6 10.2

the exceptionof the temporarystation in Trinklad which hasa I kW transmitter. Radiationis from an antennawhich takesthe form either omnidirectional 16 NM 9 CYCLES of a verticaltower, approximately450 m high, or a supportingan umbrellaof transmittingelements, valleyspantypically 3500 m in length. Equipment redundancy ensures reliableoperation99 per cent of the time. As mentionedabdveeachstation transmitsthree 1 4{ N M lo cYcrts pattern which is frequencies in a time-multiplexed uniqueand provides identification. The transmission formatis shownin Table6.1. It canbe seenthat at any one time only three stationswill be transmitting, eachon a different frequency. There are short (0'2 s) betweentransmission bursts. The intervals (courtesyLitton pattern is repeated every l0 s. Fig. 6.10 Omegafrequencyrelationships to a nearly All transmitters are phase-locked InternationalInc., Aero ProductsDivision) Systems providedby the useof atomic absolute time standard clocksat eachof the station locations. The result is that the three frequencies in all transmitters simultaneously crosszero with positiveslopeat precise times every l5/ l Tths of a millisecond. This phase is illustrated in Fig. 6.10. The net relationship resultis that the timing error betweenstationsis at most I ps, leadingto a maximum error in position fix of 300m. (courtesy Litton waveguide Fig.5.1I Earth-.Ionosphere Division) Inc.,AeroProducts hopagation Interpational Systems The band of frequencies l0-14 kHz is an appropriate since predictabilityof the changes in phase. s1)'stem choicefor a phase-measuring navigation e.m. radiationat thesefrequencies can travel A requirementof the systemis that four or more everywher.Account must thousands of mileswith predictablephase-change stationscanbe received is formed by the be taken of the attenuation of the signalwhich varies A natural waveguide characteristics. the with direction due to the rotation of the earth. earth'ssurfaceand the D layer ofthe ionosphere, travellingin an easterlydirection suffer dimensions of which are suitablefor.propagationof Signals while 2 dB/1000 km attenuation, approximately the ONS frequencies.This mode of propagation and the thoseon a westerlypath suffei approximately accounts for the rangeof the signals 84

4 dB/1000km. North and southattenuation is the same at 3 dB/1000km. A further consideration is that signals cannot be usedcloseto the sourcesince the phase variationsare unpredictable in this region. The implementation of ONS with eightstations, which arenot equi-spaced around the world, leadsto a situation where,undernormalconditions, between four and seven on the stationsare usabledepending receiver location.

meansthat a conductivity map can be stored in the computer,so enablinga propagation-correction factor to be calculated for the path betweenthe receiver and the known stationlocation. A complicationarises in that it is possible to receive a direct sigral and one which hasgonethe 'long way round', in which case we havea mutual problem. Automatic deselection interference of stationsat ranges in excess ofsay 8000 nauticalmiles is usedto minimize this effect. 3. Geomagnetic FieA The earth'smagnetic(H) field altersthe motion of ions and electrons in the lower regionof the ionosphere, thus affectingv.l.f. propagation. Again the equipmentsoftwaremay be usedto apply corrections. 4. Norspheroidal Effects The computationof aircraft position must take into accountthat the signalpath from transmittingstation to aircraft receiver is not on the surfaceof a sphere. Further, pressure differences at variouslatitudes effect the height of the ionosphere so compensation must be made for the effect on phase velocity.

5. Modal Interference There are variousmodesof propagation in the waveguide.If one mode is earth.ionosphere dominant the phasegrid producedwill be regular; howeverin practicea competingmode can be almost Fig,6.12 Typical usable coverage equal to the dominant mode in which case irregularities appearin the phasepattern. The most serious caseoccurswhen one mode is dominant at Factors Affecting Propagation night and a secondduring the day. It follows that during sunrise and sunsetthe two modeswill be l. Diurnal Effect equal. SomeOmegareceivers automaticallydeselect The height of the ionosphere from variesby approximately station B (Liberia) at critical times sincesignals 20 km from day to night, beinghighestat night. The this station are particularlysusceptible to modal phase velocity of the propagated wavewill be greatest interference at night. 'waveguide' during the day when the dimensions of the areleast;this leadsto phase variations which 6. Solar Effects fortunately arepredictable and cyclic. Corrections to A solar flare givesriseto a largeemission of X-rays compensate for diurnai effect may be implemented which causes a short-termdisturbance in a limited by means of a software part of the ionosphere.Suih an eventis calleda routine. The entry of GMT anddateat switch-on (SID) or a sudden is required bv the routine. suddenionospheric disturbance phaseanomaly(SPA) and may last for I h or more; 2. Ground Conductivity may be shifted by up to l.o.p. in the affectedregions The different attenuating effectsof the oceans and say 5 nauticalmiles. TheseSIDsoccur about 7 to l0 varioustypes of landmass the phasevelocity changes times per month, but during the peak of the I l-year of the v.l.f. signal.The greatest lossof signal strength sunspotcycle a major solarflare may product a shift occursin the ice-capregions wherethe change in in l.o.p.by up to 15 nautical miles. This latter event phase velocityis significant. Waterhasleasteffect. and warningsmay be issued. is predictable, The effect of ground conductivitybeingwell known Infrequently largequantitiesof protons are 85

polar cap from the sun,producinga so-called released (p.c.d.).The effectof a p.c.d.,which is disturbance to shift l.o.p. from say 6 to 8 nauticalnriles,may last paths days. Only thosetransmission for several passing overthe polesareaffected.Sincethe p.c.d.is warningmessages may be of long duration navigation broadcast. Position Fixing ONS may usehyperbolic, As previouslydiscussed rho-rhoor rho-rho-rhomethods,a root meansquare with milesbeingobtainable accuracy of l-2 nautical all methodsprovidingthe computersoftwarecorrects errors. for predictable Whatever method is usedthe lane in which the Lane widths for aircraft is flying must be established. and differencefrequencies are the basicfrequencies given in Table6.2. It canbe seenthat the broadest lane for the direct rangingmethodsis 144 nautical mileswhile that for the hyperbolicmethod is 72 nauticalmiles. If it is known which broad lane the to resolve lane aircraftis in thenit is possible lanes automatically, as ambiguityfor the narrower it is known in shownin Fig.6.l3. In this example and lanewidths,o.n.s. Table6.2 Frequencies (lanewidthsin nm)
Dircct ronging ltltperbolic

which 3.4 kHz lanethe aircraft is flying. Phase of the l0'2 kHz signalgivesthree measurement possible tbur l.o.p.while the l3'6 kHz signalgives possible Lo.p. from Lo.p. Only one of the possible this beingthe uniquel.o.p. eachgroupis coincident, on which the aircraftis positioned. Rate Aiding patternextends overa period The ONS transmission of all usable signals are of l0 s. If the phases overthis periodand then l.o.p. are measured generated for positionfixing.an error will result. informationwill be up to sincesomeof the phase information l0 s old. Aircraft directionand speed lor inforrnation niay be usedto updatethe phase this process beingknown as rate l.o.p.calculations, than we cangenerate l.o.p.at less aiding. In practice sayeveryI s, thusONS can be l0 s intervals, with system asa deadreckoning considered position-fixing everysecond or so. updates informationcan comefrom a Directionand speed and heading for example compass numberof sources, or track from an Air DataConrputer true air speed tiom Doppleror INS. SomeOmega and groundspeed generate trackand groundspeed equipments positionchanges. internallyfrom computed dead thereis a lossof signal If for any reason inputsot dataon directionand speed reckoning, generated track and ground internally last-known the calculate can be usedto continuously speed position. of sufficient so that on receipt aircraft's is easilyresolved. laneambiguity signals, usable track last-known if the internallygenerated Obviously areusedduringdeadreckoning and groundspeed cause duringtlrisphase.may then aircraftmanoeuvre aglrin. lre receiveti when signals laningproblems

Basic frequ encies

13.6-10= .2 I 3 = l3'6-1 =2 I1.3-10.

kHz 10.2 kHz 11.3 kl'lz 13.6 3.4 kHz 2.3 kHz l.l ktlz

16 14.4 12 4ti '12 114

8 7.2 6 24 36 i2

'13 6 KHZ lanes

Broad lane

10.2KHZ lanes

13.6KHZ LOP

10-2 KHZ LOP

Unique LOP

Fig: 6.13 Resolvinglane ambiguity (courtesyLitton Systems lnternational Inc., Aero ProductsDivision) 86

Fig. 6.14. The ONS consists processor of a receiver unit (RPU), control displayunit (CDU) and antenna . couplerunit (ACU). Sucha break-downof 'black boxes' conformsto ARINC Characteristic 599 but Most Probable Position somemanufacturers to separate choose the receiver Thereis a redundancy in the Omegasystemin that and computerand alsothe antennaand couplingunit. will be received than are normally more signals The RPU is fitted in a convenient location. the necessary to computethe two l.o.p. neededfor a fix. most important consideration beingcooling ln this case, data from all receivable stations,and as a forced downdraught or integal many frequencies aspossible, may be usedto generate arrangements, be a numberof l.o.p. If all frequencies arereceived from blower being typical. The CDU must of course pilot; mounted in view, and reach, of the = in all stationstherewould be 3 X 8 24 phase normally special coolingarrangements are not every l0 s, givingup to twenty-four measurements required. l.o.p.for a single fix. The multiplel.o.p.will not The antenna usedmay be of H field or E field crossat a point but will definea smallpolygon possibly type, the latter employinga separate coupler within which the aircraft is positioned. The computer unit with a suppliedinterconnecting cable. An E the aircraft'smost probableposition will calculate field systemis sensitive to precipitationstatic within this polygon. good discharge, thus bonding and sufficient In practicetherewill be far fewer than twenty-four strategically wicks spaced static are essential.An H phase available.Automatic deselection measurements (a.c.)noise field system is sensitive to magnetic place poor for will take reasons of signalto noise and a skin mappingshouldbe carriedout on sources to modal ratio, poor geometry,susceptibility initial installationto determinethe optimum location or outsideusablerange(too closeor too interference for the antenna which may be on the top or bottom far). Manualdeselection will be accomplished as a of the fuselage. resultof pre-flightor in-flight information received stationstatusor unusualionospheric concerning Skin Mapping Detailed procedureis given in activity. manufacturer's the aircraft literature,but basically parked power should from be away all lines, both Communication Stations, v.l.f. aboveand below ground,and away from all A worldwide high-power military communications obstructions. Ambient signalplus noiseis then network operatingin the band l5-25 kHz is initially approximately100 ft from the recorded purpose maintained by the US Navy. As a secondary aircraft with analyser a spectrum setat l0'2, I l'3 and provide to of the network is worldwide aremadewith an synchronization of time standards, the carriersignals l3'6 kHz. Similarmeasurements by tape at variousairframelocations. areprecisely timed, and so may be usedfornavigation ACU secured Comparison of ambientand airframemeasurements purposes. Sincecontrolof the stations is out of the possible positions. The optimum eithernationalor international, will identify several handsof thosebodies, position(s)can then be found by repeating the responsible for civil aircraft navigation, use of the various off measurements under on and conditions network for navigation as can only be considered ofengines,lighting,electronics and fans. The final supplementary to other forms of navigation. position shouldbe checked out for signalto noise Hyperbolicnavigation is not suitablefor usewith runningat 90 per cent minimum. v.l.f. commsstationssinceabsolutephase differences ratio with engines betweentwo received signals cannotbe determined Brief Description of Units due to eachstation operatingon an unrelated The descriptions which lollow arebasedon the Litton frequency. A further disadvantage is that the diurnal LTN-2 I l; other systems havesimilarunits which vary phase for v.l.f. signals shifts are not aspredictable as in detail. they are for ONS sigrals. Several manufacturers offer equipmentwith v.l.f. and Omega in somecases v.l.f. is optional: capability; Receiver hocessor Unit The RPU is the major part providethe primary In suchequipmentOmegasignals from the ACU signals of any ONS. Omega broadcast provide navigation information while v.1.f.signals are processed togetherwith inputs from other sensors back-upshouldinsufficientOmegasignals be usable. to give present as parameters position and guidance required. The major partsof a RPU will typically be: Installation A typical simplifiedinstallatibndiagramis shownin r.f. circuitry;

In sucha caseaircraft approximatepositionwould haveto be enteredby the pilot.

cl

Autopilot

H.S.t. Installation Program

F.D.t. Aircraft Data Bus

Atc
Speed Source

Aircraft Instrumentation

Fig. 6.14 Litton LTN-21I ONS installation (courtesyLitton Systems International Inc., Aero ProductsDivision)

88

central processorfor computing function; scratch-pad RAM for temporary data storage; specialRAM in which pilot-entered data is saved during power interrupt; ROM to store program which will incorporate corrections; power supply assembly; analogue interface; digital interface;

2. 26V a.c. 400 Hz reference:from external equipment acceptingsynchro feedsfrom ONS; 3. aircraft data bus: interfacewith digital air data systm(DADS), inertial reference system(lRS), flight muragementcomputersystem,etc. In stalla tio n Programming Various receiver processor unit connectorpins, termed 'programdiscretepins' are groundedby means of a link to earth in order to select: l. Speedinput format; 2. frequencystandard; 3.magnetic/trueheading input/output; 4. oleo strut logic; 5. synchrooutput; 6. gid mode: local, Greenwich or t$ro alternatives; 7. antenna mount: top/bottom. System Outputs Analogue/Discrete l. Track angle; 2. crosstrack deviation; 3. track angleerror; 4. drift angle; 5. track angleerror plus drift angle; 6. true heading: 7. desiredtrack angle; 8. track changealert; 9. track leg change; 10. steeringsigral (roll command); I l. To/from. Digital position (lat./long.); 12. Present (mag./true); 13. heading 14. track angle; 15. ground speed; 16. distanceto waypoint; 17. time to GO; 18. wind angle; 19. wind speed; 20. crosstrack distance: error; 21. track angle 22. drift angle; 23. desiredtrack. Warning 24. Cros track deviationfailure; 25. true headingwarning; 26. steering signalwarning. Figure l.l3 definespictorially thoseoutputs relating to angleand distance.

BITE;
antennaswitching; .chassis. bnnol Display Unit T\e CDU provides the interface between the flight crew and the ONS. Data transmissionbetween CDU and RPU is via two one-wayserial digital data buses. The RPU transmits four 32-bit words to the CDU while the CDU transmits one 32-bit word to the RPU. The d.c. voltagesfor the CDU are provided by the RPU. The CDU annunciators are driven by signals from the RPU. Antenna Coupler Unit Two H field bidirectional loop antennas are wound on ferrite rods arranged at right angles to eachother. Pre-amplification of the signaltakes place in the ACU. Provision is made for the injection of a test signalto eachloop. ONS Interface Operator Inputs l. Present position latitude and longitude: entered duringinitialization, i.e. during preparationof the systemprior to take off; 2. waypoint latitude and longitude: rrp to nine enteredas requiredduring initialization; editing facility availablefor in-flight entry; 3. Greenwich Mean Time/date: enteredduring initialization. Extemal SensorInputs l. Speed:from air data computer(ADC) or Doppler radarin a variety of sigral formats; 2. heading:from compass system; 3. drift angle:from Doppler radar,optional; 4. speed valid sigral; 5. heading valid signal; 6. compass free/slaved input; 7. oleo strut switch input; 8. drift anglevalid signal. Other Inputs l. Frequencystandard:rho-rho opti6n;

89

Dim control

Right numerical display

Alcrt ann (amber) Dead reckoning ann (amber) Sync ann (amber)

From/to and waypoint display Waypoint soloctor switch Track change pushbutton (green) Mode switch Entcr pushbutton

Ambiguity ann (amber) Warn ann (red) M a n u a la n n (amber)

roi

rrME ..ors

Hold pushbutton (greenl Clcar pushbutton (green)

64r;'l][\s11

rAS

Data keyboard pushbuttons Litton Systerns Fig. 5.15 Litton LTN-21I CDU (courtesy Division) lnternationalInc., Aero Products

C-ontrols and Operation The following information may be displayedby Figure6.15 showsthe Litton LTN-21I CDU which is appropriate positioningof the displayselectorswitch: similarto thoseof other manufacturers.A very rangeof controlsand displayeddata is GMT/DAT GreenwichMeanTime and date comprehensive Track angleand ground speed TK'GS available.Brief detailsonly are givenhere. HDG/DA Heading and drift angle The pilot is able to enter his presentposition and and track angleerror navigation XTK/TKE Crosstrack distance up to nine waypointsdefininga great-circle position Present POS flight plan which can be updatedduring flight' Waypoint (selected) WPf Information displayedto the pilot helpshim to fly and time (to'go') DIS.TIME Distance the specifiedroute from waypoint to waypoint or fly Windditection and velocity WIND parallel offsets from the flight plan. If the autopilot the DTK/STS Desiredtrack and status(malfunction) steeringinformation from ONS causes is engaged plan, Magneticheadingand true airspeed in MH/TAS aircraft to automatically follow the flight Station status STA which casethe display is used for monitoring FROM/TO From and to waypoints for current leg. purposes. The system also demandsentry of GMT and date. System Softward A keyboardis usedfor all dataentry which is The major tasks for the software employed in a a coded which case error, in checkedfor operator briefly rho-rho-rhoOmegasystemare described warning is given. System failure waping is given by below. the WRN annunciatorwhen malfunction and action other annunciators codesmay be displayed. Several The transmissioripattern must be Synchronization imminent (ALR), givewaming of track leg change 'identified in order that the ONS will know when each systemin deadreckoningmode (DR), synchronization of systemwith transmittedsignalformat taking place stationis broadcasting.Sincethe Omegatransmission is attempted every l0 s synchronization patiern repeats (SYN),lane ambiguity(AMB) and manuallyent;red find the to try and data in order l0 s of offset ampling track by cross magneticheadingor true airspeed, (station kHz burst). lO'2 A transmitting time stait (MAN). displayed being 90

a further l0 s is not successful If synchronization periodis sampledand so on. is completesignal Sincebefore synchronization directionis not known, the antennais set to an mode. omnidirectional The idea of the synchronization routine is to look from sample for correlationin phasemeasurements frequencies.Noise to samplefor the three broadcast not alonewill of courseappearwith random phase, betweensamples. correlated Measuremenrs The phase Phase and Signal-to-Noise signaland a local betweenthe received difference is sampledat regularintervalsthroughout reference the burst. Forming sineand cosinesumsof the sampledphaseangleswill allow a burst phase (averageof samples)and signal-to-noise measurement to be made. If no signalis being measurement receivedduring the samplethen no contribution will be made to either the sine or cosine sums. We have:

stations; l. eliminatemanuallydeselected 2. eliminatestationsfor which the aircraft is not (seeFig.6.l2); within areacovered 3. eliminatestationswith known modal problem at night in certain areas interference (Liberia); 4. eliminatestationson the basisof poors.n.r.; from particularstations 5. eliminatefrequencies whosephasedifferencebetweencomputedand exceeds a certainfigure. measured All qualifying frequenciesare used for position determination. If lessthan minimurn number of the deadreckoningmode is stationsare available, entered. hopagation Conection The computer must calculate a propagationcorrection0p, the valueof which will dependon the path from station to aircraft, the timg of day and the date. Factorsaffectingpropagation earlierand while complete havebeendiscussed

. t / \\ =tan-r phase shiftHllT::lx'L: f bursr ilir:",,Ti::TlT;:ii'"illfo*' /r t'urg ) )- antenna (6'J) cosd

// \lJ l R burst= (rrin o\' * /> .o, p\' / \-N \-T-/

(6.4)

andcomputation storage ti,nitin.a in orderto save include: tim;' simplifications pathto say along integationstepsize l. increasing
earth memory map, i.e. subdividing 2. usingcoarse into, say,4" x 4" block and assigtinga to conductivity index to eachcorresponding conductivity in that area; average which computesbearing 3. simplifyingsub-routine field. of signalpath to earth'smagrretic

over the are of the samples wherethe summations burst, @is the phaseangleand R, which lies between of sigral to noise ratio 0 and l, givesa measure (s.n.r.). The valuesof @burst and R burst are fed to a trackingfilter in order to give smooth values@andR. Thereare a total of twenty-four tracking filters (threefrequencies X eight stations). Rate aidingis for known aircraft appliedto @to compensate motion. Each tracking filter is updatedafter the appropriate burst, i.e. every 10 s, rate aiding values every 0'l s. arecalculated Antenna Selection Every l0 s the bearing to the eight stationsis computedand stored. Every second the differencebetweenbearingand headingis computedand usedto selectthe longitudinal loop, lateralloop or combinationof loops to make the antenna directional,the main lobe being in the direction of the station to be received.. Station Selection For Omegarho-rho-rho navigation to calculatethe three threestationsmust be received unknowns(latitude, longitudeand clock or phase offset). Various criteria areusedin the selectionof stationsto be employed:

of simplihedand more Computercomparisons modelshavebeencarriedout and show accurate excellentagreement. Cunent Least-SquaresEnor Cabulttton The phase@is correctedfor propagationshifts, measured 0p, and estimatedclock offset, f., and then compared with the phase, derivedfrom the current calculated @r, rangebetween aircraft.and station to give A 0, we have LQ=(Q-Op-QJ-Qr

(6.5)

There is one A@for eachstation frequency so there will be at most twenty-four. If thereis no error, that is 0p, 0. and @,are all correct,then A0 will be zero. will exist,so the purposeof the In practiceeqrors estimationroutine is to find error least-squares to @.,and the computedposition to corrections in use. minimizeAd for the stations/frequencies

It

Since the mostreliable informationcomes from the strongest signal each A@ is weighted by its s.n.r. (smoothed R from equation (6.4)). Thesquares of theA@ arecomputed to prevent cancellation in the sum.Wehave: minimize>R(AO)2

is wind (north and east),latitude and longitude. The wind is not computed when the aircraft is on the ground,asindicatedby the oleo strut switch. Summary The above notes on system softwaveare by havenot been mentionedalthoughhavebeen implied elsewhere in the chapter. The major navigationtasks and their implementationare best summarized by a flowchart (seeFig. 6.16). The Program The actualprogramusedin any ONS is proprietary and will vary greatly depending on the type of microprocessor used,the method of navigationand the ingenuity ofthe author. In generalthere will be a main loop which checks for power interrupts, computespropagation correction,carriesout self-testing, etc. The main loop will be interruptedwhen 10.2, I l'3 or 13.6kHz information is availablefor processing and alsowhen the CDU is ready to input or output data. In the LTN-21I the phasedata interrupts for the three frequencies occur regularlyat 6.25 ms intervals. The I I '3 and I 3'6 kHz interrupt loops simply serve to read the appropriatephasedata while the

(6.6) no meanscomplete;somefunctions of the softwave

where the sum is taken over all the stations and frequencies in use. The phasedifference,LQ, canbe expressed in termso(A@., AN, AE and B where the first three termsare the correctionsin clock offset. north position and eastposition respectivelywhile B is the bearingto the station. If we considerthe signal received from station I on frequencyJ, we have: A0(l,J) = Adc - AN . cosB(l) - AE . sin B(l) (6.7) Thus equation(6.7) is usedin (6.6), the minimization of the weighted sum of squares,giving a least-squares estimateof the current error which enables correctionof clock offset and position. The correctionvectorX = (A0., AN, AE)T is smoothedby clock and position filters, rate aidingof speed, resolved north and eastabout aircraft heading, beingappliedto thesefilters. The output of the filters

Clock

Omegr signal

Phase | detector

-lSin/Cosine look up

SinI C"t C

Burst processing

C o u'sr(1,J) R - "il' J)

Qc

Clock offset estimator Least AN AE estrmator

LOc

Tracking filter

t(r, J)
R (r,Jl

+
?

6o

6,
GMT Lat./Long.
t

Rate aid

Propagation prediction

-t
gi2

Position f ilter

Lat./Long.
Wnd

Rangeto station

-l

Expected phase

Rrtc rid north

Ratc aid oast

Fig.6.16 Softwareflow chart

amplified and limited sigrals are comparedin phase with referencesigrals derived from a 4.896 MHz clock. A real-time interrupt is generatedon completion of a phasemeasurement for each of the Omegafrequencies.The l0'2, I l'3 and 13'6 kHz interruptsareeachgenerated 160 timesper secondto rate aid computation inform the computer that phasedata is availablefor check synchronization 368 gs, during which time the appropriate interrupt antennaselection routine is entered and the data read. The sensor burst processing phasedata forms word I in a four-word, l6-bit serveCDU digital multiplexer. I s loop: horizontal steeringcommands Heading and speedinputs enter the system in the l0 s loop: estimator least-squares form of three-wire synchro feeds. Scott-T savekev data transformersresolvethis input into the sine and cosinecomponentswhich are then demodulated and Hardware filtered to provide d.c. signalsto an analogue multiplexer controlled by the computer. After C.omputo Inputs Figure 6.17 showsa simplified systemblock diagramof the LTN.2I l. Omegasignals analogueto digital conversionthe headingand speed from the ACU are fed via an anteniraswitching matrix sine and cosine componentsare multiplexed asword 2 in the digital multiplexer. Words 3 and 4 contain to three narrow-band receivers. one for each of the programpins, data relatingto variousdiscretes, three Omegafrequencies. Antenna switching is validities and sourceselectors. derived from the computed relative bearingof the ARINC 575 data from the CDU is converted to station being receivedat that particular time. The

l0'2 kHz interruptloop processes all phase dataand if it is time to startloopswhich occur drecksto see regularly andperformvarious computations and drecks.Brieflyu,ehave: 'update lfl) msloop: clock

l?u?*^ss'-s I
l ; -

I sTtiltNG rNTtttAct

[**r**'
)

POWTISUPPTY

Fq. 6.17 Litton LTN-21I block diagram(courtesy Lftton Systems International Inc,, Aero Products Division)

sl

logic) levelsand shifted into TTL (transistor-transistor a serialto parallelshift register.When the input data and the contentsof is ready an interrupt is generated the registerare readby the computer. A digital interfacecard,part of the steering interface.is a link betweenthe ONS and other for systems.Thereare four ARINC 575 receivers DADS TAS (digital air data systemtrue air speed), system) IRS (inertial reference flight management, b.c.d. or binary bus for interface and an inter-system with anotherONS or possiblyanothertype system. bus from the computeridentifiesthe The address which storesthe particularinput requiredreceiver an interrupt. The word in a registerand generates a this interrupt, so requesting computeracknowledges transferofdata onto the l6-bit paralleldata bus via a tri-stateregister. Sincethe ARINC 575 serial-parallel word is 32-bitslong, transfertakesplacein two sections. Memory The navigation computer program is stored in a 20K X l6-bit word (K = 1024) UVEROM (ultravioleterasable ROM) which can be programmed adapter. The tapeusinga programming from cassette datais retainedin the WEROM for an estimated100 yearsunless erased by exposingall twenty chips to ultravioletlight. Additional memory is providedon the card in the form of a 2K word computer/processor scratchpad RAM for temporary storageand a 128-worddata savememory usedto store present position,time/date,waypointsand additional data after a requiredto resumenormal operations temporarypower failure. Back-uppower for data saveis provided by a 4500 pF capacitor for at least 7 min. The Computer The computer usesthe input and to storeddata referredto in the aboveparagraphs navigationproblem carry out the necessary computations and to output the resulting employedis a information. The microprocessor unit) TMS-9900,a l6-bit CPU (centralprocessing l6 words of length bits. 32K of addressing capable Input/output (l/O) functionsare treatedin the purposes,the sameway as memory for addressing twelve address map beingsplit into sixteensectio,ns, of which are assigredto WEROM and two each to interfaceI/O and RAM, savedata memory, steering other I/O. As an example F A 0 0 hexadecimal= 1 5x 1 6 3+ l 0 x 1 6 2+ 0 x 1 6 r + 0 x 1 6 ' = 6 4 0 0 0 1 e , is the addres of the digitd multiplexer phasesensor word which will contain phasemeasurementdata to l0'2, I I '3 or l3'6 kHz depending corresponding 94

on which interrupt is beingserviced.Not all the are assigned in the LTN-21l. addresses available sixteeninterrupt The computercan recognize levelswith the highestpriority level0 and the lowest priority level 15. An interrupt maskis containedin a statusregisterand continuouslycomparedwith the interruptcode. Whenthe levelof system-generated the pendinginterrupt is lessthan or equal to the interrupt masklevel(higher or equal current-enabling the interrupt. On recognizes priority) the processor recognitionthe current instructionis completed, detailsof the position in current programstoreo, routine started,and the appropriateinterrupt service the interrupt mask forced to a levelthat is one less than the level of the interrupt beingserviced.When the interrupt routine is completethe interrupted whereit left off. In the LTN-21I programcontinues interrupt levelsare impiemented: seven 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 reset(power on)l pendingpower fail or programcycle fail; data input; lO'2 kHz sensor datainput; l3'6 kHz sensor datainput; 1 l'3 kHz sensor data input; for a sensor reserved CDU ARINC data ready; dataready. ARINC receiver

Cttmputer Outputs A l6-bit word is transmittedto the receiver module for control of the matrix and the antenna-calibrate antenna-switching functions. Various output functions respondonly to the address bus stateand do not requirespecificdata to be placedon the output bus. Thesefunctions,with addresses are: hexadecimal resetprogramcycle fail (F100), selectanalogue (F2X0), start analogueto multiplexer address c.d.u. digital converter(F300), acknowledge ARINC Rx (F600) and ARINC interrupt (CFAO). acknowledgement 'X' in address F2X0 can be any number from 0 The to 7 dependingonthe funption, e.g.headingsine, headingcosine,speedsine,etc. with other systems and Sigralsassociated instrumentsare output from the computer via the steeringinterfacewhich is dividedinto three main functions;(2) digital sections:(l) analogue (3) discreteflag drivers. communications; The analogueinterface card provides four three-wire synchrooutputs and both high- and lowlevel two-wire deviation. Digital data is fed to the d.c. cross-track analogue card on the data bus and convertedto d.c:

in a digital to analogue converter. The analogue d.c. of an ONS is suchthat comprehensive monitoring and sipal is fed in parallelto sampleand hold circuits self-testroutinesmay be incorporatedin the system addressed by the computervia a decoder. Each of software. Monitoring of systemperformance takes the synchrochannels hasa modulator for the sine and placevirtually continuouslyduring flight. In cosined.c. inputs followed by a Scott-T transformer addition, operatorerror detectionaidssmooth which providesthe three-wiresynchrooutput. The operationand a reductionin reporteddefectsdue to 'finger particularoutputs are determinedby the stateof two trouble'. With a malfunction code readoutand synchrooutput selectprogrampins, ground or open. self-testdisplay,turn-rounddelaysfor ONS. In this way synchronumber I will giveheadingor installationdefect investigation and repair are track, synchronumber 2 will give 1 drift angleor minimized. track angleerror, synchronumber 3 will give track angleerror + drift angle,track angleerror or desired track anglewhile synchronumber 4 will give aircraft The Decca Navigator steering or track angleerror. The digital interfacecard hasbeenreferredto above Introduction in connectionwith its input function. In addition Deccanavigatorwasinventedin Americaby there are ARINC 575 and ARINC 561 serialdigital W. J. O'Brienbut first usedby the Britishin the outputs,two-wireb.c.d./binary for the 575 and closingstages of World War II. Sincethen a number six-wire(clock, sync and data) for the 561. The of marks of the equipmenthaveemerged from the ARINC transmittersare selected when the continuous development of this, the most accurate of appropriatedata is on the data bus by suitable all the radio navigationaids. The systemcamesecond addressing from the computer. The output word is in the two-horseracefor adoption by the ICAO as 32 bits long, and so must be enteredinto a registerin the standardshort-range navigationsystem. That it two parts under the control of the address bus. survivedis a credit to the DeccaNavigatorCompany Parallelto serialconversion takesplacewhen the whoseconfidencein the basicmerits of the system word is assembled in the register. were such that it continuedits airbornedevelopment Flag signals at TTL levelsare output from the programdespitethe setbackin 1949. computerand latchedvia drivers. The signals are then Deccais a low-frequency c.w. hyperbolic buffered,scaledand/or levelshifted befoie output. navigationsystem. The service is providedfor suitably equippedaircraft, shipsand land vehicles by Characteristics . chainsof transmittingstations. Each chain comprises Much of this sectionon ONS hasbeenbasedon the a masterstation and normally three slavestations,all Litton-21I which is an ARINC 599 system.'This at known geographical locations(typically 70 miles being so, what follows is a particularlybrief apart), radiatingphase-locked signals.The choiceof summaryof the ARINC Mark 2 ONS sincedetails frequencycould givea ground wavecoverage of zuchasinput and output havealreadybeencovered. l0O0 nauticalmilesbut c.w. operationpreventsthe The systemcomprises three units: a receiver separation of ground and sky wavesignals so the processor, control/displayand antenna/coupler unit wable rangeis limited to about 240 nauticalmiles which, togetherare capable of receiving and by night and about twice that by day. There are processing Omegaground station signals (v.l.f. not chainsin variousparts of the world, in particular precluded)so as to provideminimum functional north-westEuropeand the northeast seaboard of capabilities ofpresept position readoutand North America. horizontal track navigation.The systemshould Phase differences betweenthe masterstation and operateworldwide with a presentposition error of eachof its slaves are displayqdto the pilot on three lessthan 7 nauticalmiles. phasemetersor Decometers.The observed phase The power supply for the systemis I 15 V 400 Hz differences identify hyperboliclinesmarked on singlephasefed via a circuit breaker. In addition a speciallypreparedcharts. By noting at leasttwo 26 V zt00Hz reference in accordance with ARINC phasereadingsthe pilot can plot his position as the 4134 will needto be suppliedvia a circuit breaker intersectionof the corresponding of lines. For ease from the appropriateinstrumentationbus for use the charts are printed with the three different excitation of synchros. familiesof hyperboliclinesin purple, red and green, hencethe red slavestation and the greenDecometer, Rmp Testing etc. Decometers are still usedbut for airborne Uttle needsto be said here since the computing po*er systems, automaticand computer-based methods

are uzually found, with aircraft position being shown on a roller map (flight log display)' The Radiated Signals a fundamental frequenry / in Each chain is assigned the range 14-14'33kHz. The stationseachradiatea harmonicof /, namely6/from the masterznd 5f,8f and 9/from the purple, red and greenslaves respeitively. Thus with f = 14kHz we haveradiated of 6f = 84 kHz, 5f = 70 kHz, 8/ = l.l2'ktlz frequencies for kHz. Usingdifferent frequencies 126 andg/= in the the stationsin a chain allowsseparation airbornereceiver. by an alphanumeric Deccachains are designed are08, lB, . . ., l0B' the code. The basiccodes being fundamentalfrequencies corresponding is 29'17, by a nominal 30 Hz (separation separated of this basic 30 or 30'83 Hz). A subdivision 'half allocation is provided by the so'called 0E, lE, . . ',98 which havea nomind frequencies' frequencies. Hz from the B fundamental l5 of spacing Additional subdivisionis achievedby the use of 516Hz aboveand below the B and E frequencies Co' (courtesy Navigator theDecca Fig.6.l8 Zonepatterns tb givegroupsof six frequencies frEquencies Ltd) number and the letters by the appropriate designated of a grouPof A, B, C, D, E, F. An examPle is givenin Table 6.3 showingcode, frequencies fundamental and master (6/) frequencies;the slave fundamental frequency of the chain. in two ways' depending arepro-rata. frequencies The zonesare subdivided usedin the phase comparison of the method on be compared cannot signals transmitted The aircraft. Table 5.3 Deccafrequencies numerical group 5 in phasedirectly sincethey are of different frequency multiplication or division may Master frequerrcies; Fundamental Chain to a common frequency' 6f (Hz) be usedto bring the signals lf (Hz) code are relatedto the Sincethe transmittedfrequencies and 9 (purple' 5,6,8 multipliers by fundamental 84 995 1 41 6 5 . 8 3 5A can comparison 85 000 master,red and greenrespectively) t4166.67 5B the multipliers of two any of l.c.m. the 85 005 take placeat l4 167.50 5C 8s08s which include 6, Thus purple and master l4 18c.83 5D at 30/, i'e' at compared canbe'phase 85 090 transmissions 1 41 8 1 . 6 7 5E Similarly the red and kHz. 429'9 and 420 between 85 095 l4 182.50 5F are24f and l8f frequencies greencomparison asthe regionbetween defined is lane A respectively. phase difference,at the zero with lines hyperbolic PositionFixing frequency,i.e. everyhalf'wavelength lines comperison two hyperbolic system Aswith anyhyperbolic (pig. O.+). Thus there are 30 purple,24 ted and given by the fix being mustbe identified, of position widths of i8 gtt.n lanesper zonewith baseline the hyperbolic wherethey intersect.With Decca m respectively' 587 and m m,440 are app-roximately-352 andlanes.Zones into zones patterns aredivided and runs master the from starts numbering end Lane at the master J starting A to by letters designated purple' for 50-79 of letters 0-23 for red,3O'47for greenand line. Thesequence base of the master/slave of hundredths two or read to one be can Decometers to coverthe wholepattern asnecessary repeats terms in fix position a illustrates 6.19 Figure a lane. havea line,zones (Fig.6.18). Alongthebase zone I (bottom oflanes: the red Decometerreads 10'47andl0'71 km, width of between constant fraction 0'30 lane (outer scale), l6 lane window), at the a wavelength to haff corresponding

96

at';
z InEiaEcTtoIlot ndt totmox LtxEs ts./ . at oF Potntox / - osl

DEccA co ORDTNAT RtD I ro i0\

DECQA CO-OnDttrATC dar:l O rs.O

FB 6.19 Plotting a position fix from Decometerreadings (courtesy the DeccaNavigatorCo. Ltd)

Although the dividing type receiverdoes not measure lanesthere is still ambiguitywithin a zone by the divisionprocess.For exampledividing caused the mastersignalby six givesriseto an output which can start on any of six cycles,only one of which is cyclesare known as notches. correct. The ambiguous in the The resultingambiguity is the sameasdescribed previousparagraph since,for example,an error of*l notch in the masterdivider output givesan error in the zone fraction readingof 1/6 while an error of -l notch in the red divider output givesan error in the zone fraction readingofl/8. The net error in the red zone fraction readingwould be ll6 - l18 = ll24 zone Resolvinglane Ambiguities or I lane. Sinceeach lane appearsto be the same,in so far as To resolvelane ambiguitiesmost Decca chains phase differencemeasurement is concerned,the pilot operatein the MP (multipulse)mode (an older V $rould know where he is, to within half a lane, in here). Eachstation in mode will not be discussed order to initially set the appropriateDecometerby tum, startingwith the master,transmitsall four hand. Thereafter,sincethrough gearingthe lane A (5f,6f,8f ,9f) simultaneously. frequencies fraction pointer drivesthe lane pointer and zone read- squence lasts20 s during which of transmissions out, the Decometer will recordthe correctco-ordinate time eachstation transmitsthe MP signals for 0'45 s. by an integratipnprocess.Any interruption in are summed, ln the receiverthe four frequencies receptionwould require a resettingof the Decometers. producinga compositewaveformwhich has a

(inner scale)while the green Decometer reads zone D, lane35,lane fraction0.80. Thus the Decca co-ordinates are I 16.30 and D 35.80, intersectingas $town. The accuracyobtained by using frcquency rnultiplicationis often not required for air navigation; furthermorea better s.n.r.can be achieved by dividing the receivedsigrals down to the fundamental. Sincephasecomparisonis at / the zonesare the 'lanes' for a dividing type receiver. Fractionsof a zonearemeasured to a resolutionof I llO24, i.e.just over l0 m.

97

5f

6t

predominant spike or pulse occurring at the fundamentalrate (Fig. 6.20). In a receiveremploying the multiplying method, with readout on Decometers,lane ambiguity is resolvedby feeding a lane identification meter such vernierpointer, identified that one arm of a six-armed by a rotating sector,indicatesthe correct lane. The sector is driven in accordancewith the phase differencebetween l/6 of the mastertransmission (remembered by a during the MP transmission phase-locked oscillator)and the fundamentalderived from an MP transmission.The vernierpointer is with the phasedifference drivenin accordance and six times tne betweenthe mastertransmission the fundamentalderivedfrom an MP transmission, drive being through I : 6 gearing. During the master the lane identification meter should MP transmission readzero and may be adjustedto do so if in error.

- summatibn(courtesy Fig. 6.20 Multipulsetransmission Co. Ltd) the DeccaNavigator

System(courtesythe Fig. 6.21 Mk 19 DeccaNavigation Co. Ltd) Navigator Decca

98

As eachMP trafismission occursthe appropriate Decometerlane readingshould correspondto the lane identification meter readingand may be adjusted if necessary. The current lane identification may be held to assist checkingbut will only be valid for a few seconds due to aircraft movement. ln a receiver employing the dividing method the MP transmissions provide a referencefrequency/ with which the phaseof eachdivider output can be compared. The phaseconrparison and subsequent correctiontakesplace automaticallywithin the divider circuits. This process, known as notching, removes ambiguity from the zone fraction data. ResolvingZone Ambiguity We haveseen how the particular lane (within a zone) in which the aircraftis flying can be identifiedbut the porsibilityof an incorrectzonereading still exists since zones, like lanes, areindistinguishable by the normalphase nreasurements. A zoneidentification meterresolves the zoneambiguity,not completely but to *'itlrin a group of five zones, i.e. a distance of over50 km on the baseline. An 8'2/signal is transmitted with the MP signals from eachstationin turn. A beat note betweenthe 8f and8.2f components of an MP transmission is producedhavinga frequencyof fl5. The masterbeat frequency is 'remembered' and compared with each slave beat tiequencyin turn. The resulting hyperbolic pattern haszero phasedifferences on lines five zones apart,givingthe required resolution. hstallation Different options are available two of which are strownin Figs6.2 I and 6.22. The Mk 19 receiveris capable of drivingDecometers (or digitalieadout) and/ora l1ightlog; the multiplyingmethod is usedto drive the Deconreters while the dividing method is usedto drive the flight log through a computer unit. The Mk l5 receiver usesthe dividingmethod only with readouton a flight log. Wherespace is at a premium,a Dectracposition fixing unit (PFU) may be installed in conjunction with eithera Mk 15 or Nlk l9 receiver.The Dectrac PFU contains one indicatorwith four scales and a singlepointer, effectively replacingthe Decometers but not allowingthe samedegree of accuracy in reading. althoughthis may be recovered by the additionof anothersmallunit. A zoneidentity readingcan be taken from the singleindicator. A capacitive type antenna is used,comprising a coppermeshwithin a fibreglass plate mounted flush with the aircraft skin. The meshis at least2 ft2 in area. A pre-amplifier/matching unit allowsa long

Fig.6,22 Decca Mk l5/Danac (courtesy navigation system theDecca Navigator Co.Ltd) feederrun. The antennashould be mounted as near to the centre of the aircraft aspossible, either above or below the fuselage.If below a fixed I 80" phase shift is appliedin the pre-amplifier. Mk lS/Danac Block DiagramOperation Figure6.23 showsa sirnplified block diagram of a Mk l5i Danacinstallation.A significant featureof the systemis the degree of automaticcontrol achieved. The receiver output is fed to the computer as four pulsetrainsrepresenting the received master, red, greenand purple signals divideddown to the fundamentalfrequency,f. .Themaster/slave phase differences at f aredigitallymeasured in the computer, thus givingthreehyperbolic linesof positioneach derived asa l0-bit binarynumberrepresentinglll}2a of a zone. The computer convertsthe Deccaco-ordinates into for the servos X and Y demandsignals driving the laterallymoving stylus and the verticallymoving chart respectively. The major computing effort is carried out oft'-lineon a more powerful computer which calculates to be usedin the hyperbolicto constants X-lz conversion. These constants arewritten on a 99

Fast/normal lock

zln"i"J",
Low signal Flightlog warning

P/E cclls Warning lamp Decca Navigator Mark 15 Receiver

#r; ffil I control I r|*'r L- l |Irl

\ \v_-/ ./

Danac controller
F i g . 6 . 2 3 D e c c a M k 1 S / D a n a cn a v i g a t i o ns y s t e m b l o c k diagram (courtesy the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd)

part of the chart,amongother data,in the non-visible form of a black and white ten-trackdigital Gray code cells. readby a line of ten photoelectric The )/ servoposition feedbacksignalis in the form of a 9-bit word derivedfrom nine of the digital tracks referredto above. The X servoposition feedback is a 9-bit word derivedfrom printed circuit sigrral mountedon the stylus tracksreadby wiper contacts the The servodrivesare,of course, carriage. differences betweenthe demandand feedbacksisnals. chainis of the correctDecca Selection by includingthe code automaticallyachieved read the frequencyamongthe constants represenling cells. Otherdata amongthe by the photoelectric are the zone valuesfor one or two constants checkpointson the chart (to which the stylus goes initially) and the chart scale. Settingup is largelyautomatic. If the required takesplace chart is in view the following sequence when the systemis switchedon: l. pushbutton lampslight for checkingpurposes, areread into the and the chart constants computerl 2. the stylus movesto a checkpoint and receiver locks on to requiredsignals; 100

3. zone fraction computation takesplaceusing for notching; MP transmissions 4. stylus takesup a position within a zone on the to the aircraftposition chartcorresponding within the true zone. If the zone is correctthe and thereafter the stylus OP button is pressed and chart shouldmove so as to foilow the movements.lf the stylusis in the aircraft's wrongzoneit may be manuallysetby pressing the pressure-sensitive SET and operating control. slewing The correctzoneis known from the zone identification indicator and the pilot's knowledgeof his positionto within five zonewidths. Whenthe 'flies off'-the current chart and on to the next aircraft (on the samechart roll) the stylus goesstraightto the aircraft position on the new chart except under in which case e.g.chainchange, conditions, certain the aboveinitial procedurerelatingto zone identificationand slewingis cariied out. The pilot may bring anotherchart into view by the slewing pressing LOOK AHEAD and operating the LOOK AHEAD button a second control. Pressing the new chart to remainin view,otherwise time causes the stylusis returned io the aircraft'spresentposition

(still calculated during LOOK AHEAD) on the previous chart. to go the system Pressing the INT button causes where.the MP and only mode into the integration off. It may facilities areswitched zoneidentification to selectINT when flying in a fringe area be desirable may sincespuriousor imperfect notching signals a the warninglamp to comeon, indicating cause positionand receiver displayed between discrepancy or output. On somechartscoveringfringe areas INT is selected without MP transmissions, chains automaticallyby a suitablechart constant. functions, one of The LOCK button hasseveral phase-locked oscillator which is to put the receiver hto a fast lock condition, providingthe warning lamp is on. It may alsobe usedto initiatethe automatic setting-uproutine when a new chart, brought into view by LOOK AHEAD, doesnot havethe same chart. coloursasthe previous from marking the The stylus may be prevented WRITE off, otherwisethe track of chart by selecting the aircraft will be tracedout on the ghart. The switchis the only control not TEST-DIM-BRIL previously it may be usedfor lamp test mentioned, level of the lamps. or to selectthe brightness but to saythe least, description is sketchy Theabove an ideaof how one Decca I hopeit will givethe reader performs its function. system configuration Navigator

W, X, designated with it, up to four slavetransmitters a centralposition Y and Z. The masteroccupies so far as the geography by the slaves surrounded linesareof the orderof 500-1000 allows. Base overland. but arereduced nauticalmilesoversea The rangeof the systemis about 1000 nautical and up to miles(from master)usinggroundwaves about 2000 nauticalmilesusingskywaves.The of the chainbut on the geometry accuracy depends may be in the orderof about400 ft at 350 nautical miles rangeto 1700 ft at 1000 nauticalmiles range the are used. With skywaves providedgroundwaves of l0 nautical miles in the order would be accuracy at 1500nauticalmilesrange. The Radiated Signals Pulses of 100 kHz r.f. are transmittedfrom all are synchronized stations. The slavetransmissions with thoseof the mastereither directly (triggeredby groundwave) or by useof atomicclocks. The master of the master delaybetweenthe time of transmission and eachslave(codingdelay) is fixed so that is locatedin the area whereverthe aircraft receiver will alwaysarrivein the same signals the slave covered, order after the master. Sinceall chainstransmit the samer.f., mutual by useof differentpulse must be avoided interference (p.r.p.)for eachchain. Therearea repetitionperiods eachof which have basicrates, total of six so-called asgivenin Table6.4. The chains rates eightspecific areidentifiedby their p.r.p.,thus chainSS7(Eastern hasa basicrateperiodof of North America) seaboard the ps (SS) is reduced by 700 ps since which 100000 rateis 7, hencethe periodbetween specific from the master(and from eachslave) transmissions per over l0 transmissions i.e.fractionally is 99 300 1,rs,

Loran C

lntroduction l.oran A was proposedin the USA in 1940, hdd trials overmuch of the north n 1942andwasimplemented has and westAtlantic in 1943. Sincethen coverage to many of the oceanic air routesof beenextended the world, but sometime in 1980the last Loran A Table 6.4 Basicand specificratesfor off. Sincethe transmitter shouldbe switched Loran C implementationof Loran A the family hasbeen extended to B, C and D. Loran B wasfound to be Specific Basic impracticaland Loran D is a short-range, periods repetition low-altitude system intendedfor usewhereline-of-sight ( subtract peiod ) is inadequate systemcoverage (tts) ( t t s ) pulsed LoranC is a long-range" hyperbolic navigation aid with accuracy approaching that of 0 0 30 000 H It was Deccaunderfavourable circumstances. 100 I 40 000 L introduced in 1960and now provides a valuable 200 2 s0 000 S the service in rpanypartsof the world, in particular 300 3 000 60 SH is. north andeastPacificand Atlantic. The system 400 4 80 000 SL to usedby many shipsand aircraftandwould appear 500 5 100 000 SS havean indefinite future. (hain Layout A transmitter, designated the master, hasassociated

6 7 8

600 700 800

101

second. Not all the basicratesare in useand indeed somemay neverbe usedsince6 X 8 = 48 chainsare unlikely to be needed. Groupsof eight pulsesof r.f. are transmittedfrom eachstation once during a repetition period. With synchronous detectionin the receiverthe eight pulses are combinedto give a much better s.n.r.than one would obtain with a singlepulse. The spacing betweenpulses within a group is I ms. The master transmitsa ninth pulsein its group, 2 ms after the eighth, for identification. Sometypes of interference (e.g.skywave contamination)can be discriminated against by use of phasecoding. The r.f. of certainpulseswithin a group hasits phasereversed; unlessthis is properly decoded in the receiversynchronous detectionwill give a loss of sigral power. Additionally, sincemasterand slave phase coding is different for a particularchain, decodingcan be usedto separate the received master signalsfrom the slavesignals.

To measure the time differencebetweenmasterand slavetransmissions corresponding'events' must be identified in each. Obviouslyfrom Fig. 6.24 it is impracticalto measure from leadingedgeto leading edgeor evento usethe lagging edges, consequently one of the cyclesmust be chosenin masterand slave transmissions and the time betweenthem measured. Such a process is known as cycle matchingor indexing. From the point of view of s.n.r.the eighth cycle is the obviousone for indexing;howeverit may be subjectto skywavecontaminationand therefore difficult to identify. The minimum differencein propagationtimesbetweenskywaveand groundwave is 30 prs, so up to and includingthe third cycle the pulseis clear. For this reasonthe third cycle is usuallychosenfor indexing,particularlyin fully automatic equipment. An automaticreceiver would selectthe third cycle by looking for the unique change of amplitude betweenthe secondand fourth cycle; in this way the indedng circuitsare able to lock on. The transmission of the first eight pulses must be accurate and consistent sincean error in indexing of one cycle would give a l0 ps time differenceerror. If indexingis carriedout manuallyusinga c.r.t. to display the pulses, on time-bases of decreasing durationasthe process proceeds, useofup to the eighth cycle may.bepossible with a skilled operator.

Installation A Loran C systemmay consistof up to five units, namely antenna,antennacoupler,receiver, c.r.t. indicatorand controlunit. A c.r.t. displayis used where the indexingprocedure is manualor where, if automatic,it is thought necessary to provide the operatorwith monitoring of the procedure. On some systems indexingis manualbut thereafterthe third Fig 6.24 Loran C pulseand pulse format cycle is trackedautomatically. Figure6.25 showsthe DeccaADL-S1 Loran C/D The pulseduration is approximately270 ps, i.e. a receiver and control indicator; an aerialand coupler total of about 27 cyclesof r.f. in eachpulse. To would be neededto completethe installation. The radiatea pulseof short rise-timeleadsto problemsin ADL-8 I is fully automaticprovidingdigital time frequencyspectrumspreading and transmittingantennadifferencereadoutswith a resolutionof 100 ns on the designat the low carrierfrequencyinvolved. In fact control indicator and 50 ns via a computer interface. -indexing 99 per cent of the radiatedenergy must be in the band Synchronization providesthird cycle in 90'l l0 kHz, hencethe slow rise and dbcaytime goundwave covdrand optimum cycle indexiig during illustrated\n Fig. 6.24 (in which the signalformat, iky*au. working. Three time-difierences are m:Nterand three slaves, is alsoshown). The maximum computed,two of which may be displayed. Tunable amplitudeoccursby the eighth cycle. automaticnotch filters providerejeition of the strongest interferingsignals.Overallsystem Principlesof Operation performimcechecksmay be performedusingbuilt in . The basicprinciplesof a pulsedhyperbolic iest equipment(BITE). navigationaid havebeengivenearlierin the chapter. The antennais usuallya capacitive type, sometimes 102

Fig.6.25 ADL-81 Loran C/D (courtesy theDecca Navigator Co.Ltd) serving both ADF sense and Loran, in which casean antennacouplerwould providethe necessary impedance matchingand isolationlor the two receivers served.A pre-amplifier may be included for the Loran feed. Block Diagram Operation The received sigralsare separated into n:asterand groupsby the phasedecodecircuits,the groups slave beingfed to the appropriatemasterand slavephase lock loops(p.l.l.). In Fig. 6.26 only one slave p.l.l. is shownbqt in practicethere will be a minimum of two to providethe two hyperbolicl.o.p. requiredfor a fix. p.l.l.swould enable Threeslave an automatic system to selectthe two which gavethe bestangleof cut, althoughthe calculations involvedwould probably be carriedout by a computerto which the three would be fed. readings time-difference of Gatepulseformersfeedthe p.l.l.swith a series by I ms and of, say,5 ps duration. eight pulses spaced The object of the p.l.i. is to providea signalto the gate the corresponding oscillator,.driving appropriate pulseformer, so that the phaseof the oscillator,and hencetiming of the gatepulse,is alteredsuchthat eachgatepulseis coincidentwith somespecificpoint pulse. The rate at on the third cycle in any received is set to which the gatepulsegroupsaregenerated equalthe rateof the required chain. The basicideaof indexing,as carriedout by the p.l.l.s, is asfollows. ln Fig. 6.27 line I is a pulse. edgeof a received of the leading representation of the leading edge of a Line 2 is a representation

103

Fig.6.26 LoranC simplified block diagram

10

20

30

40

5O rrs

Fig.6.27 A methodof indexing

pulseafter it hasbeendelayedby l0 ps and received amplifiedby a factor of 1.5. It can be seenthat lines I and 2 crossat a time 30 ps after the pulseleading 104 ,

edge. Line 3 is a representation of the result of subtracting the delayedand amplifiedreceived pulse from the received pulse. Sincethe crossover point of this differencesignalis at 30 ps it can be usedasa servosignalto set the gatepulsetiming for with the tlfrd cycle. The futl bandu,idth coincidence of 20 kHz is required pulseshape to preserve during the indexingprocess, althoughinitial signal acquisition may take place with a restricted bandwidthin orderto improvethe s.n.r. Oncephase lock is established, time-difference rcadoutis easily achieved b1istarting and stopping a counterwith the master and 4ppropriate gate slave pulsegrouprespectively. Acquisition of the received frasterand slave pulses. i.e. the initial aligrmentto a point wherethe p.l.l. can takeover,may be carried out by the operator or automatically. With manualacquisition pulses both received and gatepulses aredisplayed on a c.r.t.;a slewing controlallowsthe operator to align the gatepulses with the third cycleof the received pulses by useof diff'erenttime-base selections for the (time-base A-typedisplay horizontal deflection, signal vertical deflection).With automatic acquisition the gatepulsegroups mustbe slewed or swept autolnatically until the p.l.l. cantrack successfully.

7 Distance measuring equipment

VOR in fact providethe standardICAO short-range navigationsystem. A DME beaconmay also be (DME) equipment is a secondary locatedon an airfield equippedwith ILS, thus giving Distance measuring while on an ILS readout slantrange continuous radarpulsedrangingsystemoperatingin the band approach, suchuseof DME is limitedat present. MHz. The originsof this equipmentdate 978-1213 I'ACAN is a military systemwhich givesboth systemdevelopedin back to the Rebecca-Eureka to a fixed beacon. range and bearingwith respect War II. International agreement BritainduringWorld The rangingpart of TACAN has the same of the current systemwas not on the characteristics as civil DME. Thereare,however,more has characteristics reached until 1959but sincethen implementation with TACAN sinceit utilizes an channels available beenrapid. range of 962-1213 MHz. Thusa extended frequency The systemprovidesslantrangeto a beaconat a civil aircraft equippedwith DME can obtain range between fixed point on the ground. The dift-erence from a TACAN beaconprovidedthe measurement slantrangeand ground range,which is neededfor frequency to the operating of the tuned DME be can purposes, the aircraft is very is srnallunle5s navigation aircraft a DME Many civil carry TACAN concerned. high or closeto the beacon. Figure7.1 showsthe which coversthe full frequencyrange. relationship betweenslant range,ground rangeand heightto be:

Introduction

s2 = G2+ (r46oso)2

(7.1)

Transponder

lnterrogator

igroring the curvatureof the earth. To seethe effect an error in rangeof I per cent, i.e. of this consider and S = l'01G. Substitutingfor G, rearranging we have: evaluating

s +/t8s3
for a I per cent error. Thus at 30 000 ft if the DME readoutis greaterthan about 35 nauticalmiles the error is lessthan I per cent,while at 5000 ft greater than about 6 nauticalmiles readoutwill similarlv givean error lessthan I per cent. Givingrange,DME alonecan only be used for three readings position fixing in a rho-rho scheme, beingneededto removeambiguity. With the additionof bearinginformation, suchas that derived DME and from VOR, we havea rho-thetascherne;
Frg.7.2 The d.m.e.sYstem

BasicPrinciples
coded r.f. pulse The airborneinterrogatorradiates within the band978-1213MHz pairsat a frequency antenna.A ground from an omnidirectional (the beacon), within rangeof the aircraft transponder and operatingon the channelto which the interrogator the interrogationand receives is selected, the beacontransmitterafter a automaticallytriggers radiation fixed delayof 50 irs. The omnidirectional from the beaconis codedr.f. pulsepairsat a frequency frequency. the interrogation 63 MHz below or above by the suitablytuned This reply is received is fed to the and after processing intenogator receiver

Gnm Fig. 7.1 Slantrange/ground r?ngetriangle

105

rangecircuits where the round trip travel time is ccmputed. Rangeis givenby:

beaconif there are reflectingobjectsinconveniently placedwith respectto the aircraft and the beacon. possibilityarises This sincethe antennas at both ends (7.2) R = (r - so)lt2'3s9 of the link areomnidirectional. Shouldsucha 'dog where:R is the slant rangedistancein nautical leg'path occur.the round-triptraveltime Z in milesto or from the beacon;I is the time in equation(.7 .2\ may be that for the long way round between transmission microseconds of the furs) and thus lead to a readoutin excess of true short interrogationand receptionof the reply. The range. constants in the equation are 50 prs corresponding To describethe way in which the systemdesign to the fixed beacon delay,l2'359 prs beingthe with this it is necessary copes to introduceseveral time taken for r.f. energyto travel I nautical mile new termswhich aredefinedand explained below. and return. Jitter Dellberaterandom variationof the time intervalbetween successive interrogations. Each 5J i t t e r i n g (pair) i n t e r r o g a t op rr t r d l l g sa pulse (p.r.f.)'which,overa periodof repetitionl-requency several interrogations, describes a uniquepattern sincethc variations are random. With an interrogation rate of, say, 100,the average interval between interrogations will be l0 ms,with any particular intervalbeingbetween say9 and I I ms. patternenables The uniqueiuterrogation the DME to repliesto its own interrogationby recognize techniques. stroboscopic

Both beaconand transponder usea single omnidirectional antenna shared between transmitter and receiverin eachcase. This is possible sincethe systemis pulsed,and diplexingis simplesincethe transmit and receive frequencies are different. Onceevery30 s the beacon transmits its identity which is detected by the pilot asa Morsecodeburst of threelettersat an audiotone of I 350 Hz. It should from the beacondurine be noted that the r.f. radiated identification is of the samelorm aswhen transmitting repiies,i.e.pulsepairs. The difference is that when replyingthereare randomintervals transmissions between whereas duringidentification the intervals areconstant at l/l350th of a second.

Automatic Stattdby Often rei'erred to as signal-activated search.Whenthe aircraftis out of range of the beaconto rvhichthe airborne DNIEis Further Principles and Terminology tuned,no signals will be received. This stateinhibits By now the reader may haveidentifiedseveral interrogations until suchtime as the aircraftis within problems with the principles of system operationas range and signals are received. described. With DME, many aircraftwill be asking 'what implementation The of this featuredetermines the beacon is my range?', the beacon will reply whetherinterrogations commence asa resultof mean to all of them,the problembeinghow eachis to signal levelexceeding somepredetermined levelor the identify its own reply. Anotherproblemis how to rateof signals beingreceived exceeds some preventthe airborneDME interrogatingan predetermined rate. The two alternatives areequivalent out-of-range beaconsincethis would be wastefulof asthe aircraft approaches the beaconfrom beyond equipment life. It is obvious that the DME operationmust be in at maximum range,and typically interrogations commence when the received signalcount is in excess leasttwo phases sincewe cannot expect an per of 300-400 second. They arenot equivalent when instantaneous readoutof the correctrange the the aircraft is closeto the beaconsincethe mean momentwe select a beacon.Theremust be some periodwhen the DME is acquiringthe rangefollowbd signallevelwill be raiseddue to signalstrength; the requiredrate is much reducedfor by a period, hopefully much longer,during which the consequently the former altei'native.This is of littie consequence indicatorcontinuoushdisplays the correctreading. In this latter period rvemust considerthe eventuality when the aircraft is well within range;one would not of a temporary lossof reply suchasoccursduringthe expect the DME to be on auto standby. When however, an auto standbycircuit (ident)signal transmission by the gound testing, of the identiflcation which monitors mean signallevel-can give unexpected, all beacon, or perhaps during'manoeuvre'when but not unexplainable, results sincethe test set might be iost. signals (beacon sirnulator) will normallyoutput We haveassumed that the r.f. anergywill travelin constant-strength signais regardless of rangesimulated. a straightline from aircraft to beaconand back. This of coursewill be the caseunlessthere are any Squitter The auto standbycircuit will not allow that however,it is possible obstructions intervening; interrogations to commence until it detects signals theremay be more than one path to or from the

106

from the beacon. When a sufficient number of Should more than 2700 interrogations per secondbe intenogatingaircraft are within rangeof the beacon received the sensitivityis reducedstill further, thus thereis no problem, sinceanother aircraft coming maintainingthe service for thoseaircraft closestro within rangewill receiveall the replies and thus bigin the beacon. to interrogate. If, however,we considerthe beacon In fact the nominal madmum of 100 aircraft is havingjust come on line or the first flight, after a exceeded sinceinterrogationrateson track (see quiet period, approaching the beacon,we havea below) are considerably lessthan twenty-seven for -chicken-and-egg situation: the beaconwill not reply modernequipment,and further the interrogatordoes unless interrogated; the interrogatorwill not not need 100 per cent repliesin order to maintarn interrogate unlessit receives signals. readout ofrange. The beacon capability of 100 From the explanation thus far there are in fact aircraft may be reducedif peak traffic is much less sigralsavailable, than this figure. namely ident, but this meansan aircraft may haveto wait 30 s, perhapsmore in weak signalareas, before coming out of auto standby. This Search During searchthe range-measuring circuits of is unacceptable; the interrogatorhavenot recognized consequently the beaconis made to those pulses transmit pulse pairs even in the absence arnongstthe total receivedwhich have the same of interrogations.Such transmissions jittering pattern as the interrogation. The from the ground beaconare known collectivelyas lsquitter' to interrogationrate is high so as to decrease search time, distinguish them from replies. When the random the maximum rate allowedbeing 150 s-r. The search squitterpulsepairs are received time in a modern equipmentis typically lessthan I s. the airborne equipment startsto interrogate. A p.r.f. of 135 is avoided since it may cause A beaconmust transmit randomly distributed interference with the bearingmeasurement function pulsepairsat a repetition rate of at least700; this of TACAN. The readoutwill be obscuredby a .flag' minimum rate includesdistancerepliesas well as if of the mechanical type, or will be blankedif squitter. Beacons which supply a full TACAN service, electronic.The counterdrumsof an electroi.e. rangeand bearing,must maintain a rate of 21.00 mechanical indicator can be seento be rotating when pulsepairsper second. In order to achievethis during the interrogatoris searching; an electronicindicator ident an equalizing pair of pulsesis transmitted may havea lamp or Le.d.which illuminatesduring 100ps aftereachidentity pair. A range-only search. DME beaconat a constantduty cycle of 27OO It is an ICAO recommendation puisepairs that if after l5 000 per second pairsof pulses is not ruled out. havebeentransmittedwithout Ifwe considerthe caseof a beaconwith a constant acquiringindication of distancethen the p.r.f. should duty cyclein a quiet period all transmittedpulsepairs not exceed60 until a change in operatingchannelis aresquitter,apart from during the dots and dashes madeor a successful search is completed. In practice of the ident signaltransmission.With one aircraft using useof automaticstandbycircuitsand searchp.r.f.s as the beaconinterrogatingat a rate of, say, 27 then the low as,say,40 in modernequipments makesthis numberof squitter pulsepairswill be recommendation redundant. 2700 - 21 = 2673 s-r while the reply pulse pairswill number27 s-t. Two aircraftwould Gad to isquitter Track Dunng track the range-measuring circuits, rate of 2646 s-t and a reply rate of 54 s-r andio on havingacquiredthe reply pulses, follow their early or until we arriveat a condition of beaconsaturation late arrivalas the aircraft movestowardsor away from with a nominalmaximumof 100 aircraft the beacon.Continuous range readoutis givenwith interrogating.We can seethat all the squitter pulse. the'flag'out of view. The p.r.f. is low. In order to pairshavebecomesynchronized optimize beaconcapabilitya maximum average with received p.r.f. interrogations.From the interrogator'spoint of view of 30 is laid down. This assumes that 95 per -ent of all received pulsepairs appearto be squiiter except the time is occupiedby tracking,thus: thoseidentified by the rangecircuits as being ,rp-lim 9sr+ss < 3000 to its own interrogations. Q3) where:7is the track p.r.f. andS the search p.r.f. Maintaininga constantduty cycle for the beaconis achieved by varying the receiver sensitivity. When no In practicemodernequipments may havetrack p.r.f.s interrogations are received sensitivityis sufficiently of less than 10. high for noiseto trigger the beaconmodulator 2700 In someequipments the transitionfrom search to timesper second. As interrogations are receivedthe track, during which the rangemeasuring circuits check sensitivitydecreases so maintainingthe duty cycle. they havein fact acquiredthe correctsignals, is

107

ttl identity known asacquisition.lt is convenient terntsinceit takesa llnite. this eventby a separate is neither short.time and the equipntcnt thoupilr or tracking. s e a r c l t i rn rg

a rangeof zero,or nearzero,nauticalmiles. simulates 'lhus commences after self-testthe outbound search zero. or near fiorn at

PcrcentageRepll' rNecan seefrom the abovethat not evenif the will giveriseto replies all interrogations will not arelost an interrogator Mennry If replies is well within range.lt may or auto standbybut will aircraftconcerned revertto search immediately duringthe arrives that an interrogation happen enterits memorycondition;this rrtaybe one of two of lossof causes Other tirne. ground dead receiver W i t h m e n l o r y static or velocity. t y p e se , i t h e rs t a t i c and the beacon from transmission ident are replies with whereas steady, is maintained the readout by other recbiver of the interrogator suppression at to change velocitymemorythe readoutcontinttes L band equipment.Everytime an L band airborne its lastknown rate. Mentorytime will norrnallylie or DME i.e. ATC transponder equipment, 4 and 12 s. between pulseis senton a suppression transmits, interrogator, the are re-acquired, If, duringmemory,replies a commonline to all other L band equipment.This thus the pilot will will continuetracking: equipment may well be when a reply would otherwisehavebeen a falsewarning. At the end of havebeenspared received. at all beingreceived, if tltereareho signals nremory, from Ignoring,for the moment, ident transmission will the equipment autostandbywill ensue;otherwise transponder ATC to due the ground and suppression searching. commence reply percentage replieswe can calculatea worst-case ps and 60 time of dead a beacon Assuming figure. Echo Protection The possibilityof the interrogator maximum capability operatingconditionsof 21OO reflection must which havesuffered replies tracking per second,we havea total deadtime interrogations both on the ground,for the against, be guarded = 1 6 20 0 0 p s s - r ; i . e .d e a dt i m e X 2 7 0 O 6 0 path,and in the air, for the reply path. o f interrogation percent of total time. The 16'2 constitutes of the on the geography On the ground,depending (average) of No. 2 DME is 30 with p.r.f. maximum will arrive or echointerrogation terrain,the reflected of not greaterthan 60 ps; pulse width a suppression Thus interrogation' line-of'sight after the a short time for at most be suppressed will I DME thus No. for long enough is suppressed if the ground receiver = p e r p s c e n to f t h e t i m e . 0 ' 1 8 s r ; i . e . l 8 0 O X 6 0 3 0 the echowill not of an interrogation reception a{'ter - l6'38 = 83'62 per cent 100 with left we are Thus period, or trigge.r a reply. Normallya suppression exceptionally asthe reply rate exPectation. time, of up to 60 gs is sufficient; deacl occursonce every 30 s The ident transmission up to 150ps may be necessarY. than 4 s. will be less time key-down total the when A similarsituationexistsin the air but a different and of dots consists group transrnitted code The and solutionis normallyemployed.The line-of-sight 'dashes s 0'3-0'375 s a n d 0 ' l 0 ' 1 2 5 d u r a t i o n t i m e o f jittering the same exhibit will both the echo replies is dashes and dots between time The respectively. the line-of-sight however, p.r.f. asthe interrogator; uuullubl.for replies. We havethe situation where echo' To beforethe corresponding reply arrives three replieswill be lost during a dot, and about arranged is echo protection the interrogator achieve a track p.r.f. of ten duringa dash,assuming about zero at commences the search If outbound. to search with a lower equipment a modern about2l . For nauticalmilesand movesout, then the first set of these Under less. even be will losses reply p.r.f., for the repliessatisfyingthe rangecircuit's search the to calculate not sensible it is circumstances true to the jitter patternwill be thosecorresponding of the effect the since reply percentage exp'ected protection on changing guarantee echo To iung.. ident is possibiyto make the interrogatorgo into after memory search channelor before commencing memory, particularlywhen a dashis transmitted' or auto standby,the rangecircuitsshouldbe Sincethe memory time is at leastaslong as the is This miles condition. returnedto the zero nautical total key-downtime the momentaryswitch between wherethe reverse done in someequipments will not be movementtowards zero may be known as a reciprocal track and memory and back to track the bY noticed place. In Pilot. althoughno interrogationtakes search, engineer It shouldbe noted by the maintenance is outbound from the wheresearch other equipments, that in simulatingident durlrg a ramp test the ident last reading,echoprotection is likely but not ratherthan keyed,aslong will be continuous, guaranteed.In this latter situationuseof the self-test sigpal on the test set is held on. switch the appropriate as since svitch or button will givefull echo protection for longerthan the memory is simulated ident if which Thus facility a self-test have virtually all interrogators 108

a circularpath centredon the beaconwould register time the interrogatorwill start to search,This is indicator! DME the on zero of ground speed test set the on switch one usefulsinceoperationof gound If the airborneequipmenthas calculated allowsthe checkingof ident tone with its associated to station give time to matter a simple it is speed, p.r.f. volume control, memory time and search = replies,and hence (beacon)sinceTTS DST/KTS whereTTS is time to produces The ATC transponder station.DST is slant rangeand KTS (knots) is the pulses, only when interrogated. If an suppression Again this is only a usefulindication aiiciaft is wilhin rangeof one interrogatorit will only gound speed. is on courseto/from the beaconand aircraft ttrJ wtren be interrogatedabout thirty timesper sweep' With a it. from distance some say rateof say 12 r.p.m.and a beamwidth of sweep of the ground speedmeasuring time constant The time a during occur will 5o thesethirty interrogations circuitis longbut cancopewith aircraftacceleration' interval givenby the product of 5/360 and 60112, one mustwait sometime however, ln groundtesting. the p.r.f' i.e. aboui 0'07 s. For thirty interrogations to take up the simulated reading ground speed foithe the would needto be 30/0'07 430 which is closeto the ramp testset,slnce on selected velocity of to value situation similar a maximum p.r.f. of 450. We have one is simulatingan infinite velocity a switching-in in the i.e' transmission, ident loss during the reply acceleration. o..uti.n". is relativelyinfrequent;for example0'07 in 5 s. If the aircraftis within rangeof more than one interrogatorthe total interrogationtime in, say, 5 s is Interrogation increased. the effect on DME only during the Considering is replyingwe have, The full TACAN interrogationfrequencyrangeis time the ATC transponder the s p a c i n gT . }rus a 450 and of rate 1 0 2 5 - l1 5 0M H z w i t h 1 N { H z an ATC interrogation assuming frequencit's possible 116 of one be ps, percentage will of 30 interrogation pulse duration suppression The r'f is keyed selected. on the channel tlepending iime = 450 X 30 X 100/I 000 000 = l'35 suppression 'rn dcpendenl is which timing, worst'case by pulsepairs. The per cent. If we alsotakeinto accountthe 7'-1' Fig' in illustrated per Y' is or X 83'62 of selection, cirannel reply for the DME system percentage ..nt *. haveduring this short time 83'62 1'35, 3'5trs 82 per cent replies.In fact the DME interrogator - 1 l l x .op. *ith this and remainon track' stroutO J The aboveis not quite the whole story. The who, on intention is to allay the fearsof students I I l2irs canbe lost, wonder findingout how manywaysreplies how on earthDME worksat all. The few simplecalculationsgivenshowthat the situationis in fact be worsethan sugIt can,however, quitesatisfactory. that only requires the ICAO specification gested since havea 70 per centreplyefficiency; iit. OVf beacon pulse spacing Fig.7.3 Interrogation being mentioned, not previously one of the reasons, Even for self-monitoring' that time mustbe allorved of on the nlodeof operation The p.r.f. is dependent percentage with will cope interrogators DME so most theDME: lower than 50 per cent' asiow as.or replies Search 40-I 50 Average l0-30 Track Ground Speedand Time To Station The interrogator -Average to the beacon monitorsthe slantrange continuously design equipment on tl-re actualp.r.f.depends The asthe aircraftflies will change which,of course, There given. ligures minimutrl than and may be lower of or awayfrom the beacon.Measurement p.r.f. due to in the average ' towards variation a small will be of gives. the speed of slantrange the rateof change that 95 per centof p.r.f.,assuming jitter. The average Such the beacon. to or departure approach than 30' The on track' must be less is spent time the DMEs out by most airborne is carried measurement polarization' vertical with is omnidirectional radiation groundspeed.tt is asso-called and presenteci that the readoutcan importantthat the pilot realizes asground speedwhen the aircraft R e p l y only be considered is flying directly towardsor away from the beacon 962 and between The r.f. at one of 252 frequencies from it. An aircraft flying a and is somedistance

L=--------*l

r09

in the full _.._. IA!{I-fr.guency range.The-repty trequency is 63 MHzabove or belowtheintiriogating Table7.1 Frequency pairing asshown in Fig.7.4. fne chann.ispacing fre.quency, is I MHzfor bothinterrogation andreply. The' v.h.f. nav.freq. v.h.f. allocation TACANchannels arenumbered lX,ly,'. . . liOX, r26Y. r08.00 VOR Using Fig.7.4we see that channel 20X , say, 108.05 VOR corresponds to aninterrogation at 1044 M;Hz';nd a r08.10 ILS replyat 981MHz,whilechannel I16I,, say, 1 0 85 .1 ILS corresponds to aninterrogation at I140 MHzanda replyat 1077MHz.

conjunction with VOR and, largely as a future requirement,ILS. To achieve ttris,OUe Uru.on, "r. co-located wirh VOR or ILS beaconr,in1r" i.j"g prescribed maximum separation fi.its 1a"nr"'i to the conventionon InternationalCivil A'v",j"rl. Wherewe havecoJocation constituting a sinele X and Y Channel Arrangements fapility the two systems should;;;il ""'"ii""o"ra frequency pairing (Table7.1).r,i rr."r1nii r""'' and 252 replyfrequenciesassociated identity signal. Jh...rr1.-..lZ!^i1t-elryCation

l2l3 MHz isteyed by pulse pairs the timing of which is similar to that given in f ig. I .5, the differince being e1l f channelspacing is 30 prs, not 36 pr. ffrc radiationis omnidirectionalwith verticalpoiarization.

TACAN channel

ii1lo

19t

l7x t7Y l8x t8Y

Eeacon reply

Aircraft interrogation

Beacon reply X

63Y 1 1 5 0 I Y 1c|aR r26Y 1087 64Y 1025

I r50

--'--'t'-

1213 126X 1't51 d4x 112.25

n2.ro

l I 1.95 I12.00 l12.05

.'?{
56Y 57X 57Y 58x 59Y 70x t26y

ILS VOR VOR VOR

t088 -'f-'-r1 0 8 7 -*__\l\_ 1 0 2 5 -_|.__\a

r12.30
to24 63X 962 t x

VOR VOR VOR

t17'95

With standardfrequehcypairingthe need for separate DME and v.h.f.nav.contiol unitsis eliminated.It is normalpractice For civil DME beacons for u .o.Uin"O the 52 channelsl-16, X controllerto be used, and the selected nd 60-69, frequency X andy,are avoided i"it*. indicationbeinggivenin termsof tne v.h.f. reasons.Firstly DME is meant to be used nav. in frequency.Thusa selection coniunction of 10g.05 with VOR and ILS, which occupy200 Uffr-woufO tune the v.h.f. nav. receiver channels to that frequencyund the ratherthan 252. Secondly, having h'fty_two DME to the paired redundantchannels, channel l7y. the gapsare chosento-overlap Someequipments havea hold facility whereby, fre[uencies . "f l0i0;;;' lle lTC transponder when engaged. a change 1090MHz to avoid any p-ossible in the selectea ".fr.f."u". interference, lrequencywill not cause althoughdifferent codesand ,nr,u.i ,"iprJrJion the DME channelto change. "r" W.hen.using hold, rangeand bearinginfo.rn"iion i, also usedfor this purpose. given but not to a common point. This could The useof_thefifty+wo missingchannels lead to is, howpilot navigationerror, to .uoid ttris ever,not precluded a warninf tr*nr r, by the ICAO;they may be allocilluminated when hold is sele areoon a nationalbasis.The fact that cted; n.*rtf,.i."rr,'ror. civii aircraft national authoritiesfrown upon the availabilit rnay wish to useTACAN beacons of means thai many sucha faciliry. DME interrogators havethe full ZSi.f,.""rfr.' In Table 7.1 the frequencypairingarrangements shown.i Uring"uiio.ut.O lt1:Lo*n. The frequencies to-ILS are,ofcourse, localizer frrqu.n.irrit. tigtrrt The Link With v.h.f. Navigation of which is I I I .95 MHz. The gfi.iepatfr/ioJirel frequencypairingis not affectel tV IUE p.iri"g. As stated previously DMEis meant to beused in ThoseTACAN channels not pairedwith v.h.f. nav.

Fig,7.4 .Y/y channel arrangements

110

dnnnels may nevertheless still be required. In this v.h.f. nav. controllers. The RNAV facility (see casethe pairingsfor channels lX to I 6Y are Chapter l2) nray not be available, in which caseslant 134.40-135.95 MHz and for channels 60X to 69Y are rangewould be fed direct to the HSI or often, a 133'30-134'25MHz solely lor the purposeof separate DME indicator in which speedand time is selection on combined controllers.Selection of one computed. wirh a DME indicator fitted the HSI may ol thesechinnelswould only give rangeinformation still act asa repeater for slant range. ro an aircraftnot equipped with full TACAN. Associated identity is the term givenfor qynchronization ofthe ident signals from co-located beacons. Each30 s intervalis dividedinto lbur or rnoreequalpartswith the DME beacon ident transn'ritted duringone periodonly and the associated v.h.f.facility ident duringthe renraining periods. Associated identity would alsobe usedwith a Vortac beacon which provides bearing and range information to both civil and military aircraft. A TACAN (or DME) beacon not co-located with VOR would use ndependent identity. .

Instattation The DME interrogatorcomesin rrranyforms; airline standard equipment is rack-mounted general whereas aviation interrogators rriaybe panel-rnounted with integral controlsand digrtalreadout. King havegone one betterwith their KNS 80 integrated nav.system sinceone panel-rnounted box containsthe DME interrogator: v.h.f.nav.recejver and converter, glideslope receiver,RNAV computerplus integral controlsand readout groundspeed, of range, and (courtesy Fig.7.6 KPI 533pictorial navigation indicator time to station (seeFig. I .10). KingRadio Corp.) Figure7.5 showsa singleDME installationwith a combinedv.h.f. nav./DMEcontroller,an output to an Co-axialcables areusedfor antennafeederand suppression. With a dual ATC transponder and dual DME installationall four setswill be connected in parallelfor suppression purposes, so that when one transmitsthey are all suppressed. The antennais mounted on the underside of the fuselage in an approvedposition. Sufficientspacing betweenall Lband equipmentantennas must be allowedto help preven t mutual interference, althoughsuppression, different frequencies, p.r.f.s and pulsespacing all contribute to this. Tuning information to both DME and the v.h.f. nav. receiver is likely to be 215,althoughb.c.d. and Fig.7.5 DMEinstallation with RNAVtie-in slip codesmay be found. Screened preferably cables, twisted and screened, areusedfor transferof RNAV computer/controller and with slant rangeand analogue or digital data and alsofor audio groundspeedor time to station displayedon an HSI identificationto the audio integratingsystem. The (Fig. 7.6). All largeraircraft would havea dual audio may be routed through the controllerif a installation, possiblywith changeover relaysfor HSI volume control is irrcorporated in the system. Other feeds. A combinedcontrolleris usuallyfound, but it controller/DMEinterconnections are for self-test, off, is possibie (not advised) to haveseparate DME and standbyand on.

111

Controls and Operation A drawingof a combinedcontrolleris shown in for DME areminimal. a (Fig.4.9). Controls Chapter is usuallyby rotary click stop Frequencyselection knobs,the digitat readoutof frequencyon the e'g. beingthe v.h.f.nav.frequency, controller may 108'00 MHz. The DME on/off switching 'standby' incorporatea standbyposition. Usually that VOR/ILS is on, while DME is on indicates disabled.Sucha switchis i.e. standby transmitter 'off'-v.h.f. nav, and DME off; often marked 'receive' - v.h.f.nav.on, DME standby; 'transmit' - both v.h.f. nav.and DME on. A self-test switch will be providedon the controlleror, rarely, be panel-mounted.Further switchingtakesplaceon (KTS or SPD)or the indicatorfor groundspeed (TTS or MIN). A hold switchmay time-to-station note on'hold'). alsobe found (seeprevious just switchon, tune to is simple; Operation lock-on after a brief requiredbeaconand ensure driven search.lf the indicator employsa mechanically during the reading obscure will digital readouta flag digitalreadoutthe with an electronic whereas search, displaywill be blanked. Whentuning to a different beaconthe ident signalshouldbe checkedto ensure Also if the hasbeenselected. the correctchannel its out from which searches of a type is DME must be operatedto last-knownreadingthe self-test return the dialsto near zeroso that an outbound reply will resultin lock'on to a line-of-sight search which with DMEs Even echo. not an and out from zero af'tera channel automaticallysearch shouldbe operatedoccasionally' the self-test change Simplified Block Diagram Operation diagramof Fig. 7 .7 canbe usedto explain The bl<rck of virtuallyall DME interrogators. the operation will occur when comparingtypes Naturallyvariations will circuits the range'measuring of DME; in particular and further. as reflect the ingenuityof the designer madethe havein recentyears one rvouldexpect, techniques. to digrtal analogue from transition the p.r.f. of a timing divides A jitter generator oscillatoroutput by a variabledivisor. For example p.r.f. of 400 a divisorof approximately with a basic provide a track p.r.f' of 20, while a divisor 20 would p.r.f. of 4 would providea search of approximately of DME is to the operation 100. Of vital importance so that if on track randomly, that the divisorvaries may occur say, l5 and 25 timingpulses thenbetween, /s from the jitter output pulses betweensuccessive generator. 112

ts are fed to the modulator and thus The pulses The modulator decidethe time of transmission. which spacing pulsepairsof the appropriate produces r.f. The power amplifiers. key the transmitter in turn the output of by a frequencysynthesizer is generated local oscillatoraswell as as receiver which serves transmittermasteroscillator. The amplifiedr.f. is fed antenna. to and radiatedfrom an omnidirectional The peak power output of a modem airline standard DME will be about 700-800W nominal. mixer via a pulsesare fed to the receiver Received and gives rejection image which tuned preselector In signal. the transmitted from protection some addition duplexingaction will normally be employed mixer protection during to ensurereceiver Sincethe transmit and received transmission. are always63 MHz apart,the frequency frequencies aboveand the i.f. can be usedasdescribed synthesizer may is tunedto 63 MHz. A dual superhet amplifier output will be the be employed. The receiver detectedvideo signal. The decodergivesan output pulsefor each output pair of pulses.The decoder correctlyspaced aircraft plus of repliesto all interrogating consists p.r.f. of at the identification squitteror pulses gives pass a filter a band case which in Hz, 1350 system. 1350Hz tone output to the audiointegrating coming The auto standbycircuitcountsthe pulses a and if the rateexceeds from the decoder the figure(say400 per second)euables predeternrined jitter generator. If the rateis low therewill be no A third andhenceno interrogation. modulatortrigger gate. range to the fed is output decoder /o are effectivelydelayedand The zero time pulses in the variabledelay which is controlled stretched or track circuits' The output of eitherby the search termedthe rangeSate often delay, the variable gate?'ps after every the range opens waveform, If a reply or squitterpulseis received interrogation. gateis open.a pulseis fed to at a time when the range counter' Assumethe DME is the cr.rirrcidence rateof 100,and with an interrogation searching gatingpulses gatewavelorm the range further,assume a period during then on average are20 ps in'duration, = for gate will open be prs range the 10000 of l/100 o n l y 2 0 p s ,i . e . l / 5 0 0 t h o r 0 ' 2 p e r c e n to f t h e t i m e ' occurrandomly replies Now squitterand unwanted at the rangegateis so the chanceof full coincidence output roughly I in 500 for eachof the decoder pulsepairsper puises.Sincethere are2700 received i'e. 2700/500, on average' we will have, second per secondfrom the rangegate. 5-6 pulses the variabledelay is continuously During search to anythingfrom corresponding at a rate increased

Suppression pulse gen. PRF change

t-

I I r l

*-oirt"-nJl
to ind.

l l _ll I I
I I I I I

Range. measunng circuits

replios

Rx supprcssion Frg.7 .7 Interrogator block diagram

liming gen.

o/P

i li l i l l i l i l i l l l l l ll ll ll ll ll l l l l l l l ll ll l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l

Jittcr gcn.

otP

Rengo gate YVtVCtOrm

Dodcr

otP

l|nec g!r. otP

r---1

H
It3

F3 7.8 Stroboscopicprinciple

zero crossings of the delayedsine wave turn on (Q = l)a bistablewhich is turned otr (Q = 0) by the zero time pulsesfrom the jitter generator. The bistableoutput is connectedto the positive-going triggerinput of a monostable; in this way the resulting30 ps pulsesoccur at a time determined by those delayed timing pulseswhich occur I ps after transmission.The elapsed time I represents the rangereadout which will be obscured'by a flag during search. In the logic employed in Fig. 7.9 a low rate output from the rangegate will give a logic zero output from the coincidencecounter, so enabling the search circuit but disablingthe early and late gates.When Zps corresponds to the actualslant rangeofthe beaconthe rangegateoutput rate is high, hencethe search circuit is disabled and a logic one is fed to the early and late gates. The other inputs to the earlyand late gatesare the decodedpulses and a ramp waveformsymnietricalabout zero volts and coincident with a 30 ps rangegatewaveformpulse. The ramp input to the late gateis invertedso that the late gate is open for almost all of the latter half of the 30 ps period,while the early gateis open for almostall of the first half. The slopeof the ramp waveformis chosen so as there is a period (equalin duration to the decoderoutput pulsewidth) when neither early nor late gateis open. Thus when on track the wanted repliesare steeredto the decrease or increase range circuits,dependingon whether the repliesarriveearly or late within the rangegatewaveformpulse respectively. The motor drive circuits supply the motor so that when in search the readoutand delay progressively increases. While in track the motor will turn in a Range Measuring direction dependenton which of the decrease and ModeGontrol and increase circuits givesan output. It can be seenthat Analogue in track we havea servosystemwhich maintainsthe Typically in an older analogueDME the variable delay wantedrepliesin the centreof the rangegate takesthe form ofa phaseshifter resolver, the rotor of waveform pulses. which is fed from the timing oscillator and is The memory circuit is enabledwith the early and mechanically coupledto a distance measuring shaft. late gates when it clearsthe flag. Subsequently, should The trackingcircuitsin suchequipmentoften employ therebe a lossof replies,search will be inhibited and a ramp generatoi. Figure7.9 illustrates a block the motor held (staticmemory)or madeto continue diagramand waveformswhich may be used to explain rotating with the samesense and speed(velocity the operationof sucha DME but is not meant to memory) for the memory time. any particularequipment. represent The timing generator output is sinusoidal and so Digital must be fed to a pulseformer (zero crossing detector) What follows is an explanationof the principlesof a beforethe jitter generator.The timing signalis also first-generation digital DME basedon, but not fed to a phaseshift resolver whereit is phase-shifted accurately representing, the RCA AVQ 85. Currently (delayed) by an angledependingon the position of the trend is to usea special-purpose l.s.i. chip to the distance-measuring shaft which also drives the perform the rangemeasurement and mode control coincidentwith the positive-going readout. Pulses tasks. 114

20 to 400 nautical miles per second,dependingon the vintageof the design. While in searchthe rangegate, output rate, as detectedby the coincidence counter, is low. When the delay lps is equalto the round trip travel time plus the 50 ps beacondelay the range by a sigrificant amount. Bateoutput rate increases Assumingas abovea searchp.r.f. of 100, and also a 50 per cent reply rate, then the output.of the range gatewill jump from say 5 pulsesper secondto 50 pulsesper second. This is the situation shown in Fig. 7.8. Whenthis easilydetectedincrease in rate occursthe mode control circuit will: (a) enablethe tracking circuit; (b) inhibit the searchcircuit; (c) senda p.r.f. change sigral to the jitter generator; and (d) lift the indicator blanking or flag as appropriate. During track the variabledelay is controlled by the trackingcircuitsso as to keepeachwanted reply in the centreof the corresponding rangegatewaveform pulse. Should the aircraft be flying towards the beacon,successive replieswill appearearly within the gatepulse,so causing the delay to be reduced. The opposite occurswhen the aircraft is flying away from the beacon. The variabledelay represents the slant rangeand so a signalproportionalto or representing this delayis fed to the indicator and/or RNAV computer. Ifwanted repliesare lost, the coincidence counter output registers a zero tate and hencethe mode control switches to memory. With static memory the trackingcircuits are 'frozen', whereas with velocity memory the trackingcircuitscontinueto change the variabledelay at the last known rate.

----l
I

roln ming en.

I I I I I I I I i I
I

Delayed timing pulses

I t \ ; i____
M

-'l
-J---..i
t

I
l

o T o
R D R I V E

Ranoe oat""

Enable

ro Delayed tlmrng pulses Bistable

r
+iTe '

r
I

'

Mono^stabre o
Monostable

h l

j*

so r,s

Ramp gen. Earlv Decoder o/P n Late

and mode control block rangemeasuring Fig. 7.9 Analogue diasram

p.r.f. of 40, a track p.r.f. The AVQ 85 hasa search of 400 nauticalmiles, of l2 and a maximumrange to a two-way travel time of which corresponds 5000ps. Duringthis time the nuntberof pulsepairs will be, on average: from a beacon received 5000x10-6x2700=13.5. one Of the thirteen or fourteenpulsepairsreceived will, hopefully,be a wantedrepiy. time between mode the elapsed During the search f6 and the time arrival of a particulardecodedpulse

after the If rn is the time measured is measured. is the time to the first then /1111 nth interrogation pulseto arrivesuchthat tn+1) tr, where decoded r,l= 0, L . ., and /o = 0. Whenwe haveequality,i.e. the tn+L = /r, then /r, is, subjectto further checking, It be seen can to the beacon. time travel trip round we shallneed, range that if the aircraftis at rnaximunl to complete interrogations l3-14 successive on average, rate of 40 this will take time- At a search the search of a second.The sayl3'5/40 s,i.e.about one-third than I s. time of the AVQ 85 is quotedasless acquisition 115

Int.rrogatiorl lst mcesurornont

2nd measuremart 3rd measurement 4ttl melsurc|tranl

Sth mcaermont 6th measuremetrt 7th- moasurotnctrt

Valid reply

- search Fig.7.l0 Digital rangemeasurement

With the aboveoperationonly one time measurement needsto be storedin a register. With a modestamount of memory the wanted reply could be identified within two successive interrogations, providedthat sucha reply was received after eachof the interrogations.If we assume a 50 per cent reply rate then four interrogations would be needed. During a 5000 ps interval lessthan eighty-fourpulse pairswill be received, of assuming a minimum spacing 60 ps betweenbeaconsquittertransmissions and allowingfor a 60 ps deadtime. Eachtime of measurement would need l2 bits if a resolution one-tenthof a nauticalmile is required. Thus'a faster search time could be achieved if a RAM of 12 X 84 X 4 = 4032 bits were provided. A practical circuit would consistof 4 X lK bit (lK = 1024\ RAMs, the pulsearrivaltimes,expressed as distances, being recorded dfter eachof four interrogations successively in eachRAM chip. The first chip would thus record the arrival times after the first, fifth, similarly for the second, ninth, etc. interrogations, third and fourth chips. Of courseonly one 4K bit providedit can be organized into four drip is needed, p.r.f. of linear arraysof l2-bit words. With a search 40 thereis a periodof 30000 ss (= l/40) less 5000 ps in which to checkfor equal arrivaltimes 116

which, when detected,signalthe end of search. per In Fig. 7.1I we return to the one measurement interrogationsituation. Initially the distance are cleared. circuit countersand registers measuring from /6 is carriedout by the Time measurement distance counter which counts809 kHz clock pulses, thus givinga rangeresolutionof one-tenthof a mile. of eventsfollowing the (r + I )th The sequence cycle is as follows: interrogationof a search l. te+20ps countgrciears. Distance Blankingcounter loadedwith contentsof = rn. register storage distance + 47 2. ts tts bounterstartsto count down. Blanking 3. ls + 50 r/s Distancecounter startsto count up towards maximum range. 4. to+tn zero and hence Blankingcounter reaches blanking gateand triggersrangegate enables waveformgenerator. 5. ts + tral through A decodedpulsearrivesand passes enabledblanking gateto stop distancecounter

tlccodcd pulsos Distance to lnd 8O9kHz

s
T

PRF chang

Ind enable

809 kHz
F!. ?.ll diagram and mode control block Digital rarge measuring

Range gate wavaform gen.

Decoded pulsss

and trigger transfer of data to distancestorage n + I and circuit waits for register; n becomes next to. is repeatedafter each The abovesequence fourteen interrogation. Within, on average, the time to a wanted reply will be interrogations counted and the distancestorageregisterwill contain the number of tenthsof a nauticalmile actualrange. After the next interrogationthe blanking counter will enable the blanking gate 3 prsbefore the arrival ofthe wanted reply, sincethe blankingcounterstart is counter start is 47 ps after re while the distance 50 ps after fe. It thereforefollows that the distance subjectto counterwill recordthe samed'.stance, aircraft movement.thereafter. The pulse from the rangegate waveform generator is of 6 ps duration,its leadingedgebeingX ps after te whereX is the time of arrivalof the previously decodedpulseless47 ps. This gatingpulse measured is fed to the rangegatetogetherwith the decoder indicatesthat the two latest output. Coincidence pulses to be measured havearrivedwith the sametime with respect to /s and are thus probably delay t 3 prs percentage reply checkingcircuit wanted replies. The then checksthat two of the next eight interrogations giverise to a decodedpulsewithin the track gateand to track. On track the p.r.f. is if so the mode switches reducedand the indicator givesa readoutofthe range by the distancecounter. After switching asmeasured to track, at leastfour of any sixteensuccessive

interrogations rrtust give rise to a rangeSateoutput; failure initiates a switch to memory. Five seconds after memory is entered the mode will revert to search,subject to auto standby, unlessthe four-from' in which casetrack sixteen check indicatessuccess, resumes.

Characteristics fromtheARINC is drawn summary Thefollowing

568-5for the Mk 3 airborneDME, it is Characteristic not completeand doesnot detail all the conditions under which the following should be met. Channels selected by 215switching. 252 channels hise Spacing mode X Interrogationl2 r 0'5 ps modeX;36 x 0'5 prs modeX; 30 i 0'5 tts Decoderoutput if lZ ! 0'5 1rs mode Y. Decoder: no output ifspaeing of receivedpulse pain more than I 5 ps from that required. Range 0-200 nauticalmileswith overrideto extend to 300 nauticalmiles. TmckW Sped 0-2000 knots.

717

AcquisitionTime I s or less. Memory 4-12s velocity memory. r.f. PowerOutput > 25 dBWinto 50 O load.

:r i : i: Intenogation Rote Overalllessthan 30, assuming on track 95 per cent of time, searching 5 per cent of time. Auto Standby At least650 pulsepairsper second received before interrogations allowed.

Fig.7.l2 TIC T-24A (courtesy Tel-Instrument Elcctronics Corp.)

118

Tx Frequency Stability Better than t 0.007 per cent. Rx Sensitivity -90 dBm lock-on sensitivity. Suppressiort PulseDurat ion Blanket: l9 prs modeX;43 ttsmodeL Pulsefor pulse: 7 gs. Antenna v,s.w.r. l'5: I over 962-1213 MHz referredto 50 O. Antenna Isolotion > 40 dB betweenL-bandantennas. Outputs l. Digital: 32-bit serial b.c.d.word at leastfive times per second, resolution 0.01 nauticalmiles. Buffers in utilization equipment. 2. Analogue: pulsephirs5-30 timesper second with spacing, in ps, 50 + l2'359d (d beingslant range). Eachload l2K in parallel with lessthan I 00 pF.

3. Rangerate pulsetransmittedfor each0.01 nautical mile change in range. 4. Audio ) 75 mW into 200-500Q load. 5. Output impedance < 200 st. 6. Warning flag( I V d.c. for warning, 2i.S y d.c. satisfactory operation. RangeOutput Accuracy From t 0.1 to t 0.3 nauticalmiles,depending on sigral strengthand time sinceacquisition.

Ramp Testing
A DME installationshouldbe testedusinga ramp test set which will test by radiation,simulatevarious ranges and velocities. operateon at leastone spot frequencyfor mode X and mode I/, and provide for simulationof identification. Two suchtest setsare the TIC T-24A (Fig. 7.12) andthe IFR ATC"600A ( F i g .8 . 2 3 ) . TIC T.24A A battery-operated, one-mantest set operatedfrom

*
a{{dtir-ril /! *,

.*tF

-trf:l;l:
@

d*

in$

*rt

tlt

'k

"r

-,'a.

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^ nl'

-EE-I
: 4*. .. :a.r/:{ . a

*$

-.** e
,. ..:;,..
,

?.
d

Et
t

ciil, .,") ;

. t. *.r& tlq nfr _ft i*+ffi 4,frwa.:r .s,:,ai: d; :i {

fr
:

e a

ld

^t

Fig. 7.13 TIC T-50A (courtesy Tel-lnstrument Elcctronrcs Corp.) '!19

the cockpit and testingby radiation. ChannelslTX (108.00 and 108.05MHz VOR and 17Y are available frequencies) with rangesimulationftom 0 to 399.9 nauticalmilesin 0.1 nauticalmile increments. The velocity, inbound or outbound, can be selected in lO-knot incrementsfrom 0 to 9990 knots. Squitter is selectable at 700 or 2700 pulsepairsper second. Identity is available as 1350 or equalized1350 pulse pairsper second. An additionalpulsepair l0 nauticalmilesafter the reply pulsepair can be selected, to enablea checkof echo protection. The p.r.f. meterhastwo ranges 0-30 and 0-150. Finally the percentage reply may be selected in l0 per cent incrementsfrom l0 to 100 per cent. ATC 600A This test set doesnot have all the facilities ofthe T-24A but doesoffer comprehensive testingability for the ATC transponder (Chapter8). Like the T-24Athe ATC 600A operates on channelsl7X and l7Y. The rangecan be set from 0 to 399 nautical milesin I nauticalmile steps. Twelvedifferent rrelocities may be simulatedin the range

50-2400knots inbound or outbound. The identity is equalized1350 pulsepairsper second. The percentage reply is either50 or 100 per cent by selection. Features of the ATC 600A not available with the T-24A arean interrogatorpeak r.f. power readout, accuracyt 3 dB (t 50 per cent) and interrogation liequency check.

Bench Testing Various test setsexist for the benchtestingof DME, one of these is the TIC T-50A (Fig. 7.13) which also providesfacilitiesfor ATC transponder bench testing. This is not the placeto detail all the featuresof sucha complex test set; sufficeit to say that the test set is madeup of optional modulesso that the customer can choosethe most suitablepackage.One feature which must be mentionedis the ability to measure the pulsedr.f. from the DME interrogatorwith a resolutionof l0 kHz. TIC havefound that many units change their output frequency,sometimes beyond allowablelimits, when a change in pulse occurs;i.e. X to I/ mode or vice versa. spacing

120

I ATC transponder

in particular Recognitionof thesedisadvantages, of a military secondary No. 3, led to the development radar (SSR)known as identification surveillance With the rapid build-up of international and domestic friend or foe (lFF). With this systemonly specially civil air transportsinceWorld War II, control of air equippedtargetsgive a return to the ground. This traffic by meansof primary surveillance radar (PSR) and extended has sincebeenfurther developed and procedures is not adequateto ensuresafetyin the system aswell asmilitary air traffic; the special to cover civil air. equipmentcarriedon the aircraft is the air traffic control (ATC) transponder. lntroduction

?---=__

BasicPrinciples

radar forms part of the ATC Secondary surveillance system: the other part being PSR. radarsurveillance one for PSR,the other for SSR,are Two antennas, Fig E.l Primary surveillance radar mounted co-axiallyand rotate together,radiating of giving directionally.The SSRitselfis capable A PSRdoesnot rely on the activeco-operationof rangeand bearinginformation and would thus appear (e.m.) radiation is pulsed to make PSR redundant:howeverwe must allow for the target. Electromagnetic from a directionalantennaon the ground. Provided fitted or a possible aircraft without ATC transponder they arenot transparent to the wavelength used, failure. targetsin tine with the radiation will reflect energy We can briefly explain SSRin terms of Fig. 8.2. the time taken, and back to the PSR. By measuring pulsesof energyfrom a The SSR transmitterradiates noting the direction of radiation, the rangeand and timing of the The direction antenna. directional bearingof the target are found. Display is by means SSRtransmission with that of the is synchronized of a plan position indicator (seeChapter9). Such a in the PSR. An aircraft equippedwith a transponder qystem hasthe following disadvantages: path of the radiatedenergywill reply with specially the it recognizes codedpulsedr.f. provided l. Sufficient energymust be radiatedto ensurethe interrogationasbeing valid. The aircraft antennais minimum detectablelevel of energyis received omnidirectional. b! the p.s.r.after a round trip to a wanted by the ground is decoded, The coded reply received givento the air traffic targetat the maximum range. Rangeis indication and an appropriate ,' proportional to the 4th root of the radiated The reply will give controlleron a p.p.i..display. energy. information relatingto identity, altitude or one of Figure8.3 showsa messages. 2. Targetsother than aircraft will be displayed emerElency several (clutter). This can be much reducedby using As can be seen,a variety of presentation. typical data the task of the Doppler effect (seeChapter l0) to detect only symbolsand labelsare usedto,ease controller. moving targets. 3. Individual aircraft cannot be identified except manoeuvre. by requested Interrogation of a pair of pulsesof r.f' 4. An aircraft's altitude is unknown unlessa One interrogationconsists being one of betweenthe pulses energy,the spacing separate height-findingradaris used. four time intervals. Different modesof interrogation 5. No information link is set up.

721

Fig 8.2 Secondarysurveillance radar

The maximum interrogationrate is 450 although, in order to avoid fruiting (seebelow - FalseTargets), the rate is as low as possibleconsistentwith each targetbeing interrogatedtwenty to forty times per sweep. The pulsesof r.f. are 0.8 ps wide and at a frequencyof 1030 MHz (L band) this being the same for all interrogations. Reply A transponder will reply to a valid interrogation,the form of the reply dependingon the mode of interrogation. A valid interrogationis one received from the interrogator mainlobe(seebelow,- Side I-obe Suppression), the time interval betweenpulses beingequal to the mode spacingselected by the pilot. In every reply two pulsesof r.f. 1090 MHz, spaced ^20.3 ps apart are transmitted,theseare the frame or bracketpulses, Fl and F2. Between Fl and F2 there are up to twelve code pulsesdesignated and spaced as shown in Fig. 8.5; a thirteenth pulse,the X pulse, may be utilized in a future expandedsystem. The presence of a code pulsein a reply is determinedby the settingof code selectorswitches on the pilot's controller when the reply is in response to a mode A (orts) interrogation.If the interrosation is mode C the codc pulsestransmittedare autoriaticallv determinedby an encodingaltimeter. A pulse4.35 gs after F2 may be transmitted. This is the specialposition indicator (Spl) pulse.otherwise known as the indicateposition (I/p) or simply ident pulse. lf the reply is in response to a mode A interrogationthe SPI pulseis selected by a spring-loaded switch or button on the pilot's controller. A brief depression of the switch will causethe Spl pulseto be radiatedwith every reply to a mode A interrogation received within l5-30 s. Someolder transponders will transmit a SpI pulsein reply to a mode C interrogationwhen the reply code containsa D4 pulse;this corresponds to an altitudein excess of 30 700 ft.

Fig. 8.3 Typical data presentation

'i

:i

lre codedby the different time intervals,eachmode .question'. corresponding to +different ground-to-air For examplemode A - 'what is your identity'? Figure 8.4 illustratesthe modesof interrogation. Many transponders haveonly mode A ind C capability;this is sufficient to respondto an interrogatoroperatingon mode interlacewhereby mode A and C interrogations are transmittedin sequence, thus demanding identification and altitude information. Mode D hasyet to be uti[zed. 122

'i

-3

3
I

: .

ldontity

ldentity
o
!

o Altitude

Unassigncd

Fig 8.4 Interrogation pulse spacing

Fr cl

A1 c2 A2 C4 A4 'X'

8r _Dr 82 d2 84 D4 F2

r,t-l l*z.s

Fig 8.5 Replytrainformat

Coding: Identification The codepulsestransmitteddependon four code each of which controls a group of selector switches, threepulsesin the reply and may be set to one of eight position,0-7. The code groupsare designated A, B, C and D, the pulseswithin eachgroup having suffixes4,2 and I (seeFig- 8.5). The resultingcode is binary codedoctal, the most significantoctal digit beingdetermined.bythe group A pulses, the least significantby the group D. givesthe familiar binary Selectionof the A pulses code,asshown in Table 8.1. Similarly with selection of the B, C and D pulses. The number of possiblecode combinationsis easilyarrivedat sincewe havefour octal digits giving 8a = 4096. Someof the code combinationsare siven significance; we have: special '7600 Radio failure 77OO Emergency Thereis also a specialcode for hijack. Coding: Altitude The flight level of the aircraft referencedto a pressure

Table 8.1 Group A codeselection(similarly for groupsB, C and D)

A4 0 0 0 0

A2 0 0 I I 0 0 I I

AI

Selection

0 I 0 I 0 I : 0 I

0 I 2 3 4 5 6

il ,o,o
o'o'
Fig. 8.6 Examples of pulse trains lbr particular selected codes

123

of 1013.25mbar(29.92 inHg) is encoded Table8.2 100-Footincrementcoding automatically in increments of 100 ft, the codeused beinglaid down by the ICAO. The maximumencodedMod,o(A) cr c2 c4 range is from -1000 to 126700 ft inclusive.With 100 ft increments this requires 8 1278differentcode 0 I combinations, with 4096 available 9 we seethereis 0 I considerable redundancy.It is impractical to usemore 0 0 0 of the available codessincethe aciuracy of I I 0 barometric altimeters is suchthat it is not sensible I to 2 0 have,say,50 ft increments; in any case the objective Reflection is to indicateflight levels which arein hundreds I of 0 feet. 4 I 0 To accommodate ) the redundancythe Dl pulseis 0 0 not usedand, further,at leastone C pulseis 6 0 I transmitted but neverCl and C4 togetherin a single 1 0 I reply. Thus for eacheightpossible A group combinations of pulses we haveeight B group,five C goup and four D group,giving8 X 8 X 5 X 4 = 1280 The A, B and D pulsesform a Gray code givinga possible codecombinations; two more than necessary.total of 256 increments of 500 ft each,i.e. The extra two. if assigned. would correspond 128000 ft, commencing to at -1000 ft. In orderof I 1 0 0a n d - 1 2 0 0 f r . frequency of bit change we have84,82, Bl, 44, A2, The C pulses form a unit distance reflected binary Al , D4, D2; thus 84 changes every 1000 ft whereas codegivingthe 100 ft increments. As shownin D4 doesnot enterthe codeuntil 30 800 ft and D2 Table8.2 the reflected pattern,startingat until 62 800 ft. Needless to sayaircraftin the general Cl = C2 = 0, C4= l, begins rvhen M o d l e ( A )= 8 ; aviationcategory will not needto employ encoding i.e.when the renrainder on dividingthe altitude(in givingD4 and D2 selection. altimeters hundreds of feet)by 10 is 8. Thus to find the C To find the A, B and D pulseswe can use pulses in the codefor. say,25400 ft we have Table8.3. Sincethe entriesin the tablecommence A = 2 5 4 ,M o d 1 6 ( A = ) 4 , s o C l a n d C 2 a r ei n t h e r e p l y . with zero,whereas the altitudecommences at Table8.3 500-Footincrement codins
B4 B2 B1 A4 D2 D4 AI A2

rl

,
I

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 . I 0 r

1 1 t 0

1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1

r 0 I r

1 t r t

0 r 0 I

0 1 0 I I

1 r 0 I 0 0

t 0 I

0 0 0 0 - 0

0 0 0 0

0 0

o
0 0 I
I

0 I I 0 0 I
I

0 0 0 0
I I 0 0 0 0

I I I t

0 0

0 0 I I 0 0 I I 0

0 31 32 63 64 9s 96 t27 t28 159 160 l9l t92 221 224 255

1 30 33 62 55 94 97 126 129 158 161 190 193 222 225 2s4

2 29 34 61 66 93 98 125 130 r57 162 189 t94 22r 226 253

3 28 35 60 6't 92 99 t24 131 156 163 188 195 220 227 252

4 27 36 s9 58 9l 100 t23 r32 155 t64 187 196 219 228 25t

s 5 7 26 2s 24 3 7 3 8 39 58 57 56 69 70 7 t 90 89 88 101 t02 I 03 122 t2t I 2 0 r33 134 I 3 5 154 153 Is 2 165 166 I 67 186 185 I84 r9't 198 I 99 218 217 21 6 229 230 23 1 250 249 24 8

8 9 23 22 40 4 1 55 54 7 2 . 7f 87 86 104 1 0 5 ll9 ll8 135 137 1 5 l 150 168 169 183 182 200 20t 2 t 5 2r4 2 3 2 233 2 4 7 246

l0 2t 42 53 74 85 106 tt7 138 t49 170 r8l 202 2t3 234 245

lt t2 20 19 43 44 52 5l 7S 76 84 83 107 108 116 l15 139,140 148 t47 l7l 172 180 t79 203 204 212 2tr 23s ?36 244 243

13 l8 45 50 77 82 109 114 l4l 146 r'13 178 205 210 23't 242

14 t7 46 49 78 8t ll0 l13 142 145 174 t77 206 209 n8 241

15 16 47 48 79 80 l1l tr2 r43 t44 t' t5 t76 207 208 239 240

124

-1000, we must add 1000 to the altitude before enteringthe table. The tablerecords the altitudein increments of 500 ft. The followingalgorithmwill give the requiredcode: (i) add 1000 to the altitude; (ii) enter table with the integerpart of the result of (i) dividedby 500; (iii) readthe code:row, column. As an examplewe will find the completecode for I l0 200 ft: ( i ) 1 1 0 2 0 0 +1 0 0 0 =l l l 2 0 0 ; ( i i ) I n t . ( l l l 2 0 0 / s 0 0 )= 2 2 2 ; = D2 D4 Al A2 A4 Bl 82 F.4. (iii) 10110001 To find the C pulses: Modls (l102) = 2, therefore100 = Cl C2 C4. Complete c o d ei s l 0 l 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 . False Targets There are several of unwanted returnsbeing causes p.p.i.,one of displayed on the air traffic controller's which is interrogation by sidelobes. This is discussed in somedetail below under the headingside lobe suppression. Sincethe transponder antenna is omnidirectional the reply pulsesnreantfor one interrogatormay also providing be received by another, it is within range and its antenna is pointingin the directionof the returnswill not aircraftconcerned. Suchunwanted of the with the transmission be synchronized the interference and would interrogatc'r suffering appear as randombright dots on the p.p.i. This type of interi-erence, known as fruiting.carrbe dealtwith by makinguseof the tact that different rates, work on difl-erent interrogation interrogators
P 1 ,P 3

repliesmay thus be sortedon this basis. A reply from a transponder lastsfor a period of pulsetrain will occupya 20'3 ps, thus the transmitted distance of 163000 X 20.3 X l0-6 = 3.3 nautical (speedof propagation milesin space being 163000 nauticalmilesper second).As a consequence any two aircraft in line with the interrogator,and with a difference in slantrange of less than 1.65 nautical miles,will transmit replieswhich overlapin space and consequently mutuallyinterfereat the interrogatorreceiver. Such repliesare said to be garbled. Secondary surveillance radaris most useful when traffic densities are greatest.These giveincreased garbling. circumstances, of course, Reflections of the transmitted either energy, or reply,from mountains, interrogation hills or large will givean indicated structures reply at an incorrect range.Sincethe directpath is shorterthan the path echoprotectionmav be used; reflected i.e. the receiver may be suppressed or desensitized for a of a pulse. limited periodon receipt Side Lobe Suppression(SLS) When a reply is received its angularposition on the p.p.i.is determined controller's by the directionof the main lobe radiation from the interrogator.If the reply is due to an interrogationtiom a sidelobe then the indicated bearing will be incorrect.Two systems havebeen designed to suppress repliesto sidelobe interrogation:they are the ICAO 2 pulseand the FAA 3 pulseSLS systems. Someoldertransponders to eithersystem; havecircuitry applicable however three-pulse SLS hasadvantages over its virtually obsolete rival and is the only system considered, for the interrogator The polar diagram antenna system is shownin Fig. 8.7. Pl and P3 are the i n t e r r o g a t i op nu l s e s p a c e d a t 8 , 1 7, 2 l o r 2 5 p s radiated from the directional antenna.P2 is the SLS from an omnidirectional control oulseradiated

r *'J
I2rs fFig. 8.7 Three-pulse s.l.s.

125

Figure 8.9 showsa typical transport category aircraft dual installation. Two transponders are mounted side by sidein the radio rack mating with back plate in the mounting tray junction box. Two connectors n >Pl no reply encoding altimeters and the control unit havetheir P2<Pl-9dB reply routed through the back plate to the connectors otherwise mry reply transponders while direct connections to the front of In the grey regionthe probability ofa reply increases the transponders are made from two L-band antennas with decreasing P2 amplituderelativeto Pl. and the suppression line interconnecting all L-band equipments. Powersupplies are routed through the Probability backplate. of reply The encodingaltimetersmay be blind (no altitude indication) or panel-mounted.On largertransport aircraft encodedaltitude information may be derived from a static pressure-activated capsule mechanism in a centralair data computer(CADC). The transponders are fitted on a shock-mounted tray. Coolingis by convectionand radiation. Most transponders designed for the general aviation market and control unit in one box, combinetransponder which is panel-mounted.To ensure adequatecooling sufficient clearance must be allowedaround eachunit. A common co-axialcableinterconnects the n-P2 transponders and DME interrogators.A transmission (dBsl 'black , I Grey by any one box' will cause the receivers of the
Fig. 8.8 Probability ofa reply

antenna. The field strength for P2 is such that an aircraft within the Pl/P3 main lobe will receiveP2 at a lower amplitudethan Pl/P3 whereas elsewhere P2 will be greater. The condition for a reply/no reply are:

lnstallation

j
Supply: 115V, 4OO Hz and/or 28 V d.c.

:i

l J

lllumination

inlout S0ppression

EE
,rrl/{o
*-(/

EE

.s ..{

E
3 ! I

,i

@@

Fig. 8.9 Dual transponderinstallation

126

other threeto be suppressed for a perioddepending on the_source; a transponder suppression puir. will be about30 ps. controlunit is, of course, panel-mounted in the cockpitandprovides the piloiwith.o*fi.t" controloverthe transponders. Only onetransponder at a timeis in usewhilethe otheriJon standbv. Controls and Operation FunctionSwitch Off-Standby-A-B-C_D. ModeC operation will depend only on theposition of the altitude reporting (a.r.)switch; hence if the function svitch hasa'C' position such a selection wouldserve to switchmodes A, B andD off but have no effecton the selection of modeC. Manytransponders have only A andC capability in which.ur. th. function switchmighthave positions Off-standby-A. Rotaryswitches mounted co-axiaily ?!:.S*:!rhes m palrs;thumbwheel switches area common

alternative. The code setectedappearsin a window abovethe switches and will determinethe code pulsespresentin the reply in response to a modeA (or.B) in_terrogation. Sometranspona.r,t .u" " facility for remote automaticteying fo, moOes e ana B; this may be selected by settingtlie code ,rit.h., to 8888. In fact the necessary extra equipmenthas neverbeenintroduced. I/P.Syvit-ch Spring-loaded to_off pushbuttonor toggle s'uritch for selectionof the SpI puise. May be labelled SPI or ldent. Lo SenseSwitch Whenselected to .on'reducesthe transponder receiver sensitivityby l2 dB. This featurewas introducedas an inteiim measure for reducing sidelobe response. Subsequent developments havemade this facility unnecessary.

A.R. Switch On-off selectionfor altitude reporting. Test (T) Switch Spring-loadedto off pushbutton or

Spike eliminator pulse width limiter

Visual monitor Fig. 8.10 Transponderbtock diagram

727

.,i

j
j

the self'testcircuitry. toggleswitch which energizes is givenby a green self-test Indication of a successful when a illuminates which also visualmonitor lamp to a valid interrogation. The reply is sent in response switch and visualmonitor may be repeated self-test unit for the use of the on the transponder engineer. maintenance No' I or either transponder TlansferSwitch Selects No. 2 in a dual installation. is minimal, there Pilot work load with transponder lamp monitor the than other beingno indication areinitiated on ATCs while control switch changes eitherby r.t. or throughstandard instructions procedures.

Simplified Block Diagram Operation pulsesofr.f. energyare fed tcl the The interrogating by way of a 1030 MHz band passfilter' The receiver as a video pulses are amplified,detectedand passed limiter iignal to the spikeeliminator and pulse-wihth greaterthan 0'3 gs in pulses circuits;theseonly pass to lessthan that duration and limit long pulses triggering.The decoder duration which will cause pulses Pl of the interrogation the spacing examines an output and P3, if it is that for the mode selected is will be givento the encoder.If the Pl-P3 spacing of the mode an output will be givenregardless 2l prs selected. by the decoder. The encoder.on being triggered to the required appropriate produces a train of pulses (mode A) reply which is determinedby codeswitches output (modeC). The encoder altimeter or encoding the modulator which keys the 1090 MHz triggers

transmitter. Radiationis by an omnidirectional antenna. circuitsare fed with the The sidelobe suppression video output. In the event of an interrogation receiver for about will be suppressed by sidelobe, the receiver with the P2 at a time coincident 35 ps commencing of P3. pulse,thus blocking the passage wheneverthere circuit is triggered The suppression produced pulse is used so is a reply. The suppression the receiverand is alsofed to other to suppress L-bandequipmentfor the samepurpose. The is L-bandequipments between feature suppression mutual. otherwise control(a.o.c.) Automaticoverload reduces known asgroup countdown,progressively sensitivityafter the reply rate exceeds the receiver I 5 pulse per second.Assuming typically 1200groups reply a ps pulse and maximum widths replies,0'45 we havea typical rate of 1480 groupsper second airline requirementof a I per cent duty cycle to handlernultipleinterrogations. areprovided.On beingactivated, facilities Self-test into the front end of the injected is signal test a by the is indicated self-test receiver.A successful there is an visualmonitor lamp which lights whenever havean transponders Some transmission. adequate audiomonitor facilityin additionto the visual monitor.

:q ii n

I 1

i .{ ? { *

Block Diagram Details Transmitter Receiver will employnormalu.h.f. techniques The r.f. sections in the regionof signals suitablefor processing leads internalco-axial 1000MHz. Interconnecting

{ n I :
! ':i!
.t

$
i
l

.;

j
l

I 'i

To vidco st6gos

Fig. 8.1I Logarithmici.f. amplifier

128

must be of a length laid down by the manufacturer as they play a part in the circuit action; in particularthe lead to the transmitterwill be of a leneth such that received sigralswill seethe transmitteifeed as a high impedance, thus assisting in the duplexing action. In flying from maximum rangetowards the interrogator a large dynamic rangeof signalstrength is received, at least50 dBs from minimum triggering level. Providingadequateamplification for the weak signalscan result in saturation of the last stage(s)of the i.f. amplifier when strongersignals are received. Such saturation may give rise to the suppressionof valid interrogations by the SLS circuit since the strongerPl main lobe pulseswill be limited. Successive detectionof the video sigral can overcome the saturationproblem. Figure 8.11 shows a logarithmicamplifier usingsuccessive detection. fusuming a gain of A for each stageand a maximum input signalZ before saturationof that stage, stage an input to the i.f. amp. of VlAi wrll causestage 4 to saturate.In this event the detectedoutput to the video stage will be (VlA') + (VIA) + (V) + (AV) which is approximatelyequal to AV for'a reasonable gajrnA. Table 8.4 illustratesthe differencebetweena conventional and logarithmic amplifier. Decoder Many transpondersstill in serviceuse multi-tapped delaylinesin both decoderand encoder;howeverall employ monostables and shift moderntransponders registers, in the form of integratedcircuits,which will here. be the only type of transponder considered The detectedvideo signals are appliedto the spike eliminator and pulsewidth limiter in series. The action of the 0'3 ps delay and AND gateis to prevent any pulses or noisespikeslessthan 0'3 ps in duration

Table8.4 Comparison of conventional and logarithmic amplifiers

Input signal Output signal Conventional Logarithmic

V I3 V T2 V

AV AV AV AV

AV 2AV 3AV 4AV

beingpassed to the decoder. Long pulses which might cause a'reply are reducedin duration by the pulse-widthlimiter monostable, the output of which is a pulseabout 0'5 ps in duration regardless of the width of the input pulse. The decoderinput monostable ensures that only the leadingedgeof Pl (positive-going t) triggersthe mode A and C delay circuitseachof which consists of a monostable and a differentiatingcircuit. The mode A and C AND gateswill givean output if the delayed Pl pulsesfrom the differentiatorsare coincidentwith the undelayedP3. An output from either AND gate will give a trigger('T') output from the OR gate. Encoder ln the exampleof an encodershown,two lO-bit shift registers are used(e.g.Signetics8274).The operating

O ' 5p s

Output
O'3lrs Pulse width limiter

Odprrt
Spike eliminator fig. E.f 2 Spike eliminator and pulse width limiter wavcforms

129

.{

,{

Pulse width limiter Fig.8.l3 Decoder

{ : : :.
.!

Input

| Ln-] P'I P2

n t t

t l

n
. l

P3

30 trs mono output

8 lrs mono-output

I lrs

21 1rsmono output

n
t l

Differentiator I O/P

Differentiator 2 O/P

n
n
l l

'A'

output

'C'

output

T'output

- mode Fig,8.14 Decoder waveforms A intertogation mode is controlled by inputsS0 and Sl, hold, clear, load and shift being selected by the input values $rown in the truth table(Fig.8.l5). Thesetwo control waveformsare producedby two monostables, one triggeredby the positive-going edgeof the T output from the decoder,the other by the negative-going edge. This anangementgivesus the 130
'lhc sequenoe load, shilt, clcar,hokl. S 0 w a v e f o r mi s a.lso u s e dt ( ) g a t c a c l o c k g c r r c r a t o rp , c r i o d 1 . 4 5g s . 'l Load l'ha lcading cdgc of triggcrs thc controlling monostablcs s o t l r a t S ( )= l , S l . , ( . 1 and tlrc shift register elerncnts w i l l b c l o a d c r lw i t l r t l r c b i n a r v information present on tlrc input lirres. Since il an<l

sxo

$lBo,,o

10 bit shift register

10 bit shift re$ster

Pilot code switch Encoding altimeter switch

ct

r-

D4

Fig 8.15 Encoder F2 are requiredin all replies,the appropriateinputs arehigh (+5 V). The one time-slotbetween.A4and betweenF2 and SPI are B1 and the two time-slots their input lines,together neverused; consequently with the two spare after SPI.arelow (earth). The dynamicinput linesCl to D4 will be high or low on the code switch selection(mode A depending or the altitude(modeC interrogation). interrogation) a validmode A interrogation hasbeen Assuming 'A' line therewill be a pulsepresenton the received to encoder in time with the coincident from decoder 'T'line. After inversion this A pulseis. puiseon the the to one of twelveNOR gates, in parallel applied individuailyto otherinputsof which areconnected the twelvepilot code switches.Thosecode pulses NOR selected resultin a groundon the appropriate gateinput. Sincethe other input in eachcaseis also low for the dur4tion of the load mode, the NOR gate go high and codes to selected outputscorresponding element. Similar shift register thusset the appropriate are whenever modeC interrogations action.occurs is not involved.Noise Dl selection although received (r.c.networks) within the filteringis employed for eachof the altitudeinformation transponder when the A pulseis input leads.SPIloadingoccurs with the l5-30 s output pulsefrom the coincident of the SPIswitch. on depression SPItimer produced the S1 Shift The trailing edgeof pul5eT triggers thus S0 = Sl = I and the shift registers monostable with mode. Shiftingoccurs arein the shift operating thus in of the clock pulses, a high to low transition the l'45 1lsafter the first transitionthe shift register output is high (Fl); after the next transitionthe 131

:l

s1

::
I

so
cLx
c2 A2 C4 A4 S/R out

D2 B4 D4 F2

oooo

S/R out 7777

Differentiator

o|rt

oooo

AND out

AND out 7777 wavefolms Fit. 8.16 Encoder

output will be high or low dependingon hqw the Cl elementwas loaded,and so on. Aear and Ho;ld S0 and Sl pulsesare each of approximately30 ps duration, thus S0 goeslow ltrst = = $ving S0 0, Sl I when all the elementsclear. will haveclearedso ln fact during shift all elements this clearmode of operationis not vital. What is important is that S0 goeslow first, sincewe do not want to load againuntil just before the next At the end of SI we haveS0 = SI = 0, transmission. the hold mode which is maintained until the next valid interrogation. The output ofthe shift registercontainsthe coded information but not in the form required,i.e. a train of pulses. Differentiatedclock pulsesare fed to an AND gatewhich is enabledby the shift register output, thus positivepulsesappearat the output of the AND gatein the appropriatetime-slots. The final 132

monostable is to provide pulsesof the correct duration to the modulator. Encoding Altimeter in static pressure the decrease As the aircraft ascends, and consequent the capsule of expansion causes device,an optical or movementof a position-sensing (Fig. 8.17). The resulting transducer magnetic drive, through appropriategearing, servo-assisted display and encodingdisc. The altitude drivesthe for the indicatedaltitude can be reference pressure lhangedby the barosetcontrol. It should be noted *rat this doesnot affect the encodingdisc position which is alwaysreferredto 1013'25 mbar (29'92 in'Hg) pressure'As a result all the standardmean sea-level to the samelevel; aircraft report altitude referenced requirementfor ATC purposes. an essential Variationson the aboveareencodingaltimeters which give no indication of altitude, blind altimeters,

ffi

Barowr

i l
I I

i'---@

Tach. gen.

-{

no,o,

-l ffi' t--:
I
I I
Lioht

I T
Light sourcc

fu--ffi
sonsitive devices Encoding disc

Posi rng sens

d e v i ce

-----

\-^-N Capsule

I *1.-

Porver

urts crr(

-l switch i n g
c l r c u l ts

Static connection

Supply

To transponder

Fi& 8.17 Servo enodingaltimetet drivesbut and thosewhich do not haveservo-assisted do employ a vibrator to givesmooth movementof pointer and encodingdisc. minimizesthe error when the readingline is aligned with the junction of two segments. In the simplifiedencodercircuit shownin Fig. 8.20 with A/R switchON ZenerdiodeVR2 is shortedand emitterof Q2 returnedto earth. When Altitude Encoding is divided into tracks light from LED VR1 falls on photo transistorQl, via disc,usually glass, A transparent part of the encoding disc,currentis a transparent one and segments.Eachconcentrictrack represents drawn through R switchingon Q2. Thus collector of the outer track beingC4, while a of the code pulses, a oarticularaltitude. An opaque represents Q2 falls to a low value,i.e. input 2 to NOR gateis segment low. If input I is drivenlqw by an output from the pattern is formed on the disc so that on a particular decodera high output lrom the NOR gateis available will with eachtrack the areaof intersection sgment for loadinginto the encodershift register. on the depending transparent either opaque or be If no light falls on Ql we haveno volts drop across by that to the altitude represented code assigned R, thus Q2 is off and input 2 to NOR gateis high. segment. a'zero'will be loadedinto Undertheseconditions The disc rotatesbetweena light sourceand element.The circuitry shift register the appropriate photosensitive.devices, one for eachtrack, aligned 'reading for eachtrack of the disc. is repeated described line'. As the disc is driven by the along the is read. the appropriate segment altimeter barometric Side Lobe Suppression 8.2 and 8.3 we seethat back to Tables Referring possible ways of desigringan SLS by I bit for each100 ft increment. Of the several the codechanges in Fig. 8.2l, with the circuitone is illustrated or unit distancecode This useof a l-bit change

133

t=
\.,r n,
sensitivc devices

ll-*

tl-+

||-.+ lF-+ ll-> ll--

ft---*
To transpondcr

Fi& E.lt

Encodingdisc

Tracks

Fig.8.l9 Segmentfor12300ft,code0l0ll0l0o. Encodingaltimcter range- l000-32 700 ft

Segments

Mode C load

*-1
Encoding alttmeter

U I

tl

f-

+v

A/R onloff

-L
=
Transponder

Fig. 8.20 Simplifiedaltitudeencoder circuit

134

D2 R1

-v2
t-__

Ditch digger

circuit Fig.8.2l Sidelobe suppression

lnput

in, d

GI M2,O

M3, O

Ml in Fig. 8.22. Monostable waveforms associated the Pl pulsefrom P2 and and AND gateGl separate by Pl only and will P3 so that M2 will be triggered not be triggereduntil the next interrogation. M2 and M3 provide a gating waveform about I ps wide in the P2 pulseposition. Th" input pulsesarealso appliedto a'ditch-digSer' circuit. Prior to Pl, Dl is forward biasedand the junction of Cl/R2 is low. Both inputs to G2 ate Dl to conduct low. The leadingedgeof Pl causes edgeof Pl causes Cl rapidly. The lagging charging Dl to cut off, sincethe junction Cl/R2 falls by an amount equal to the amplitudeof Pl . Cl now through Rl and R2. WhenP2 arrivesDl discharges will conduct providingthe amplitudeof P2 is sufficient. The time constantClRlR2 and the bias so that if P2>Pl Vl and Y2 ue chosen voltages AND gate G2 will receivean input via D2 which will be coincidentwith the gatingwaveformfrom M3' M4 will be triggeredif Thus the SLS pulsegenerator suppression and only if Y2> Pl, the subsequent video output pulsebeing usedto inhibit the receiver to the spikeeliminator.

Characteristics
Junction c1 R2

waveforms Fig. 8.22 Side lobe suppression

is drawnfrom ARINC The followingsummary for theMk 2 ATC No.572.1 Characteristic out that several It is worthpointing transponder. for arenot required on the Mk I transponder featuies will find many engineer the the Mk 2, however or all of some whichhave still in service transponders the following: 135

l. two-pulseSLS; 2. SLS countdown - receiver desensitized when the number of SLS pulses exceeds a limiting figure; 3. low sensitivity selection; 4. receiver video signaloutput socket; 5. remote automatickeying; 6. externaltransmittertriggering position; 7. audiomonitor: of SPI pulsewhenever 8. transmission D4 is one bit ofthe altitudereporting code. Receiver Minimum Ttiggering Level (MTL) -77 to -69 dBm at antenna or -80 to -72 dBm at transponder. Dynamic Range M T L t o 5 0 d B sa b o v e m.t.l. Frequency and Bandwidth Centrefrequency 1030MHz. - 3 d B p o i n t sa t 1 3 M H z . -60 dB pointsat ! 25 MHz. Decoding Facilities Decoder output lbr pulses spaced 8, I 7 and 2 I ps t 0.2 gs on spacing.Automaticmode C tolerance decoding regardless of modeselection switch. provision Space for 25 ps decoding.

Reply Delay 3 t 0'5 ps. Reply RateCapabiliry 1200replies per second. Reply Pulse Interval Tolerance t 0'l gs for spacing of any pulse, other than SPI.rvith respect to F I ; t 0'15 ps for spacing of any pulsc' with respect to any otherexceptFl: t 0.1 prs for spacing of SPI with respectto F2. Mutual SuBpression P.ilse 25-331s duration. Manitor Lamp To light when five replies aredctected at a rategreater thar 150 replies per second.To stayilluminatedfbr l 5 s a f t e rl a s tr e p l yd e t e c t e d . Antenna Polarization: vertical. v . s . w . r .b : e t t e rt h a n l . 4 l : I a t 1 0 3 0a n d 1 0 9 0M l t z .

Ramp Testing A transponder can be testedril situ usingone of pl o r t a b l e severa t e s ts e t s .A s u i t a b l e r a n t pt e s ts e t will testby radiatitrrr._bc. ceplbleof interrogating on at leastmcldes A and ( . be capable rlf simulating a sidelobe interroXptlon. displaythe transponder reply and providea ffeansof measuring the transponder transmitterfrequency.

Side Lobe Suppression Facilities Pl > P2 + 6 dBs shouldgive90 per cent reply rate. 6 dBsratherthan ICAO 9 dBsensures ATC 5OOA adequate marginto allow for performance rundown in service. A popular test set is the IFR ATC 6004 illustratedin Figure8.23. A reasonfor its popularity is the fact SLSPulse Duration that it can testboth DME and ATC transponder with 25-45 ps. a comprehensive rangeof checks, making it suitable for functional testson the ramp or bench. Transmission Pl, P2 and P3 pulses aregenefated and usedto key a crystal-controlled 1030MHz oscillator.The interval Pl and P3.isswitched Tlansmitter Frequency between to simulate a mode 1 0 9 0 13 M H z . Ay'Cinterlace,two mode A interrogations being transmittedfor eachmode C. The following Minimum Peak Power characteristics may be variedby front panelcontrols:

500 w.

l. Pl-P3 intervd - to checkdecoder; - to checkSLS; Reply hIttlse Characteristics 2. P2 amplitude Duration 0.45 1 0'l ps measured between50 per cent poweroutput - to checkMTL. 3. Transmitter points. amplitude 0'05-0'l ps risetime, l0-90 per cent. The reply is displayedby a bank of lamps,one for 0'054'2 ps delaytime,90-10per cent. eachcode pulseand oire for the SPI pulse. There is 136

#ffi "n[f*
* * )
l

x:
t

) poweroutput of transponder (1 50 per cent

accuracy);

r*
i I

#'$ $ 'tl* i . ffi

t
r

3 . frequency of the'transponder transmitter; 4 . percentage reply; 5 . invalidaltitudecode,i.e.no C pulses or C I and

C4 together;

';*'!,r,".t'-'.1;u

6 . absence of code pulsesin reply to nrode C

interrogation. Supplyis by rechargeable batteryor a.c.,battery operationis limited by a timer. Further l'eatur.es are directconnection to the transponder via an external 34 dB pad, self-testing of display, lampsand battery and direct connection ofencodingaltirneter.

,:-:

t+

Fig.8.23 ATC600A(courtesy tFR Electronics lnc.)

alsoa numericalreadout which showseither the pilot codeor the altitude in thousands of feet. In addition TIC T-33B and T-438 to this basicinformation the following can be checked: The TIC approach to ramp testing is to useseparate testsetsfor L bandequipments, the T-338 and l. F2 timing; T-43B beingthosefor ATC transponder.

Fig. 8.24 TIC T-438 (courtesyof Tel-Instrument Electronics Corp.)

137

for the two test setsare identical Specifications of exceptfor the addedfacility of direct connection on the T'438. which is available an encoder of thesetest setsand the ATC The capabilities 6O0Aare similar in so far as ATC transponderramp in that they both meet the FAA testingis concerned, arelargelydue to the use Differences requirements. of the ATC 6004 as a bench test, although it should be noted that a particularATC 600A is best usedas eithera benchtest setor a ramp test setbut not both. the TIC test setsdo not To detailthe differences, varyingPl -P3spacing for continuously havefacilities or strobingthe F2 pulse,and do not indicateinvalid 'no altitude'informationor transmitter power. or

of the TIC test setsnot availableon the Features ATC 600A are provisionof all military and civil modesof interrogationand changeof scalefor percentage reply meter(0-10 per cent SLS on: 0-100per cent SLS off). Thereare other minor in that and one other major difference. differences, ftlr use in the cockpit the TIC test setsare designed being on the groundor in flight, the antenna to the ATC 600A mountedon the test set asopposed is mountedon a tripod nearthe wherethe antenna l'or the arrangements aircraftantenna-The antenna the useol direci connection TIC test setsnecessitate checks. sensitivity for receiver to the tr;ulsponder

.J

, t <<"

138

I Weatheravoidance

can remainin a cloud without falling to earth is dependent on the speed ofthe up-draught of air. Weatherforecasting is by reputation and, until the In the appendixto this chapterit is shown that the introduction of satellites, in fact, notoriously signalin a weatherradaris proportional to the sixth unreliable. Evenwith modern techniquesrapidly power of the droplet diameter,so strongsignais are changing conditions and lack of detailed associated with a rapid up-draught. If a small volume information on the exact location and severityof bad of the cloud resultsin strongsignals from one part weatherresultsin diversions or cancellation,of fligt t, and weak from an adjacentpart we havea steep 'rainfall where the forecastis the only available information. gradient',most probably due to a down- and What is requiredis an airbornesystemcapableof up-draughtcloseto one another. The region around detectingthe weatherconditionsleadingto the this verticalwind shearis likely to be highly hazards of turbulence,hail and lightning.. turbulent. Attention has been concentratedon developins The corresponding argumentfor associating systems which will 'detect'turbulence.tf an alrcr-aft electricalactivity with turbulencegoes as follows. passes through regionsofsevere turbulenceit is A wind shearwill resultin the separation of positive obviouslysubjectto rnechanical stress, which may and negative electricalcharges in the air due to the cause damage, possiblyleadingto a crash. On friction of the moving air currents. An electrical commercial flights, passenger comfort is also discharge occursafter sufficientcharge of opposite important sincethe number of customers would soon polarity has accumulated in distinct parts of the declineif the discomfort and sickness which cloud. Thesedischarges occur repetitively,most turbulencemay bring becamecommonplace. beinghidden from view but occasionally seenas Unfortunatelythe phenomenonof rapidly and lightning. Each discharge is accompanied by a large randomlymoving air currentsis not amenable to burst of e.m. radiation which canbe received at some detectionby any currently realizable technique; distance.In most radioapplications the 'noise' however,someprogress may be madeby utilizing a received due to lightning is a nuisance but its pulsed Dopplersystem. association with turbulenceis put to good usein a As a consequence of our inability at presentto Ryan Stormscope in a way similarto that in which a detect the turbulencedirectly, systems 'nuisance' have been weatherradaruses ithe signals of weather developed which detect either water droplets or clutter. electricalactivity, both of which are associated with We can summarlze and combinethe above convective turbulencein cumulonimbusclouds. arguments by saying: convective turbulence occurs Clearair turbulencehas no detectableassociated wherewe havelargeshearforceswhich imply: phenomena which can give a clue to its presence. (a) an up-draughtsupportinglargeraindropsformed To detectwater dropletsor raindrops a from the water vapour in the warm moist air rising conventional primary radaris usedwith frequency from ground level;(b) a nearbydown-draughtwhich and specialfeatureschosento optimize the cannotsupport largeraindrops; (c) frictional forces presentation of signals which would, in a normal search givingriseto charge separation; and (d) electrical radar,be unwanted. Weatherradar hasbeen usedfor discharge due to charge separation arida saturated many years,and is mandatory for largeaircrift. intervening medium. Therehasbeena steadymove into the generalaviation Cause and effect are very much bound up iri this market by radar manufacturers but here a relatively argument,the variousphenomena being recentinnovation is the Ryan Stormscope, a patented interdependent. However reasonable the theory, the devicewhich detectselectricalactivity. ultimatejustificationfor the association between The maximum diameterof a water droplet which turbulence, steeprainfallgradient and electrical

Introduction

139

activity is recordedcorrelationduring many flights. Weatherradar is certainly well provenwith many although only while the Stormscope, yearsin service, independently been since1976,has available and shown to be a useful aid' evaluated

WeatherRadar
Basic Principles on three facts: Weatherradar operationdepends r.f. energy; scatters l. precipitation of an r.f. waveis of propagation 2. the speed known; into a highly 3. r.f. energycan be channelled beam. directional Utilizing thesefacts is fairly straightforwardin by a of r.f. energyare generated principle. Pulses iransmitter and fed to a directionalantenna. The r.f. wave,confi4edto asnarrow a beamaspracticable, in its path, someof by precipitation will be scattered the energyreturning to the aircraft as an echo. The is and reception time betweentransmission elapsed particular in to range R, directlyproportional of propagation R = ct 12 wherec is the speed (= 162000 nautical miles per second);t is the time; and the divisor2 is introducedsince elapsed travelis two-way. The direction of the target is simply givenby the direction in which the beam is radiated. the weatherin a to observe Sincethe pilot needs is made antenna the aircraft the of wide sectorahead hencewe use repetitively, port and starboard to sweep for a weatherradarantenna.Any the term scanner stormcloud within the sectorof scanwill effectively of the be slicedby the beam so that a cross-section viewed. is cloud for eachtargetis Displayof threequantities and intensityof echo' bearing requirid: namelyrange, (p.p.i.) displayis invariably .l ptanpositionindicator displayof the the simultaneous utid tinc. this allows ' and is easyto interpret. threequantities A cathoderay tube (c.r.t.)is usedin which the in is velocitymodulated beamof electrons strength' signal the received with accordance the beamstrikesthe'phosphorcoatingon Wherever a glow occurs,the the back of the viewingscreen of the velocity of the intensity of which is dependent with a is Thus a strongsignal associated electrons. intensity term the hence screen; the on bright spot modulaiion. The beamis made to sweepacrossthe with both the time of in synchronism screen position' and the antenna transmission 140

In a conventional(rho'theta) display the beant at bottom centre(origin) at the strikesthe screen the beam instantthe transmitterfires. Subsequently will be deflectedacrossthe screenin a direction azimuthposition,e.g.if the on the scanner dependent the beant is deflected ahead pointing dead is scanner vertically from the origin. In this way a time'baseline is tracedout on the screenand is made to rotate in with the scanner.' synchronism i.e. the length of The duration of the time-base, dependson the screen, the to tiaverse it takes time of by the pilot. Everymicrosecond selected range to a rangeof round trip traveltime corresponds rangeof 0'081 nauticalmiles,thus for a selected about will be time-base the 20 nautical miles 125 ps after 250 ps in duration. An echo received would causea bright spot to appear transmission so indicatingto the half-wayup a 250 ps.time-base, is l0 nautical miles' target of the pilot that the range The net result of the aboveis that a cross-section rangeand scanned of the targetswithin the selected sectorof the radarareviewedin plan. The position of the bright patcheson the screenrelative to the of the position of the targets origin is representative relativeto the aircraft. Figure9.1 illustratesthe .situation.

and Features Choiceof Characteristics

Frequency The higher the frequency(smallerthe wavelength) per unit' cross-section the largeris the backscatter greater the hence (see A9.12) volumeof the target suffer frequencies high power. However, echo the more atmosphericabsorptionthan do low, and extent' cloudsto the sarne further cannotpenetrate An is a compromise' frequency of Thus the choice for a beamwidth; the is consideration additional a narrowerbeamis produced diameter givenscanner with a higherfrequencY' of takinginto accountavailability Practically, to down comes choice the compqnents, standard eitherabout 3'2 cm (X'band) or 5'5 cm (C-band)' and currently The majority of radarsin service are X-band. manufactured Pulse Width The volume of the target givingrise to an echo is directly relatedto the pulsewidth (seeA9.8) thus use of long pulseswill give improvedrange' long pulses: There are two argumentsagainst l. Sincethere is only one antennaand a common

L_ \", r\-l c\',

l \
)

(-,\\

,\l

--^-\-1 ()

Time-base

r
\

\__

Fig.9.1 Display principles frequencyfor transmit and receive, the antenna Sincerangeresolutionand minimum rangeare not must be switchedto the transmitter for the criticalin a weatherradar,pulses tend to be longer duration of the pulse;thus the pulsewidth than in other radars, say2-5 ps. A shorterpulsewidth, determines minimum range. For a 2 ps pulse say I ps, may be switchedin when a short displayed no return can appearfor the first 2 ps of the rangeis selected. = givinga minimum range time-base, which realizes the A techniqueis available t one-sixth 2c X tO-612 of a nauticalmile. advantages of both long and short pulses. The with increasing 2. Range resolution deteriorates transmittedpulsecan be frequencymodulatedso that pulsewidth. A pulseof 2 ps durationoccupies the r.f. increases over the duration of the constant about 2000 ft in space. If two targetsare on the amplitude pulse. The frequencymodulatedreturn is but within 1000ft of one another passed same bearing so that the velocity through a filter designed targetis still being the echofrom the nearest with frequency. Thus the of propagationincreases when the leading edgeof the echofrom higher frequencies received at the trailing edgeof the echo the furthest targetis received.The resultis that 'catchup'with the lower frequencies at the leading both targets mergeon the p.p.i.display.The edge. In this way, the duration of the echo is rangeof the targetsdoesnot affect the resolution. compressed. It shouldbe noted that the bandwidth

141

TargetI Harfa wavelength = IOOO' | i

Target 2 | k+

t-\-\l

I l---

--- t

+ 2
-----t + 3

time (7rs)

+ 4 + 5

Rang

[D K3

Incidentpulse (2 1rs)

Reflectedpulse

Fig.9.2 Range resolution areincreased by usingfrequency requirements modulationof the pulsedr.f., this being the penalty lbr obtaining betterrange resolution.This technique but, so far as the is known as pulsecompression author is aware,is not usedon existingairborne weather radars. hrlse Repetition Frequency,p.r.f. the p.r.f. will affect the number of pulses Changing striking agivenvolume of the targetin eachsweep the displayintegrationfactor and hencechange (see A9.17). Howeverin order to maintain a constant duty cycle(pulsewidth X p.r.f.) an increase in p.r.f. by a decrease in pulsewidth, so must be accompanied power and henceheat dissipation keepingaverage an increase in p.r.f. constant.Alternatively accompanied by a reductionin peak power will also keepheatdissipation constant.The net resultis that power a change for constantaverage in p.r.f. doesnot, in theory, affect the maximum rangeof the radar. Limits areimposedon the choiceof p.r.f. sinceif it is too low the rate at which information is received 142

echoes Fig.9.3 Second.trace is low, while if it is too high the seriousproblem of secondtraceechoes may arise. If the characteristics of the radarare such that the maximum rangefrom which echoes canbe detected is, say,200 nautical miles then the round trip travel time for a targetat ps. In sucha would be about,2500 maximumrange system a pulserepetitionperiodp.r.p.(= l/p.r.f.) of 2000 gs would meanthat the time-base start would occur 500 ps before the return of an echo of the previoustransmittedpulsefrom a target at 2OO nauticalmiles. This secondtraceecho would appear

to be at about 40 nautical miles range. It follows that in the aboveexamplethe maximum p.r.f. would be p.r.f. ( c/2R whereR is the 400 and in general maximum range. A popular choicefor older radarswas a p.r.f. of to the supply frequency. With 4O0 synchronized range,a improved performanceleadingto increased was frequency, e.g. 200, supply of the submultiple internaltimingis used. In modernsystems independentof the supply frequencyand one finds p.r.f.sfrom about 100 to 250.

for is that ground returnswill appearat closerranges wider beamwidths,thus maskingthe cloud retums.

Tilt and Stabilization The reasonfor requiringstabilizationis relatedto the previousparagraph.A weatherradarmay scanup to 300 nauticalmiles aheadof the aircraft.within azimuth of typically t 90". Unlessthe beam is scanangles controlled to move only in or abovethe horizontal planepart or all of the weatherpicture may be maskedby ground returns. Imaginethe aircraft rolling with port wing down. If the sweptregionis in the sameplane as the aircraft'slateraland longitudinal Power Output is to port the beamwill axes,then when the scanner In older radarspeak power outputs of about 50 kW or evenhigher were common,while maximum range be pointing down towardsthe ground,while when to peakpoweris about starboardthe beamwill be pointing up, possibly wasmodest. In modernradars, previous abovethe weather. Figure9.4 illustratesthis with rangecompared l0 kW with increased problem. improvementis systems.This apparentspectacular In fact stabilizationholds the beamnot in the the rangeequation put in perspective by considering horizontal planebut at a constantelevationwith (see A9.7) where we seethat maximum rangeis power. peak respectto the horizontal. This constantelevationis of the root proportional to the fourth by the tilt controlassetby the pilot. maximum determined Thus reducingpower by four-fifths reduces later. and tilt arediscussed rangeby about one-third. This shortfall of one-third Detailsof stabilization in hasbeen more than madeup by improvements signal Contour rerial design,receiverdesignand sophisticated in thoseregionswherethe The pilot will be interested processing. precipitationis greatest.In order to make the which exceeda certain situation clearer,thosesignals Beam Width so as to show the are inverted level predetermined Although the largerthe beamwidth the greaterthe dark holeswithin the precipitation as of heavy cells echo this the to volumeof the targetcontributing 'paint' caused the surrounding the cloud by bright the inverse to out due than cancelled is more effect 'paint' aroundthe cell is an the width of cell. The gainand beamwidth aerial between relationship indication of the rainfall gradient. The narrowerthe preferred, (G o ll02). A narrowbeamis always width the steeperthe gradient,and hencethe greater range and improve sincethe net effect is to increase turbulence.This considerations the probabilityof encountering resolution.Simplegeometric bearing (equal echo) contour isocho separated techniqueis known as two targets show that with a 4" beamwidth pre sen tation. ) 50 nautical by about 3! nauticalmiles,at a range as one on the p.p.i. Bearing miles,will appear on Sensitivity Time Control, s.t.c. is dependent unlike rangeresolution, resolution, strength the signal the targetrange.An equallyimportantconsideration For correctcontouroperation
No stabilitv

./
<______ __ Stability

B\
\
No stabilitY

7///////////////////////////////ru
Fig. 9.4 Scannerstabilization

7//////27'////////////////////////ru
1/13

is to havea.g.c'noise'derived.During arrangement strould depend only on the characteristicsof the the output before transmission immediately time the target,but of coursethe rangealso affectsthe received p.r.f. will the only, since is noise receiver the from inversion contour ifthe power. As a consequence i.e. echoes, second-trace to avoid chosen been have a certain cells at storm to indicate as so levelis set range expires to maximum the time corresponding rangethen innocent targetscloserthan that range well before the next pulse. The a.g.c.circuit is gated may causeinversionwhile storm cellsbeyond that output is connectedto it only for so that the receiver rangemay not. In order to solvethe problem the transmission. before time a short being with range, gainis made to vary receiver of such a.g.c.is to keep the having result The thereafter increasing and range at zero minimum which under normal output constant, noise receiver (i.e. with time), hencesensitivitytime control or If, for any gain is constant. the means conditions called. sweptgain,asit is sometimes or received, noisegenerated thereis excessive reason the gainwill fall, so keepingthe backgroundnoise will displayedat a constantlevel,althoughsignals Tx will not highlight all storm cells. contour fade and ------+Time is to keep the receiver arrangement An alternative Rx of how the receiveroutput regardless gain constant gain may change.This hasthe virtue of keepingthe (S.t.c.) conditionsfor inversionin the contour circuit unchanging.Such presetgain is found in modern a.g.c.is found noise-derived whereas digital systems, systems. in older analogue timecontrol Fig.9.5 Sensitivity output The aim is to make the receiver range. Unfortunately the received independent'ud as the squareof the rangefor targets power decreascs which fill the beam,but as the fourth power of the rangeotherwise(seeAppendix). To achievethe aim would requirea complex gain control waveform which would, even then, only be correct for a certain havebeendesigned sizedtarget. Many systems a 3 nauticalmile diametercloud as standard; assuming to a range s.t.c.hasoperated among suchsystems, wheresucha targetwould fill the beam;beyond that that gainis constantwith time. It hasbeen observed it is uncommonfor water dropletretumsto come from a regionwhich fills the beamvertically except at closeranges. Following from the above,s.t.c.may be arranged for the rangesquaredlaw out to to compensate about 30 nauticalmiles for a 6o beam. A changein in maximum s.t.c. sizewould lead to a change scanner alter. Alternativeiy, would the beamwidth rangesince for out to, say, a modified law may be compensated 70 nauticalmiles,ignoringthe possibilityof beam filling.

Display A problem in displaydesignfor cockpit useis the largerangeof ambientiighting conditions. Some if it is is inevitable of the informationreceived storage to be viewed,owing to the relativelylow refreshrate basicinformation. of the fleeting is the c.r.t. screen In olderand simplerradars phosphor which with a long-persistence coated continuesto glow sometime after the electronbeam on its way thusstoringthe information haspassed suchphosphors overthe scaninterval. Unfortunately. shielding is very high and very efficient arenot viewingin bright conditions. requiredfor adequate is a solution tube (d.v.s.t.) The directview storage c.r.t. A meshis of a conventional to the problems mounted immediatelybehind the phosphor-coated screen. Electronsarriveat the meshfrom two by the beam,velocity-modulated a locused sources: electron gun while signal,comesfrom a conventional a wide beamof continuously, a flood gun provides, electronsover the whole mesh. Sincethe modulated with the meshin accordance beamis deflectedacross a charge position and time sincetransmission, scanner pattern is written on the mesh. The pattern determines where and what fraction of incident electrons Automatic Gain Control, e.g.c. penetratethe meshand strike the phosphor. Since with desirable It is neither practicalnor indeed eachglowingelementof phosphoris excited signal by a'g.c. determined have to contour operation continuously,very bright displaysare possible. A level asin receiversfor other systems. The normal 1U

slow discharge.path for the mesh must be provided to exceptionof a few noisc spotsper memory update. preventsaturation;the possibility of changingthe discharge rate exists and a pilot-adjustablecontrol Scanner may be provided. On changingrangethe meshwill be There are two typesof scanner employed to obtain 'instantly' discharged to prevent confusion between the required narrowbeam,namelya directly fed parabolic 1ew and old screenpositionsof the targets. If the reflectoror a flat plateplanararray. Of the discharge path is broken and updating inhibitrd *" two, for a givendiameterand wavelength, the flat havea frozenpicture. platehasthe highergain/narrower beam/least The modern approachto information storageis to sidelobe power,but is most expensive. .. Sincethe flat digitize the signalwhich is then storedin an plateis almosttwice asefficientasthe parabolic intermediatememory at a location dependingon the reflectorit is invariably usedwith a modernsystem scanner azimuth angleand the time of arrival exceptwhere cost is an overridingfactor or the space measured with respect to the time of transmission. available in the noseof the aircraft allows a larseThe p.p.i. time-base scanformat can be either . parabolic reflectorto be used. rho-thetaor X-Y as per a conventionaltelevision. The flat plateantenna consists of stripsof In either casememory can be read at a much higher waveguide verticallymounted.side by side with the rate than that at which information is received. With broad wall facing forward. Staggered off-centre many more picturesper secondpainted we havea verticalslots are cut in eachwaveguide so as to bright, flicker-freedisplay without the need for interceptthe wall currents and henceradiate. Several long-persistence phosphorsof low efficiency or the wavelengths from the antennasurface,the energy e4pensive d.v.s.t. from eachof the slotswill be summed in space, In the caseof a rho-thetadisplay thc scanformat is cancellation or reinforcement taking place depending the same for receiptand displayinformationbut, as on the relativephases.In this applicationthe phase explained,the repetition rate is different,so only of the feedto eachslot, and the spacing between scanconversion in time is required. With a television_ slots,is arranged so give as to a resultant radiated type displayboth the scanformat and repetition rate pattern which is a narrow beamnormal to the plane are different, so completescanconversionis required of the plate. The greater the nurnberof slotsthe . from input (received)format to readout(displayed) betterthe performance; since the spacing between format. Useof the television-type display makes the slots is critical we can only increase the number multipleuseof the weatherradarindicatorrelatively of slotsby increasing the plate. size of the flat simpleso we find such indicatorsable to display data The parabolic reflectorworkson a similarprinciple from other sensors (e.g.Area nav.)or alphanumeric to a car headlampreflector. Energystriking the datasuchaschecklists. reflector from a point sourcesituatedat the focus will Digitizing the signalinvolvesthe recognitionof oroducea plane waveof uniform phasetravellingin a only discrete values of signal intensity. ihe standard direction parallel to the axis of the parabola. The practice is to havethreelevels of non-zero intensity, feedin a weatherradarparabolic antenna is usuallya the highest corresponding to the contour inversion dipolewith a parasitic element which, of course, is level. Although thesethree levelscorrespondto not a point source.The consequence of a dipole feed different degrees of brightness of the paint, with the is that the beam departqfrom the ideal and there is useof a colour tube they can be madeto correspond considerable spill-over, $ivingrise to ground target to threecolours. While thereis no standardization of returnsfrom virtually helow the aircraft, the so-called the colour code as yet (1979) red is the obVious height ring. choicefor contourable tarsets. In both typesofaptenna,scanning is achieved by Perhaps the mosl signifilant virtue of a digital rotating thecomplete antenna a5sembly , u sa th weatherradaris the absence of noiseon the display. r o t a t i n g oint isrequired. w a v e g u i dje An The output of the receiver, the videosignal, is electronically steered beantis possible with the flat digitized and then averaged in both time and position, platebut the considerable complications of arranging i.e. the videooutput occurring p gs after a the correctphasing of the feedto all slotshavemade transmission is averaged with that occurringp ps after this impractical for airborne weatherradarsystems. the next transmission and the video datawhich would Some of the simpler. cheaper weatherradars appear at adjacent positions on the screen are subject employinga parabolic reflectorrotatethe reflector to a weighted aver-agingprocess. With a suitable choice only. leaving the feedfixed and so eliminating the of minirnum s i g r a ll e v e lf o r a ' p a i n t ' u n c o r r e l a t e d needfor an azimuthrorating joint. A disadvantage of noiseis virtuallyelirninated from the displaywith the this latter systemis that the feed is not at the focus

145

rotation, memory write/read and all display circuitry. 'brain' Thus in a modern weatherradar we seethat the of the systemis situatedin the indicator while the by heart'remainsin the t.r. This view is reinforced the fact that the pilot/systeminterface is achieved throughthe indicator,both for display completely and control. lnstallation is a flat plate array plus associated The scanner and.azimuth drive. for scanner stabilization circuitry Figure9.6 illustrates in block a typicalinstallation gimballed u'hich plate a surface t'lat is mounted on The form asrepresented by the BendixRDR 1200.a to pitch and roll signals allowsrotationin response with the upperend of digitalweatherradardesigned gyro (VRG). the general aviationmarketin mind. The installation from the aircraftverticalreference which ideallyis is through a radome will be discussed in termsof the RDR I100 first. and Radiation the X-band energy but at the same transparent to will be described. then variations and refinements preserves protectittn provides for the scanner, time Radome shape of the aircraftand has the aerodynamic adequate structuralstrength. VRG Waveguide aremadeusing of the interconnections Most N, with signal and control lines approved cables standard ---i---l Trar scanner J l ) recev e r t.r.and b n etiveen screened T .heinterconnectio l / losses by way of waveguide. is, of necessity. scanlrer 2 8 V d . c .t t s v ' c f f at X-band(or cablebeingunacceptable in co-axial Supply e v e nC - b a n d ) . lndrcator of the Whilethe aboveis a simplifieddescription contents are BendixRDR 1200the units and tl.reir systems. for all modern digital very much the same RDR 1200installation Fig.9.6 Bendix aviation for general systems A trend in lightweight (t.r.) contains and scanner in aircraftis to combinethe transmitter receiver The transmitter all the r.f. of a two unit system, one unit. The nrainadvantage aswell as the rnodulator, circuitryand components plus indicator,is that the waveguide run is IF stages, analogue to digital(a/d) converter t.r./scanner duplexer, costs so reducing capitaland installation and powersupplycircuits. Unlikeolder systems, the eliminated, against losses. The argument andwaveguide basictiming circuitryis in the indicatorratherthan is that the unit the t.r. This timing controlsthe p.r.f.,scanner combininsthe t.r. and scanner exceptwhen the reflector axis is deadahead;the resultingdeteriorationof the beam shapemeansthe anglethrough which the beamis scanned must be restricted.

Fig.9.7 Primus 200 multifunction colour weather radar. on the Two-unit sensor on the left, multifunction accessories right (courtesy RCA Ltd)

1tt6

installedin the noseis costly in terms of maintenance cornersand flexible sections, except where necessary, strouldit require regularreplacement; thus reliability so reducingcostsand losses.A choke flangeto plain assumes evengreaterimportancein such systems. joint is normal practice,the choke flangewaveguide Singlecngined aircraft havenot been neglected, the flangehavinga recess to take a sealing ring. problemhavingbeen tackled in two different ways, The radomeis usuallya coveredhoneycomb both of which involve a combined t.r./scannerunit. structuremade of a plasticmaterialreinforcedwith Bendix havegone for an under-wingpod-mounted fibreglass.The necessity for mechanical strength, unit, while RCA have developed a wing leadingedge smallsizeand aerodynamicshape may compromise mountedunit in which a sectionof a parabolic the r.f. performance. Lightning conductorson the reflectoris used,as well as a pod-mountedunit. insidesurfaceof the radomewill obstruct the beam, Corrosiondue to moisture collection is a problem but their effect is minimizedif they are perpendicular in the waveguide to the electricfield of the wave. Horizontal run, which may be easedby pressurization. polarizationis normal sincethere is lessseaclutter, The ideal is to havea reservoirof dry air feeding,via a pressure-reducing valve,a waveguide althoughwith moderateto rough seas the ldvantage run which hasa slow controlled leak at the scanner; is minimal. this method is not usedon civil aircraft. Several On largeaircraft a dual installationis used. installatiorpailow cabin air to pressurize Obviously the scanner the cannotbe duplicated but both waveguide run via a bleedervalve,desiccantand filter. t.r. and indicatorcanbe. In somecases only the If the cabinair is not dried and filteredmore problems indicatoris'duplicated, thus eliminating the needfor may be createdthan solved. Two interestingcases a waveguide switch. Unlessone indicator is purely a that havebeenbrought to the author's attention are: slave with no system controlsother than,say, a nicotine depositon the inner wall of the waveguide brilliance,a transferswitch will be necessary to causing excessive attenuation,and rapid corrosion transfer control from one indicatorto another. Even caused by fumes from the urine of animals if two t.r.s are fitted a transfer switchis still necessary transported by air. lfno activepressurization for scanner stabilizationon-off and tilt control. is enrployedthe pressure within the waveguide may still be higher than static pressure if all joints are tightly sealed.A primary aim of waveguide pressurization is Controls to reduce high-altitude flash-over. The following list of controlsis quite extensive; most will be found on all radars but someareoptional. The nomenclature varies but alternative names for someof the controlsarelistedwhereknown. RangeSwitclr Usedto selectdisplayedrange. Will alsochangethe rangemark spacing.Selectionmay be by pushbuttonor rotary switch,the latter possibly rOFF','STANDBY' and 'TEST' incorporating positions. OfflStandby Pushbuttonor incorporatedin the range switch. With standbyselected therewill be no transmission while indicatorextrahigh tension(e.h.t.) may or may not be on.' Fig.9.8 Installation of Weather ScoutI t.r./scanner unit (courtesy RCALtd) The waveguide run should be kept as short as possible. Inaccessibility or inadequate coolingmay that the t.r. cannotbe situatedso as to nrean minimizethe lengthof the run. Straightrigid waveguide shouldbe used, avoiding bends,twists. Functibn Switch Selects modet-rf,operation .NORMAL"'CONTOUR"'CYCLICi ., MAPPING" 'BEACON'. The last two of these modesare described later. Normaloperation allowsthe useof t a i n )o r v a r i a b l g a . g . c(.p r e s eg e a i n :s . t . c . is usually a c t i v e .C o n t o u r operation s e l e c t i oc na u s eb sl a n k i n g of stronges sti g n a l s a,. g . ca . n ds . t . c . automaticall., s e l e c t e dC . y c l i co p e r a t i o n c a u s en so r n r aa l i r dc . r i r t o u r presentations to alternate.Pushbutton or rotar.y 147

'NORMAL'switch control may be used. may be omitted, this mode of operation automatically being 'OFF' when a rangeswitchincorporating selected and 'STANDBY' is selected to any rangewhile 'CONTOUR' or'CYCLIC' switches are off. (Seealso 'gain control'.) Gain Control Usedt6 set gainof receiver manually. A continuously rotatable or click-stop control is normal. The control may incorporate contour on-off;by rotatingthe knob pastthe maximum gain positioncontour plus preset gainwill be selected.In this latter case a separate springreturn pushbutton may be usedto turn contouroff momentarily. In other systenrs the gaincontrol may simply gainon-off switch at its incorporate a preset maximumposition. patternspecified Test Switch A special by the (or mapping)picture replace5 weather manufacturers when test is selected.

(usually)sectorscanangtes, e.g.Bendix RDR 1200 hast 30o or + 60o options. Contrast Control Adjusts video amplitier gain and henceallowssomecontrol of pictureas opposed to displaybrightness evenwhen i.f. ampsareoperating undera.g.c. Sonretimes calledintensity. Manual Tune Contol Associated with automatic liequencycontrol (a.f.c.)on-off switch. Whena.f.c. to off, local oscillator is selected may be tuned manuallyfor bestreturns. Generally not usedon modernsystems.

Operation

The actual operation ofa weatherradar is quite straightforward, but to get the bestuseof the system amountof experience a considerable and expertise is requiredon tl'repart of the pilot. Beginners are to avoidby a wide marginany contourable advised ScannerStob Switch On-Off Switching. targetwithin s.t.c.range and any targetat all outside that range. Tilt Control Adjustment of scanner elevationangle With experience the pilot is able to distinguish t 15". typically sal-e and unsafetargets between to the extent that ratherthan just avoid, he may be ableto penetrate, Brilliance or Intensitlt Control Adjustsbrightness of weather. Several words of warningarein orderwhen displayto suit arnbient lighting. penetration: one shouldalwaysselect attempting one of the longerranges beforeattemptingto fly Free:e or Hold Su,itch Dara updateof display storm cellssincethe way throughmay be between picturedisplayed.Transmissionblockedfurther ahead; stopped. last updated weatherconditionscan change and scanner rotationcontinues.Warning lamp rnay rapidlylthe limitationsof X-bandradarin so thr as be provided.Only available on digitalsystemor signalpenetrationis concernedshould be remembered. w h e r ed . v . s . ti.s e m p l o y e d . Eraseor Trace Contol Springreturn switch to rapidlydischarge meshin d.v.s.t., so wiping picture variable cleanor continuously control which alters ate. d i s c h a r gre RangeMark Cttntrol Alters intensity of rangemarks. geiterated. Azimuth Marker Sv'itch Electronically azimutlirnarksnraybe turnedon or ofl'. flashes TargetAlcrt Sx'itct On-off. Whenactivated i f a c o n t o u r a b lte arget is a n a l e r to n t h e s c r e e n 'window' (window of the aircral't in l ahead detected s 00 is 7'5'eitherside of heading or RCA Prinru2 s i z -f e o . l ' 6 0 - l i 0 n a u t i c ar lniles)W . l r n i n gg i v e n iit a runge range alsorvhenin 'freeze'mode rli selected regardless of one of two Sec'tor SrurrSrl'ilci Allowsselection 148
Finger

Scalloped

Edge

U-Shapd

(courtesy Bendix Avionics Fig.9.9 RDR 1100displays Division)

It has alreadybeenmentionedthat a narrow paint scanner stabilizationfaults exist. With the scanner around a storm cell is a good indication of severe tilted down and stabilizationon a bright circular band turbulencebut whateverthe width the cell should be ofterrain targets centredon the originshouidbe presented. If the band is not circularbut is severely avoided;the only questionis by what margin. The 'toppled'or then most probablythe gyro is strape of the return on the screen is alsoa pointer to distorted, 'spilled', the spin axisis not vertical.The gyro the type of weatherahead. Targetswith fingers, i.e. edges hooks, scalloped or that are U-shaped havebeen will be in sucha conditionif its rotor is running on if it hasjust beenswitched to be associated slow, aswill be the case observed with hail. Long hooks or indentations crescent-shaped may indicatea tornado, or there is a supply or gyro motor defect. A gyro fast which,when depressed, erectswitchmay be provided but thereareno guarantees eitherway. the run up the supply voltageso accelerating This chapter,and its appendix,havethus far been increases concernedmainly with rain, so a word is in order here to operatingspeed. The switch shouldnot be held on for more than half a minute or so, otherwisethe rotor about returns from other types of precipitation. Dry so speedmay exceedthat for which it was designed, mowfall will not be seenbut wet snowfall may be causingdamage. sen with difficulty. Fog and mist will not be the To completean airbornecheck of stabilization, detected.Hail may givestrongor weak returns:if it aircraft shouldbe bankedand pitched,within the b dry and small comparedwith the wavelength, operationbeing stabilizationlimits, satisfactory rctums areweak:if it is water-coated. returnsare circular terrainband. unchanging indicated by an if it is dry and with the strong; of a sizecomparable the amountof nose Note that with tilt down selected. (an extrelnecondition with 3 cm radflr) wavelength circuitscan dealwith is in scatteringfor up pitch that the stabilization lhe echo is very strong. The increase water*oated ice particles,hail or snow, may give rise limited. which resembles to a'bright band'at an altitudewherethe temperature Spokingis any p.p.i. presentation of a wheel. lt is almostcertainlycaused the spokes an ionized bjust above0"C. Lightningcreates by a fault within the weatherradarsystem,although gaseous regionwhich may, if oriented correctly, electromagnetic devices by unshielded it can be caused the radarenergy. backscatter are magnetic There producing fields. strong changing picture on weather thingsmay affect the Several spoking: of fault which cause attenuation two main classes the p.p.i. Icingon the radomewill cause (a) video sigrral and noisespokes due to abnormal signal, so targets ofthe transmitted and received video output amplitudevariationssuchas might be which would havebeen displayedmay, under these frequency circuits(a.f.c.) by the automatic caused until very close; circumstances, remainundetected 'innocent'precipitation and through the local oscillatorfrequencies the signal. sweeping will alsoattenuate (b) sweepspokesdue to faulty displaycircuitry such Ground or searetums may mask a storm cell; the tilt resolver ground asdamaged slip ringsin the time-base weather.and control shouldbe usedto separate radar. To employedin an older all-analogue regions. targets, a difficult task in mountainous the gain Interference, which takesthe form ofbroken, curved determinewhich of (a) or (b) is the cause, to the antenna tilted down and may be tumed p.p.i. by display, is caused or straightlineson the persists, the fault is in maximumup; if the spoking other radar systems.The exact effect varieswith the the displaycircuitry. processing type of videosignal and scanconversion of someof the The aboveis only a brief discussion (if any) and with the p.r.f. of the interfering radar. weather when operating factorsone.must consider The older type of weatherradarwith no scan a pilot of skill involved, of the degree radar. Because of the videooutput is conversion and no averaging new to weatherradarshouldstudy the manufacturer's particularly High p.r.f. to interference. susceptible pilot's guidecarefully; thqy areusuallyvery good. interferingsignals, suchasGCA, givemany fine Equallyimportant,he shouldlearneachtime he uses broken radiallineson the screen.If the interfering for example, if a detouris madeto avoid the system; p.r.f. is closeto a harmonicof the p.r.f. of the radar an unusuallyshapedreturn, a simplesketchand a with, then curvedbrokenlines, beingintert'ered phonecall on landingto enquireabout the weather apparentlymoving into or away from the origin. will with that targetwill add to his experience. associated is the interference result. Wheremotion is apparent, 'running that to a largeextentthe body of Remember to as rabbits',another commonly referred 'rabbit tracks'. weatherreturnsis empirical. knowledgeconcerning commonll'encountered term is way than to collectone'sown What better to learn Selection of contourmay alleviate interference results? problems. ',dbnorrnal A final and most important point needsto be p.p.i.presentations will be observed if

149

/ made,and that is that weatherradarpresents a considerable hazard, when operatedon the ground. Detailsare givenlater in this chapter.

weatherradardirectly and rystemsof this type are still very widely used;the latter sinceit is th; currenr approachof all manufacturers.Two types of digital systemwill be considered: rho-thetadisplayand X-y display. All Analogue System The p.r.f. generator providestimb synchronization for the completesystem;the output is often calledthe

Block Diagram Operation

We shallconsider both analogue and digital systems: the former sinceit illustratesthe principlesof

-ti
Balenced mrxer.

lAzimuthI drive I I

FT
;l
I

1 S
l@
on/
off

P.R.F. gen. Mod. Tx Time base Bright up Range marks A.G.C./ Video -l-,-

tl

I I

M
t

s.T.c.

,l
I

Fig. 9. | 0 All analogue weather radar block diasram and waveforms

150

pre-pulse, sincethe lagging edgeis usedto triggerthe waveform coincidewith the start of the run-down. modulator. The transmitteris a magnetronkeyed by If the balancinghalf-cycleis madelargerthan the modulator which determines the pulsewidth. necessary we havean open centrewhereby zero range The burst of r.f. energy(main bang)ii fed from the is represented by an arc,ofnon-zeroradius, on the transmitter to the scanner via a duplexerand p.p.i. display. waveguide run. The duplexerallowscommon aerial The gatewaveformis fed to the marker and working in that it is an electronicswitch which bright-up circuitswhich providethe necessary feeds automaticallyconnectsthe scanner to the transmitter to the c.r.t. for the duration of the time-base.Range for the duration of the transmittedpulse,thus marksare producedat equally spaced intervalsduring protecting the receiver. the gate,and areusedto intensitymodulatethe c.r.t. A sampleof the transmittedfrequencyis fed to the electronbeam. The bright-upwaveformprovidesa a.f.c.(automaticfrequency control)mixer alongwith biaswhich prevents the velocity of the beam berng an output from the l.o. (localoscillator).If the sufficient to excite the phosphorcoatingon the differencefrequencyis not equal to the requiredi.f. screen, except during the time-base rundown. the a.f.c.circuit applies a controlsignal Pitch and roll stabilizationis providedby a to ihe 1.o., s<j adjusting its frequency until we haveequality. If the ryro-controlled servomechanism. differencefrequencyis outsidethe bandwidth of the a.f.c.circuit, the control signal is madeto sweep until Digital Weather Radar - Rho-Theta Display suchtime asthe a.f.c.loop can operate normaliy. The radio and intermediatefrequencypart of the The main receiver mixer is balanced to reduce l.o. block diagramis much the samefor analogue and noise. The i.f. amplifierchainis broadband digital systems, so here only the video,timing and (bandwidth ) 2 X reciprocal of pulsewldtn) with gain control blocks will be considered.The following is controlled by the a.g.c./s.t.c. circuits or the manual based on the RCA Primus 40. pin control. The videoenvelope is detected and after Analogue videodatafrom the receiver is further amplification is usedto intensitymodurare digitizedin an analogue to digital (a/d) converter. (Z-modulation t) h ec . r . r . The range selected is dividedinto 128 equalrange With contour on, the videosignal is sampled, and if cells,for example, with 300 nautical milesselected abovea preset inversion levelthe videofed to the eachcell is 300/128 = 2.344nauticalmiles,or, in c.r.t.is effectively removed. termsof time, 3607 ps is dividedinto 128 time-slots The pre-pulse is fed to the a.g.c. gatewhich thus of 28.96ps. Duringeachtime-slot the videolevelis allowsthe videooutput throughto the a.g.c. first integrated then encoded circuit as a 2-bit word, thus only for theduration o f t h e p r e - p u l s(e s a yl 0 p s ) . I n givingfour discrete representations from zeroto this.waythe gaincontrolline voltage maximumsignal.In the Primus levelis madea 40 a complemented function of receiver noise. The lagging eclge Gray codeis usedfor the conversion of the but is then pre-pulse triggers the s.t.c.circuitwhich reduces changed to standard binary. i.f. gainat zero range and returns it to normalafter, The scanner is drivenby a stepper motor suchthat typically,30 nauticalmiles(about 370 ps). 1024steps aretakenfor 120" ofscan. The The lagging edgeof the pre-pulse transmitter alsoiniriates fireson everyother stepso providing512 the start of the time-base and gatewaveforms, azimuthdirtictions from which echoes the may be durationofwhich depend on the range selected. Thuson eachof 512 azimuthangles The received. datais time-base wavefornrl(r)is f-ed to a magslip (synchro acquired in 128 range increments. resolver) in the scanner; sincethe rotor of the magslip The averaging/smoothing circuitsreduce the is drivenin synchronism with the scanner numberof lines(azimuthdirections) azimuth by a factor of m o v e m e ntth e o u t p u t s a r e1 ( r ) s i nd a n d1 ( r ) c o s0 4 to 128(= 51214) and apply a correction to the where0.is the azintuthangle nreasurecl with reference gradient of the sigralin range and azimuth. The 4 to to theaircraft headingU . sing thecosine o u t p u tf o r I line reduction is achieved by averaging the sum of verticaldeflection and the sineoutput for horizontal four adjacent azimuthtime cellsasshbwnin deflection provides the necessary rotatingtime-base. F i g .9 . 1 3 a n dT a b l e9 . 1 . A f t e r a v e r a g i n w ge h a v e1 2 8 The start of the time-base run-downmust lineswith 128 range cellsper line grving correspond to zerodeflection of the c.r.t.spot. Since 1 2 8X 1 2 8= l 6 3 8 4 d a t ac e l l s .T h e d a t ai s t h e n the magslip. beingbasically a transformer, removes corrected first in range then in azimuthas follows: any d,c. levela balancing half-cycle is required if in a series of threeadjacent cellsthe outer two cells imrnediately after the time-base flybackto makethe arethe same but the inneris different,then the inner (zero)valueof the composite average time-base is corrected so asall threearethe same;forexample,

151

icccivcr

vidco

Range cells

5 (NoisGl

10 1 1 12 13 1 4 1 5

127 128

Video levol (O thru 3)

,|

(,,

code

--{ Complemented binarygray I

tt

in the Primus40 Fig. 9.1I Analcgueto digital conversion (courtesy RCA Ltd)

256 LINESPERFRAJVIE RATE FRAME REFRESH l S 6 0 . 7H z ( 1 6 . 4 7 5 m S | 256= 64355,rS TIME LINE 1 6 . 4 7 5 m-S

CELTS DlsPtAV 128CELLS PR LrNEX 256LTNES=32.768

"',*",j,ffik%
-urr;fll.\
. . c4ce{

,"*\

rasterscanformat in the Primus40; Fig. 9.12 Rho-theta per scan, 128 linesin memory,256 512 transmissions displayedlines (courtesy RCA Ltd)

152

as it is received.Sincethe signallevel within eachrangecell is codedas a 2-bit word the memory Sumof four azimuth Average capacity must be 2X 128 X 128 = 32'168bits. The adiacenttime cells memorycomprises sixteen2 X 1024-bitshift registers, so applicationof clock pulsescauses the 0-l 0 circulation of dataprovidedthe output is connected 2-5 I to the input which is the case when new data are not 6-9 2 beingloaded. New datamust be loadedinto memory r0-12 3 at the correcttime in the sequence of circulating data;this timing control is provided by the new data line control circuit which synchronizes the loading 313 would be correctedto 333 while 012 would remainthe same(seeFig.9.l4). The aboveprocesses, with scannerposition. Loadingis inhibited when the freeze button is pressed but circulation of data togetherwith the integration of the video signal readout asit within eachrangecell prior to digitization, reducethe continues.The datais continuously circulates at a rate of about 7'772\ines per second displayed noice to negligibleproportions. compared with loading every fourth main bang,a rate Eachof the 128 lines of 128 cellsis placedin = 30.35linesper second.The different of 121'414 load and readratesgivethe scanconversion in time, a-----------l a--.,--=-l leadingto a flicker free bright picture. Although 128 linesof videoarestored,256 lines aredisplayed, so it is necessary to doublethe stored After averaginglines. The line-doublingcircuit averages two adjacent storedvideolinesto generate a middleline, so giving the required256 lineseachof 128 cells(i.e. a total of 32768 displayed cells). In the averaging process the rule is to average up if an integeraverage is not possible.The following example,considering part of
Fig. 9.13 Fout to one line averaging in the RCA Primus 40 Noise

Table9.1

Four to one line averaging

'nemory

E'l corrected F8. 9.14 Rargc and azimuth smoothing and correction in the RCA Primus40

153

Video from Rx

Averaging smoothing circuits

Tx trigg6r
CRT Frame retrace

tI
Freeze and rho-thetadisplayblock Fig,9.15 Video processing diagram

32768 bit shift register

Data out

Clock Fig. 9.15 Simplifiedmemory three adjacent stored lines, illustrates the process:

= 5'12 cells,so the first by 128125 mile is represented (= 5 X 5'12) with subsequent mark is locatedat cell 26 storedline...3 3 2 2 1 . . . a n d1 2 8 . 5 l at cells ,71,102 marks middleline...3 3 2 2 t . . . all 128 Azimuth marksareobtainedby raising storedline...3 2 2 I 0 . . . cellsof the appropriatelinesby I in a similar way t^o I I I 0... m i d d l el i n e . . . 2 is 120",so for l5above. The sweep that described storedline...0 0 0 0 0 . . . + 120/ 15 = 9 linesto I we require markers azimuth those With 256 lines in intensity. enhanced be Rangemarks are obtainedby raisingthe appropriate = 32ly' rvhere 256 line Nl8 2 and line are chosen 0 by l, i.e. lines the 256 rangecell levelfor eachof -60o markersince 3 while 3 remains N= 1-8. Line 2 is usedfor the 2,2 becomes 1, I becomes becomes line, tltus the first'trace to the blankingis applied at 3. Thus rangemarksappearslightly brighter than -59'0625". at fact is in marker azimuth targetreturnsexceptfor level3 targets'Identification leftmosi 3 levelto a video a converts circuit contour The line is achieved of the appropriaterangecell in each of cells range sequence a If we had 0 level. video mile nautical the 25 on by a counter. For example cell of level3 rangethere are five rangemarks 5 nautical miles apart. 0 2 3 0 0, say,then the contoured being would not be bordered,the sequence Sincethere are 128 rangecellsper line eachnautical 154

0 2 0 0 0. To avoid this, the rangecell adjacentto a contouredlevel 3 cell is raisedto level 2 if necessary, thusin ourexampleO 2 3 O 0 would become 0 2 O 2 0 after contouring. Bordering is guaranteed in azimuth as a result of the line-doublingprocess since,for example,if we haveadjacentazimuth cells with videolevelsI 3 0 from'memory,then line-doublingwill give | 2 3 2 0 and after contouring | 2 O 2 0 as required. This bordering -featwe is.necossary where the video gradientis steep, suchaswhen we receive returnsfrom mountains or distantweathertargets.

The rho-thetaraster is generated by tlte deflection circuitswhich are triggered by the frame andX-Y retrace waveforms.A linearramp currentrvaveform needs to be generated for both_the )/ (vcrtical) deflection coilsand the X (horiz.r,ntal) deflection coilswhich form the yoke. The durationol'the ramp ( f l y b a c k ) g i v r na g i s 5 3 ' 8 9p s w i t h a 1 0 ' 4 6p s r e t r a c e totalline time (time-base period)of 64.35 gs. The amplitudes of the rampwavelbrms determine the amountof deflection in the X and X directions and thus the particular line which is tracedon the screen; line I is at -60o, line 256 is at +60o. In.pracrice, since on the completionof one frameat line 256 on 0 0 vlotor-EvtLs r 2 I 3 t 2 O the right we start the next frame on the left after frameretrace, line I is blankedin order to allow the o * ( , deflection circuitsto settledown. The franrerateis SINAiY CODI 6O'7Hz. The X and )z ramp waveformsare initiated by thc pulses.The amplitude X-Y relrace of the I/ ramp must be a mininrumat the beginning and end of the frameand a maximumhalf-waythroughthe frame; its polarity is constant throughout.The anrplitude of the X ramp must be a maximurn at the beginning and ANALOG VIDEO end of the frame and zerohalf-way through the frame,when the polarity reverses. To achieve the amplitude variations described the X and Y ramp (uncontoured) Fig,9.17 Digital to analogue conversion wavefolms are amplitude-modulated by appropriately (courtesy RCALtd) shaped waveformstriggered by the frame retrace pulse. The c.r.t.is intensitymodulated by one of four It shouldbe evidentthat timing and synchronization appliedto its control grid. Sincethe output are all-important. We seefrom the simplifiedblock d.c.levels from the contourcircuit is digitalwe must employ a diagram that the timing and controlcircuitsare (D/A) conversion digital to analogue circuit. to virtuallyall partsto ensure connected the

,,1. o

Frame retrace
I

ffi,,,

Mod

X-Y retrace

_ r l l l l l l
x
Ramp -

'--

Y Ramp

Fig. 9.18 Ramp generation

t55

necessary synchronization. All timing signals are derivedfrom d 4'972459 MHz crystal-controlled (period0.201 1077 ps). Of particular oscillator positionwhen new datais significance is the scanner loadedinto the memory. A counterin the scanner drivecircuitscountseveryeighthstepin the sweep, first clockwise then counterclockwise and so on. The counterthus givesthe memoryline numberfrom I to 128 (= 1024/8)which is usedby the new data load circuit. lt is possible that the scanner stepping motor may missa few beats, in which casethe count referred to abovewill not represent the scanner positioncorrectly. In order to preventcumulative errorsthe count is Jammed'at 64 whenever the positiongoing scanner crosses the deadahead clockwise.The informationrequired for Jam centre' operation is derivedfrom the X-axisstator output of a resolver, the rotor of which is drivenby the azimuth motor. This output varies in amplitude, and phase-reverses when tl'rescanner pases through the deadaheadpositi<-rn.. The aboveis a much-simplified of the description features essential of the Prirnus 40; many detailshave beenomitted. Other digitalweatherradars with rho-theta displays suchas the BendixRDR 1200will differ in detail but will operatein a similar way. Digital WeatherRadar - Television(t.v.) Display In the nrevious section we sawthat a disital weather

radarwith a rho-thetadisplay requiredscan in time only. This follows sincethe data conversion in the sameorderasthey are presented; arecollected only the ratesare different. With a t.v. display this is not so, thereforewe needscanconversionin both position and time. Sincethe basicdifferences betweenthe two types of digital radar are the rasters, scanconversion, and the organizationof memory we shallconcentrateon thesetopics. What follows rs based on the RCA Primus30. The rasteris similar to a standardt.v. display except that the field and line directionsof are reversed displacement and it is quantitatively different. The rasterconsists of 256 verticallineseach with 256 cells,thus we have256 X 256 = 65 536 displayed data cells. Eachframeof 256linesis displayed in two interlaced fieldseachof 128 lines. 107'5 per second The field rate is approximately so gives 53'75 frames per the interlace approximately (fasterthan conventional t.v.).which gives second a flicker-freepicture. Azimuth drive is similar to the Primus40, the angle of scanbeing 120" achieved in 1024steps. An azimuth counter counts every fourth step so that when the count has gone from 0 to 255 there is a phasereversal of the drive signalcausingthe scanner to reverse direction. When switchingfrom standbyto a transmitmode(normal,contour,cyclic or mapping) to the the scanner is driven counterclockwise

t \
\

)'

\l ',
\

t \i ! | l rl \i
r t
------

\ \

\i\

ATRATI 0f 10, t Hz' FlRsl t lttD RAsltRLltrt. oNt tr 126 Llilts wRlTTiN i f l0/ tH2' t liN t o N t 0 f 1 2 8 G t N f R A l tA Dl R A T0 r l R 5 1F l t l , 0B T A NR KI T R A C NG l i t o A I R A l t0 f 1 0 7 . H 5r 0 f S t C o l ' lfD E t A t i rfK LYBAC LK l N i r R O nt N D0 t f l R 5 Ir l t L oT 0 B t C I NIN R A r t loi 5Hz' ! ! R l I T I N A l 0 f 0 1 . 1 0 t f l ? 8 L l N t s R IN. stcoNDFliLR 0 A S T IL A I f 107 t H]' t l t L D E L A NR KI T R A C LI l N t .o t \ t 0 r I 2 8C t f t t R A T t 0TR A T0 sfc0ND FLYBACKLINtfR0!,!t!D0tStCOt!0FltLDT0EtClNNlNC0frlRSIfltLDAIRAT[C[1075H. 'llt60 UMs PtR stc

Fig. 9.t9 Simplifiedrasterfor the Primus30 (only eleven linesshown)(courtesyRCA Ltd)

156

leftmost position, and 'chatters'there until the azimuth counter reaches 255 when clockwise rotation is initiated; this ensures synchronizationof counter and position. Digitized data is written into a random access memory (RAM) consisting of eight 4096-bit RAM chipsgivinga total of32K bit storage (lK bit = lO24 bits). Thus with a cell containinga 2-bit word there is provisionfor l6K cells(= 128 X 128). Conceptually the memory is arranged as a grid with orthogonal ixes, so the address at which datais to be storedmust be in X-Y format. SCan conversion is required to provide the correct address giventhat the data is being received in a rho-thetaformat.

usedasa lock-up table to give the valuesof cos 0 and s i n0 . T h e 1 2 8 X 1 2 8= l 6 K R A M c e l l s m u s tb e converted to 256 X 256 = 64K displaycells;this is achieved by a datasmoothing circuit. EachRAM cell is converted into four displaycells,the videolevelin eachdisplaycell beingdetermined by a weighted and biased average of levels in the corresponding RAM cell and someof its neighbours. With the cellsdesignated asshownin Fig. 9.21we have: ' Ia Ib /c Id = inr. = int. = int. = inr. IQI6 l(2ly IQIy l(Zty + Is +'t7 + Is + Ir + It + IL + Ia + In + + + + l)lal l)l4l l)l4l l)l4l

whereint. [. . . .] means integerpart of f . . . .1. An exampleoi the process for one RAM cell is given in the figure. Four concentric arcs,with centreat the middleof the bottom edgeof the display, serve as range marks. The addresses of the displaycellsto be illuminated frrr range mark purposes arestoredin a ROM. The I l[-+ (o'O) 8K bit ROM is time-shared with the scanconverter e AX--ri which utilizes it asa sin/cos look-uptable,asstated previously. Fig.9,20 Rho-theta to X/I scan conversion The rho-theta sectorof targetreturnsoccupies part of the X-Y display. The unused only areaof the Assume d word hasbeencorrectlystoredat screen is usedfor alphanumerics identifyingthe (X,Y) the next word, assuming address a unit range operating mode and the range marks. A ROM, used step,must be storedat (X + LX, Y + A)z) where only lbr alphanumerics, contains the positioncode = = AX sin 0 and AY cos0, 0beingthe scanner for the bottom ofeach character on any givenline of azimuth anglegivenby the azimuth counter (see the raster. F i g . 9 . 2 0 ) . T h e r a t eo f g e n e r a t i o n ofnew addresses Eachof the circuits providingthe functionsof is determined by the rate of generation of new data generation, raster azimuthdrive,digitization, RAM cells,of which there are 128 for eachazimuth count. ROM addressing and transmission must be The first datacell in eachgroup of 128 corresponds and synchronized in time. All timing signals are derived to the address (0, 0). A readonly memory(ROM) is from a 10.08MHz crystaloscillator.Suitable of the basicfrequencyare fed sub-multiples throughout the systemas triggersand clockswhich lr keep everythingin step. td lb (x+AX,Y+AY)
lr
lM l8
lR

la

lc

Scanner Stabilazatioh stabilizationhasalreadybeen The needfor scanner we shallreviewthe implementation. stated;here There are basicallytwo types of stabilization: platform and line-of-sight.With the former the canbe considered movingpart ofthe scanner asbeing mounted cin a platform controlled,independently in gyro (VRG). pitch and roll, by a vertical reference With the latter, pitch and roll signals are combined,

2
1

3 3

iI

2 2

3 3

Fig. 9.21 A RAM cell to display cell conversion in the RCA Primus 30

157

Timing and control

Control panel (rangel

tsig.9.22 XIY display blockdiagram

taking into accountthe azimuth angleof the scanner, The aboveparagraph is the basis for line-ot-sight the compositesignalbeingusedto control the beam stabilization. Pitch and roll signals fronr the VRG are tilt angle. Sincethe platform systemrequires combined in an azirnuth resolver, the rotor of which joints for azimuth, rotatingwaveguide pitch and roll is drivenby the azimuthmotor. Tl.re statorsof the plus pitch and roll motors,the line-of-sight resolver movenrent areconnected to the pitch (P) and roll (R) is preferred system in most modernweatherradars. outputsof the VRG, in sucha way that the rotor Only the line-of-sight system will be explained below. output is P cos0 + R sin d, where0 is the azimuth ' Whilethe scanner is pointingdeadahead, aircraft angle. movementin roll will haveno effect on the beam The composite dernand sigrral is fed to a servo direction sincethe axis about which the aircraft is amplifierwhich alsohaspositionand velocity rotatingis in line with the bearn axis. With the feedback inputs. If the sunrof the inputsis non-zero, pointing90" port or starboard scanner pitch an error signal from the servo amplitier will drivethe movement will havea negligible eft'ect sincethe axis motor so as to reduce the error to zero. The position aboutwhich the aircraftis rotatingis parallel and close feedback from the tilt synchrois modifiedby the tilt to the beamaxis. Conversely with the scanner dead control so that the angle of the beanr aboveor below ahead, aircraftpitch must be corrected in full while the horizontalmay be setby the pilot. Velocity the scanner at t 90" aircraftroll rnustbe corrected in feedback is provided by a tachogenerator to prevent full by pitchingor tilting the scanner. excessive oversltoot.' 158

Antenna Elevation
rotary joint

Azimuth

rotary

q)
Azimuthmotor controllogic from indicator

6h I
F

L--I I I Cable and I Oear reductionl I

Pitch/roll amplifiers

(T)
I

Pcos0 + R . s i n0

le and

reduction

Summingpre-amplifier Position feedback

Indicator Fig.9.23 RDR 1200scanner (courtesyBendix block diagram Avionics Division)

The components usedin the stabilizatidn system canvary. The positionfeedback transducer and tilt control may be two- or three-wire synchros or indeed potentiometers. Someequipments usea d.c. rather than a.c.motor although a.c.is normalfor demand and feedback signals. On somesystems no roll correction is employed if the scanner azimuthangle is

restricted to say145o, ason various general aviation systems. Unlessan azimuth steppermotor is usedthe azimuthangular velocityof the scanner is not constant. Reversal of directionat the extremities means that the scanner accelerates towardsthe deadahead position and slowsdown going away from deadahead.

159

to make Grid vanes It follows that lesstime is available position. at the deadahead corrections stabilization Mapping Weather is fastenoughto copewith If the servo loop response in azimuthit will be too the nrostrapidrRovement /---=--\ time thstat the extremities.In order to vary response z'.-\"' may be modifiedso that it is the velocityfeedback greatest in amplitudewhen the azimuth angleis a maxlmum. With a flat plateaerialthe beamis tilted by pitchingthe plate,thus a pitch-rotating waveguide joint is needed.Thereis a choicewhen the system Horizontally eitherthe reflectorand uses a parabolic reflector, polarized feed feedmovein pitch or the reflectoronly. In the latter joint is usedbut the beamshape Fig.9.24 Weather-mapping facility using a parabolic case no pitcli-rotating sincethe feed point is displaced tiom the reflector deteriorates focuswith tilt applied. reflector is rotated through 90" (asin Fig. 9.24) or is rotatedby usinga the directionof polarization joint or a ferritepolarization waveguide rotating Other Applications for Weather Radar twister. with a flat beamis difficult to achieve The cosec2 AJthoughthe primary function of a weatherradaris specificallyfor a pencil beam. to detectconditions likely to giveriseto turbulence, plate array designecl beamcanbe obtained a fan-shaped by various other uses for the system or part of the system However, of the r.f. energyfed to the slots the phase reversing havebeen;and continueto be, found. Thesewill be in the top half of the plate. briefly described. rivers, Whenselected to nrapping, lakesand areclearlyidentified, so allowing coastlines Mapping of position. Built-upareas and Virtually all weatherradarsoffer a mappingfacility. confirmation will givestrongreturns.An interesting merely of mapping mountains At its most crude,selection phenomenon whereupon the pilot can tilt the beam may be noticedoverthe plainsof the s.t.c., removes buildings and powerlines sincefences, United States: down to view a limited regionof the ground. At its or east-west to a fan-shaped beam, tend to be laid out with a north-south bestthe beamis changed from all is constant wherebyreceived echoenergy orientation,returnsfrom the cardinalpoints are groundregion. In the partsof the illuminated thus givingnoticeablebright lines on the strongest, poweris to north, south,eastor west. Appendixit is shownthat the received radarcorresponding proportionalto the squareof the rangefor a inversely target(A9.9). alsoif the beamis beam-filling Drift Indication at an angle@to the horizontal the range With downwardtilt the retumedecho is subjectto a depressed R = ft cosec@wf "e /r is the aircraft height. So for Doppler shift due to the relativevelocity of the equalreturnsfrom ground targetsat different aircraft alongthe beam. The spectrumof Doppler (hencerange)the transmittedpower shift frequencies depression angles is narrowestwhen the beam is we since to be distributed on a cosectd basis. needs alignedwith the aircraft track. The Doppler signal indicator(A-type on a suitable will thenhave(Pr)o(PtlR2i". lcosec2 Qlh2 cosec2 61= canbe displayed it appears as otf r a n g e . where,due to the spectrum, display) Qlh'),i.e.P, isindependen cosec2 noiseelevated onto the top of the returnpulse.With With a parabolic reflectoran approximate by useoi a polarizationmanualcontrol of the azimuth position of the scanner beamcanbe obtained 'noise' grid aheadof the reflectorsurface. In the the pilot can adjustuntil the Doppler sensitive (spectrum)is at a minimum, when the drift anglecan to the beam weather modethe grid is transparent to the conducting be readoff the control. This option is rarely found. the E field is perpendicular since vanes of the grid while in the mappingmode the grid a downwardsince the Beacon Interrogation part of the beamenergy reflects The transmittedpulsefrom the weatherradarcan be and therefore doesnot E field is parallel to the vanes remote usedto triggera suitably tuned beacon(transponder) satisfythe boundaryconditions.To achieve replies on 93 l0 MHz, on the ground. The beacon eitherthe weather and mapping. switching between

I,

160

so a weatherradar with a local oscillatorfree.rencyof 9375 MHz and a transmit frequencyof 934i MHz will producea differencefrequencyof 30 MHz for normal returnsand a differencefrequencyof 65 MHz for the beaconreply. Two differently tuned i.f. amplifiers can be usedto separate the signals.As an alternative two local oscillatorsmay be used. On somesystetns the selectionof beaconeliminates the normal returns from the display;on others it is possible to show weatherand the beaconresponse. The ease with which this facility can be uied to find offshore oil rigs makesradarsoffering beacon operationan attractiveproposition for helicopters supplyingthe rigs. Such radarsusually havea

short-range capability;for example,the Primus50 offers 2 nautical mile rangeusinga 0.6 ps pulse,thus givinggood rangeresolution. Multifunction Display The weatherradarindicator is increasingly usedfor purposes other than the display ofweather or mappinginformation. X-I rasters in particularmake the displayof alphanumeric data straightforward, henceall the major manufacturers now offer a 'page-printer' option with one or more of the radars in their range. Similarlydisplay of navigation datais available asan option with the latestcolour weather radars.

nrotr

xon*
rftoffi

Fig. 9.25 Primus 30 with page-printeroption (courtesy RCA Ltd)

161

A page-printeroption is normally used to display data is arranged and checklists.The alphanumeric either in the indicator or on EPROMs, storedin pages may be in an external auxiliary unit. EachBage button. Pages calledup in turn usinga page-advance containingthe normal checklistindex and checklistindex are particularlyimportant, emergency buttons usedto call them and usually havededicated a pageof one of the up for display. Havingdisplayed a button may be usedto advance indexesa line-check by displaying,say,black alphacursor(line highlighted numericson greenbackgroundrather than greenon black asfor the other lines).With the cursorset,the usinga list button. checklistcanbe displayed chosen other alphanumeric Apart from checklists information which may be listed includeswaypoints, are allocated or indeedany pilot+ntered dataif pages to this facility. One method of allowingthe pilot to enter data is to usea calculatorkeyboard; and TexasInstrumentsmake Hewlett-Packard which can be modified to interfacewith calculators system. the page-printer Display ofnavigation data from externalsensors suchasVORTAC, Omega,INS or Loran is achieved through an interface unit. Typically the pilot is able to displaywaypointsjoined by track lines,together with the weatherdata. As an examplethe RCA Data Nav. trI systemallowsthe displayof current VORTAC frequency,rangeand bearingto current waypoint and up to three correctly positionedwaypoint symbols from twenty which can be stored. An additional symbol featureof the Data Nav. I I is a designator location on the which may be set to any desired this location can then be enteredas a new screen: waypoint to replacethe current one, so providingan on original alternativeroute if stormsareobserved intendedcourse. in this areais rapid' ln 1979,with the Progress interface,the weatherradar could display appropriate of projections aircraft position on straightor curved data paths,ETA at waypointsand warningsof sensor failure in addition to the data referredto above.

by 300 nauticalmiles for s.s.t.is usually demanded customers. Rangemarks at 25 nautical mile intervalsup to 100 range as are the available nauticalmiles are suggested, of30/80/lS0 or 30/100/300or 30/80/180/ selections of a continuouslyvariable 360. The advantages 30 nautical miles to maximum from range displayed arestated. Displayed Sector nt ieast + 90" but not more than t 120". Displayed rangeat + 90" to be not lessthan 60 per cent of or maximum range. The scanmay be reciprocating the since the latter, of circular. (Note in the case rotatesthrough 360' RAM (radar absorbent scanner is neededon the nosebulkheadto material)screening prevent excessivelystrong receivedsigrrals.) Radio FrequencY C-Band 5400 MHz x2OMHz (nominal) X-Band 9375MHzt 20 MHz (nominal), or 9345 MHz L 2O MHz (nominal) Bandwidth Minimum bandwidth = l'216 where the pulsewidth 6 must be lessthan l0 Ps' Dispby AccumcY ^ Azimuth angle:t 2-. Range:the greaterof t 5 per cent or I nauticalmile. Sensitivity Time Control law from 3 nautical miles to the point where Range2 to be beam filling. a 3 nauticalmile target ceases to set s.t.c.maximum Two-wirelogic from scanner with antennagain (and hence rangein accordance bearnwidth). Scanner Stab and Tilt each(E/2300) V Two-wire pitch and roll sigrrals + 2 per cent per degree whereE is nominal I 15 V but phase(50 mV per degree 400 Hz reference is in terms of supply). The phaseof signals expressed specified. Dummy load of 20 kQ where signalnot used. Pilch and roll rate capability 20o per second. (two-ais system):combinedroll, pitch Line-of-sight t 35" with accuracy+ lo, manual freedom tilt and tilt i 14". system):roll t 40', pitch Split axis (three-axis pitch and tilt t 20o,manualtilt I 14",combined !25",accuacy t 0'5". samephase Droop nosesignal(tr/575) V per degree, asnosedown. (Two-wire signal,20 mV per degree

WeatherRadarCharacteristics
ARINC Characteristic564-7 allows the designermore freedomthan do most other suchdocuments; and howeverit is quite clearwhat performance facilities are to be made available. The following is a summaryof someof the more significantand/or items. interesting Range At least 180 nautical miles for subsonicaircraft and 162

Enroute Navigation.

fry

1 ) T h e i n t e n d e dt r a c k l i n e o r i g i n a t i n gf r o m l h e a i r c r a f t s y m b o ld i s p l a y sl h e p r o g r a m m e dr o u t e o f f l i g h t .W a y p o i n t s a n d t h e i r n u m b e r sc a n b e d i s p l a y e do n t h e t r a c k l i n e .W h e n D a t a N a vi s u t i t i z e dw i t h R N A V ,t h e a s s o c i a r e d VORTAC s y m b o l i s d i s p l a y e da l o n g w i t h i t s f r e q u e n c ya s i l l u s t r a t e d W h e n u s e d w i t h a V L F / O M E G Ao r I N S s v s l e m .t h e D a t a N a v w i l l d i s p l a ys i m i l a ri n f o r m a t t o nW . h e n w e a t h e ri s e n c o u n _ tered lhe current Waypoint may be ottsel by using RCA'S exclusive Designator feature The Designator can be moveo to any location on the screen by means of the Waypoint

o f t s e tc o n t r o ls h o w i n gt h e D e s i g n a t o s r y m b o la t 3 5 " r i g h t , 46 nm. 2 ) W h e nt h e D e s i g n a t o r i s a t t h e d e s i r e dp o s i t i o n , the new W a y p o i n tc a n b e e n t e r e di n t o t h e N a v i g a t i o n S y s t e mb y m e a n so f t h e " E N T R " b u t t o no n t h e D a t a N a v c o n t r o lp a n e , . T h e c u r r e n tW a y p o i n tw i l l b e m o v e dt o t h e n e w l o c a t i o na n d a n e w t r a c k l i n e e s t a b l i s h e dT . h e R a n g ea n d B e a r i n go f t h e a i r c r a f lt o t h e V O R T A Cs t a t i o nw i l l a l w a y sb e d i s p l a y e di n t h e l o w e r r i g h t h a n d c o r n e ro f t h e d i s p l a y .

3) The aircraft has now completed the turn and intercepted t h e n e w l r a c k l i n e w h i c h w i l l s a f e l yc i r c u m n a v i g a l e the d a n g e r o u sw e a t h e r .l f d e s i r e d ,y o u c a n r e l u r nt o t h e o r i g i n a l Waypointand track line by pressing lhe cancel button on the DataNav conlroloanel.

4) Waypoinl Listing Mode can be sebcted by means of-the "MODE" b u t t o no n t h e D a l a N a vc o n t r o lp a n e l .I n f o r m a t i o n for 3 Waypoints c a n b e d i s p l a y e do n t h e s c r e e n .T h e c u r r e n l W a y p o i n lw i l l b e d i s p l a y e di n y e l l o ww i t h a l l o t h e rd a l a i n g r e e n .A l l t h e W a y p o i n t s c a n b e d i s p l a y e di n g r o u p so f "Waypoint lhree by moving the Offsel Control" left or right.

FiE 9.26 En-route navigation with the (colour) Primus 200 (courtesy RCA Ltd)

for SSTaircraft where scanner mount is droppedwith nose.) Scale required on scanner wherebytilt anglemay be read.

Ilaveguide C-Band type ARA I 36 or WR I 37. X-Bandtype RG-67U. Ridgedwaveguide rejected; v.s.w.r. maximum l.l: l. 163

Magnetron Magnctic Field deviationwith sensorl5 ft No more than lo compass from the t.r. The t.r. shouldbe mounted at least2 ft from the indicators,other t.r. units and other devices to magneticfields. sensitive

width. It is normal to calculatethe m.p.e.l. assuming a stationaryscannerand a point source'in which case power of 6 X F X Pt is spreadover an area an average (e l2)i thus the distanceD in rnetres X of n X D2 1Jin2 for an exposurelevel of l0 mW/cm2is givenby:

'l

and Testing Maintenance

Safety Precautions There are two hazardswhen operating weather radar, to human tissueand ignition of namely damage combustiblematerial. power density the greater The greaterthe average the health hazard. A figure of l0 mW cm' is a exposure gene maximum permissible rally accepted level(m.p.e.l.). Among the most vulnerableparts of the body are the eyesand testes. The greaterthe peak power the greaterthe fire hazard. Any conductingmaterialcloseto the scanner may acf as a receivingaerial and have r.f. currents induced. There is obviouslya risk, particularly when aircraft are being refuelledor defuelled. An additionalhazard.which doesnot affect safety of the radar,is the but will affect the serviceability possibilityof very strongreturnsif the radaris operatedcloseto reflectingobjects. The result of is to burn out the receivercrystals these'returrls which are of the point contacttyp' when The following rulesshouldbe observed operatingthe weatherradaron the ground: are closerto a l. ensurethat no personnel than the m'p.e.l. transmittingradarscannpr boundary, aslaid down bY the sYstem manufacturer; 2. nevertransmit from a stationaryscanner; 3. do not operatethe radarwhen the aircraft is being refuelledor defuelled,or when another is being aircraft within the sectorscanned or defuelled; refuelled '4. of inflammable do not transmitwhen containers or explosivematerialare closeto the aircraft within the sectorscanned; unless 5. do not operatewith an open waveguide r.f. power is off; neverlook down an open fit a dummy load if part of the waveguide; run waveguide is disconnected; 6. do not operatecloseto largereflectingobjects or in a hangarunlessr.f. energyabsorbing materialis placedover the radome(RAM cap)' vary widely, for radars The safedistances power transmitted and beam dependingon average 164

D=m6 hffil

|-

6FPt

o't-

L ' J where: 6 is pulsewidth in seconds; F is pulse repetition frequency in pulses per second; P1 is peak Powerin milliWatts; 0 is beamwidth.

Thus consideran older airline standardweatherradar nominal (Bendix RDR IE/ED) usingmanufacturers' figuresfor the longestrangeoption, i.e.6 = 5 ps; F = 2 O O ; P t = 7 5 k W ; 0 = 3 " ; w e h a v eD = l 8 ' 6 6 m (ev60 ft), while for a modern generalaviation radar (RCA Primus20) where6 = 2'25 ps, F = 107'5, = D = l'12 m (e,:* ft)' & = 8 k w , 0 8 6w e h a v e consult are observed To ensuresafety precautions then, if data for safedistances manufacturers' place purposes, operatingthe radar for maintenance appropriate the notices warning hazard radiation from the nose. Whenworking by the scanner distance with the radar on standby a notice should be placed 'do not touch', or better still by the controlsstating the transmittershouldbe disabledor the waveguide run broken and a dummy load fitted. If the radaris switched on prior to taxiing, the transmitter should not be switchedon until clearof the apron' X-ray emissionis a possiblehazard when operating the transmitter with the caseremoved, such as might be done in a workshop. The likelihood of dangeris small but the manufacturers' data should be consulted. Check for Condition and AssemblY Obviouslythe weatherradar systemas a whole is as all other airborne subjectto the samerequirements attachmentand of of security respect in equlptn.nt condition; however,certainpoints need to be highlighted. -Thi waveguiderun should be the subject of fairly ifpoor and shouldbe suspected frequentinspections is reported. Wheninspectingthe performance suchas corrosionand physicaldamage waveguide, for' to look things obvious are cracksand dents Flexible waveguidecoveringsare subject to perishing, bond at the crackingand a detachedmechanical canbe in flexible waveguide flanges.lnternal damage for feeling and listening while gently flexing founa Uy clicks. There shouldbe no more than minor bendsin

l. Checkwarm-uptime for magnetron. and the radiusof the H plane of flexible waveguide than about Zlrn.2. Checkfan motor (a light pieceof papershould bendsin the E planeshouklbe greater 'stick' to the filter). to dismantle the If it is thoughtnecessary and currents 3. Checkinternalpowersupplyvoltages waveguide ,un1o curryoui an internalinspection, with built-inmeter,if fitted. or testmeterconnected to be replaced, care needs or if i pieceof waveguide if supplied. to testsocket, Chokejoint flanges must be takenwhen re-installing. a test lrleter from the disconnecting when NB'. plain or O-iingsmusi flanges.Seaiing must mate to plug test socketit is vital that the shorting of u pr.rrut. seal. The E planes be fitted to achieve otherwise crystalearth shouldbe replaced, pieces waveguide shouldbe paraliel.Undue adjoining brokenfor currentmeasurement, returns, waveguide, either forceshouldnot be usedin aligning will not be made' within the run or at the endsof the run. All and undamaged. 4. Checktest facility: patternshouldbe asspecitied waveguide supports shouldbe secure checkthe pattern In particular by manufacturer. usinga probelight reveals If an internalinspection or underlilling overfilling and neither is centred it may be possible to cleanby pulling dirt or moisture marksareequallyspaced and that the range screen, througha cleansoft cloth andior blowingout with an arcs symmetrical (lineardeflection, rho-tlieta). line. Caremustbe takennot to scratch air pressure (lineardeflection,X-Y)andcorrectin number of the waveguide sincethiswould the insidesurface raster (time-base duration,rho-theta)'A rho-theta aswouldsigns of corrosion or deposits renderit scrap, (about{ in'; but no may showa smallopencentre is suggested which cannotbe removed above. tail. run shouldbe Any drain trap in the waveguide ail Operate groundreturns on all ranges. 5. Observe for blockage, moisture and accumulated checked achieved. effcct is the desired and ensure controls in the shouldbe removed.Filtersand desiccators fbr pressurization feed,if fitted, shouldbe inspected Notes (filter) and colour(if desiccator is pink it cleanliness to be The aboveis only a brief outlineof the checks is unserviceable). manltfacturers' use the always shtlLrld out. One carried of The scanner shouldbe checkedfor freedom when tcsting.When procedures of recornmended aswell asgeneral conditionand security movement if is necessary experience out itenr(5) above. carrying ()ut scanner the inspcctions attachment.In carrying o f t h e c o n d i t i t l n w i t h c e r t a i n t y , a n y i s t o s t a t e , o n e dishor plateshouldnot be turneddirectlyby hand on the will depend in the gears canbe the systenr.The pictureobtained but throughthe gearing.Backlash an exantple of the aircrali;asan extreme heading forwardand backward by gentiyapplying checked give very diflerent will to sea pointing out aircraf't to the edgeof the dishor platein both movement w l t e nc o m p a r e w d ith an g r o u n dr e t u r n s ottits radar in a 30 in. diameter azimuthand pitch directions: of hills. aircraftpointingin the directionof a range imtenna, of ; T at the edgein<licates a movement The technicirnshouldbe awareof the f orm of thc of cables of nearly 1". No chafing total backlash r irlleld a t a p a r t i c u l aa p icture expected target/nois e movernent. shouldoccur due to scanner p a r t i c u l a h r e a d i n g . a o n or the scanner, ensure shirns Whenreplacing to system. At from system The testfacility varies in the same areusedfor the replacentent, washers is generaled a ramp or tri{ngularvoltage its sirnplest positions asthey wereusedlbr the item rentoved, of to a maxitnunt zero from varies siSnal which level the azimuthscanaxisis nrutually this ensures the applied to is waveform a If suclr level three. signal pitch and axis o1'the aircraft. perpendicular to the roll lnd of illumination levels rh e n a l l t l r r e c may be mountedwith input waveguide t l i g i l i z e t Somescanners b6checkedA . d t l l t i o n atl e s t s carr c o n t o u ro p c r a t i o n will be connecliorts up or down, but polarized flange sourct' noise a gated nrclude b e e np r o v i d d d tailureto checkthis w h i c hl r a v c correctfor only one orielttaticln: with nornral s.t.c. and contparing for checking ol rotationin sense point may resultin an incorrect ' r c c e i v en pfo w e rt t t t r l t i t o r a , . l. c . .eflectet r o i s er azimuthand pitch. a n d a . g . ct.n o n i t o r . rnonitor The t.r. is likely to havean internalcoolingtan, in and l'reet'rom the filter shouldbe secure which case Radar SystemsTester e o c l e a ra b l o c k e d o b s t r u c t i o nI .t m a y b e p o s s i b lt of the ntisinterpretation of the possible t o n o r n t a l Because direction l i i t c r b y a i r b l a s ti n t l t eo p p o s i t e I'rtltn olt returns when.iudged systenr cclndition b ei n t o t h eu n i t . a i r i l o r vw . h i c l rs h o u l d usedto testeris stlnletimes groundtargcts a systctns ofthe target. fcalures tlre give ttvefr nrore control Functional Ramp Check Radar at dc:ld to theradorne A p i c k u ph o r n i s a t t a c h e d ety l)reclu t ions rr.. S:rl Ohsr' 165

NAHOOTIEACKGROTIND rSISE PIAKS

(uGr{Tt{olsE }

r/tFfs TrsTsAt{ffi

TE'T BAND

coHroun

il

TESrilfffE B*lw { ilff{*s $iltctr} -lT{o EFFscr { *fffiIcrD sAlH}

F t g . 9 . 2 7 R D R I E / F t e s t p a t t e r n ( c o u r t e s yB e n d i x A v i o n t c s Division)

and radomeaswell as the t.r. If both scanner attenuatorsreadlessthan normal then the fault must if only the input be in the commonr.f. components; power output is low then transmitter reads attenuator setting indicates output attenuator a low while down; ivity. poor receiver sensit Functional Test - ScannerStabilization SafetyPrecautions Observe with radome. Switchto standby 1. Remove on and tilt zero. Check,usinga spirit stabilization the level, that the flat plate or the plane across Fig 9.2E Simplified radar systems tester with the rim of the reflectordishis vertical of the and at the extremities deadahead scanner sectorscan. centreposition. A co-axialcableconnectsthe horn to the testerwhich is insidethe cockpit. The tester 2. RemoveVRG from its mounting and fit on a tilt is horizontal so that its surface which tableadjust.ed a beacon and returns a signal should serves as alongboth axes. on the p.p.i. displayat a range appearat zerodegrees pd o s i t i o n .W i t h . - \ by the testerdelay. An input attenuator . 3 . I n c h s c a n n etro t h e d e a d - a h e a determined on, adjusttilt controluntil scanner ) stabilization so if the testerjust fails to be can be adjusted is vertical. will givea measure of the the attenuator triggered, power. An output attenuator 4. Simulatea suitablepitch angle@noseup. Using can be radiated 'echo' just visible(radar scanner elevation a protractorspirit levelensure is on adjusted so that the down. Repeatfor nose by @degrees preset gainwith standardized changes brilliance setting), thus down. will givea measure of system the attenuator in no change aircraliroll, ensure 5. Sinrulate may alsobe used sensitivity. The output attenuator . s c a n n ee rlevation. levelsetting. to checkthe contourinversion 0. hn g l e , z - i m u ta 6 . I n c hs c a n n etro p o r t e x t r e n t i t ya run. Note the testerwill checkthe wavesuide 166

a measure of waveguide losses can be obtainedfrom the differences in forward power at either end. Practicaldifficulties occur in fitting the directional 7couplerin a rigid waveguide run. In some installations a couplermay be permanentlyfitted at 8. one end, usuallyat or closeto the t.r. In order to measure the v.s.w.r.of the waveguide the scanner shouldbe disconnected and a dummy 9. load fitted in its place. ARINC 564-7 specifies a maximumv.s.w.r.of I .l : I for a new installation. Whenmeasuring the v.s.w.r. of the scanner the radomeshouldbe removedand the scanner tilted up 10. to maximum to avoid returns. Figuresobtained shouldbe checkedagainst manufacturers' data. On I l. fitting the radomethe v.s.w.r.at the antenna will deteriorate, measurement at variousazimuth and tilt angles will givean indication of the radome performance. Notes: The most likely cause of lossof radomeefficiency The aboveappliesto a typical line-of-sight system. as a transparent materialto r.f. is ingress of moisture For any particularequipmentthe manufacturers' through pinholes small and cracks which may appear procedureshould be followed, observing stated on the outsidesurfaceof the radorne. Such pinholes tolerances. A platform systemcheckoutvariesfrom the above and cracksmay be seenby shininga light on the outsidesurfaceand viewingfrom the inside. A in that changes in elevationare independent of moisture detectorcan be usedto measure the azimuth angle. resistance points on the betweentwo adjacent In items (6), (i) and (8) an azimuth angleof 90" radome. The detectorhastwo probeswhich are strouldbe chosenif possible, sincethis will make pressed firmly against the insidesurface = = of the cos 0 I and sin 0 0, so simplifying checking. radome. Where the resistance measured is lower than Pitch and roll correction potentiometers areoften normal it may be due to an ingress of moisture. accessible pitch correctionshould be in which case carriedout with the scanner deadaheadand rolBench Testing correctioncarriedout to balance any errorsat the There is not space hereto consider benchtesting'in extremities. depth,but mentionshouldbe madeof a special A gyro simulatormay be usedfor a checkoutof the completesystemlessthe VRG. The VRG is disconnected and the simulator connected in its place. The procedureis then similar to that above, with the appropriatepitch and roll angles being selected on the simulator. Sincethe VRG is not testedthis is not a full functional test but is useful for fault-finding. The signals from the simulatorshould correspond to the VRG output signalstandards (e.g.ARINC).

Simulatea suitableroll anglea port wing down and ensurescanner elevationchanges by o sin 0 up. Repeatfor starboardwing down. Simulateaircraft pitch angle@and ensurescanner elevationchange is @cos0 in oppositesense. Repeat(6) and (7) but with scanner at starboard extremity noting sense of roll correctionis reversed. Inch scannerto deadahead. Simulatesuitable pitch angle. Switch stabilizationfrom on to off and back to on, and ensure scanner movesin elevationwithout excessive overshooting. Switch stabilizationoffreplace gyro in aircraft mounting. Carry out final checkof tilt controlbefore switchingoff and replacingradome.

.c.frd

Check of v.s.w.r. If the waveguide run or scanner is suspect, v.s.w.r. checks can be carried out to find the faulty itcnr. To carryout sucha checka directional couplermust be fitted in the run, and power in the forward and reverse directions measured for example, using, a thernristor bridgepowermeter. The checkshouldbe carriedout at both endsof the wavesuide run so that

Fig.9.29 RD-300 weather radar testset(courtesy IFR. Electronics Inc) weather radartest set,the IFR RD-300which, togetherwith an oscilloscope, can be usedto perform all the commonradartestswithout the proliferation of signalgenerators and other instruments normally found on a radartest bench. 167

accurate'For possible and reasonably measurement arecompared signals the received measurement range 'standard' pseudo range.The give so-called to Stormscope the a with Beinga relativelynew development that particularly lrteans ratlge in anythinglike methoduscdto deterntirte is, asyet, not to be found in service than they actually is at strongsignals to be closer appear asmany aircraft asis weatherradar' Sincespace sincethe source in this of the Stormscope are.which is not reallya disadvantage a premium the coverage activity electrical severe detailed region of a more is a to allow signals such limited of been book has allocatedhere andhenceturbulence. of radar. The numberof pages coverage dot on the to asa bright green appears of eachof the systems Eachdischarge the importance reflects of today. The situation at a positionrepresentative staff and aircrew circulaldisplayscreen maintenance An likely, aircraf't. or, more to thc future position relative in the reversed the source well be may aircraftsymbolis locatedat the centreol-tlredisplay equalized. a t 3 0 " i t l t c r v a la st t dt w t t marked with radialines As statedin the introduction to this chapter,the ol'tlre outer on detecting equallyspaced rings. The range for its success range depends Ryan Stormscope receiver' with turbulence. ring is asselected on the panel-mounted activitywhich is associated electrical is 40, 100 or 200 nautical miles. Sincetlre outer ring is Sincethe radiatingsourceis naturalonly a receiver the rnaximuttl radar. not at the periphery of the display overweather advantage an immediate required; of 260 nauticalrniles. an of the order of is use is made available information, range To obtaindirectional eventso to is only a momentary Eachdischarge both eitherdedicated antenna, ADF loop and sense with ADF. storage in memoryis required.The trlemorycan or time'shared installation the Stormscope beingdisplayed a displayunit storethe positionof 128 dots,these comprises The restof the installation picture. When the 129thdischarge a mapJike form to unit. and a computer/processor replaced; in this is in oldest dot memory planning the since occurs taken in installation be Caremust updated. lf the is continuously lrom generators, way the image is proneto interference Stormscope is selected or a new range changes from aircraftheading motors,strobelights,etc. Interference all I 28 havebeen positions are incorrect until dot by inhibiting the is avoided transceivers communication which cantake up to 25 s on a a process is keyed' updated, a transceiver whenever the Stormscope

RyanStormscope

display unit andcomputer/ Stormscope Fig.9.30 Ryan (courtesy Ryan Stromscope) processor stormyday (only 5-10s with tomadoactivitywithin range).On quiet daysa dot may remaina long time erased.A'clear' but after 5 min it is automatically the displaystarting button allowsthe pilot to erase in to the newest with the oldestdataand progressing

Operation from the two orthogonalloops and the sense Signals antennaareutilized to giverangeand bearingof the sourceof electricalactivity received.The propertie:. antenna makebearing of the loop and sense lSe

a total erasetime of I s. Another button allows the display of that activity which is forward of the aircraft with, of course,the full memory dedicatedto thesesignals. The 128 dots appearin clusterson the display, indicatingwhere bad weathercan be expected. As the there is a spreading weatherbecomes more severe inward towardsthe centre due to the pseudorange reducingas a result of the strongersignals.Witll very storm intensity the display becomes increasing animated. A test facility is built in whereby when the a dot cluster appears appropriate button is pressed nearto a positionof 45o; 100 nauticalmiles. In which can simulate addition, a test set is available and azimuth anglesfor at variousranges sigrrals systemcheckoutand calibration.

Appendix FactorsAffecting WeatherRadarPerformance TheRadar Equation

If powerP1 is radiatedfrom an omnidirectional antennathen the power density(power per unit area) decreases with range. At a range R a sphereof surfacearea4nR2is illuminatedby the e.m. wave, thus: Powerdensityfrom omni antenna=# (A9.1)

Sincea directionalantennais usedwith gain G (over an isotropic antenna, i.e. perfectly omnidirectional) we have:

Powerdensity from = PrG(Ae.2) directionalantenna 4rRz Comparison of Stormscope and Radar It would appearthat, purely from a functional point The targetwill interceptpart of the radarbeam,the of view, i.e. ability to avoid turbulence,there is little on the radarcross-section sizeof the part depending to choosebetweenthe two systems.Someadvantages ofthe target o. Sincethe reflectedpower is subject ofStormscopeover radar are: out in spaceasthe incident to the samespreading l. no moving parts and no transmitter,hence powerwe have: meantime betweenfailures(m.t.b.f.) should be Power density of _ P,GO higher; (Ae.3) (4rR2)z echo at aircraft 2. simplerantennainstallationwhich keepsdown installationcosts; part of the echo signal, The radar antennaintercepts radarscomparein capital cost; 3 . only the cheapest on the effectivecapture ofthe part depending the size 4. fully operationalon the ground with 360" field areaA, so received echo powerPr is givenby of view. comparedwith of Stormscope Somedisadvantages radarare: to interference; l. sensitive 2. limited rate and accuracyof data acquisition although it would appearfrom operational evidence that this doesnot preventthe Stormscopefrom being used for efficient and safeweather avoidance ; 3. lacking in any other applications such as mapping, navigation data display or page printer option. Two things should be pointed out here; firstly the extras with weather radar have to be paid for; secondlythe Stormscopeis a relatively new developmentby a company small in comparison to the giantsofweather radar. It should not be beyond to develop the system the ingenuity of the designers so as to eliminate some, if not all, of the disadvantages.

Pr=

(Ae.4)

betweenantennagainand effective The relationship capture areacan be shown to be

G =f

4nA

(Ae.s)

of thee.m.wave.So where ), is thewavelength (A9.4)becomes: equation

& =1ffi

o P,G2).3

(Ae.6)

ReplacingP, by the minimum detectablesigtal pow.er rn and rearranging,we have the well-known radar rangeequation:

=ffi R*"*t

(Ae.7)

The Radar Equation for Meteorological Targets With meteorological targetswe have a large number of

169

independent of radarcross-section scatterers o; so; providing the target fills thebeam, we may represent thetotal radar cross-section bv:
o = V42oi where: Xoi is the average total backscatter of the particlesper unit cross-section volume; V^ is the volume occupied by the radiated pulsewhich can be approximatedby (nl4)R2 0 2c 6 l 2 ; 0 is the beamwidth(equalin horizontal and verticalplanesfor a pencil beam); c is the velocity of propagation: 6 is the pulseduration.

P, = -

lS0l,t'6 P,G02 c6 n3

'7ff;n-

(Ae.l3)

(Ae.8) cloud. (Note that 180 x2OO lkl2).

as the echo power receivedfrom a beam-filling rain

Minimum Detectable Signal (A9.1l) gives Equation t h e m a x i m u mr a n g e of a weatherradar in terms of the minimum detectable signalfrom a non-beam-filling target. A threshold levelmust be chosenwhich is greaterthan the r.m.s. valueof the noise occupyingthe samepart of the frequencyspectrumas the signal. If the signal exceeds the thresholdit is detected:if not it is missed. Too low a thresholdwill give rise to falsealarms. In choosingthe thresholdlevel the interpretation Substituting for o in (A9.6) we have: of the operator is significant,particularly in PtG2^,2 02 c62oi weatherradars. In digital D _ - -SIZFF(Ae.e) conventional(analogue) 'r the choiceof thresholdis taken out of weather.radars the hands,or eyes,of the operators. Noise spikes Equation(A9.9) is applicable where the targetis which do not occur in the sametime-slotafter beam-filling,for examplea spherical cloud of 3 transmissions several successive are not displayed; nauticalmiles diameterwill fill a 4" beam up to about they are said to be averaged out. As a result in a 43 nauticalmiles. For a ta-rget outsidethe beam-filling or minimum digitalweatherradara lower threshold, rangethe proportion oi'beam filled can be shown to (s.n.r.), to noise ratio tolerated with signal can.be be (Dl0R)2 whereD is the targetdiameter.So I improvement in maximum range. consequent (A9.9) would become, for sucha target: equation In introducingthe factorsrelatingto noiseinto the P , G 2 ) yc 26 D 2 2 o ; radarequationit is convenientto usethe noisefigure (Ae. r, = *-:;.IFFFr0) F grvenby an equationin which the fourth power of R occursas (A9.6) and contrasting in the basicradarequation (A9.9) wherewe havethe square of R. with equation Againwe can producea rangeequationassuming non-beam-filling targets:
R*a*o c6D22oi = PrG2)t2 5l2r2m

p ' = *l* S"IN"

where: S;/N; is the input s.n.r.; is the output s.n.r. Sofly'o

(Ae.l4)

(A9.1l)

If the wavelengthis long comparedwith the particlethen it can be diameterd of a scattering shownthat: ns lklz>d;6 zoj = --Ia=

(Ae.t2)

The input noisecan be taken askTB = l'38 X 10-23 where:k is Boltzrrrann's constant, joules/degree: temperature in degrees Kelvin; ?nis .Bis the noisebandwidth(differentfrom 3 dB bandwidthbut often approximated bYit). equation(A9.14) and substituting for So rearranging ly'; we have: Si = kTBF SslNe (A9.15)

constant and to the dielectric where lkl2 is related hasa valueof about 0'9 for water and 0'2 for ice. It is helpful to replace2d16 by an expression is provided involvingrainfall rate, suchan expression by 2di6 - 200rr'6wherer is the rainfall rate in mm/h. lt shouldbe noted that this is an empirical beingsubjectto variability relationship, the constants to another. from one experimental observation Replacing 2 o; in equation(A9.9) and usingthe between,dir we have relationship 170

(A9. I I ) gives: for m in equation Substituting o n2).3c62o;

R."*' = n#ftngl;i;;

(Ae.r6)

a single from considering Equation(A9.16) results pulse;ho.vever arenormallyreceived many pulses from a targetduring one sweepof the aerial. The returnedfrom a point targetis numberof pulses

n = +

0 X p.r.f.
(n

564 togetherwith an empirical fornrula (Ae.r7)Characteristic relatingPI and maximum range. The primary purpose

to be made of the PI is to enablea comparison per second; rate in degrees wherec^.r is the scanning betweendifferent radarsratherthan effect the p.r.f. is the pulserepetition frequency. accurate of maximumrange. calculation We can utilize someor all of the n pulsesto improve Atmospheric Effects known as integration. Use of a detectionin a process Therearethree effects.namelyattenuation,refraction of the eye and with the properties c.r.t.,together or evenenhance the and lobing,which can degrade brain, constitutesan integrationprocess.Digital of a radaroperating in the earth's whereby the signaloccuning in successive performance techniques, atmosphere. is also a form of time-slotsis averaged, corresponding primarily by gases, Attenuationdue to absorption integrationin this sense.We can define the integration water vapour, will reduce the oxyBen and maximum efficiencyas follows: particles alsoabsorb range attainable.Precipitation and caus.' scattering. The scattering the e.rn.energy radarbut lirr the opelutionof weather is csscntial reduce the will the range and absorption decrelse = pulsetbr a $ven where(S0/)r s.n.r.of a single el o u d s t o p e n e t r a tc i n o r d e rt o a b i l i t yo l ' t l r er a d a r probability of detection; 'see'what is bc.r"ond. Ernpirical results areavailable (S/ffh = s.n.r.per pulsefor the same ri sirnply state that degradation increases we nray but probability of detection when n the of I.rencc descriptions C-band with frequency. pulsesare. integrated. radarand X-band asweather-penetration equipment The integrationimprovementfactor nEn canbe radar. asweather-avoidance includedin the rangeequation. is not Sincethe densityof the atmosphere power P of the radaris relatedto the The average or bending of the radarwaves uniform, refraction peakpowerP; by: may take place. Watervapouris the main contributor will normally be bent ( A e . l 8 ) to this effect. The radar.waves P = PtX6 Xp.r.f. density aroundthe earth sincethe atmospheric Substitutingfor Ps in equation(A9.16) and altitude, thus leading with decreasing usuallyincreases incorporatingthe integrationimprovementfactor we to an increase in radarrange. have: Lobing is the arrivalat the targetof two radar one via the direct path and one by way of waves, o3c EnDo; PG2l,2 (Ae.le) reflectionfrom the earth'ssurface. Depend'ing R*"*o on the 5t2r2 VTBF Q (S/l/), or degraded. rangemay be enhanced relativephases ln an effort to simplify the rangeequation In an airborneweatherradarwith smallside lobesthis EUROCAEand RTCA havederiveda Performance doesnot createthe sameproblemaswith lndex, PI, from the basicradarequation. Detailsof ground-based radars. involvedare givenin ARINC the calculations

- = (s/.^/), L" reET,.

ltl

10 Dopplernavigation

300 knots. Thus after I rnin the systemgivesa readoutof position asbeing 2995 nautical milesfrom A Doppler navigator is a self containeddead.-reckoning B on trackt after I h 2700 nautical miles from B; after systemgivingcontinuousreadoutof aircraft position l0 h the indicatedpositionis B. usuallyrelatedto waypoints. Military aircraft have madeuseof suchequipmentsincethe mid- 1950s while bivil usefor transoceanic navigationcommenced 3OOOn.m. in th6 early 1960s. In recentyearsihr ut. of Doppler in long-range navigators commercialaircraft has by inertial navigators, triple largelybeen superseded systems being fitted to airlinerssuchas the 747 and l" -' include composite Concorde. Military developments lo and we may expect to Doppler and inertial systems seesuchsystems'gocivilian' in the future. There are still many civil aircraft carryingDoppler airlinersand navigators but theseare older, long-range assuchthey are fitted with equipmentwhich, althoughnot in any way primitive, doesnot employ Effectofheading error of civil aircraft for Fig.l0.l the very latest techniques.A class which there is a continuingneedfor Doppler the With a + | per cent error in computedspeed, navigators is surveyaircraft which, by the very nature position after 1 I readout min, h and on the tolerance areas not covered by of their work, operatein l0 h will be I 0'05. + 3 and t 30 nauticalmiles ground-based navigationaids(exceptOmega)and With a + 1" error in the heading respectively. positionalinformation. Use of requireaccurate we have the situation givenin Fig. 10.r . information is not unusual;there Doppler navigators in helicopters = 2 X 300/ X sin 0'5, thus after see that d We can aircraft. for such specifically designed is equipment I min, I h and l0 h the aircraftmay be up to 0'087, of Doppler navigationlies in the The advantage 5.24 and 52'4 nauticalmilesaway from the indicated systemwhich doesnot fact that it is a self-contained the absoluteerror increases aids and can operatein any part position. In both cases rely on ground-based with distanceflown. In practiceit is the heading is sharedby inertial of the world. This advantage information which usuallylimits the accuracyof the of which alsoshares the disadvantage navigation wslem. of positionalinformation as distance degradation of information The degradation flown is increased. from the fact that startingfrom a known arises positionsare computedby position subsequent the aircraft velocity and integratingwith sensing to time. Errors,oncethey are introduced, respect can only be eliminatedby a position fix. A simplisticexamplewill illustratethe build-up of error. An aircraft takesoff from A to fly to B, 3000 nauticalmiles awayin a direction due west from A. Usingheadinginformation from a directionalsensor the Doppler compass suchasa gyromagrletic that the iircraft is flying due west at Fig. 10.2 Doppler effect - transmission navigatorsenses

Introduction

J ,l

172

Doppler Effect

l.

ct

,l

l l r l ln 1842 the AustrianscientistChristianDoppler predictedthe Dopplereffect in connectionwith soundwaves. It was subsequently found that the effect is also applicable to e.m. waves.The Dpppler effect can be described as the change in observed Aircraft Ground frequency (transmitter) when the source and observer (receiver) arein motion relative to one another. The Fig. 10.3 Doppler cffect - reception noiseof moving trains and road traffic is a demonstrationof the effect commonly observed. (10.2) fr=(c+v)l\. The applicabilityto e.m. wavesis illustratedby the useof police radarspeed traps,to the cost of Again we seey = 0 leadsto c = )\,f and the aircraft offenders. moving away from the ground targetgives In an airbome Doppler radarwe havea transmitter f r = ( c - y ) / I . which, by means of a directional antenna, radiates We must now consider both effectssimultaneously. energytowardsthe ground. A receiver receives the The wavelength (10.2)is the tr in equation echo of the transmittedenergy. Thus we havethe wavelength of the echowhich must be ).' in equation situation whereboth transmitterand receiver are (10.1). .Thus substituting ).' for X we have: movingrelative to the ground;consequently the ^ k+v\ ^ original frequencytransmittedis changed twice. The Ir = (-fi I. differencebetweentransmittedand received frequencies is known as the Doppler shift and is very We are interested in the Dopplershift, /2r, which is nearly proportionalto the relativemotion between the differencebetweentransmittedand received the aircraft and the ground alongthe direction of the sigralsthus: radarbeam. - _((c+v) .) 2v Considerthe transmission of e.m. energytowards fo=f,-f = ' f( { -_ (c - vl l} = = . f . c-v " t the ground. Let the relativevelocity of the aircraft in the direction of the beambe r, the frequencyof the Now c = 186000 milesper second so I is obviously radiation/ and the speed of the electromagnetic very small compared with c, so with negligible error waves c (= 3 X tO8ms-l ). Referring to Fig. 10.2we we may write: seethat in t seconds the wavewill havemoveda (10.3) fo = 2vflc. distancect to b while the aircraft will havemoveda distancevt to a. The wavesemitted in time r will be This equationis the basisof a Doppler radar. bunchedup in the distance betweena andb which is Observing, as above, the conventionthat y is positive ct - vt. The numberof wavesemitted will be /r for movementtowards,and negative for movement cycles. Thus the wavelength observed at the target, away,the groundtargetgivesan increased received ).', is givenby: frequencyon a forward beamand a decreased frequencyon a rearwardor aft beam. t r ' - ( c r- v } l f t = ( c - v ) l f ( 1 0 . 1 ) received From Figs 10.4and 10.5we seethat the relative We can seethat if the transmitteris stationarywith velocity of the aircraft in the direction of the beam respect to the groundthen y = 0 and equation (10.1) centroidis v = V cosI cosc where Iz is the masnitude. ' reduces to the familiar relationship of the aircraft velocity with respect s =/tr. If the to the grou-nd. transmitteris movingaway from the ground target, (10.3)becomes:' So equation that is the beamis directedtowardsthe rear,then (10.4) 0 cosc)/C. fp = (2Vf cos -y andwe have (10.1)becomes r in equation \'=(c+v)lf. It is at this stagethat the studentis often convinced Now considerthe received sigtal. In a time / the that a Doppler radarcould not possiblywork due to aircraft would receive all the wavesoccupyingspace the smooth earth paradoxand the mountalnparadox, cf in Fig. 10.3. Howeverin this time the aircraft which arehopefully dispensed with below. i movesa distance r/ and hencewill receive the number It is falselyarguedthat if an aircraft is moving of wavesoccupyingct + vt in f seconds parallelto flat ground then thereis no change or (c + r)/tr in range wavesin I second.Thus the received frequency, betweenthe aircraft and the groundand thereforeno fr, is given by: Doppler shift. That this is falsecan be seenby

173

Vi the verticalvelocity component asshown in Fig. 10.6. Thesevelocities are in antenna which, with an antennafixed rigidly to co-ordinates the aircraft, are airframeco-ordinates.As the aircraft pitchesand rolls the antennamoveswith it and hence in earth Vil, Vn' and Vf will not be the velocities requiredfor navigation. co-ordinates

vir

vi

geometry in thc Fig. 10.4 Airborne Doppler single-beam vertical Dlane

Fig. 10.6 The resolved velocity vectot

geometry Fig. 10,5 Airborne Doppler single-beam in the plane horizontal which produce the actualtargets considering of the energy. Thesetargetsare backscattering scattering objectssuchas pebbles irregularlyshaped and there is. of course.relativemotion betweenthe aircraft and individualtargets- hencea Doppler shift. If the illuminatedareawere perfectly smooth no reflectedenergywould be received at the aircraft. The othdr falseargumentconcerns slopingterrain. If the aircraft is flying horizontally abovea slope then its rangeto the ground along the beam is changing and thereforethe Doppler shift will be affected. Again this falsehoodis exposedby the fact that the 'slope' actualtargetsare individualobjectswhose with respect to the aircraft is randomand henceis not related to the slope of the ground. andground speed Fig. 10.7 Drift angle One conceptuallysimple solution is to stabilize the antennain pitch and roll, in which casethe earth velocitiesVg, V1 and VV are co-ordinate-related equal to Vi, Va' and Vpi respectively.If the lateral it meansthat the movement velocity V4 is non-zero of the aircraft is not in the direction of the heading 6, existsasin Fig. 10.7. drift angle, and a non-zero The resultantof Vg and Va is the velocity vector s, and with magnitudeequalto groundspeed direction that of the aircraft'strack. It is convenient to presentthe pilot with for navigationpurposes ground speedand drift angleinforrnation rather than Vs urd V1. the antennais With movingantennasystems, stabilizedin pitch and roll and alsoalignedin azimuth with the track of the aircraft,that is to say track-stabilized.The drift angleis givenby the angle betweenthe antennaand aircraft longitudinalaxes in the horizontal plane. SomeDopplersuse measured pitch but not roll stabilizationsinceerror due to roll and furthermoretends is small for smalldrift angles out over the flight. to average

AntennaMechanization
The aircraft velocity has three orthogonal @mponents: Vfi the headingvelocity component; V) the lateral velocity component; and 171

Fixed antennasystems must compute the velocities Vry,Vn and Vv eachbeinga function of yi, V;, Vf R andp, whereR and F are roll and , pitch anglesappearing in the expressions as trigonometricfunctions. The relationships arederived in the Appendix.

Doppler Spectrum
The beamsare of finite width, henceenergywill strike the ground alongdirectionsof different relative velocities. As a consequence a spectrum of Doppler shift frequencies is received asshownin Fis. l0.g wherethe effectsof sidelobesareisnored.

Wilh A? typically 0.07 radians (4") and I typically 70- we haveAfp lfp rypically 0.2. Sincebackscattering from the illuminatedtarget areais not constantover the whole areathere is a random fluctuation of the instantaneous mean frequencyfp. To determine the aircraft's velocrty accuratelythe time constantof the velocity-measuring circuitsmust be sufficientlv lone to smooththis fluctuation, but not so long asio beunableto follow the normal accelerations-of the aircraft.

BeamGeometry

Sincethere are three unknowns Vi, Va' and Vf , a minimum of threebeams arerequired to measure them. ln practicethree or four beamsare usedin a configurationinvolvingfore and aft beams;assuchit is known asa Janusconfigurationafter the Roman god who could seeboth behind and in front. The beams radiatedcan be either pencil.asin Fig. 10.10or narrowin elevation (nO) Uut wide in %power azimuth(Ac) asin Fig. 10.9. The hyperbolic lines -3 dbs fo, h , f*, f-u are linesof constantDoppler shifts calledisodopsand are drawn assuming a flat earth. Whenwide azimuth beams are useda fixed antenna system would leadto the beamcrossing a wide range of isodops underconditions of drift, resultingin an excessively wide Doppler spectrum. Consequently suchbeams virtuallydictatea track-stabilized anrenna. fd Doppler shift A wide azimuthbeamhasadvantages in that smaller Fig.10.8 TheDoppler antennaareas spectrum are requiredand roll performance is improvedin the case whereno roll stabilizationis Sucha phenomenon is undesirable but providing employed. the spectrum is reasonably'peaky'the meanDoppler Figure 10.9 showsthat for a fully stabilizedsystem shift is easilymeasured.If Z is the anglebetweenthe the Doppler shift on all four beamsis the same. beamcentroidand the aircraftvelocityvectorthen Without roll stabilization smallerrorsareintroduced equation ( 1 0 . 3 )b e c o m e s : which tend to average out. Stabilization can be achieved by servo loops which drive the antenna so as 2Vf "otr. ( 1 0 . s ) to equalizethe Doppler shifts. Alternativelypitch lo =; information (and possiblyroll) can be fed to the Differentiation with respect Doppler from a verticalreference to 7 givesa first suchasa gyro or approximationto the half-powerbandwidth of the evena mercury switch leavlng azimuthstabilization to spectrum: be achieved by equalization of Doppler shifts. Typically in suchradarsground speedand drift angle 2A gy.rinT Lfo = ( r 0 . 6 ) are the only outputs wheregroundspeedis givenby equation (10.4) and drift angle by the amountof azimuthrotationof the antenna.Headine whereA7 is the half-powerbeamwidth. The ratio of information is usuallyaddedto the drift ingle to give Lfp to fp is thusgivenby dividingequation ( 10.6) aircraft track. by ( l0.s). Figure 10.10showsthat for a fixed aerialsystem Lfp = the Doppler shifts on all four beamsare,in general, -f; a7.tan7. (10.7) not equal. It is shownin the Appendix to this 175

Fig. t0.9 Moving aerialsystem- typical beamgeometry

chapter that the velocitiesin airframe coordinates, Vri, VA' and Vf , dependon (f2 - f l),(f2 -/3) and (.f | + f3) respectively, where/l ,f2 andf3 are the for Dopplershifts on beamsI ,2 and 3. Relationships can alsobe derivedusing/4 and two thesevelocities we have other Doppler shifts. With this redundancy or continuedoperation the possibilityof self-checking after one beam failure. Computationof groundspeedand drift anglein a fixed antennasystemcan be dividedinto three parts: firstly computationof Vi , V; and Vl, usingthe secondly Dopplershifts from three of the four beams; computationof Vg, V4 and Zy usingpitch and roll information and the previouslycomputedairframe velocities; and lastly, drift angle= co-ordinate = (Vn'+ Vnzlo's uctan (ValVn) and ground speed (seeFigure 10.7). 176

TransmitterFrequency
The choiceof r.f. is, asever,a compromise.The of using a high frequency is that the advantage sensitivityof the radarin Hertz per knot is high, as can be seenfrom equation(10.3); furthermore,for a givenantennasize,the higherthe frequencythe narrowerthe Dopplerspectrum. If, however,the radiated frequency is too high atmosphericand precipitationabsorptionand scattering becomemore is the of a problem. Another consideration for the variousfrequency availabilityof components bandswhich might be considered.Most Doppler radarsoperatein a band centredon 8'8 GHz or 13'325 GHz, the former, to date,beingperhapsthe most common for civil aircraft use.

Heading

Fig. 10.10 Fixed aerial system - typical beam geometry

Modulation
At first sight it would appearthat no modulation is necessary, indeed c.w. Doppler radarshavebeen built and operated,a great attraction being simplicity. Difficulties,however,arisein transmitter receiver isolationand discriminationagainstreflectionsfrom nearbyobjectsin particular the dielectric panel (radome)coveringthe airframeopeningfor the antenna. At other than low altitudes unwanted reflectionsare comparable in amplitude to ground returns. Noiselike variationsin vibrating radome echoeswill more than likely be in the same frequency band as the gxpectedDoppler shifts, and thus indistinguishableexcept where the s.n.r. is sufficiently high at low altitudes. To overcome the above problems both pulsed and

frequencymodulated(f.m.c.w.) radarshavebeen used. The earliestDopplerswere pulsedso that during the echoes from nearby objectswere received recoverytime of the diplexer and hencewere not a incoherentpulsesystems processed.In the so-called signals Doppler signalis obtainedby mixing received from fore and aft beams;thishas two undesirable Firstly the returnson the fore and aft consequences. beamsmust overlapin time if mixing is to take place, this meansstabilizationand/or wide beamsmust be used. Secondly,the Doppler shift on the individual of direction of hencethe sense beamsis not available, the velocity vector (forward or backward)and the verticalvelocity cannot be computed. With modern radarsf.m.c.w. is the most common type of transmission.The spectrumof the transmitted as well sigrd consistsof a largenumber of sidebands

177

asthe carrier. Theoreticalanalysis of f.m.c.w. reveals an infinite number of sidebands spaced by the modulation frequency f,n amplitudeof individual sidebands being determinedby Bessel functions of the first kind of order n and argumentrn where n is the sideband (first, second, concerned third, etc.) and rn is the modulationindex,i.e. ratio of deviationto f.. By usingthe Doppler shift of a particular sideband, and choosingan appropriatevalueof m to give sufficient amplitudeof the sidebandconcerned, suppression of noisedue to returnsfrom the radome and other nearby objectsis achieved. A problemcommonto both pulsed and f.m.c.w. Doppler radarsis that of altitude holes. In a pulsed systemifthe echo arrivesback at the receiverwhen a subsequent pulseis beingtransmitted then it is gatedout by the diplexer and no Doppler shift can be detected.Similarlywith f.m.c.w.,if the round-trip travel time is nearly equal to the modulationperioda deadbeatwill occurwhen mixing transmittedand received signals, and again no Dopplershift will be detected. If a low modulatingfrequencyis use'd the first altitude hole may appearabovethe operating ceiling. Howeverlow p.r.f. in pulsesystemleadsto low efficiency and the possibilityof interferenceif the p.r.f. is in the range of Dopplerfrequencies (eudio). For f.m.c.w.givena choiceof expected sideband used,typically third or fourth, and modulationindex,typically2l or 3, suchasto avoidradomenoise,the modulating frequency must be fairly high to allow a reasonable deviation. A fairly high modulatingfrequencyis usually varied (wobble)or in discrete eithercontinuously steps to avoid altitude holesat fixed heishts.

aircraft relativeto the surfacebelow them. When flying over water that surfaceitself may be moving due to seacurrents or wind-blownwater particles. Randomseacurrentsare of speeds usually a good bit lessthan half a knot, and this small el'fect averages out sincethe currentsare in random do not exceed, say, directions.Major seacurrents 3 knots and sincedirection and approximatespeed areknown they can be compensated for. Wind-blowndropletswould give an error lessthan the wind speed, about 3 knots error for l0 knots wind with the error varying as the third root of the wind. On long flights such an error will be reduced by averaging. .
o i o-

k___ Overwater caltoralon : I shrfterror

Frequency Fig.10.12 Over-water calibtatiory shift Whenflying overland the beams illuminatean particles.Generally many scattering areacontaining coefficientsover the whole the backscattering illuminated areawill be of the sameorder givingrise shownin Fig. 10.8. Over to the Dopplerspectrum smooth seathe situation is different; a larger fraction of the incident enerS/ will be returnedon part of the beam sincethe surface the steepest coefficient will dependon the angle backscattering of incidence.The net resultis to shift the Doppler asshownin Fig. 10.12,so that the mean spectrum Doppler shift is lessthan it should be for the aircraft velocity. which could be up to 5 per The error introduced, cent,is known as over-watercalibrationshift error. The narrowerthe beam widih the lesssignificantthe to produce error,so someDopplersaredesigned beamsnarrow enoughto keep the error within acceptable limits. Other Dopplershavea manual land-sea or seabias switch which, when in the seaor a calibrationshift in on position respectively, causes .of the the oppositesense by weightingthe response in favour of the Doppler shift frequencyprocessing higherfrequencies.For a carefully chosen shift the error can be reducedby a compensation f-actor of about ten.

Errors Over-Water
Doppler navigators measure the velocity of the

Fig lO.l I Frequencymodulatedcontinuous wave groundechospectrum signaland received transmitted

174

Antenna axis Ground track

o

N(ml

Lobc switched beams

.L

t '

Frequency

Fig. 10.13 Lobe switching

Lobe switching is a more successfulmethod of reducingcalibrationshift error. The beam angleof incidenceto the ground is switchedby a small amount periodically. The illuminated areasfor the two switchedangles overlap,as do the Doppler spectra.The Doppler shift frequencyused for velocity measurement is where the spectracross. This crossover point corresponds to the retum from the samegroup of scatterers at the sameangleof incidenceand is thus not affectedby over-water flight. Figure 10.13 illusrratesthe technique,which porks far better when track-stabilized antennas since then the lobe switchingis at right anglesto the isodops.

Fig. 10.14 Navigation calculations

To arriveat along distanceto go (X) and across (y) the true track (?') and track error angle distance (E) areneeded. We have,assuming drift to starboard aspositive:

Navigation CalculationS

The ground speedand drift angleinformation is normally presented to the pilot but in addition is used,together with heading information,to givethe aircraft position relativeto a destinationor forthcomingwaypoint. To achievethis the pilot must set desiredtrack and distanceto fly before take off. In Fig. l0. | 4 the pilot wishesto fly from A to B, a distance of 50 nauticalnriles, with desired track 090. Thc aircraft has flown for 6 min at a speed of 500 knots on a heading of 100 with a drift o[ 27" starboard, thus the total distance is 50 nauticalnriles and the aircraftis at point C. The trackerror is 37-, tlre alongdistance to go is X = l0 nauticalmiles:the across distance is Y = 30 nauticalnriles. In order to seehow the Doppler navigatorarrives at the alongand across distances indicatedto the pilot we must consider the informationavailable: ' Groundspeed (s) and - Doppler radar dril't angle(6) - gyromagnetic (I/) Heading compass (Til)and Desired track - pilot (D) Distance

T =H+6 E = T-Td x = D -JjScosf,'dr Y = tssinEdt

(r0.8) (10.e)
(10.10) / ( 1 0 . l1 )

where I is the time of flight, and the senseof the across distanceis positiveto the right.

Block Diagram Operation

Moving Antenna System Figure 10.15 illustratesa block diagrambasedon the MarconiAD 560, a system introduced in the mid-I960s and usedon a'varietyof civil aircraft. It is still to be found in service. The sensor is an f.m.c.w. type employing wobbulation of the modulatingfrequencyf^ to avoid altitude holesand usingthe Nth sideband (tr/ = 3 in the AD 560) to avoid unwantedinterference due to radomevibrations. For the choice.ofthe third sideband a suitable modulation index is 2.5. obtained by usinga deviationof t I MHz on the 8800 MHz carrierand a modulatingfrequencyof 400 kHz. give the Doppler shift frequency Two mixer stages

179

Transmitter/receivcr

Aerial unit p-Heading

F----+ Drifi

Set tiack

Autopilot Steering ind. Set zero Set distance

Ground speed

Trackcr

+
Memory

=TTo diStance

i Computer I
! :

Display unit

Fig. 10.15 Moving aerial Doppler block diagram based on the Marconi AD 550

signalwith a sample fo. The first mixes the received of the transmittedsignal,the requiredsideband (1200 kHz in the AD 560) beingselected by the intermediatefrequencyamplifiers. The secondmixes sidebandto extract fi.; times f^ with the selected .fy' by meansof a low passfilter with a cut-off frequency ' ofabout 20kHz. There are two transmit and two receivelinear arraysare slotted arrays. Anti-phaseand in-phase which an arrangement usedfor transmit and receive, for changes in can be shown to compensate areconnected to appropriate The arrays wavelength. diodesin the by an r.f. switch(varacter inlets/outlets areobtainedby AD 560). Fore and aft beams providingfor connection to eitherend of eacharray, is achieved by use while port and starboard deflection sequence is of sidereflectors.The beam-switching 180

important where pitch and azimuth drive of the aerial the AD 560 sequence is port forward, is concerned; starboardaft, starboardforward, port aft, a complete cycle taking I second. The Doppler spectrumis fed to two loops: one coarse and one fine. The searchloop providesfor measuring shaft adjustmenlof a ground-speed coarse the frequency of a voltagecontrolled which determines oscillator(v.c.o.) in the tracking loop through a feedbackpotentiometer. With the searchloop nulled the v.c.o. frequency is approximatelyequal to the meanDoppler shift frequency,a discriminatorwithin the tracking loop is then able to apply an error signal to the speeddrive so as to position the ground-speed shaft accurately. The Doppler can then be saidto be locked on, and any changein ground speedwill be trackedby the fine trackingloop.

drift angle(azimuth drive) and so give track to another differential synchroin the displayunit. The Sterboard rotor of the seconddifferentialsynchrois set by the drift operatorat the desiredtrack angle,hencethe output track, betweentrack and desired is the difference Timo error6. i.e. track angle ground in the computerunit resolves The resolver Noseup speedcomponents speed S into its alongand across In the AD 560 a ball S cos.EandS sin^Erespectively. analogue 1 second is used,thus givingmechanical resolver a tracking by is driven The ball computing. misalignment shiftwith aerial in Doppler Fig 10.16 Change steppermotor, hencethe rate of oscillator-fed rotation is proportional to ground speed. The axis of on the angleof the drive wheel rotation depends If the antennaaxis is not aligred with the track of position control systemto be a servo set by the aircraft, either in pitch or in azimuth, the Doppler which is error angle. Two pick-offwheels to the track equal With with beam-switching. strift will change rotate at a axes at right angles with their mounted occurs in Doppler the change in azimuth misalignment speeds.These on the alongand across rate depending is in pitch at a rate of I Hz, while if the misalignment in the displayunit by meansof the rate is 2Hz. This follows from the beam-switching rotations are repeated the counlersto rotate. The cause and servo drives and rate (seeFig. 10.16). Reference sequence to count down from is arranged counter distance along pitch and to the waveformsof 2 and I Hz arefed waypoint until it reaches the to distance the initial any misalignment respectively; circuits azimuth drive zero when the aircraft will be on a line perpendicular of the antennawill be detectedby the drive circuits, throughthe waypoint. track and passing to the desired resultingin the antennarotating so asto align itself readzero distances across along and If both shift with the aircraft track. At this stagethe Doppler the waypoint. is over the aircraft simultaneously accurately and four beams on all is the same ground speed,alsothe anglebetweenthe represents Fixed Antenna System aircraft and antennalongitudinalaxesis equal to the of Figure10.17may be usedto explainthe principles drift angle. The level. to block diagram system antenna a fixed and search the in both s.n.r. is measured The of planararraysof slotted waveguide antennaconsists loop checkis not tracking loops. If the search arraysbeingusedfor printed circuit, separate for three out of the four beamsthe three or satisfactory is Beam'switching reception. and transmission to noise sigrral circuits are disabled.The servodrive to ferrite switches or varactor diode using to to.go achieved the system causes loop tracking the checkin to the couple the transmitterand receiver memory if it is not satisfactory. In memory the appropriateport. shaft are fixed and a antennaand ground-speed signalis mixed with a sampleof the The received drift and in a ground'speed memory flag appears signaland the wanted sideband transmitted give the f.m.c.w. to continues angleindicator. The sensor filtered out and amplified. If only ground speedand ground'speed and drift anglefor as last-measured drift angleare requiredfurther mixing may take place long as the poor s.n.r.continues. asin the moving to extract the Doppler frequencies is in two output from the sensor Ground-speed of the shift (positive the sense however case; antenna to coupled forms.- A synchrorotor is mechanically vectorsin the velocity three the If is lost. negative) or The feed' three'wire giving a shaft the ground-speed are direction of the aircraft cq'ordinates required,an trackingv.c.o. frequency,which is proportional to intermediatefrequency,feis retainedwhich will be in the resolver ground speed, is fed to a sine'cosine on by an amount depending computer and alsoto a frequencydividerwhich scales reducedor increased radiated. is being beam which per nautical pulse the sigral so that one and shapes The time-multiplexed Doppler shifted ,fq siSnals mile is fed to a distance flown indicator (integrating by a demultiplexerdriven by the are separated counter). control and feedingfour tracking beam-switching gives a A synchrotransmitterin the antennaunit becomelocked oscillators Voltage-controlled loops. to the drift angleoutput sincethe body is bolted ! sweeping by frequencies the incoming to fo fO driven by is rotor the and part antenna ofthe fixed through their rangeuntil they lock on. The four the azimuth motor. A differentialsynchro tracker outputs are then summedand differenced,as to transmitteris usedto add heading(from compass) Pf SA 181

Heading
x
o x o

Attitude

] z E
Air speed Variation initial position and waypoints

= E

Fig 10.17 Fixedaerial Doppler blockdiagram

appropriate, in a combiningnetwork to provide ground-speed and drift-angleoutputs and, with a signals /r, fy and/2 proportional to aircraft compass input, will providenavigation data to a CDU co-ordinate velocities (seeAppendix, Al 0.3). givinga two-unit Doppler navigationsystem. Digital Within the computer/display unit (CDU) the outputsareprovided in accordance with ARINC 429 aircraft referenced velocity componentsare (DITS) and ARINC 582, thereis alsoan optional transformedinto track-orientated earth-referenced synchrooutput for drift angle.This unit, introduced components usingattitude signals (pitch and roll) n 1979,may heralda comeback for Dopplerin from a verticalreference gyro (seeAppendix, A10.4). airline service sinceit has beenorderedby Boeingfor With a headinginput and waypoints,in terms of installation in their 727s and,737s. to be usedin desiredtrack and distance, set in by the pilot the conjunction with Lear Siegler's performanceand computercan integratethe alongand across navigationcomputer system(PNCS). velocitiesto givedistanceto go and across-track error (distance)respectively. The CDU may offer latitude and longitude rcadoutof position by transformingthe aircraft velocities into north-orientated horizontal components. True north, as opposedto magneticnorth, may be usedas the reference if the pilot is ableto enter the variation. With attitude, headingand true air speed inputs the output from an airspeed transformation circuit or routine may be comparedwith the velocity transformationto give wind speedand direction.

Installation TheDoppler navigator system illustrated in

Fig. 10.I 5 requiresfive units asindicated;i.e. antenna, transmitter-receiver, tracker,computer and display unit. The Marconi AD 560 comprises the five units mentionedplus a junction box, ground-speed and drift-angleindicator, distance-flown indicator and a control unit (or simply a panel-mounted switch). The weight of the AD 560 is about 30 kg which shouldbe comparedwith Marconi'slatest Doppler the AD 660 which weighs5 kg (sensor only). The AD 660 is a single-unitDoppler sensorgiving Fig. 10.18 AD 550 (courtesyMarconiAvionicsLtd) '182

:1 I

{:,-:"* .
l::
ril,:.: tri l

i t .

i ,

i f

Fig. 10.19 Doppler7l antenna/electronics unit (courtesy the DeccaNavigator Co. Ltd)

Figure10.18showsthe AD 660 with cards removed.Note the useof large-sca1e integrated circuitscommonin all modernsystems aswe approach the 1980s.The antenna is a printed circuit microstripproducing four beams transmitted sequentially. The transmitter is a f.m. Gunn diode oscillatorgenerating over 200 mW at a carrier frequency of 13.325GHz. Computation and control is achieved througha microprocessor. The DeccaDoppler7l and 72 aredesisned for v./s.t.o.l. (vertical/short take-offand landing)aircraft operatingbelow 300 knots and fixed-wins aircraft operatigg up to 1000knots respectively. these havehad civilian sales Efstems limited to aircraft with special needssuchas certainhelicopteroperations and -10 surveying.Figures10.19 .22 showunits of a typicalDeccaDoppler7l installation.Interconnections aresimple;all three indicatorsbeingdriven directly from the antenna/electronics unit. A heading input is requiredfor the PBDI which, togetherwith the antenna/electronics unit, forms a basictwo-unit system, the two metersbeingoptional. Another 7l position, bearing anddrift indicaror lq._19.?0 Doppter optional unit is an automatic chart display driven by (PBDI) (courtesy theDecca Navigator Co.I_tay the PBDI or a more sophisticated replacement, a TANS computer.

183

error areusually error and track-angle Across-track asoutputsfrom a CDU fbr useby an available warningsignals must alsobe autopilot. Obviously providedto indicatethe integrityof the steering to the userequipment. signals

Controlsand Operation
the Doppler71 as an example, We shallconsider variations exist. considerable obviously although P.B.D.I. processor purpose Indicator,controllerand general o f 1 5 0 01 6 - b i t words. ea p a c i t y w i t h p r o g r a m mc memory. Battery-protected Switches of sensor; l. DOP TEST: groundchecking ST BY: inputsinhibited,displaytlashes; for overwater LAND/SEA: allowscorrection in. shift error to be switclted calibration 2. LMP TEST: checkof displayand lamps; input and insertion HDG/VAR: displayof heading variations; of m agnetic is fixed; Doppler FIX: positiondisplayed arestored; warninglamp distances incremental operable: slewswitches flashes: POS:aircraftlatitudeor longitudedisplayed; and drift angledisplayed: GS/DFT: groundspeed and distance to next waypoint BRG DIST: bearing displayed; waypointlatitudeor longitude. WP: selected 3 . W A Y P O I N TI t o l 0 : a l l o w s f o r w a y p o i n t Waypoints or changed can be inserted selection. at any time. latitude,longitudeor 4. LAT LONG: three-posttion displayed. both (alternately) variation. usedfor inserting 5. SLEW:two switches and position, waypointco-ordinates present the numericdisplays as required. resetting \Displays of threeseven-segment l. Numeric:twb groups by seven-position filamentsshow data selected switch. latitude no*fh (N) or 2. Sectordisplay:indicates east(E) or west(W). south(S), longitude are c.w., three-beam systems The Doppler 70 series track error, displayshowing decoupling 3. Trackerror: analogue (not switched) K-bandradars.Adequate waypoint. to the selected in degrees, and receiver is inherentin the transmitter between in analogue incorporated indicators: the useof c.w. A localoscillator 4. Warning desigr,so allowing displayto givewarningof Doppler failure signalis usedfor mixing, so providingan intermediate (or memory),computerfailureor test mode t the Dopplershift. Furtherdetailsof the frequency selected. systemareincludedbelow. (courtesy Fig.10.22 Doppler 7l hovermeter theDecca Co.Ltd) Navigator 184

and drift meter Fig. 10.21 Doppler7l ground-speed (courtesy Navigator the Decca Co. Ltd)

Ground-Speedand Drift Meter Drift anglerange:i 39.9o. Displayofground speedup to 300 knots and drift Altitude: 45 000 ft abovesround level. angle+ 30o (expandedscale). Supply2 : 8 V d . c . , 2A . Powerfailure and memory warning flags. Manualsettingof drift and ground speedprovided for. Testing Hovcr Meter Displays: ModernDopplers havea considerable amountof along-heading velocity- range-10 to +20 knots: built-in test equipment with which to carry out across-heading velocity- ranget l5 knots; checks.Syntheticsignals may be generated by verticalvelocity - ranget 500 ft min-r. switching antennas at a much higherrate than normal, thus leadingto the memory flag clearingand a given readingpossiblyappearing on the ground-speed and Characteristics drift-angleindicator. This might be the effect of pressing the test switch on the ground under memory conditions.If airborne and in memorya similar ARINC Characteristic 540, airborneDoppler radar, wasissued out, but ifin the signal in 1958 and lastprinted in January1960; checkcould be carried condition,i.e. Dopplershift present it is no longermaintained and s.n.r. current. For this reason satisfactory, then a goodand easycheckis to operate detailsof a currently available system,the Decca the slewingswitchesto offset ground-speed Doppler7l arelisted. Sincethis is primarily a and helicoptersystema'very brief data summary for the drift-anglereadings; on release the readings should MarconiAD 660 systemaimed at the airliner market return to their original positions. This check will cause a small error in the computedposition but this hasalsobeenincluded. DeccaDoppler 7l Power: 100 mW Frequency: 13'325and 13.314GHz. Intermediate frequency:10.7MHz. Beamwidth: 5o in depression plane, I lo in broadside plane. Depression angle'. 67". Modulation:none,c.w. Number of beams:three continuous. Along-heading velocity rangeto computer: -50 to +300knots. Across-heading velocity rangeto computer: ! 100 knots. Supply: I l5 V, 400 Hz, single-phase. Altitude range:0-20 000 ft over land or over water when surfacewind ) 5 knots. Accuracyof sensor- lessthan O'3Vo or 0.25 knots (whicheveris the greater(overland)). Acquisitiontime: within 20 s. Indicatedaccuracy,ground speedand drift meter: 3'5 at 100 knots; 5 at 300 knots, drift t 0'5o. Indicatedaccuracy,hover meter: along and across velocitiesI I knot, verticalvelocity t 40 ft min-I. Marconi AD 660 Power:200 mW. Frequency: 13'325 GHz. Modulation:f.m.c.w. Number of beams:four, sequential. Velocity range: l0-800 knots.

End

Simulated flight path

151
Sta$ 2

065

WPT 2

Stage 1

Start flight to check Fig, 10.23 Test conditionsfor simulated computer(seetext)

185

can be eliminatedby sleivingin the oppositedirection error. by the sameamount to producea cancelling part of a Doppler To check the computer/display navigatora coursemust be simulatedby setting heading(d.g., directionalgyro, selected), compass drift angleiground speedand waypoint courseand slewing controls. Having usingappropriate distance set everythingup the computeris switchedon for a timed run, at the end of which the displayedreadings be asindependentlycalculated. Usually a d-rould figuresfor written procedurewill give the necessary easy sucha checkbut in any casethey are reasonably with the example, starting As an to work out. following: Waypoint I Waypoint 2 track 335" track 065" distance15 nauticd miles distance15 nautical milqs

Appendix Aircraft and Earth Betrrveen Relationships Co-Ordinates

l nit A s i n F i g .A l 0 . l l e t i ' , i ' , k ' b e o r t h o g o n au co-ordinatesystem vectorsdefining a right-handed by i' with the positivedirection of the axis spanned beingforward along the aircraft'slongitudinal axis by i' and ihe positivedirection of the axis spanned lateral axis. aircraft's the along starboard being

OlO" Heading l0o starboard Drift Ground speed 600 knots at the end of the simulatcd two-hg flight the across distanceshouldbe zeto, the distancefTown42 nauticalmiles and the time taken 4 min l4'5 s, all to within the tolerancelaid down for the system. Ramp test setshavebeenproducedfor Doppler by the manufacturerof usually purpose-built systems, as are, for example, the radar and not general-purpose one will sets. Sometimes etc. test ILS, VOR, DME, which can be switches find meterswith associated andior usedto monitor variousinternal voltages but this is more likely on older multi'unit currents equipment. to ensurethe antenna It is important for accuracy is alignedwith the aircraft'slongitudinalaxis. The asa Doppler will interpret any slight misalignment is antennas of all alignment error. lnitial drift-angle the once system antenna a fixed with but important hole is cut in the airframe,correctly aligned,the only for concernafterwardsis that the antennais cause fitted the ccrrectway round. With moving-antenia an alignmentprocedurefor the antenna systems mounting is carriedout initially by usingsightingrods on the mountingand the aircraft' Viewingthe rods from a distanceto ensurethey arein line, and then bolts throughthe slotted the securing tiglrtening that the holesin the mountingplate,will ensure without a need. changed can be subsequently antenna one shouldbe check.- although for an alignment inspections. on rnajor out carried FE. At0.l Aircraft co-ordinates unit As in Fig. A 10.2let i, i , k be orthogonal co-ordinatesystem vectorsdefining a right-handed by f with the positivedirection of the axis spanned axis longitudinal beingforward alongthe aircraft's projectedon to a plane parallelto the ground and the by 7 being positivedirection of the axis spanned starboardalong the aircraft'slateral axis projectedon to a planeparallelto the ground.

k Fig.A10.2 Earthco-ordinates Further le! positivepitch be nose'upand positive then from Figs.A10.3 wing-down, roll be starboard and A10.4 we have: i'= k'= icosP-ksinP isinP+kcosP

i'= TcosR+/rsinR k'= -i sinR+kcosR

r86

sinceZ is thevectorsumof Vd,VA' and l/y'. Thus:

vn = hvi+av{+vvl
of the projeition whereft, a andv arethe magnitudes system axisof the co'ordinate ofz on to each i . e . u= h i + a i + v k that for: A10.6andA10.7we see A10.5, FromFigs
b e a mI beam2 beam 3 beam4 h= -H h= H h= H h=-H a= A a= A a= -A a=-A

v v v v

= = = =

V V V V

where I/ = cos0 cosa;.4 = cos0 sina; Z = sind.

k' roll F8. A10.4 Aircraft Thus the matrix of transition from l, i, k to i', i', /c' is givenby:

'[i lrrhn] :-il F::

sin P sinR cosR cosP sinR sin P cosRl -sinR l=U cosP cosRJ (Al0.l)

Fig. A10.5

Velocities in longitudinal/lateral plane

vi{

f cosf =10 l-sin P

l!1, vectorl/ hasco-ordinates velocity If the aircraft to i, i, k andVfi , Va', Vf with Vt, Vv with respect lo i',i',k'we have: respect

V(/ Fig. A10.6 Velocitiesin planenormalto longitudinal/lateral plane

P + Vj sinPsin R + Vi sinPcosR i.e. Vy = Vrt cos - Vl sin R Va' cos R V.e= = -Vi + Izf cosP cosR + Va' cosP sin R Vv sin P

w=Mxv,,\

The Doppler Shifts for a Four-Beam Janus Configuration

Fig. A10.7

Aircraft velocity vector

Now the Dopplershiftsaregivenby/2 =2Vnf lc' velocityvector24, in Themagnitude of the relative is the innerproductof the. therefore: of anybeam thedirection V and the unit vectoralong vector velocity aircraft fi = 2f (-H Vl +,a Va'+ Y Vl)lc centroid, a. Thus: thebeam Vx'+ V Vf)lc

VR= V'u =(Vi+V71'+Vv).u

fr=2f(HVil+A f s = 2 f ( H V r i - A vA'+ v vi)lc fc = 2f(-H vi 'l v; + v vi)lc

(Ar 0.2)

187

The Aircraft Velocity in Earth Co-Ordinates Expressed in Termsof DopplerShifts

- From equations (A10.2) we have:

W=MxWir;:itil
(Ar0.4)
where Kp = 47cof .", "

v1i= c(fz;fr\=+*-fr
c(h =-rrr v; =c(20p. fe) (A10.3)

c i,4 = AEos;1il-;
"! Y
__:_

c(fz + fq) v l = c ( fi +ft) - __4TT

a
are known constants.

4f sin 0

rl4 is obtained from pitch and roll signalsandf1,f2,fg are the Doppler shifts measured on beamsl, 2 and 3. Substituting for Vfi, Vt' , Yi from equations (A10.3) Note beam4 is redundantbut could be usedfor (Al0.l) we have: checking purposes. into equations

188

11 Radioaltimeter

Introduction
The meaningof the terms aircraft altitude or height is complicatedby the variousreferences used from which the height can be measured.A barometric altimeter senses the static pressure at aircraft leveland givesa readingdependent on the differencebetween and the pressure {his pressure at somereference level. For aircraft flying aboveabout 3000 ft, the reference of paramount importance is that levelcorresponding to a pressure of 1013.25 mbar(29-92in.Hg),the so-called mean sealevel. The other barometric references usedare local sealevel and airfield level. The pilot is able to set the reference level pressure at l0l3'25 mbar,QNH (localsealevel- regional) or QFE (airfield level),the Q codesbeingusedin communication with air traffic control(ATC). Conversely the radio altimeter measures the height of the aircraft abovethe ground. lf an aircraft is in levelflight the barometricaltimeter readingwill be steadywhile the radioaltimeterreading will be varying unlessthe aircraft is ffying over seaor plain. It follows that radio altimetersare most usefulwhen closeto the ground, say below 2000 ft, and particularly so when landingproviding the final approachis over a flat surface. As a consequence, radio altimetersdesigned for usein civil aircraft are low-levelsystems, typical maximum ranges available being 5000, 2500 or even500 ft in the caseof usein automaticlandingsystems.Military aircraft can utilize high-levelradio altimeters.

necessary in orderto 'mark' tlie time of transmission. both f.m. and pulsedtransmissions areused. The methodof time measurement depends on the type of modulationusedand the complexityof the airborne equipment which is acceptable. Threebasictypesof altimeterare marketed: pulse, conventional f.m.c.w. (frequency modulated continuous wave)and constant diflerence frequency f.m.c.w. The bgsicprinciple of a pulsedsystemis simple, sincethe transmitted and received pulses clearly represent events between which the time can be measured. With f.m.c.w.thereis no single event duringone cycleof the modulating frequency; however specific timesduringone-half cyclecanbe identified by the instantaneous frequency beingtransmitted. Sincethe transmitter frequency is continuously changing, the received signal,which hasbeen subject to delaydue to the round-triptraveltime, will be different in frequencyto the transmittedsignalat any instant in time. The differencefrequency,fi, can be shown to be proportional to the height as follows. Assumea triangularmodulatingwaveformof frequencyfm and amplitudesuchthat the carrier,'/", is modulated overa range A/. This situationis illustrated in Fig. I I .l . Th two-waytraveltime is 2Hlc where11is the heightand c the speed of light. The magnitude of the rateof change of transmitted frequency is 2 . A/. f^ (= 0.5 Lf lO10.25fil. The productof the elapsed time and the rateof change of frequency will givethe diflerence in frequency between transmitted and received frequency thus:

BasicPrinciples
Radioheightis measured usingthe basicideaof radio ranging, i.e. measuring the elapsed time between transmission of an e.m.waveand its reception after reflectionfrom the ground. The heightis givenby hAlf the productof the elapsed time and the speed of
light:

f n = 2 . L f. f ^ . 7 , = 4 . A f. f ^ . H l c

( rl . r )

Tltus the measurement of the beatliequencv determines the heightsince 4 .Lf . f^jc is a known constantfrrr any particular system. The beatfrequency is constant, for triangular modulation, exccptat thc turn-around regiontwice havethat the average beatfrequency for 2Zps is fnl2 l'orthe restof the moclulating cycle;thebeat frequencyis constantat fi . If the average beat

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& & & &i& &t& & & &p =l 4 ( r? b.e nw ge theelapsedtimein p& e& rc y& c& le . & & &S n& ce u& rn -& ar o& u& n& d t& a& k& es a9 c2 et in gis

microseconds). Energyis radiated at a frequency h the band 42OO'44O0 MHz. Modulation of the carrieris

189

Transmittcd

Thfi will result in'a vertical dhplacetnent of thc graph sigral in Fig. I l.l. The effect for a of the received aircraft (positiveshift) is shown in descending is Fig. I1.2. As canbe seenthe beatfrequency fn - fa andfi, + f6 for equalperiods. If we take the over half a ntodulationperiod we get average fn ) fa which will be the casewith a radio altimeter.
Received

Thisassumes Un +fa +fn - fil2 =fh asrequired.

o C o t ct o E o .9 ! o G

- frequency/time radioaltimeter Fig.I l.l A FMCW relationship frequencyover one modulatingcycle is detectedwe will havea measured frequencyfi givenby:

C'

= (((tlf; -2r)fn + rfnl2)fm fn '= fm(r - 3Tfmlz)

(l1.2) o
6

Q'

With the aircraft at about 2000 ft andf^ = 2OOHz we have: fn = fn (l _ 0.0012)

shifton beatfrequency of Doppler Fig.I 1.2 Theeffect

i.e. an error of about 2.4 ft at 2000 ft. On the ground (l l.l) we seethat for a system with therewill still be an elapsed tlsingequation time, due to built-in delay,ofabout 0.12 ps corresponding to a residual A.f = 100 MHz (42504350 MHz) andf ^ = 200 Hz altitude(seelater)of 57 ft, say. Whenwe use the beat frequencyfi = (4 X 100X 106X 2OOH)/ (984 X 106)= 8011sothe range ol fp lor a 0'12 ps andf^ = 2OO (l 1.2)we Illlll= Hzin equation altitudeof 57 ft with a residual find that the erroron the grounddue to the averaging 0-2500ft altimeter kHz. Thiswide bandrvidth can of the non-constant would be 4'56-?.04'56 beatfrequency is about 0.002 ft a constant difference which is insignificant. by' maintaining be reduced sensitivity.Since In practice a perfecttriangular frequency thusimproving modulating fi frequency is difficult to achieve, on both Lf andf * we canvary eitherin depends someroundingat so keeping proportionto the heig.ht the turn-around takingplace. In fact with any inverse fi reasonably shape-modulation waveform, it canbe constant. servo loop nrustmonitor the shownthat the average beatfrequency when usedin The necessary ( I I .l ) will yield a heightreading and control the modulatorso as equation frequency which is diff'erence The control signal c o r r e cw t ithinacceptable i m i t s . A p p e n d i xI L I to changeLl'or frt accortlingly. proves this for sinusoidal the heightof the aircraft, Sincethe frequency modulation,whichrepresents proportionalto is madeinversely to obtainsincethe rateof change variable is easier of carrier controlled frequency is bounded difficult to employthe technique in magnitude by unity. heightit becomes particularly whenA/ is varied. This lf thereis relative motion between the aircraftand at lower heights. of b1'the contpromise the groundimrnediately canbe overcorne below the received frequency latterproblenr a n dr v i t h will experience t low altitudes a Dopplershift,/a (seeChapterl0). c o n v e n t i o n a la ly operating 190

constantj[ otherwise,or by modifying feedbackin the loop such that fp varies with any change in altitudebut not oversucha greatrange as it would with no feedback.The Frenchlnanufacturer TRT producealtimeters with constant fi at all heights, control beingachievedby varytngf^; the tolerance + I ft or I per centis met.

FactorsAffecting Performance
Ihe accuracy of a radioaltimeter depends fundamentallyon the precisionwith which the time of transmission is marked. For precise timing a wide transmitted spectrum is required sincethis would lead to a steepleading edgein a pulsedsystem or, in the case of f.m.c.w.,a largefrequency deviation which effectively givesan expanded scale. Ofcourse a finite spectrum is transmitted and in fact is limited to a total spread of between 4200 and 4400 MHz by (the band 1600-1660 international legislation MHz hasalsobeenallocated for useby radioaltimeters but is no longerused). In an f.m.c.w.system a countermay be usedwhich the numberof cycles measures or half-cycles in one periodof the modulation.Sincethe counteris unable to measure fractions of a cycle,other than possibly a half, the count is a discrete number. The process results in a quantization error calledstepor fixed ( I I .l ) as: error. We may rewriteequation

H=&,=#

(l r.3)

= fnlfn is the number of beat frequency where,rV (to cycles nearest integer below)in the modulation cycle. Sincely' is an integerthe height measured will be subjectto a quantization error calledsteperror equalto cl4Al'which with A/= 100 MHz is2.46 ft. In practicein any one rnodulation periodthe actualcount will depend on the nurnberof positive-going zerocrossings of the beat frequency, this could be N or N + I depending on phasing.So if y'y' varies the phasing thc count will jurnp between and Iy'+ | and backso avertging out the steperror providing thetirrrc c o n s t l n t< l ft h e i n d i c a t i n g c i r c u i ti s large c o r n p u r ew ' t li t h t l t 0 t i r r r e between count fluctualionsl .t c l n b e s h o w t r l h a t t h ec o u n tw i l l lirr a charrgcchange in lrcightol'u quarterof a w a v e l c n g to hl t l r c r . l ' . A t t l r el ' r c q u e n cu ys e df o r ( l u i t r t co r l ' a w a v e l c n g tils st r a d i oa l l i r r r c t c r i. rless than I in. lnd lrcncc rrrrlcs ll sy i r r g ove'v r c r ys n t o o t h hc llLrcttrltirrg s u r l a c ets l d i o l r c i g hw t ill cause a v e r a g i no gr r l o l ' t h c e r r o r . l ) e . l i b e r a t e w ly obbling the

phaseof the modulation frequencywill alsohavethe desiredeffect providingthe wobbulation rate, say l0 Hz, canbe filteredout. lf a frequencydiscriminatoris usedto measure frequencythe steperror is not presentsince is continuous measurement ratherthan discrete.With f.m.c,w.altimeters. conventional however. the ranse of frequencies to be measured is largeand discrirninatorcircuitssufficiently stableand linear are difficult to achieve. With a constant difference frequency f.m.c.w.altimeter a discriminator can easilybe usedto detect the smallchanges which occur in l7r. The received signalstrengthvarieswith the height ofthe aircraft. From the radarrange equationthis variation is as the fourth power of the range;however with an altimeterthe greaterthe range(height) the greater the areaof the target(ground)is illuminated. For radio altimeters therefore. the variation is as the square of the range.The gainfrequency characteristic of the difference frequency amplifier(f.m.c.w.) should be suchthat the higher frequencies are amplifiedmore than the lower. Sucha characteristic helpsby reducing the dynamicrange of the frequency-measuring circuitand alsoreduces low frequency noise. Part of the two-waytraveltime is accounted for by the aircraftinstallation delay(AID). Since, ideally, the radio altimetershouldreadzero feet cln touchdown,the residual altitudewhich accounts for the AID is madeup of cablelength,multipliedby a factor (typically l'5) to allow for propagation speed, and the sum of the antenna heights.It is important that the system is calibrated so asto allow for AlD. One method which hasbeenr.rsed for an altimeter utilizedfor blind landing is to measure the difference frequency on touchdown on a numberof flight trials of a particular type ofaircraft. The frequency arrived at empirically canbe injected into the difference frequency amplifieron the benchand the setcan then be adjusted to givea zero feetoutput. A mole commonmethodis to calibrate by cuttingthe antenna feeders to an appropriate length;this will be 'lnstallation'. described underthe heading Transmitter-receiver leakage can be viewedasnoise which limits the receiver sensitivity and alsomay reading.Useof separate transmit cause an erroneous will givespace and receive a antennas attenuation, figurein the regicnof about75 dB shouldbe aimed e l t i m e t eo f o r i n a n i n s t a l l a t i ow n here,tha r u t p u ti s and usedin critlcalsystems suchasautomatic Ianding (g.p.w.s.). ground p r o x i m i t yw a r n i n g Signals occurring at nearzerorange arecaused by gearand other appendages, reflections frorn landing 191

(al

Tx

(cl

r.caraf \
\ \

Multipath

t
Time (pulsed). Freq.(f.m.c.w.)

performance Fig,I1.3 Some factors affecting aswell as the leakage signalreferredto above. In pulsedsystems and lowest frequencytracking (spectrum both constant-difference frequencyand pulse filtering)in f.m.c.w.systems is usedto altimetersa trackingloop is employedto follow the retain accuracy. in altitude. Initially, the altitude will be changes with a response The altimeter can be designed time unknownso a search mode is entered which,while in the orderof a few milliseconds; however one does seeking the correct altitude, will vary receivergain. not normally wish to follow the snrallest variationsof As previously discussed, at low altitudes the gainwill the groundbelow. The output is usuallyfilteredwith be low, thus while searcfuing in the frequency a time constant of saya few tenthsof a second. (f.m.c.w.)or time (pulsed) regionof the unwanted signals the largegain reductionensures they are weak. The groundreturnis relatively strongensuring lock-on Block Diagram Operation to the correctsignal and henceindicationof the actualradioaltitude. therearethreemain approaches As alreadymentioned Multipath signals arisesincethe first-time-around to radio altimeters.Most altimeters areof the f.m.c.w, echowill be reflectedfrom the airframeback down beingconventional type, the majority of these for the to the groundand returnasa second-time-around sakeof simplicity. Althoughtrackingf.m.c.w.and echo. Whilethis multipathsignal will be considerably pulsedsystems are more complex they do have weakerthan the required signal the height-controlled advantages overconventional f.m.c.w.aswill be gainwill in part nullify this favourable situation. In paragraphs. from the previous Simplified appreciated trackingaltimeters the initial or subsequent search for the threetypeswill be considered. block diagrams canbe in the directionof increasing altitudeso lockingon to the correctsignal first, a similar Conventionalf.m.c.w. Altimeters approach to outboundsearch in DME. a in a modernequipment comprises The transmitter Aircraft pitch and roll will meanthat the beam oscillatorfrequencymodulatedat typically solid-state centreis no longervertical; however if the beamis Hz rate. Whilemost of the power 100-150 fairly broad,at leastpart of the transmitted energy (0'5-l W) is radiated from a broadlydirectional will take the shortest route to the ground. Provided antenna a smallportion is fed to the mixer to beat receiver sensitivity is adequate therewill be sufllcient with the received signal. energyreceived point for accurate from the nearest sample in a The echois mixedwith the transmitter measurement. balanced mixer to producethe beat strip-line A consequence of broad beamsis that in flying mixer helpsin reduction frequency.Useo{ a balanced overroughterrain,reflections will be received from The gainof the noisein the receiver. of transmitter angles other than the vertical.Sincethe non-vertical wide bandbeat frequency with amplifierincreases pathshavea longertwo-waytraveltime the spectrum frequency levelof for the low signal to compensate of the difference frequency will be spread (ground (highaltitude). Signal limiting the high frequencies diffusion). The spectrum shape wili be steepat the variations and gives a amplitude removes unwanted low frequency end corresponding to the correci signal form for the counter. suitable altitudemuch the sameasthe pulseshapein a pulsed frequency-measuring circuit A cycle-counting system will havea steep leading edge,(see Fig. I l.3b provides to the indicator. Basically a d.c. signal and c). This spectrumwideningis increased by ol'a switching circuitscontrol the charging suitable aircraftroll and pitch. Leadingedgetrackingin is so that a fixed amountof charge capacitor 192

Fig. I1.4 Conventional FMCW altimeterblock diagram

Ft. | 1.5 Constant difference frequency FMCW altimeter block diagram pnerated for each cycle (or half-cycle) of the

rmknownbeat frequenry. With the simplesttype of indicatorthe total chargeper second(current) is hdicated on a milliammeter calibratedin feet. Condant Differencc Frequency f.m.c.w. Altimeten This approachis similar to a conventionalf.m.c.w. dtimeter at the r.f. end. The beat frequency anplifier is a narrow band with gain controlled by &e loop so that it increases with altitude. A tracking discriminatorcompares the beat frequency,/6, with ainternal reference,fr;if the two are not the same, tr crror signalis fed to the loop control. The outputs of the loop control circuit are usedto -t the modulator frequency,f^ (or amplitude if &viation, Al is controlled), to set the gain of the anplifier and to drive the indicator. The change in f- (or A/) is such as to make/6 = /' . Obviouslyany dage in height will lead to a changein/6 and

consequent loop action to bring/6 back to the requiredrate;in doing so the indicator feedwill change.lf f6 andf, are far removed,search action is instigated whereby the modulator frequency(or A/) is made to sweepthrough its rangefrom low to high until lock on is achieved. hrlsed Altimeters A simplifiedblock diagrarfi of a typical pulsed altimeter is shownin Fig. I 1.6. Suchaltimeters are manufactured by, amongothers,Honeywell;the figuresmentionedin the descriptionof operation which follow arefor the Honeywell7500Be series. A p.r.f. generator operating at 8 kHz keysthe transmitterwhich feedsthe antennawith pulseof r.f. of 60 ns duration and frequency4300 MHz. The peakpower is about 100W. A time reference radiated signal,/6, is fed from the transmitterto initiate a precisionramp generator.

19:t

reliablesignal(tive or six pulses)is received when the track loop becomes operational. Tx During track the overlapofthe track gatepulse and videopulsedetermines the magnitude of a current which is comparedwith a reference (offset) current. to Wherethe two currents areequal,the output of the rate circuit (integrator) is zero, otherwisea positiveor voltageis fed to the rangecircuit. The range negative circuit (integrator) adjustsits output voltage,Vp, if Ramp its input is non-zero. Since I/p determinesthe timing of the track gatepulse any change in /p will cause I I the previouslymentionedoverlapto alter until such 1r6ck gate | pulse time as the loop is nulled,i.e. overlapcurrent= | I N reference current. Any change in height will Video rcturn thereforeresult in a changein Zp to bring the loop back to the null condition. Automaticgaincontrol (..g.c.)and sensitivity time Fig.I 1.6 Pulse altimeter blockdiagram control(s.t.c.)are fed to the receiver wherethey control the gain of the i.f. arnps. During search the The ramp voltageis compared with the range a.g.c. circuitsmonitor the noiseoutput of the receiver /4, which is proportional voltage, to the indicated and adjustits gainso asto keepnoiseoutput constant. height. When the ramp voltagereaches Vp atrack The s.t.c.reduces the gainof the receiver for a short gatepulseis generated and fed to gateB and an time, equivalent to say50 ft after transmission, and gatepulseis fed to gateA. The detected elongated then its controldecreases linearlyuntil a time video pulseis also fed to gates A and B. A further equivalent to say200 ft. This actionprevents gatepulseis fed to the a.g.c. circuits. ircquisition of unwantedsignals, suchasleakage, a reliable Unless signal is detected within the duringthe search mode. gatepulsethe trackisearch elongated circuitwill During track the a.g.c.maintainsthe video signalin sigralthe commencement of a search gateat a constant cycleand break the a.g.c. level. This is importantto the track loop by removing its reference precisetracking of the received currentfeed.. ensure signalsince any During search generator the search drive to the range variation in amplitude would cause the areaof overlap circuitensures that I/p, starting from a voltage to track gateand videosignals to change.At low representing zerofeet,runsout to a voltage gain, heights on track the a.g.c. reduces the receiver representing 2500 ft. The search cyclerepeats Whenthe until a so helpingto avoidthe effectsof leakage.

-JI||l--

194

height readingof the radio altimeter it is likely that therewill be a signalfailure detected. Sincethis is due to attenuation because ofexcessive range, and not a failure or degradation of the altimeter,it is desirable that no warningof failure is given and that Monitoring and Self-Test the pointer on the indicator is parked out of view. A cruise-monitoring circuitmay be incorporated The integrity of the radio altimeter output is vital, particularlyin automatic landingapplications. Circuit which, usinga delayedand attenuatedfeed between transmitter and receiver, checks continuing redundancy and comparisonis an effectiveway of of a detectable operationin the absence dealing with the problem. For exampletwo separate satisfactory received signal.Any warningto the autopilotmust dtitude-measuring circuits may accepta feed from by cruise monitoring; it shouldbe not be affected the mixer and independentlyarrive at the aircraft's activewheneverthere is a lossof r.f. or when any height. Should the two heightsbe different by more than an acceptable amount, a warning signalis sent to other failureis detected.Contraryto the above, reactto a lossof signal many radioaltimeters by the indicator and any other systems to which the parkingthe pointer and displayingthe flag. height inlormation is fed. A disadvantage of using The antenna and feeder, if not properlymatched redundancy and comparisononly is that no attempt ii give to the transmitter, will rise to a reflectionwhich madeto eliminatethe causeof failure, so information problems it will be delayed with may cause since is lost. respect to the transmitted signal.A directional Self-calibration is an approachwhich is able to couplingcircuit may be usedto monitor the reflected for small errors. If a part of the compensate v.s.w.r. and so givea warningof excessive signal transmitteroutput is passed through a precisiondelay The monitoring and self-calibration circuits vary line the resultingsignalcan be usedto provide a 'check a checkis height'. For example in a conventional f.m.c.w. greatlyin detail and in how comprehensive on detecting out. All, however, a failurewill systemthe delayedtransmittersamplemay be mixed carried providea warning signalto operatea flag in the with an undelayedtransmittersampleto give a beat indicatorand a similar, but usuallyseparate, warning with a suitable frequency which may be compared signal to other systems, dependent on radio altitude frequency. lf the two frequencies are reference information. In particular if a tie-inwith autopilot different the modulatingsignalis adjustedto bring the warningsignal will control them in line; for example,if the beat frequencyis too hasbeenestablished, an interlock circuit within the autopilot systemwhich ( I I . I ) tellsus that increasing A/ by low, equation prevents erroneous informationdictatingthe flight the modulatingsignalamplitude will, in increasing providelatchedindicator the beat frequencyas required. Similar path. Somemanufacturers turn, increase frequency lightson the front panelof the transmitter-receiver ideas may be appliedto constant-difference which give an indicatioq of the areaof failure. wheresuitable f.m.c.w.and pulsedaltimeters A self-test facilityis usuallyprovided wherebya parameters as are adjusted necessary. delayline, ideallybetween antennas, is switched in, loop suchas described above A self-calibration thusgivinga predetermined reading on the indicator. usingwhat is essentially may operate continuously A disadvantage of sucha facility is that it introduces redundantcircuitry. Howeverin equipmentwhere devices suchasco-axial cablerelays the altitude is measured by meansof a loop, suchas a electromechanical which are, of something else go wrong. It course, to f.m.c.w. we system. servoed slope(controlled f^) that checking that the reading on the may be argued wherethe self-calibration may havesequential groundbefore take-off is somespecifiedIigure near loop is switched,perhapsthree times per measuring zerois adequate, but nevertheless, someform of mode. into self-calibrate second. in-flighttest facilityis usuallyrequired. signalquality is a featureof Checkingreceived the self-test button, providingthe of On pushing most altimeters. In a pulsedsystemthe presence pulses correctly. the failurewarning in a equipment is operating received in a gatepulseis feasible; detected to the warningt'lag frequencyaltimeter the presence output shouldbe activeso causing constant-difference on the indicatorand,moie important. beat is checked. appear of a spectrum centredon the required preventing the autopilotutilizingradioaltimeter With a conventional f.m.s.w.altimeterone cannot an interlock part of the time or frequency information. As an extra safeguard. checka particular oncethe self-test shouldbe providedso asto prevent plus noiseto noiseratio may be domainbut signal hasbegunto makeuse autopilotor any other system monitored. heightoutput. of the radioaltimeter Whenthe aircraft is flying abovethe maximum 195

the leakage heightincreases signalis, of course,gated out. givingtime discrimination.

Indicator
previously, As mentioned a milliammeter may be used to indicate heightbut an altemative is a servo-driven pointer. A decision height(DFI)facility is also provided.The pilot setstlle DH bug to the required heightreading and in doingso determines the voltage V1, fed to a comparator.The other comparator input is a d.c. analogue which if lessthan Iz4 altitudesignal will cause t h e D H l a m p t o l i g h t ,s o w a r n i n g thepilot that the aircraliis flying below the DH setting. A b l o c kd i a g r a m o f a n i n d i c a t o irs s h o w ni n F i g . I 1 . 7 . whereisolationamplifiers havebeenomitted for simplicitv.

usedparticularly laterally to avoid roll error in which case leadingedge tracking(pulsed)or spectium-filtering (servoed slopef.m.c.w.)must perform adequately. The antennas must be mountedsufficientlyfar apart to avoidexcessive leakage but not so far apartasto producea largeparallaxerror at touchdown,a spacing between 20 in. and 8 ft may be required. lf the spacing betweenantennas, mounted longitudinally, is 8 ft and the midpoint of the line joining the antennas is, say,7 ft abovethe groundon touchdown, then half the shortest distance between x g 11 via the groundwill be (42 + 72)o's the antennas givinga parallax error of I ft on landing. This may be takeninto accountwhen calculatine the residual

l E a-L-$oH set \ E
Comparator DH bug or index
Differential amp

Fig. I 1.7 Simplified servodriven indicator

Indicator

Installation

--TSelf

lFla( FigureI 1.8 illustrates radio altimeter a single test I installationshowinginterfaceand selectionlinks. Supply pass feeders Co-axial r.f. energyto and from the Transmitterreceiver by way of transmitand receive antennas separate fl a t o Whenself-test the transmitted L r n K s is activated switches. MOD energy is fed to the delayunit whereit is attenuated anddelayed beforebeingfed back to the receiver. feeder lengthand delayis installation For a particular on self-test may be known so the correctreading in the pilot checklist and and entered calculated functionaltest procedure. flush-mounted arebroadlydirectional, The antennas givinga beamwidth hornsoften beingemployed beams may be Fig.I1.8 R a d i o a l t i m e t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n about 20o and 40o. Broader between

To other systems: autopilot, GPWS, flight director

196

Division) BendixAviohics Fig. I1.9 ALA-5lA (courtesy

DH ind.

lrt Lamp\

Alt display tape

DH Select -_''Buq

DH ref. symbol DH tao

Flag AlC ret. symbol

Mast(_

DH adjust and self test button

oH select/' Test Knob

./
Fig. ll.ll Typical moving vertical scale indicator

with KRA l0 radio for use FiE I l.l0 KI 250indicator (courtesy Corp.) KingRadio altimeter of leading in respect altitude. Good performance edgetrackingor spectrumfiltering will make parallax in antenna error worse. A further consideration from excessive reflections is avoiding positioning in this suchasthe undercarriage; protuberances respectsidelobe energymust be kept low (say 40 dB down). must be mountedwithin receiver The transmitter

reachof the antennarsincethe feederlength is low power, is relatively critical. Sincethe transmiiter cooling forced-air problem but coolingis not a severe energy W of dissipated 50 to up with ableto cope may be required.The powersupplywill be I l5 V a'c' is to ARINC specifications Hz if the equipment 4OO will be found. but 28 V d.c.equipments Aircraft Installation DelaYtime delay(AID) is the elapsed Aircraft installation 197

betweentransmit and receive when the aircraft is at touchdown,and is due to the delay in the feeders and the height of the antennas abovethe ground. In order that the indicator will readzero feet on landins the installationmust be calibrated. Variousmetho-ds have bien used,by far the most common being that laid down in ARINC 552,{; AID is definedby the formula:

interchangeability of transmitter-receivers between different installations. In practiceon a new installation, havingdetermined positions suitable for the antennas, a minimum cable length for feasiblet.r. location will be found. Equation( I I .4) cannow be usedto decidethe AID and to calculate the cablelengths.ARINC 552A and, usually, manufacturers' providea = installation manuals AID P+K(Ct+Cr) (r1.4) graphfrom which cablelength can be readoif. Ar un where: .example c o n s i d e r P =l 0 f t , m i n i m u mt o t a l c a b l e P is total minimum path length between transmit l e n g t h = l 0 f t a n d K = 1 . 5 .W e h a v e and receive antennas via the ground when the P + K (Ct + Cr) = 25 ft so the 20 ft AID cannot be aircraft is in the touchdownposition (minimum used. If we choose 40 then total cablelenethis path length is specifiedto avoid parallaxerror); (40 - l0)/l .5 = 20 ft, whereas with 57 *.luu. K is the ratio of the speedof light to the speedof 3l'3 ft. One shouldbe careful, when usinga graph, propagation of the co-axial (typically 1.5); to ensure cable that it corresponds to the type of cable C1is the transmitterfeederlength; (RG - 9/U in ARINC 552A) and further beingr"rsed C, is the receiver feederlength. check the axeswhich may be total cablelength or (AID is not in fact aircraftinstallationdelay eachcableand total path or antenna height(each sinceAID is an elapsed time whereas the cableys.antenna heightin ARINC 552A). right-handsideof ( I I .4) is in feet. A more accurate term would be residual altitude.) Interface Wereit not for the usewhich is madeof radioaltitude informationby other systems, it is doubtful whether many civil aircraftwould carry radioaltimeters.The outputsavailable areheigirt, rateof change of height, trip signals and validity (l1agor warning)signal. Some of these will be fed to the autoland/autopilot system, the g.p.w.s. and a flight director. Most frequentlyusedarea d.c. analogue of aircraft heightwherever a system needs to continuously monitor radioheightand,essential, a switched, lail-safevalidity signal(invalid low). The rate signal, i.e. rate of change of height,may be derived in the system utilizingthe heightsignal, but if providedwill take the form of a phase-reversing a.c.analogue sigral (ARINC 552A). The trips areswitchable d.c. voltages, switchingtaking placewhen the aircraft transits througha pre-set height,the DH bug is sometimes calleda pilot set trlp. Againtrip signals may be generated in thosesystems usingthe heightanalogue sigrral. Autolandor blindlandingsystems must haveradio heightinformationwhich will be usedto progressively reducethe gain of the glideslope signalamplifier (not radio)in the pitch channel after the aircraftpasses overthe outer marker,and will alsobe usedto generate trip signals within tlte autoflare computer. The followingis a brief summary of events with radio heights: 140 ft (a) radioaltimeter interlockswitched in;

Calibrationis achreved by cutting the cablesto a lengthwhich givesan AID of 20, 40 or 57 ft (figures of 40,57 and 80 fr arequoted in draft proposais from ARINC in 1978). The transmitter-receiver is bench calibrated for the 57 ft AID standard.Grounding one of threepins on the t.r. plug by means of a jumper externalto the unit selects the appropriate zero-bias adjustmentto give the 20,40 or 57 ft AID as required. The result of choosingthis method is

(J

+ o

P-------> Fig.ll.l2 198 An AID calibration chart(& = 1.5)

used. Whetherdual or triple installations are used depends on the probabilityofan undetected degradation; consequently dual radioaltimeters will only be usedwhere monitoring, self-calibration and redundancyare deemedsufficiently comprehensive and reliable. As soon as'onefits more than one radio altimeter to an aircraftthe possibility ofinterference exists. If. the number I systemwere to receive a leakage signal from number 2 a falseheight readingmay result. Also This sequence is applicable, for example,to a sincethe antennas arebroadlydirectional and all BAC I -l I series 500 aircraft usingan Elliott series facingdownwardsthe echo from number I will be ll00 auto touchdownsystem.The 140and 90 ft received by number 2 (and 3) and vice-versa. trips are fed from the radio altimeter;the othersare Various safeguards areemployed. Minimum generated in the autoflare computer. coupling may be achieved by separating the pairsof The g.p.w.s. needs radioheighttrips on all modes antennas (at sufficiently least 8 ft, possibly say) and profile sincethe changes abruptlyat differentheights. ensuringthat the E fieldsof adjacentpairsare at right ' Mode2 operation isexcessive terrainclosure warning angles (seeFig. I l.l3). and so depends on the rateof change of radio height. As a iurther precautionmultiple-installation The trip signals and the rate signalwill normally be altimeters will employ different modulation generated within the g.p.w.s.using validheight frequencies.As an exampleof how this helps, irrformation from the radioaltimeter. consider Fig. 11.14wherewe havetwo altimeters, one Somemulti-functionflight directorinstruments operatingwith a modulation frequencyof 100 Hz, havea risingrunwaysymbolwhich movesup to meet an aircraft symbol as the aircraft descends to touchdown. Operation is typicallyoverthe last 100 ft. The verticalmovementof the rising runway t l depends on the height analogue --rj t Fsignalfrom the radio altimeter, while its lateralmovement t t l is controlledby l-+: o the ILS localizeroutput. Failure of either radio c fb iA o { f ' c altimeteror localizer causes the risingrunway to be o obscured by a'RUNWAY' flag. r
I

(b) changes in response to glidepath signals; 120 ft (a) preparatory functions; 90 ft (a) check 140 ft operation: 50 ft (a) glidepath signal disconnected; (b) throttle closure initiated; (c) pitch demand maintains correctdescent rate; 20 ft (a) rudderservodisconnected; (b) ailerons centred.

IOO MHz

Multiple Installations All-weatherlandings will only be safeif information fed to the autoland system is reliable.To achieve reliabilityof radioheighta multipleinstallation is

1/105 1/100
F i g . I l . l 4 D u a l - i n s t a l l a t i o nm o d u l a t i o n l i e q u e n c i e s (100 and 105 Hz)

til
>20in No. I

til

l.- *l

>20 in No. 2

E r-

-l

til
>20 in No. 3

F
199

Fig. I l. | 3 Triple-instaltation aerialarrangements

..]:GJ,:

the other 105 Hz (e.9.CollinsALT 50). Assumethat (b) Two trips: singlemake contactsswitchingsupply at one instance in time 're' in one of the receivers from userequipmentbelow pre-set we height. havetwo signals both at fc F 4300 MHz) and both Adjustable0-2500 ft t 6 per cent and increasing in frequency;one at 100 Hz rate,the other 500-1500ft I 6 per cent. at 105 Hz rate. One-hundredth of a second laterthere will be a non-zero beat frequency Optional (additional to above) f6 glen by rateof (a) Synchrooutput representing change of frequencyof the most rapidly changing height to be signalmultiplied by the time lag of the slowesr. So: employedfor displaypurposes.Sameaccuracy as (a) above. = 100x2)x(/) fn (Lfx 106x 200 mV = (100 - l / 1 0 5 ) (b) Altitude rate 400 Hz phasereversing, x 106 x 100 x 2 )x ( l / 1 0 0 1 0 0 f t r m i n l = 9'5MHz. greater Accuracy: than t 20 f.p.m. or f l0 per Thus after one cycle of f^ the interferingbeat is well c e n tu p t o 5 0 f t ; t 3 0 f . p . m .o r t l 0 p e r c e n t out of rangeof the differencefrequencyamplifier 50-500ft. (c) Additional trips: three at 0-200 ft t 3 per cent t bandwidth. The beat will change at a 5 Hz rate, rcaching a nraximum of 100 MHz. 3 ft; two at 0-500 ft t 3 per cent t 3 ft; one at The different modulation frequencies 1000-2500 ft t 6 per cent. i are selected jumper in a sinrilar way to AID, i.e. by a between pins,the jumper beingpart of the fixed appropriate installation.A similartechnique for pulsealtimeters Ramp Testing and Maintenance could be to employ sufficiently different p.r.f.s to 'height' ensurethat the change due to an,interfering It is importantto stress that due to the extensive pulsewould be at a rate fast enoughto prevent that the radio altimeteroutputs interfaceit is essential lock-on by virtue of the altimeter time constant. which it feeds. are compatiblewith thosesystems pins usedto select If we alsoconsider the program modulation frequencyand AID and, further, critical Characteristics feeder lengths, it is clearthat replacement of units or partsof the fixed installation must only bd carried The following are selected and summarizedfrom out when complete compatibility, both internaland A R I N C5 5 2 4 . hasbeenestablished. external, A functional test on the ramp is quite straightforward. Input I Output r.f. Coupling shouldreadnearlyzero feet when The radio altimeter 50 f,) RG-9/U (or equivalent)co-axialcable. aremountedforwardof on. If the antennas switched Cable+ antenna s.w.r.lessthan l.l : I over frequency the main wheelsthe readingwill be lessthan zero; rcnge4210-4390MHz. if aft of the main wheelsgreaterthan zero. The flag the r.f. path is not brokenbut shouldclearshowing Altitude Range attenuation not provingthe loop gainis sufficient; From 2500 ft to a'few feet'belowtouchdown. to checkthis but is unlikelv to shouldbe introduced be calledfor. Loop Gain Whenself-test is operated the correctreading proper operationup to 2500 ft Sufficientto ensure shouldbe obtainedand the flag should appear. While assuming a total feedercablelength of 30 ft of switch pressed the DH bug may keepingthe self-test RG-9/U,a groundreflection coefficient of 0'01 and be adjustedfrom.a higherto a iower readingthan the with an additional9 dB loop gain for contingencies height pointer, the DH lamp being first lit and then (e.g.longeror differenttype ofcable). the pointer. asthe bug passes extinguished which allow test setsare available Special-to-type Outputs variation of simulated altitude:this is usefulfor checkingtrip signals.On somealtimetersoperating Basic the pointer to sweepagaindue to a the self-testcauses (a) d.c. altitudeanalogue: V = 0.2h +0.4 below variation altitude. in simulated 480 ft; V -- l0 + l0 In ( (/, + 20)/500)above 480 ft (ln beinglog to the base e). Accuracy:greaterof ! 2 ft or 2 per cent up to 500 ft, 5 per cent thereafter. Time constant 0.1s. 200

Appendix

/ Alsozlz= Lf l2f^, whereA/is total range'od l7 frequencyvariationso: vl,,= kV1V, sin (nAlI + 2nfrT) cos(2nf^t * n f*T) (A I I .4)

Sinusoidal Frequency Modulation

If the carrier Vs sin 2nf.t is frequencymodulatedby The beat frequencymay be found by differentiating a sinusoidal the argument (angle) waveform, V* sin 2rf^t, then the in (Al 1.4)with respect to time output of the transmitter,vs, and the received signal, and dividing by 2z to give vr, are givenby: fn = -((n LfT)(2nf^) stn(2nf*t - nf^T))l2r = nLfTfln sin(2nf^t -nf*T+n) vt = Vtsin(2rfrt +rnsin2nf*t) (All.l) (All.5) rr = Vr sin (2nf, (t - f) + m sin 2nf* (t - T)) Note the minus sign resultingfrom the differentiation ( A l 1 . 2 ) of the cosineterm hasbeenreplaced by a phaseshift of n radians.The average beatfrequency overhalf a where ?nis the two-way travel time and m is the modulatingcycle,l 12fm, is: modulation index (constant in this application). If received and transmittedsignals are fed to a 7n= 2f* Ullrr^1a,1 multiplicative mixer we have, after some = r LffmT cos nf^T (Al l_6) manipulation,a differencefrequencysignalof: AgainsinceT 4 | I fm, cosn/rrI= l, so: v1 = kV1V, sin(2m sin(nf*T)X 7n o 2Lff^r cos(2nf*Q - fl2)'1 + ZtrfrT) (All.3)

= 4Lff^Hlc

wherek is a constant of proportionality. Since T is much smallerthan I I f^ we may write: sin nf*T x f^T

(Al1.7)

(l l,l) derived This is the sameasequation assuming a linearmodulating waveform.

201

12 Area navigation

is lacking in detail but is sufficient controlled airspace With heavy traffic to make clear the disadvantages. a relativelysmall occupying aircraft many we have pilots by navigated Beforeradio aidswere available, particularthe scheduled in airspace, proportion of the visualcontact with the ground and were responsible air transport aircraft in the airways. To free aircraft from other aircraft. With the for their separation from the airwaysone needsa navigationsystemwhich " it adventof radio and improvedinstrumentation be safelyusedover a largearea,hence area becamepossibleto fly in situationswhere the ground can tied to fixed points, and not irrevocably navigation, could not be couldno longerbe seenand separation on the ground. But one beacons, VORTAC as such the need for airguaranteed.From suchbeginnings on ,',cango too far; the thought of aircraftconverging navigationaids and controlled and ground-based is frightening.Whatis from all directions an airport becameapparent: regions 'dog legs' new airwayswhich can remove s':rroundingcertain busy neededis In the 1930sthe airspace thus shorteningroutesand ones, parallel existing and with controlledzones beganto be designated airports times. to weatherand to qualifications, flight relating restrictions, benefitsof areanavigationare not alwayseasy The placedon thosewho wantedto enterthe zone. With possibleto realize. For examplein the United even or growth of a the growth of air traffic has come the most usedby air traffic of the the areas Kingdom system. airspace worldwidecontrolled 'shape'ofthis type is largely coveredwith transport scheduled was airspace controlled The and zonesalreadyand an areas control airways, by the introductionof one of the earliest influenced which will benefit area navigation to extension ground-based navigationaids,radio range. This However,in to achieve. difficult is gavefour beams economically in the 1930s, equipment, introduced suchasBritain, regions busy small but geographically which suitably equippedaircraft could follow. Beam usefulbool is an extremely equipment navigation area with the adoption flying wascontinuedand intensified aircraft which general aviation of number large to the a system of controlled VOR and so of confirmed the airwaysand in uncontrolled potter aroundbeneath airwayswhich radiatefrom ground stations. The possible before,but with was generally. It airspace where a number of airways airwayslink control areas easier. much now it is equipment correct the over cntresofhigh-density traffic. Neither converge ground level, start at the airwaysnor the control areas which arecentredon one or a asdo control zones groupof airports. Generalized Area Navigation System The airwavs.control zonesand coritrol areas within which instrument Area navigationequipment is not new although the constitutecontrolledairspace (lFR) in force. Only.instrument-rated acronym RNAV. is fairly recent. In fact RNAV could are flight rules havebeenimplementedin the 1950shad the choice pilcts flying aircraft fitted with a minimum for an internationalstandardbeen the Decca iquipment complementcan usecontrolled airspace purposes although,for non-conformingNavigator. Other equipmentsproviding navigation for navigational facilitiesover a wide areaand not tied to fixed points visualflight rules(VF'R) clearance flights, i special systems are Loran and Omegaof the ground-based canbe obtained from air traffic control (ATC) to of the Svstems separation and Dopplerand InertialNavigation enteror cross.Within controlledairspace of these all Unfortunately variety. in uncontrolled self-contained of ATC, whereas is the responsibility than VOR/DME which is are more expensive systems airspace i1 is the responsibilityof the pilot who, use. The adventof airbornecomputers if in an in widespread service however, canbe givena separation navigation sophisticated hasnow madepossible route. areaor on an advisory advisory service on based includingan RNAV systern of systems of the structure The abovedescription Development of Airspace Organization

m2

R/DME. The trick is to 'shift' the position of the headingand drift angleor co-located beaconsto a phantom beaconor waypoint track angleand ground speedor location chosenby the pilot. The pilot useshis wind directionand speed or VOR/DME instrumentation h the sameway as cross-track distance and track error,etc. before,exceptthat steering commands are ielatedto Analogue presentation on HSI: a waypoint remote from the beacon. heading and track The computer power, of course,allows much more course displayand setting than the generation of steering commands to phantom desired track beacons, several navigationsensorand air data lateralsteering command. outputsmay be mixed to provide a meansof lateral Analogue presentation on attitudedirector: and verticalnavigationand a display of data which pitch and roll steering commands. can take many forms. The all-purposesystemis Analogue map presentation: illustrated in Fie. 12.1. route,beaconand waypointdata.

Flight data storage unit

Control and display unit

Conventional instrumentation

Automatic data entry untt

Navigation computer unil

Electronic, moving or proJected Map display

Possible sensor inputs

I I

Aar data inputs Fig. l2.l Generalareanavigationsystem

The computer. usingstored data and inputs from a No attempt hasbeenmadehere to give a definitive list rzriety of sensors. calculates the aircraft position of displayed datasincethereis considerable variation. absolutely in termsof latitudeand longitudeand also The datarequired for the computerto performits relativelyin terms of deviation tiom the desiredflight functionareof threetypesand canbe input to the path. A variety of display formats may be usedas system in threedifferentways. For regularly flown follows. routes'hard' datasuchaslocation, elevation and frequency of VORTAC beacons and airports, Digital read-out on display and control unit: standard departure and arrivalroutes(SIDSand presentposition, latitude/longitudeor STARS) etc. will be storedin a flight data storage

203

unit (FDSU), typically on magnetictape. Waypoint in or amended position,'soft' data.may be entered 'scratchpad' of a keyboardand flight by means displayon the control and displayunit (CDU). and air datasensors Real-time datafrom navigation for input from a varietyof available arecontinuously sources. 'soft' the in The data relatingto waypoints are but they may be that they canbe amended sense 'hard' dataon a magnetic or punchedcard storedas dataentry unit (ADEU). and input via an automatic This facility is usefulsincean operatorcould havethe waypoint data for all regularlyflown routes recorded on cards,the correctone being chosenfor a particular flight. {r is in Sincethe information from the sensors to digital conversation form analogue analogue (A/D) is necessary beforethe computercan handleit; system in the areanavigation be may A/D circuits which feedit. itselfor in the systems is by no The form of areanavigationsystems and with the varietyof inputsand finalized, means unlikelythat functional it seents outputspossible to the sameextent as will be achieved standardization suchaslLS, VOR, ADF, it haswith other systems eLc- Onecoukl write a bttok on those RNAV and now available eqttipttrents VNAV (verticalnavigation)

will only allow a brief (1979) but herespace RNAV. with of VOR/DME-based discussion 583'l ' Future and ARINC Characteristic examples, and of microcomputers use on depend developments (see displaysystems utilizationof flexiblec.r.t.-based ChapterI 3).

RNAV PrinciPle VOR/DME-Based

from existingVOR The basicidea is simple;signals areusedto giverange beacons and DME co-located not to the stationbut to a waypoint and bearing, ;pecifiedby its rangeand bearingfrom the station. (Fig. 12.2)hasto this the RNAV triangle To achieve solved. be continuously We have: beaconand aircraft; pr: distance between from beaconto aircraft; bearing 0 1: magnetic and waypoint, beacon p2: distance between from beaconto waypoint; bearing 02: magnetic p3: distance aircraftand waypoint; between from aircraftto waypoint. bearing 03: maflnetic p1 and 0I areknown from normal The quantities p2 and02 are the quantities VOR/DME operation. and an included by the pilot, hencetwo sides entered

V O R/ D M T

-\
t'z /

/"

Waypotnl

1,3

Fig. 12.2 RNAV. trirnglc

204

angleof the RNAV triangleare known, so p3 and 0 3 can be found.

b, = i;:' rdi-i',l4,i:it
wherexL = p1-sin0 p yk=pkcosok

= ((iz-xr)2 + (y, - yr)')6t

Q2:)

k=1,2

41!s

,,,LK
Fig. 12.3 Vector solution of RNAV. triangle

lf (y, - y r)l(x, - x,) ) 0, 0. is in eitherthe north-east quadrant; or south-west if Oz - y t)l@z xr) ( 0, 03 is in eitherthe north-west or south-east quadrant, if yz - y, = 0, 0g is either 0 o r l 8 0 " , w h i l e ix f z_ xr =0,9: iseitherg0or 270". The ambiguitycanbe resolved by observing that 03 will only change by a smallamountfor successive calculations. An example is givenby Figure12.5wherewe have: 01 x1 x2 pr 0r = = = = = 9 0 . 0 2= 1 8 0 p , r = 4 0 , p 2= 3 0 1 so: 40 sin 90 = 4O,yr = 40 cos90 = 0 3 0 s i n l 8 0 = 0 , ! z= 3 0 c o s l 8 0 = - 3 0 ( e 4 q ' + ( - 3 0 ) 2 ) o ' s= 5 0 tan-r (-30/-40) = 36.87 0r. 1 8 0+ 3 6 ' 8 7= 2 1 6 ' 8 7 .

The solution of the trianglecan be found by analogue methodsasin one of the earliestRNAV computersfor the generalaviationmarket, the King KN74. The vectorsP{0 1 un6Pzf02 ^t" represented by squarewaveslilfrose amplitirdes are If the previouslycalculated d3 was 216 then the new proportional to p1 and gz and whosephases represent 0 " is 216'87. to 01 and 02 respectively. From Fig. 12.3we see that:

P r l t = =p z l 0 z : p r l t l

(r2l .)

wherethe minus sigr indicatesvector subtraction. Thusif we reverse the phase of the square wave representing Orl0: anAadd this to the squarewave representing pz l!2 we will havea waveform the fundamental p3 and 03 in of which represents amplitude and phaserespectively.
Y axis (N)

Fig.12.5 RNAV.triangle example

(X, Y) andpolar(p, 0) co-ordinates Fig.12.4 Cartesian The solution may also be found by a digital computer. Expressions for p3 and 03 canbe found by converting to cartesian (seeFig.12.4) co-ordinates then reverting to polar co-ordinates. Thus:

The programfor the solution of the RNAV trianglecould be basedon the aboveor someother formulation of the problem. Sincethe programis fixed it will be storedin read-onlymemory (ROM). The trigonometricfunction valuesmay alsobe stored in ROM to speedup calculations.Note that complete sine and cosinetablesneednot be storedsince sin d = cos (0 -90), also c o s 0 = - c o s | 1 8 0- 0 l i f 9 0 1 0 1 2 7 0 a n d c o s0 = c o s ( 3 6 0- 0 ) i f 2 7 0 < 0 < 3 6 0 .

&-

0 to 90 Thus, for example,a cosinetable for angles only is sufficient. A look'up table for the inverse tangentfunction is more problematicaland can be avoidedby a reformulationof the equations(12.2) to be solved,for exampleby usingthe cosinerule althoughhere ambiguity is introducedin the solution for 0 3 which is slightly more complicatedthan that arisingfrom (12.2).
N(m)

DME/VOR a
Mean sea level

triangle range Fig.12,7 Slant

RNAV. vector
tl3

Waypoint

(pt) *e needto solvethe slantrangetriangle distance shown in Fig. 12.7. The beaconelevationmust be fed into the equipmentfrom a FDSU, ADEU or by of a keyboard. Aircraft altitudeis obtained means from an encodingaltimeter. Usingthe notation of Fig. 12.6 we have: Pr = (@r), _ (A_E)\o3 if the systemhas are necessary calculations Sim.ilar in both commands i.e. if steering VNAV capability, a pitch and roll are obeyedthe aircraft will achieve altitudeat the activewaypointor at a specified specifieddistancefrom the current waypoint.

Course deviation distance

Inbound course selected

(o8s)

triangle Fig. 12.6' Deviation

NP-2041A Programmer BendixNav.Computer

Coursedeviationcalculationinvolvesthe solution of another triangleshown in Fig. 12.6. It is normal with RNAV to give the deviationin terms of distance rather than angle,at leastout as far asa specified range. Solution of the deviationtriangleis possible areknown. So using one side,p3,.andall angles since the sine rule:

Introduction is a ten waypointRNAV computer. The NP-2041A from a parameters may be entered waypoint The keyboardon the front panelor from a portable to the and distance reader.Bearing magnetic-card activewaypoint are found by solvingfirst the slant trianglethen the RNAV triangle.ln addition range for the unit can be usedfor frequencymanagement and navigation. both v.h.f.communication ( r2.3) The completeRNAV systemcomprises an l A u n i t , a a C N 2 0 1 c o m m . / n a v . NP-2041A, '-p3sin(0"-0t) t.p course DM-2030DME, an IN-20l44' electronic altimeter. indicatorand an bncoding Ifp is negativefrom (12.3) then the aircraft is to the deviation throughan of HSI and RMI is achieved Presentation inbound course. For examplein left of the desired canbe unit. The abovepackage IU-2016Ainterface F i g . 1 2 . 6i f 0 3 = 2 7 0 " , 0 c= 3 0 6 ' 8 7 "( t o ) a n d = = to = transponder a miles and with an ADF p 30 nautical 50 sin 36'87 pr 50 then complemented (a 3 ,4,5 triangle)with aircraft to right of courseby makeup a BX 2000 system.Other optipnsarea reader and a magnetic-card if 03 = 306'87" znd0c.=2700 weatherradarinterface miles, whereas 30 nautical HP-67 (modifiedTexasSR52 or Hewlett-Packard miles,i.e. then p = 50 sin (-36'87) = -:0 nautical aircraftowners calculator).Largebusiness scientific aircraft to the left of courseby 30 nauticalmiles. or nearlyfull full for a possible customers be would navigationthe RNAV In the abovefor accurate may be aircraft singlecngined while small package, plane; triangle;hould be in the horizontal a.n d c o m m ./nav V F R s y s t e m : i . e . t h e b a s i c w i t h f i t t e d the from beacon DME to the distance unfonunately an indicator. aircraft is givenas slant range. To obtain ground

#=m&'r

206

RNAV.system NP-2O4lA-based Fig.12.8 Bendix mainly with the Although herewe are concerned RNAV computer,a brief descriptionof the other unitswill be given. The CN-201lA (Fig. 2.2) is a panel-mounted two v.h.f. unit containing two transmitter-receivers, communications panel, an audioselection VOR/LOC receivers, (optional),markerreceiver glideslope receiver (optional)and various system controls(a less comprehensive CN-2012Amay be usedwith the and NP-2041A).The IN-2014,{indicatoris discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 (Figs4.7 and 5.3). illustrated unit interface The IU-20164 remote-mounted VOR/LOC and glideslope outputsto levels converts and that satisfyHSI and/orRMI requirements performs other functionsnot of interest in this HSI and altimeter, context. The DME, encoding RMI requireno commenthere,havingbeendealt are simply modified with elsewhere.The calculators to attacha plug-inconnector. KTS/TTS: displaysground speed(BRG/KTS window) and time to station in minutes(DST/TTS window) to waypoint in RNAV or APR modd or to VOR/DME stationin VOR/LOC mode. The SBY and ACT windows displaythe number (0-9) of the standbyand activewaypoint. The 'IN' legendis illuminatedif courseshown(CRS window) is inboundwhile'OUT'legend(below 'IN' legend)is illuminatedif courseshown is outbound. The Mode selectorcontrolsthe mode of operation asfollows:

OFF: self+xplanatory. the waypoints navigation, VOR/LOC: conventional arethe stations. RNAV: waypointsare remotefrom the associated is linear deviation stations.Lrft/Right course deflection within 100 nauticalmiles,full-scale (f.s.d.) being 5 nauticalmiles,from 100 nautical Display and Control miles out deviationis angular. Figure 12.9 illustratesthe front panel of the APR: as RNAV but linear deviationup to 25 nautical miles. separate digitaldisplays NP-2041A.Thereareseven miles,f.s.d.being l'25 nautical operation. indicators. 'TEST': specifieddisplayfor satisfactory eachemployinggas-discharge seven-segment The quantity displayedin eachof the windows Data is enteredby meansof the keyboardor by depends on the position of the DisplaySelector cardreader.Of the l6 keys 1l aredual magnetic the Mode witch and,for someof the displays, point), etc. functione.e.FREQ./I , NAV.2/. (decimal set to: switch. With the DisplaySelector Selector sequence the correct be in always Data entry must shownin FREQ., asfollows: waypointparameters SBY: standby B R G / K T S .D , ST/TTSE , L X l 0 0 a n dC R S C O M . l ,C O M . 2 , S B Y W P T ,F R E Q . , l. press windows. N A V . I , N A V . 2 ,A D F E L , C R S , D S T , parameters for SBY. B R G , waypoint shownas ACT: active to select key asrequired (BRG/KTSwindow) and or XPR (transponder) BRG/DST:displays bearing for data; address (DST/TTSwindow) to activewaypointin appropriate distance numberkeysto enterdata; 2. press RNAV or APR mode or to VOR/DME stationin window and if correct VOR/LOC mode. 3. checkdata in app.r-opriate

207

\__',,

Fig. 12.9 NP-2041A (courtesy Bendix Avionics Divrsion)

'ENTER' key. press An annunciatorlight indicateswhen a key is being pressed. for the entry of As an examplethe sequence NAV.I frequency is: l. select KBD on COM.iNAV. unit; 2. setmodeselector to VOR/LOC; NAV.I key, ensure 3. press dot in FREQ.window flashes; 4. press appropriate numberkeys,e.g. 109'80, ensure readoutin FREQ.window (scratchpad) is correct: 'ENTER' 5. press will be key. Frequency transferred from FREQ.window to NAV.I window in COM./NAV.unit within which the NAV.I receiver will be tuned to that frequency. A lurther exampleis given by the insertion of a waypointparameter, saystationelevation 200 ft for with waypoint3: beacon associated l. modeselector to any positionother than'OFF' or'TEST': to SBY; 2. displayselector SBY WPT key; 3. press 4. press number key 3, ensure3 appears in SBY u,rndow: 20a

EL key, ensure dot in EL X100 window 5. press flashesl numberkeys0 and 2 in that order,ensure 6. press in EL Xl00 window (scratchpad); 02 appears 7. press'ENTER'key. i.e. FREQ.,3RG, The other waypoint parameters in a similarway. To enter DST, CRS may be entered outbound coursewe pressthe CRS XFR key having pressed previously CRS key and enteredinbound course. Two keys not previouslymentionedareWPT XFR, which transfersSBY waypoint number to ACT, and LPP,which loadsthe presentposition of the aircraft into waypointzero. Block Diagramdperation Microcomputer The heart of the NP-2041Ais a a central processor which comprises microco-rnputer controller,ROM, RAM, system unit (CPU),system clock and hput/output (l/O) ports. The CPU is an the associated chips 8080A 8-bit microprocessor, family e.g. being drawn from the same8000 series 8228 systemcontrol and bus 8224 clock generator peripheral etc. interface driver,8255 programmable data in a suitableform The microcomputeraccepts

fRot{t PAr{tt0tSPLAYS

0tsPtAY 0ArA coitIR0t

CARDRTADTR INPUT

M I CROCOM PUITR

v(n mf
lilPUl

|Il v^t NPUT

PARAtttt IUN INC DAIA

ll,AY POllil 8IAR ING IURI

t INIAR IZTD WAYPOINT vAR I A8 r t

t?.t9 Np-2041A block diagram (courtesy lq. llendir AvionicsDivision) reader, nav. receiver, DMEreceiver anoatti_ei.r.-ii"ln"o", a",, long asa memoryhold voltage (external) is maintained.In additionthere is subjected to arirhmeric onatugj.oi'oo.r;tii3", is 2K bits of storein _o thenoutputin a suitable *o]r whie-h provid.,, f*;;i"",h.. itoi,'Bra, ,".;;;;riJlug" ro, l:li,:1. oara trom the CpU. disrance comm./nav. andInterlace to units.Theoperations *aypoini. L."rringto on waypoint,qtc. Volatii dataareperformed by rr,r. cpti-*iri.r, ffi;;;; lost(<lumPeri) when instructions theequipment and/ordatafrom nOU',naii rl'r#;l:?js _ flO porrs.Thelistof instructions^(progia",i'iri" i<OU, Inputs Waypointpararneters.enter CPU storing thea<jdress of thecurrent the microcomputer ,tjr^e. andnext via the keyboardor card_reider;;.;i;.;:';?n rnstruction in internal registers. An inr;;;.;;;; ,uy a key beto carry out anarith aspartof tire solution of oneof ,h. JT:t::^:ptration or to read dara out of, microprocess". or wntedatainro,," ,/lfi:i:: a*j"e pt,,iiiH:,?i|.,l,?i.:t:.r. A key can be pressed TheROMprovides Zo rni urt., ,fr. p*ri.", ,".. a.t3t1l^19n-v^olatile (permanent) from the keyboard. selection-switch,carrl

"t,i*n.,'i" ." ild;:i:i'*:f?f int"iu"

The card-readir interface raises the signal levelto that suitable for TTL operation ,"d s;;;;;;; rn'i"irrrrp, signalw-hichcauseithe microprocessor basic ;fdsi,.'**OV service loops VOR/LOC, to break the l"o service loop in prosress APR..The totat while it ,.;;;; non-votatile [eM i, zriiir' i"ii*onr. Datafronr tne VOR receiver r,?.rage for is in rhe form ol two the. te rs fo gar1m9 r I 0 way poin lir^"td_t-lg. rs. constant Inedara amplitudesquare. in rhenon_volatile waves, reference (ref.) RAMin onlyr"iuii,.O ,, phase and variable (var.)phase.Th. ;L;;;;;;;*"*

friri. rr,o storage space is usedfor rhe prograr'stbr the four

menrory ofe6K bits (e6x l0l4 = ,816;

zop

waypoint are serially shifted out to the ECDI lbr between the ref. phaseand var. phasesignals window. and distance Ospiayin the course VOR A the station. to the bearing representing is achieved by frequency management Comm./nav. to voltagecontrolled oscillator(v.c.o.) is phase-locked tuning for outputs and data address parallel b.c.d. -OR type phase the ref. phaseusingan exclusive of equal frequency purposes. comparator. (If two squarewaves, 'l' '0' The bearingto the waypoint is fed to the ECDI are applied switchhg between and and phase, and alsothe interface unit in the form of the RNAV to an exclusive-OR gatethe output will be zero since ref. phaseand RNAV 30 llz var. phasgderived Hz 30 0@0 = 0 and I @l = 0; if not in phasethe mean level waypoint bearingoutput LSI and waypoint from the of the output will be non-zero). The ref. phase-locked d/a converter. The feed to the waypoint variable loop where it is signalis fed to the var. phase-lock from the I/O ports is in digital format. LSI bearing the difference with the var. phase, phase-compared processes the RNAV 3QHz ref. and 30 Hz ECDI The controlling the repetition rate of pulsesfrom a second to phases to produce left/right deviationsignals var. circuit) integrated v.c.o. The VOR LSI (large-scale 'bar'. The interfaceunit sirnilarlyprovides the drive rate v.c.o.to from the variable countsthe pulses for the HSI (and possibly left/right deviation signals obtain the bearingwhich is fed to the l/O ports as a autopilot). four-digitb.c.d.numbertwo digitsat a time (since The displayintensity control setsthe intensity databus is only 8 bits wide). of the sevensegmentindicatorsand front panel level The DME distancedata input is in the form of a with the settingof the in accordance annunciators pulsepair where the time interval betweenpulses ' D I M ' c o n t r o l o n t h e c o m m . / n a vu ' nit. A common (12'36 ps per nauticalmile)' the distance represents 'DIM' control is usedfor all units of the BX 2000 The DME ISI convertsthis time-intervalinto a systemto ensureuniform intensity of lighting. of the four-digitb.c.d.numberwhich, asin the case fo transfer VOR LSI output, requirestwo readings the data through I/O Ports. King KDE 566 datavia buffers' altimeterfeeds An encoding in the I/O ports. The data (interface) to setlatches sincethe C1, C2 and C4 Introduction in 500 ft increments changes arenot connected The KDE 566 is an automaticdatainput/output altillleter linesfrom the encoding (ADIOS) usedwith the KCU 5654 control system 8). (seeChapter (e.g.nav. u n i t ( F i g . 1 2 . 1 2 )f o r m i n gp a r t o f t h e K N R 6 6 5 equipment of external The flag signals in Fig. 12.11. The illustrated and DN{E)aremonitoredby the flag interface.If an digitalRNAV system more units than have which may systenr, output is complete interface the flag is detected invalidsignal with sincea system described will not be shown. those computer. ports to the l/O through transferred beendiscussed' hasalready interface similarcapabilities Finally,the mode and displayselector an ADEU in any detailso We havenot considered to the positionof the informationrelating translate 566 follows. In f'act of the KDE description brief that are a logic levels into switches the appropriate rather than an ADEU an ADIOS is called the unit ports. I/O the to applied by the cardsmay be recorded sincethe magnetic aswell 5654. memory KCU frotn the data using unit Outputs Data to be displayedon the front panel is from function or input the data entry providing data as display ports to the throughthe I/O transferred cards. pre-recorded b,. c . d . address sf b . c . d . c o n t r o l .T h e d a t ac o n s i s to The magneticcardsare about the sizeof a business point. The displaydatacontrol dataand decimal (frequency, cathode cardand can storethe waypointparameters the necessary the dataand provides decodes waypoint and outbound, course inbound, course gas displays' discharge and anodedrivesfor the from the beacon)for up to ten and bearing but will distance datawill not be displayed The appropriate for canbe prepared is detected.For waypoints. A numberof cards if a flagsignal by dashes be replaced (from-to) can route The routes. travelled examplethe BRG/DST flag in RNAV mode will show frequently top right corner and the on each card DME noted search' be flag, DME for any of the following: nav. clippedoff to fix the dataso that they cannotbe pairedwith nav. 1, lossof test,DME not frequency selected. changed. or ILS frequency nav.or DME input signals generated by the computer The RNAV flagsignal equipment. Block Diagnm Operation external must alsobe fed to appropriate in termsof is bestexplained of the The KDE 566 operation course outbound inboundor The selected record, which are monitor, operation of the modes to its distance the computer and waypoint active 210

Card slot

KCU 565A memory/control/display

DME Tune Digital distance DME dist.

KDr571 dist. spd/tts indicator

Digital course glideslopedev. and flag RNAV./VOR/LOC dev. and ftag KN 581 RMI

Fig. l2.l I King KNR 665 RNAV. system

thereis a synchronizing sequence of 6 bits set to I followedby 2 bits at 0. The datacycleconsists of l0 X 5 X l6 = S00 bits since thereire l0 waypornts, 5 waypointparameters and l6 bits for each parameter.A further96 bits followingwaypoint9 'test aredesignated waypoint'. Thuswe havea total of 904 bits from the KCU 5654 which arestoredin four shift register memories providing a more than adequate storage space of 1024bits. In this mode the KDE 566 memoryis a mirror imaseof the K C U 5 6 5 , 4m e m o r y . U p d a t i n g o . . u r c e v e r yI 1 . 3m s . RECORD The recordmodeis activated whenever the recorcl button is pushed.The modewill not be entereduntil Fig.12,12KCU565A(courtesy KingRadio Corp.) the end of a memory-refreshing cycleassignified by tl.re output of the memorysynchronizer to the mode enterand error. The mode control circuit nronitors control circuit. the recordand enterbuttonsand the belt position On inserting a cardin the slot a microswitch is detector to determine which mocle shoul,ibe actlve closed by the cornerof the cardunless previousiy andso instructthe restof the svstem. clippedoff. The recordbutton switchis in series with themicroswitch t, h u sw h e nt h e b u t t o ni s p r e s s e d MONITOR t h en t e m o r y is temporarily frozen. t h em o t o rd i i v e & r i a l d a t ai s c l o c k e d i n f i o m t h e K C U 5 6 5 A t h r o u g h systent is activated and the cardbegins to travelout the memorydatagatingand voltage translation of the slot providedrhe cardis whJe and fully circuit.the clock pulses comingfrom the rnaster clock inserted.The motor.drives a belt which hassmall in the KCU 5654. lmmediately prior to a data cycle holesin it at appropriate pointsallowinglight from a

211

KDE 566 !KDE 566

KCU565

Front panel

Mastor clock in

Serral data out Serial data in Read/write

Enter button Record button

I

PWR switch

14v I tov I to all l.C.'s s v j

(courtesy King Radio Fig. 12.13 KDE 565 block diagram Corp.)

lamp to shinethrough onto a photoresistorin the belt position input. detector the mode control cardhasbuilt up speed - Whentl.re is notified by the positiondetectorthat all is ready for recording.The datais clockedout of the four which record to four magreticheads shift registers pointson the card the digitaldataat the appropriate

oxide in one of tlyo thc ferromagnetic by magnetiz-ing on whether0 or a I is toie--'' depcrrdilrg directions. one count counteris advanced recorded.A systt:ni writing4 eachtirlc thc nremoryis clocked. Bctween and previously bits (at a lirrre)the card advances datais erased.After 256 countsthe data recorded and the systemreturnsto the hasall beenrecorded m o n i t o rn t o d e .

212

ENTER A card, on which a set of data are recorded,is pushed fully home in the slot closinga microswitch so positionedthat it will closeeventhough the corner of the cardis clipped. Whenthe enterbutton switch,in series with the microswitch,is pressed, the motor drive systemis startedand the card travelsoutward. When the card reaches a position slightly before where datarecording beganthe belt positiopdetector notifies the mode control when then'enables all enter circuitry. The magneticheadsread data from the cardssince the changingmagneticfield, asthe card passes over a magnetized part, will cause a currentto ilow in the coil wrappedaroundthe headcore. Because of the way in which the datawererecorded this current occurs in pulses, positive or negative depending on whether I or 0 was recorded.Eachof the four heads feedsan amplifier and thencethe thresholddetecrors which providedigitaldataoutputs. The digitaldata arefed to the datadecoders which enterthe datainto the correctmemory channel sequentially. The four-channel count multiplexergathers the counts from all four channels producingone count ourpur for the counterand decoder. Whenthe cardhastravelled pastthe end of the datatracksthe belt positiondetectorinitiatesthe error checkphasevia the mode control. The counter and decoder output is examined to determine if 4 X 256 = 1024bits havebeencounted. If the count is correctthe mode control gates the masterclock to memory,actuates the read/write line to the KCU 565A and entersthe contents of memoryinto the KCU 565.4memory. After datatransfer is complete the KDE 566 returnsto the monitor mode. ERROR If the count from the counterand decoder is not 1O24the mode control initiatesa flashinered error light and returnsto the monitor mode. lio attemptis madeto enter datainto the KCU 565A.

which by this stagewas no longer '$mple', and the Mark 3 system shouldbe combined,hence the publicationin 1974of the ARINC Characteristic 583-l Mark l3 areanavigation system.The remainder of this sectionwill be usedto briefly describe tne Mark 13 system. The Mark 13 is a three-dimensional system desisned for usein all typesof commercial transport aircrafi. The basicinformationrequired for lateraland vertical navigation is derived from a mix of VOR/DME and INS dataplus altitudefrom an air dlta iomputer or sinrilar source.If INS dataarenot available VOR/DME fiing with air data/magnetic heading smoothing is usedin which caselossof VOR/DME dataleads to an air databased deadreckonins mode. The parameters of at leasttwenty waypoiits are providedfor usingmanualor automatic entry. Two successive waypointsdefine a greatcircle leg with respectto which navigationand steering command or deviation signals arefed to conventional indicators to givelateraland verticalcommands and in addition areproducedfor useby the AFCS. Both parallel track and verticalpositioningat any point on the track arecapabilities provided by the system; in the latter casevisualand auralaltitude alert sisnals are generated. The Mark l3 system comprises two units, a navigation computerand a controland displayunit, with the possibleaddition of a flight data storage unit. Processing of the inputsand generating the outputsshouldbe performed by the NCU while the CDU providesthe pilot/systeminterfaceincluding control of the INS when usedasan RNAV source. The sys.eminputs are as follows: VOR omni-bearing: analogue or digital; DME slantrange:pulsepair,variable spacing; INS: present positionlatitudeand longitude; INS: true heading and velocity(NiS and E/W); altitude:analogue or digital; baronretric correction: only if analogue altitude uncorrected; TAS: synchro,a.c. analogue or digital for data smoothing and d/r; magnetic heading: synchro; VOR warning:discrete high or low level; DMEwarning: discrete; altitudewarning:discrete; TAS warning:discrete; magnetic heading warning:discrete; prograln control: pinswired to choose input rlpiions: phase: a.c.reference 26 V 400 Hz; go-around: discrete from AFCS,

Standardization
The first meetings of the AEEC areanavigation sub-committee wereheld in 1969to discuss an ATA previously statement prepared.Threepossible systems for airlineusewereproposed: a simpleMark l, a sophisticated Mark 2 and a Mark 3 which involved an expansion of INS. The ARINC characteristics lor the Mark I and 2 systems werepublished in i970: however, beforepublication of the Mark 3 characteristic it wasdecided that the Mark I system,

213

altitude alert cancel:discrete; Mach number: synchroor digital; IAS: synchro; ILS localizer/glideslope deviation:d.c. analogue; localizerfailure: discrete; glideslope failure: discrete; AFCSengaged: discrete; autothrottle engaged: discrete ; digitalclock input: ARINC 585. The systemoutputs are as follows:

omni-bearing to waypoint: sin/cosfrom four-wire resolver; relativebearingto waypoint: synchro; crosstrack deviation:high- or lowlevel d.c. analogue; vertical track deviation:ascrosstrack; lateral track angleerror: synchroor'digital (b.c.d.); drift angle:synchroor digital (b.c.d.); lateral track changealert:.28V d.c.; vertical track change alert: 28 V d.c.; (roll command):a.c. or d.c. lateralsteering analogue;

Fig 12.t4 TIC T.34A RNAV. test set(courtcsy Tel-lnstrumentElectronics Corp.)

214

An RNAV systemis simply a computerwhich actson data from externalsensors.In order to check for standardoperationthesesensors must give known inputs to the RNAV system. For examplewe could useappropriateVOR and DME test setsto give a bearing and distance from beacon of lg0'anA fO nauticalmiles respectively, then with a waypoint positionof 090" and .10nautical milesfrom the beaconthe RNAV bearingto the waypoint shouldbe 53.13" and the RNAV dislance 50 nautlcalmiles sincewe haveset up a 3 : 4 : 5 triangle. This simple example can be extended to incorporate the other inputs demanded by more sophisticated systems. Flagoperationmust be thoroughly tested. A self-test which checksthe displayand displaydrive and perhaps other circuitsis usuallyprovided. Tel Instrument Electronics producean RNAV test set,the T-34A,which is in fact a combined DME/VOR ramp tester. The convenience of suchan arrangement is obvious.The DME section is virtually the sameas the TIC T-24A (Chapter 7) the VOR sectionis similaFffffie TIC T-278 (Chapter4) but with additionalfeitures,i.e. 108.05MHi r.f. ind b e a r i n go sf 4 5 " , 1 3 5 o 2 , 2 5 " ,3 I 5 o . It shouldbe remembered when trouble-shooting that, if the system includes an ADEU or FDSU, mechanical problemsmay occur affectinginput of data. Poor contactbetween reading headand The preceding list of input and output signals magnetic is cardor tapecancause a lossof data. If the ratherlengthybut illustrates the computing po*., cardor tapednve slowsdown but the readine -magnetic available in modernequipment.Details of ihe sienal frequency remains the samethen the rateof characteristics canbe found in ARINC 5g3. The last flux is slowerand hencethe headoutpui is lowered. eightof the inputsand the lasttwo of the outputsare Whenrecording a slowdrivecauses biis to be wntten designated asbeinggrowthinputsar outputs. The on top of eachother (pulsecrowding losses) while if method of achieving the necessary outputs, giventhe the drivespeeds up the bit is recorded overa longer inputs, is left to the designer and will vary in both lengthof track leading to incorrect headoutput if hardwareand software. replayed at normalspeed.

vertical steering(pitch command):as lateral; to/from: high-or low-level d.c.; desired lateraltrack: synchroor digital(b.c.d.); track angleerror plus drift angle:synchro; distance to waypoint:digital(b.c.d.)0_399.9 nauticalmiles; present position(lat./long.): digital(b.c.d.); groundspeed: digital(b.c.d.)0-2000knoti: timeto go: digita( l b.c.d.0 ) -.]99.9 min: crosstrack distance: digital(b.c.d.),O-3gg.g nauticalmiles; lateraltrack angle;digital(b.c.d.); desired altitude:digital(b.c.d.)0-50000 ft; second systemdata: two-wiredatabus: RNAV systemfailure:high-or low-level discrete: altitudealert failure:discrete; digitalbus warning:discrere; autotune v a l i d :d i s c r e t e ; altitudealert: discrete auraland visual.: VOR frequen cy : 2l 5 selection; systemstatusannunciation: 28 V d.c. onceper second; high deviation sensitivity: 28 V d.c. when selected; VOR frequency alert: 28 V d.c.when discrepancy; parallel offset track alert: 28 V d.c.when selected: speed error: d.c. analogue; speed error warning:discrete.

TestingRNAV

215

13 Gurrent and future developments

conditionswhere previouslythe aircraft would have to be grounded. The reluctance to replacean equipmentwhich is Changes in aircraft radio systems occur more and perfbrmingadequately reduces the sizeof the rnarket more frequently due to the improvingstateof the for the radio system manufacturer. Of course thereis art. The first airborneradio equipnrents used problem with new which no aircraft will have the thermionic devices, cat'swhiskerdetectors and large latestprovenequipment fitted. Paradoxically, the parallel plate tuningcapacitors; power,weightand situationwe haveis that the aircraftfitted with sizewere restrictionson the developrnent of such employing the lateststateof the art are equipment equipments. In the 1950stransistorized equipment general to more likely be in the aviationcategory, beganto appearalthoughnot completely sincethat marketis very much bigger than that for transistorized, the r.f. stages beingreluctantto conrmercial airliners. succumbto solid state. Even now the thermionic Completely new systems do not appear very deviceis still with us in the shape of the magnetrortr although when frequently, they do it is often and the c.r.t.but not, I think, for very long. Claims the improvementin the stateof the art has concerning an all solid-state weatherradarweremade because possible.An airborneOmega made the impossible aboutmid-1979, a commercially viableequipment wasnot a viableproposition receiver until the appeared in 1980(e.g.CollinsWXR700). The c.r.t. power and memory capacity necessary computer will remainwith us for many yearsbut will, I'm sure, be economically made available in a box of could eventuallybe replaced by a matrix of reasonable size. electroluminescent elements. suchasVOR, DME, ILS, etc. require Syqtems Transistorized equipmentis of coursestill investmentand so once adoptedon capital enorrnous marketed, but many of the transistors, diodesand to scale tend last an extremelylong time. a large resistors now appear on integrated circuits. The afterWorldWar II many During and immediately emergence of first small scaleintegration(SSI) then weredeveloped but only a few airborneradiosystems medium scale(MSI) and now.largescaleintegration new systems developed since the 1950shave survived; (LSI) of evermore components on one chip has replacements for been internationally agreed not revolutionized the design of air radiosystems.In but providedcompetitionfor them. existingsystems particular usingLSI techniques to produce (MLS) which will landingsystem The microwave microprocessors opens up a wholenew world. ILS will be the first replacement succeed system, as The rate of development in the last decade or so for to competing system, decades. opposed that means many aircraft fly with a rangeof in the introductionto a It must be mentioned technologies represented in their electronicsystems. we are seeing, chaptersuchas this that the changes It is not inconceivable that an aircraft could be in are to a largeextent due haveseenand will be seeing, service with a valveweatherradar,a transistorized to vastexpenditure on defence and space research. ADF and an RNAV systememployinga Havingstatedthe obvious,I will now briefly give my microprocessor, or someother combinationwhich supportedby facts, on what is would make it a flying electronics museum. That this thoughts,occasionally to come. happens and will continueto do so is the company accountant's choicenot the engineer's or the pilot's.. The replacement of one systemby another performingessentially the samefunction must be The State of the Art justified in termsof increased safety,increased pay load,increased reliabilityor an improvement and other LSI circuits are usedin in The microp*ocessor performance which allowsflights to be made in (1979). lt the currentgeneration of radiosystems lntroduction 216

seems clearthat such circuits will be used more and r.f. field continues with perhaps lessobviousresults. generations more for succeeding not only for A logicaloutcomeof the development of low-noise, computingpurposes, in the conventionalsense, but reliable, r.f. amplifiers small,solid-state and sources alsofor control of virtually everything. Often, in must be to mount t.r.s adjacent to antenna downleads equipments, a microprocessor will be under-utilized so that r.f. cables and waveguides longerthan a couple of inchesare a thing of the past. Reliability is the key but nevertheless it will still be a cheaperapproach in this latter development since sucht.r.swould be than usingthe minimal amounfof hard-wiredlogic relatively inaccessible. and furthermore spareprocessing power is available for expansion. All one needsto do is add the necessary software. I doubt if special-purpose LSI circuitswill appearin greatvariety sincethe volume The Flight Deck ofproduction required for a reasonable unit cost is very large. Havingsaid that, we alreadyseespecial The flight deck will be radicallydifferent in future ISI chipsfor VOR and DME signalprocessing. with flexibleelectronic displays replacing The cqmpleteall-purpose airborne computer is conventional instrumentation and a keyboardwith 'completely not with us yet and may neverbe. By keysreplacing a mass of alphanumeric and dedicated all-purpose', I mean a computer systemwhich The trend hasalready rotary and toggleswitches. monitors all sensors, drivesall displays,performs all 9 and in Chapters started, examples beingdiscussed control functions and is the only equipment with that conventional 12. This is not to suggest which the pilot can communicatedirectly. Such a will disappear completely display/control ; computercould be built today but there are will be needed as instrumentation electromechanical problemssuchas reliability, duplication or back-upfor the electronicdisplaysand toggle triplication being necessary, the need for performing will alwaysbe usedfor certain functions. As switches several tasksat the sametime and the huge I/O examples of the way thingsaregoing,work by Boeing interface. Certainly in the near future, and indeed will be discussed. and British Aerospace now, airbornecomputerswill work in specific function areas such as navigation,flight control, flight Boeing767 management, etc. although someof thesefunctions of the 767 flight deck Thereare a number of features visibility may be combinedand performedby one computer. worthy of mention, such asspaciousness, Interwiring is beginningto changeradically in and comfort; our main concernhere,however,is the aircraftinstallationsdue to our ability to handle large displayand control of radio systems.Rockwell'Collins quantitiesof fast time multiplexed digital data. The are to provide their multi-colour EFIS-700electronic prospectof a main serialdigital data highway with flight instrument systemwhich includestwo shadow spursout to sensors, for incoming data, and control attitudedetector an electronic maskc.r.t. indicators: and/or displayunits, for both incoming and outgoing indicator (EADI) and an electronichorizontal data,is a very real one. Again we havethe problem of situation and indicator(EHSI). Computation reliabilitybut the savingin interwiring will be displaywillbe providedby the Sperry alphanumeric significant.This is happeningnow in certain computersystem(FMCS). There flight management functionalareassuchas frequencycontrol and will be an EADI, EHSI and FMCSfor eachpilot, passenger and will be extended. while an additionalcentrallyplacedelectronicdisplay entertainmentsystems, In this context mention should be made of the useof will be usedaspart of the cautionand warning optical fibreswhich can handledata at a very much system. fasterrate than conventionalcables(15 X 106 bits per The EADI presentation is similarto a conventional second; say). In additionto attitude-directorindicator-one of which is fitted as a cf.2400 bits per second, the increased of the raw sky and capability the cheapness back-up. Blue and black fields represent with a white line, separating materials and the immunity to interferenceare earth respectively the advantages which make it virtually certain that we two fields,as the artificial horizon. There are scales (left), speed deviation shallseehbre optics usedin the future and would see for roll (upper),glideslope them now were it not for the difficulties encountered (right) and pitch (vertical centreline).In addition in connectingthem together. there is a risingrunway symbol and a radio altitude The increasein the use of digital sigrals and the digital readout. The information displayedfrom ability to process them has a most noticeableimpact deviationagainst a scale, radio aidsis glideslope in the aircraft in that controllers,displaysand of a symbolic localizerdeviationby lateral.,movement facilities are all changed,meanwhile progressin the runway and radio altitude by verticalmovementof 217

q-"ff W:.

(courtesy Fig.l3.l Boeing 767flightdeckmock-up Boeing Commercial Aeroplane Co.) the symbolic runway and by digital readout. Decision and operatingmodesare also height selected displayed. The facility exists,with an EADI, for not in use. blankingof scales The flexibility of a computer-driven c.r.t. displayis fully utilized in the EHSI by providingfor operation in three modes:map display,full compass displayor VOR/ILS modewith a lull or partialcompass rose. Weatherradardata can alsobe displayedmaking a weatherradardisplayan optional extra. dedicated Whenpresenting data in map form the display is orientatedtrack up; a verticaltrack line with range joins a symbolicaircraftat bottom centreto a marks ofthe track at top centre. boxeddigitalreadout Headingand presetcoursare givenby distinctive 218 pointen on a partial scalenear the top of the display. trend Ground speed(from INS), a three-segment vector(projectedpath), wind direction and speed, plannedflight betweennamedwaypoints,vertical operatingmode and weather deviation,range.scale, radardata are all shown. A variety of coloursare usedto avoid confusionin the interpretationofthe largeamount of data in a 4'7 X 5'7 in. display. A conventionalRMI providesback-up. The FMCSwill mix storeddaia and data from to provide several radio and non-radiosensors position fixing, optimized flightpath and speed guidance, drive for the EADI and EHSI and also in hardwareand softwaremonitoring to assist trouble-shooting.A four-million-bit disk memory

systemwill be employed to provide storageof data suchaslocation of airportsand VOR stations, departure and selected companyroutes,standard arrivalroutes(SIDSand STARS)and aircraft/engine parameters. Communicationwith the systemis providedby a l4-line c.r.t. display with24 characters per line, for display of navigationand performance keyboard plus data,and alsoa full alphanumeric keys. dedicated British AerospaceAdvanced Flight Deck Work by the British Aircraft Corporation and Hawker SiddeleyAviation on the evolution of flight decksinto a form which would include integratedelectronicdisplaysbeganback in the early 1970s. The resultswere jointly, an sufficientlyencouraging to commence, advanced flight deck programin January1975. Electronic displaysand controls havebeen studiedwith regardto engineering feasibilityand human factors. The programhascome up with an exciting view of the flight deck of the future. The main display consists of seven 9 in. c.r.t.ssplit into two discrete (Sl, 52 dnd 53) centrally sub-systems. Threedisplays locatedon the instrument panel presentaircraft systems and engineinformation while four displays (Fl, F2, F3 and F4) split two eachsideof the panel, present flight information. ln addition,two further (Dl and D2) areprovided, one eachsideof the c.r.t.s panel,for documentation, e.g. maininstrument performancedata,etc. checklist, The flight information displaysare an EADI and of informationis in a m EHSI. Presentation format, the EADI being similar to an conventional and ADI but with information in both analogue digital form surroundingthe ADI earth/groundcircle. a conventional HSI type The EHSI canpresent roseand lateraldeviation displaywith full compass with route and displaycomplete bar or a map-like weather radardata. Like the EADI the EHSI has flight information either sideof the main displaybut in digital form only. A facility to switch in this case the displayfrom one c.r.t. to the other will help shoulda malfunctionoccur. In additionthereare back-upinstruments. conventional

easier and saferinterpretation. Work hasbeen done by NASA usinga Boeing737 in which the EADI displayformat is suchas to give the pilot the next best thing to the VFR view when landing(Flight, I I September 1976). As conventional ele ctromechanical instruments giveway to c.r.t.sso c.r.t.s will one day giveway to Litton Systems solid-state devices. of Toronto have (1979) a 3 X 4 in. displaymade recently announced up of nearly 50 000 LEDs. The matrix is to providethe requireddisplay. computer-driven The advantages over the c.r.t. are reducedsizeand longerlife (m.t.b.f.). A displaytechniqueparticularlysuitablefor ILS display. Such approaches is that of a head-up on modern military displaysare commonplace aircraft.Whenlandingusingpanel-mounted visual the pilot must look up to establish instruments lookingdown contact. If suchcontactis not possible could createproblems to return to instruments again With of fastassimilation of the dataon instruments. symbolsare a head-updisplay the approachguidance of opticaldevices so projected by somearrangement that they canbe viewedthroughthe windscreen. (e.g. will be fitted with suchdisplays Civil airliners it shouldbe noted that with Airbus4300) although and one eyes-down two pilots one couldbe eyes-up attemptto to avoidan abortive duringapproach visualcontact. acquire

Packages Multi-System

and the With the adventof micro-electronics to bring it is possible smallunit size, consequent varioussystems togetherin one package.In the days we had one system- many boxes,whereas of valves to think in termsof onebox - many now it is possible examples discussed qystems. In fact we havealready packages in Chapter12. As a further, of multi-system -implemented, a example, consider andyet-to-be why the antenna.Thereis no reason radar Doppler for the Dopplerradar,an inertialsensor, electronics or srichasLoranor Omega sensor, a radio-navigation computershouldnot all VOR/DME,and a navigation be mountedon top of the fixed Dopplerantenna Altemative Instrumentation package. Control,displayand radio forminga single developments and BritishAerospace The Boeing would all needto be remote in suchan sensor antennas abovedo not depart from the conventional discussed displayformat for the main part of the EADI and the installation. EHSIdisplay.Obviously in usingelectronic displays of computer-generated symbolsa wide range showing Data Link possibilities for display formats exist; however,any would requirepilot departure fronr convention information automatic A two-waydigitallyencoded and would haveto be justified in termsof retraining

219

::'$ .

m#G

iG*-

Fg. tf.Z Experimentaladvancedflight deck (courtbsy BritishAerospace)

link hasbeenthe subjectofperiodic discussion by various workinggroups for over30 years.If and whenthesystem will be implemented andwhatr.f. dtannels will be usedif any arestill unknown. ARINC ?,20

project paper 586 providesdetailedinformation on a possible systemwith an entertainingappendixon the for aircraft by history of automatic communications the then Chairmanof the AEEC. W.T. Carnes.

lFr

In fact an ATC automaticdatalink doesexist in the form of the secondary radarsurveillance radar system (Chapter8) which will probablybe extended sometime in the future(seeADSEL/DABSbelow). Herewe areonly concerned with a two_way automatic datalink utilizingv.h.f.,h.f. or Satcom for universal use.
Participating aircraft

b
\ \ \ \ \ \

\ r

r ' /

, /

, / // t \\ | \ \
I

Subscriber terminals line or radio(microwave) link Fig.13.3 DataIink system The datalink is essentjally ground-controlled. Aircraft participatingin the syitem are .polled, by the groundstationwhich transmits a sequence of digital signals split into messages eachof which contains a particular address (aircraftregistration number)and suitable text. The airborne equipment responds if it recognizes its address in the pollingsequ.n.. which is repeated at a rate determined by the giound station. Messages will be eitherto/from ATC 6r to/from the airlinecompanyand may relateto clearances, altitudechanges, positionreports, flight_plan change, weather data,etc. The text of the messages will be routedto/from terminals on the grounaita a polnt-to-point communications network interconnecting the groundstationand the terminals.

\ \

ADSEL/DABS
The problems of fruit and garbling werediscussed in Chapter8; suchproblems increase with trafflc d e n s i t y .A d d r e s s e l e c t i vS e S R( A D S E L )a n d discrera e d d r e sb se a c o n ( D A B S )h a v eb e e n sysrem developed in the UK and USA respectively in an effort to postpone the dateby which the iCAO SSR system would beconte saturated.In additiona new

systemwill provide for a transferof more informationthan is possible with currentSSR,enable ntoreaccurate and reliable tracking by ATC and so help in the development of automatecl approach control systems (CAAS _ cornplrter assisie.t approach sequencing) and further.form an indispensable part of a proposed beacon-based collision avoidance (BCAS). system A memorandum of understanding wassigned by the FAA (for the USA) and the CAA (for tie UK) earlyin 1975to allow for future deveiopment of selectively addressed SSRsystems on a co_operative basis.We arestill someway off an ICAO standard system, but whenever it comes it will be compatible with SSRso that existing airborne equipm.ni may continueto be used. A R I N C C h a r a c t e r i s t7 ic 1 8( N o v e m b e r l97g _ draft) laysdown a specification for a transponder which lorms part of rhestandard SSRsvstem (ATCRBS- ATC radarbeacon systemjandDABS. pl , p2 and F: pulseparameters, In that characteristic frequencies and SLSprovisions ur. ui fu, itandard SSRbut the ability to respond to modes A and C interrogations only is required ratherthan A, B, C and D. will be possible with - Two typesof interrogation the new system, an ATCRBS/DABS ail_call or a DABS only. The all-call interrogation will consist of threepulses Pl, P3 and p4 together with a SLS control pulseP2. The pl, p2 and p3 pulseparamerers are as for the ICAO SSRwhile p4 is a 0.g pulse the irs leadiirg edgeof which is 1.5gs after the leading edge A" ICAO transponder will ignorep4 *f.,it. a :f.P: DABS transponder will recognize the interrogation as all-calland respondwith the all-callreplv. A DABS interrogation consists of pt and p2 preamble pulses and a datablock. The datablock is a single r.f. pulseeither 15.5or 29.5ps longemploying differential phase shift keyed(d.p.s.k..y midutation. With this type of modulationa lg0" phase change of the carrierat a databit phase position reversal 'l'while represents a no phase change represents a .0,. The first phasereversal occurs0.5 pi after the leading edgeof the datablock,this is the sync.phase reversal. Subsequent phase reversal positions occurat time 0'25l/lrs (N>2) after the sync.phase reversal. The maximumvalueof iy'is 57 or I l3 giving56 or I l2 databits transmitted at a 4 M bitls rate. The trailing edgeof the datablock has0.5 ps of r.f. addedto ensure the demodulation of the lastbit in the dara block is completed without interference. An optionalP5 may be radiated asan SLS control pulsein the sameway that p2 is radiatedfrom an ICAO interrogator.p5 will be transmitted 0.4 ps

Preamble3.5us t 2rs I

Data Block 15'5or 29'5rs

0.5 0.5 0.25

ffi
'
Sync. phase reversal

53 54 55 56 57

0'8 rs

56 or 112 phase reversalpositions

j ".- o.r o'l------{ l* O'a

FS ll FS ll pS

rf = t03O MHz

Phasereversal bit : 'l Position

Phase reversal position bit : 0

Fig. 13.4 ADSEL/DABS format interrogation before the sync.phasereversal.For an aircraft fitted the received P5 amplitude with a DABS transponder will exceedthe amplitudeof the data block hencethe transponder will not decodethe d.p.s.k.modulated equippedaircraft will sigral. An ICAO transponder not reply to a DABS interrogationsincethe P2 pulse will triggerthe SLS suppression circuit. will generate A DABS transponder ICAO replies (12 information pulses) in response to ICAO and DABS repliesin response to all-call interrogations and DABS interrogations; DABS transponders also generate squitterat randomintervalsto allow without interrogation(similarto DME acquisition 7). auto-standby, Chapter A DABS replyis only similarto an interrogation in a preamble followedby a data so far asit contains block of 56 or I l2 bits. The preamble consists of four 0'5 ps pulseswith the spacing betweenthe first pulse andthe second, third and fourth pulses being 1.0,3.5 respectively, from leading and4'5 prs measured edge to leadingedge. The data block begins8 prs after the 222 leadingedgeof the first preamblepulseand usespulse (p.p.rn.) positionmodulation at a data rateof I M bit/s. In the I gs intervalallottedto eachdatabit a in the first half il the data 0'5 gs pulseis transmitted h a l fi f a ' 0 ' . T h e d a t a bit is a'l'and in thesecond block is thus 56 or I l2 ps long. The r.f. is 1090MHz asfor the ICAO SSR. from an Thereare four typesof interrogation all of which havethe ADSEL/DABSinterrogator preamble.The all-call datablock contains a same of 28 onesin a 56-bitblock,the all-call reply sequence details of data the aircraftaddress, contains equipment on boardand parity bits for interchange purposes. A surveillance interrogation error-checking address and parity bits and alsoa ol 56 bits contains r e c e i v eo dn t h e information r e p e ao t f theheight ground. An aircraftrecognizing the address in a will replywith a 56-bitdata interrogation surveillance the altitudeor identity. The block containing interchanges of dataarein I l2-bit blocks remaining givingriseto a both ways,a comm.-Ainterrogation

Preamble

5 6 o r 1 1 2p s Data Block

br o.5 <H
l+-)

<H

o.5

o.5
{+

r-r-r:l-T-'l

l'',' l',,r1

I'lolrlolrl

P.P.M.cxample lol ....0 . 11

Fig.13.5 ADSEL/DABS replyformat comm'-B reply and a comm''c^inte.rrogation giving. simplexsystememployingfrequencymodulation riseto a comm'-Dreply' A-B inteichang!involves *orld b.-rr.d with ujtir,l una ao*ntinr. frequencies .The altitudeor identity aswell asother data,anican be separated by between 4 and l0 MHz. Aircraft usedlbr trackingpurposes while the c-D interchange Saicom.unt.nnu,would be broadlydirectional, contansan extended-ren_gth message segment of g0 possibly with switchable lobes. bits in both directions'one thingnot yet decided is The accuracy of any Satnav. system will depend on the methodby which datawill be traniferred into the knowledge of satellite positionand so a numbe.f and out of the transponder from various sensors and trackingstations are required on the ground. Since to various displays via a suitable processor. Two. the airb"orne equipmenimust haveth! oatarelating to areproposed for the interface, firstly using the satellite porition a link must be established T:tl99t ARINC 429 digitalinformation transferryrt*r betweenthe trackingstation and the aircraft, most (DITS) format, secondly.a synchronous I M bitisec probablyvia the satellite.Knowingthe positionof interface which would allow datarequested in an the satellite the airborne equipment mustestablish the uplink to be contained in the next downlink. aircraft's positionrelative to the satellite in orderto The system hasonly beenbriefly described: the obtaina dx. reader is referred to ARINC 718 for further details. The various methods by which a fix canbe obtained involvesomecombination of measurement of angular elevation of a satellite, range of a satellite Satcom. and Satnav. and rateof change of range of a satellite (Doppler shift). Directionof arrivalof a signal at tire saiellite Therearemany satellites ih orbit aroundthe earth may be methods whereby -foundusinginterferonteter beingusedfor relaying telephone and television the satellite antennas aremountedon long booms signals,.weather sensing, observation and military (say50 ft) and the phase difference in signals arrrvins navigation and communication. (For a comorehensrveat the antennas is measured. Range measurement review seeFlight,28 October197g.) Unforiunately may be obtained in a similarfvay to that employed in noneso far areusedby civil aircraftand it is not DME. In a range-rate system the Dopplerstrilt tf a known (by the author)when suchusewill occur. signal from the satellite is recorded ovlr a periodof However, brief comments canbe madeon the say l0 min, then the aircraftpositioncan be computecl principles involved. from the time of zeroDopplershift and the slopeof A possible v.h.f.Satcom. system is described in the frequency/time graphat zeroshift. ARINC Characteristic 566. The satellite is simplya The range-rate m.ethod canprovidean accurate fix repeater for voiceand datacommunications beiween aboutonceevery lI h, usinga satellite in a 500-mile a i r a n dg r o u n d . I f t h e s a t e l l i t e isat synchronous circular orbit, obviously for aircrafta largenumberof altitude(22 000 nauticalmiles)the service area would satellites must be usedto reduce the tirne_interval be 4l per centof the earth.s surface.a OouUle_cfrannel between fixes. The aircraftvelocityand altitucle

must be accuratelyknown during the time taken to obtain a fix asthe satellitemakesa passover the line of closest approachto the aircraft. The US Navy use sucha systemflorsurfaceship navigation. Angle-only,rangeonly or angle-range methods may be used. In thesesystems, by usinga two-way link betweenthe aircraft and a ground station via the satellite,the computationof aircraft position can be carriedout on the ground,the databeing sent to both aircraft and ATC. A range-only systemwhich should comeon line in the 1980sis the Global Navigation (NAVSTAR.) using24 satellites;however System use may be restrictedto military aircraft and ground personnel. The frequencies involvedfor Satnav.are likely to be v.h.f.or around1.6GHz. It will obviously be advantageous if a group of satellites could be usedfor both communicationand navisation.

would do the simulationsshowedthat both systems job and the choiie must havebeendifficult. One factorwhich helpedswingthe vote musthavebeena reduction in cost of the TRSB system broughtabout phased-array of cost-minimized by the development (COMPACT) techniques by Hazeltine.A conventional electronicbeam scanning array consists of many eai,hof which is fed by an radiatingelements electronicphaseshifter. Changing the phaseof the r.f. energyradiated by eachelement causes the far field beam to scan. With COMPACTthere is nearly a 4: I reductionin the numberof phase shifters each of which feedsall radiating elements througha patented passive network. The resultis accurate with low sidelobesat a reducedcost. bearnscanning The principlesof TRSB are quite simple. Consider a radio beam scanned rapidly to and fro; an on an aircraft within appropriatelytuned receiver in rangeof the beamsourcewould receivetwo pulses one completescan,as the beamswept past twice. is relatedto the anglemade The pulsespacing Microwave Landing System (MLS) sectorand the betweenthe centroid of the scanned line joining aircraft to beamsource. Note that the The long, controversialand heated argument about sincethe computed is ambiguous systemas described which systemwill be adoptedas the successor to ILS anglecould be either sideof the centroid of the endedin 1978 with the choiceof a time-referenced sector. Ambiguity may be removedby, scanning beam(TRSB)system.The requirement was scanned 'to' and which is the 'fro' for a landingsystemthat would allow for a variety of knowing which is the scan, curvedor straight-line or by knowing the scancycle start time, i.e. the approaches within a large 'to' volumeof airspace of the half cycle. For accuracy and that would not suffer to the commencement same extent as ILS from multipath effects. precisiontiming circuits must be used. azimuth scanning The main contenders For lateraland verticalguidance by the time the final decision wasmadewere the USA with TRSB and the UK with beamsare required. Preamble and elevationscanning a commutatedDoppler. Demonstrations and instructionsmust be usedto identify the beamswhich.

Scan cycle

tt related to {l Fig. I 3.5 Principles of TRSB

224

are synchronizedso that one time dift-erence for each and C2. The particularmodc useddepends on the beamis measured in a 150 ms frame. Back beamand aircral't llt and the type of groundstaiion. flare measurements are alsopossibleon a t'ull system which will be usedin conjunction with a high-accuracyMode AB Angular and rangeinformation is available DME. Reflected beamreceptioncan be elinrinated by usinga standard land-based MADGE station. The gating(echo suppression).The r.f. employed time_ direction from which the aircral'tis interrogatineis will be in the Ku band. nreasured by the groundstationinterferom-eterf the The battle lbr ICAO recognition is not the whole subsequent reply containing horizontaland vertical story of MLS, systems havingbeendeveloped ior deviation from an approach path or overshoot special applications;MADGE (microwaveiircraft determined by the sitingof the grounduni.nno arrays. digital guidanceequipment) is an MLS-based The azimuth deviationwith respectto the approach on-groundderivedinterferometry, developedby the path centreline is displayed on a purpose-built British company MEL(see below); SCAIvILS (small precision range and azimuthnreter(pRAM). while on communityairport MLS) is a Hazeltine product using a standard cross-pointer deviation indicatorazimuth their COMPACTantennas for the TRSRsystem. and elevation guidance is givento an approach path selected by the pilot. The overshoot path is selected Microwave Aircraft Digital Guidance by the pilot in azimuthonly, elevation deviation is (MADGE) Equipment with respect to the ground-dellned path. overshoot Rangedata,derived by measuring the elapsed time between interrogation and reply.is displayed Introduction on a PRAlvl.With an appropriate link in the wiring of the MADGE is a microwave,secondary radarsystem airborne installation or on receiptof a commandin which providesguidanceto a landing site for any the groundstationreply the range datais sentto the suitablyequipped aircraftwithin a rangeof abour l5 with subsequent interrogations. miles. As well as providing flexibility in the approach groundinterlaced The two typesof air-to-ground transmission are path,asone would expectin any successor to ILS, a - interrogation: referred to asA channel B channel two-way data link is established which resultsin range data. deviationand rangeinformation being available not only in the air but alsoat the landinesite. Mode C Two alternatives The MEL EquipmentCompanyllmited (A for Mode C are available, PhilipsCompany)havewon sufficient military orders both providingguidanceto a point offset horizontally from the landingsite,by at least200 metres. Such to assure the future of MADGE. The first extensive guidance is suitable civilianusewill be in the North Seaoil fields where. for helicopters operating to offshore platforms. In addition to azimuth ind one platform is alreadyequipped. elevation and range dataone of two arrowson the PRAM indicatesto the pilot on which side of his Basic Principles aircraftthe landingsiteis situated. The systemprovidesboth rangeand angulardata. The rangeis derivedin the sameway as with DME, Unlike Mode AB the pilot-selected angular offset of the approach i.e.measurement path is not available takesplacein the airborne with Mode C. equipment The particularapproach after an air-to-ground path usedis ground-defined, interrogation and a subsequent ground-to-airreply. The air-derivedrange henceMode C is known asthe groundcontrolled may be contained in the interrogations, subsequent to mode(GCM). The platform installation is rotated the recognition of valid replies, to the correctcompass in order to make this bearing within one of four information available on the ground. sectors chosen by the pilot, the choicebeingrelayed Azimuth and elevationangles are ground-derived, b y r l t . usinginterferometry or, in the case of elevation, radio The two ModeC alternatives areMode Cl and C2 altitudeand range. If the latter is the case both range which differ in the way elevation guidance is derived. and radioaltitudedata must be transmittedfrom With Mode Cl radio altitudeand range are air to groundin order that the elevation triangle may transmitted to the landingsite.wherethe elevation be solved for elevation angle.The angulardatais angle can be computedsincethe sineof the angleis contained in the reply to the airborneequipntent's equalto the ratio of the radioaltitudeto the (slant) interrogation. range.With ModeC2 elevation informationis derived asin Mode AB. Modesof Operation Mode C I allowsgreaterflexibiJityof approach. Therearethreemodesof operation, namelyAB, Cl The aircraftcan be guideddown a glideslope to a point

225

remote from the landingsite (say 0'5 nautical miles away) from where the final approachis completedin of the approachpath are levelflight. The parameters under the control of the ground station for both ModeCl and C2. lnterferometry of trvo antennas A basicinterferometerconsists the outputs of which are compared feedingreceivers, in phase. If the radiatedwavearrivesfrom a direction other than normal to the planeof the two'antenna array then the energyarrivingat one antennawill havetravelledfurther than that arrivingat the other d. The phasedifferencebetweenthe by a distance will dependon d which, in turn, antennasignals the direction of arrival. on depends A two-antennainterferometeris of little usesince of the direction of arrivalis measure an ambiguous spaced obtained. For exampleconsiderthe antennas ofthe radiatedwave I cm apart and a wavelength equalto tr cm. lf d = 0, I, 2),,etc. the measured to will be zerocorresponding phase difference to the with respect of arrival0, measured directions

interferometer Fig 13.7 Two antenna = 0, tri Q,2ltlQ, etc. Thus with given by sin 0 normal, I = 100 cm, say, and tr = 6 cm, then for zero phase d i f f e r e n c0 e c o u l db e 0 , 3 ' M , 6 ' 8 9 , e t c .d e g r e e s . must be antennas To resolvethe ambiguity several measurements Phase dilference array. a linear usedin to give can be madebetweenany two antennasignals directionof arrival. an unambiguous collectively to be in the chosen of the antennas With the spacing word canbe angle : : derived : 8 l6 32 the 2:4 ratio codeddirectly in binary.

" .r" i 't,i

(courtesyMEL Equipment hardware Fig. 13.8 MADGE, Co. Ltd)

226

The length and message content of the interrogation word, which is assembled in the logic unit, depenis on the mode of operation. For A channel(M;de AB) a 25-bit word requesting guidance information rs transmitted at a jittering meanrateof 50 Hz. B channel,containingrangeand other data in a 60-bit word, can be interlacedwith A channelinterrogations a t a f a c t o r ys e tr a t eo f 2 . 5 , 5 , l 0 o r 5 0 H z . C m o d e s useonly one interrogationword 60 bits long at a jittering meanrate of 100 Hz. -BothCl and C2 interrogations containguidance interrogation data and range, but in additionmodeCl transmits radio altitude information. Appropriateair and ground address codes,asselected on the controller, form p a r t o f t h e g u i d a n c ie nterrogation. The interrogation word pulsetrain,suitably In addition, if the controller is dual mode i.e. Mode processed in a line receiver and pulsemodulattr, 'ANGLE AB and C an OFFSETS'/,SECTOR GCM' controlsthe grid voltageof a travelling-wave_tube five-position switch is provided to allow the pilot to which amplifiesthe r.f. from a solid-state source selectwhich of the four approachsectorshi desires phase-locked to 56 timesa reference oscillator for ModeC (GCM) operation or, if usinga Mode AB crystal. A 4-bit parallel code,determined bv the station,the angleoffset controls may be enabledby frequency selection at the controller, selectiwhich of s e l e c t i n g ' A N G LO E FFSET'. four crystals is to be usedasa reference. The pulse The PRAM and crossed-pointer deviation indicator codeanrplitude modulated frequency of between havebeenmentioned previously.In additionthree 5 ' 1 8 2 5a n d 5 . 2 0 0 5 G H z i s f e d v i aa l o w - p a sfs liter optionalindicators may be fitted: and circulator in the microwave assembly to one of selected by a switchwhich is l. Overshoot warning. Only activeduring Mode two antennas controlled by the logicunit. AB operation. Thereare two activestites of Received signals areamplified and detected this ntagnetic in a indicator.in one of which double-superhet receiver, then passed to the logic indicationof the serviceability of the ground unit. lncomingnoisepulses arecombated overshoot by interferometer is given;the other reducing the receiver sensitivity asthe rate ofreceived givingovershootwarning. .Off is displayed pulses increases. Interference from multipathechoes when the indicatoris not active. by settinga threshold levelin accordance 2. Low-fly warning. Similarto ( I ) aboveexcepr is avoided with the amplitude of the first pulseof the incoming that the activestates show eitherthat the word. The weaker multipathechoes will be unlikely elevation failurewarningflagis pulledin to exceed this threshold which returnsto zero at the (elevation safe)or that the aircraftis low. end of eachreceived word. 3. Excess azimuthdeviation.Only usedin The reply is clocked into a shift register and then Mode C. A lamp which flashes when the checked for validityand parity. Validity is aircraftis more than 60 metresfrom the determined by comparing air and groundaddress approach path and within t nauticalmile of codes received with thoseselected. A ranseclock. the landingsite. w h r c hw a ss t a r t e d when.the interrogatio nok place, Io is stopped on completion of .asuccessful validitv and p a r i t yc h e c k . Block Diagram Operation The system functions in eithersearch or track. The installation comprises an interrogator set(logic U n t i l t h e r a t eo f v a l i d a r e r de p l i e s i s a c c e p t a b lte he u n i t) . a n i n t e r r o g a t os re t( t r a n s m i t t e r - r e c e i v i er). logicunit causes the t/r output to switchbetween controller, an antenna selector, two antennas and up forwardand rearantennas at a 0.5 Hz rale. llavins to five dilferentindicators, possibly duplicated, as acquired a reliable range v a l u ea , tracking g a t ei s described previously.All electronic circuitry is generated so that only thosereplies within I gs c o r r t a i n ew d i t h i n t h e l o g i cu n i t a n d t r a n s m i i t e r - r e c e i vbefore. er and 2 ps after,the expected time of arrival (ti r) with tl"re exception of that contained in the areaccepted. With replies regularly fallingwithin the PRAM. tracking gatethe range of change of range is

Conbrlls and Instrumentation A Mode AB controller has the following controls: l. 'OFF/STANDBy/ON'. Whenin standbythe input to the modulator is inhibited wirh a . 3-min warm-up delay for the transmitteris initiated. 2. GROUND/AIR control. Four thumbwheel switches which selectthe ground and air address and the frequencyof operation. 3. Angle offsets. Three rotary switcheswhich allow the pilot to selectone of a variety of elevationand azimuth anglesfor approach. For overshootazimuth offset only is provided. 4. 'TEST'. A push switch which activatis the built-in test equipment (b.i.t.e.).

227

E
o O !

|E

E P

E ,

lg)

=--l
e

o o
x o

s g E ; -8sE f 5';
< o o O

3 , " 3 9

o o o

> 6 4

l o l o , t s

r b
t t__

o o

I
o

o
q)

G :
o

- = - ;
n ;

C b

c.l o

o.-

= E
q

0)+

tro
P C O O

g s
o o

a
O

F 9 = 6 s ;

o o

= ^
AE
i r *

__J
o
, C C O

< 9
2 d - : d 6 i !

- ;
6

E! . 8
, ' n C @ v , o 4

= i

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ii>

. ,..t oo Fl

228

computed. If the rate exceeds 30 knots antennasvitchingceases, the forwardantenna beingselected for decreasing range,the rear antennafor increasing range. Each antennahas a polar diagramwhich is 180" wide in the horizontal plane and 40o wide in the vertical plane. With validity and parity confirmed rangeand angle data is fed to the output control logic circuits. Digital rangeand azimuth information is fed to the PRAM, the azimuth information beingunaffectedby the selectionof angleoffsets. Azimuth and elevation information is comparedwith the selected angle offsets,the resultingdigital differences are then guidance convertedinto analogue outputs which are fed via matchingresistors in the interfacejunction box to the cross-pointer deviation indicator. The d/a convertergainis progressively reducedas the range decreases from I nauticalmile. This reduction in eain is known as beam-softening and resultsin meter deflection beingpropoitionalto lateralratherthan angulardisplacement from the approachpath. Warning signals aregenerated within the logicunit. Flag drivesare fed to the cross-pointer instrument being28 V for validinformation,0 V duringa fault condition. A low-fly warningis provided in Mode AB, or an excess elevation signal deviation in Mode C. Azimuth warningsare the excess azimuth deviationin Mode C and the overshoot signal in Mode AB. The PRAM display is enabledby the azimuth flag signal. For Mode Cl a radio altimeter interface unit is requiredto digitize the analogue height signalfrom the radio altimeter. As a checkthe digitized heightis converted back into analogue form, then compared with the height input. A fault signalis fed to the logic greater unit if a discrepancy than 1 25 ft is detected. The fault signalis also generated if the radio altimeter's flagoutput showsa lault condition. With a fahlt detected the elevation flag showsand the heightinformationpresent bit in the interrogation word is negated. Selected System Parameters peakpower: 150W nominal. Transmitter 5 T r a n s m i t t efrr e q u e n c y channels : 1 8 2 ' 5 ,5 1 8 8 ' 5 , 5 1 9 4 ' 5 . 5 2 0 0 'M 5 Hz. 5004'5, 5010'5,5016'5, Receiver frequency channels: 5022'5. 5 0 2 8 ' 5 .5 0 3 4 ' 5M H z . lnterrogation word rate: 50 Hz mean(A channel); 100 Hz mean(C channel). + I ms (B channel). Word jitter: + 2 ms (A channel); M e s s a gb ei t r a t e : l ' 0 1 1 2 5 M H z n o m i n a l . word length:25 bits (A channel); lnterrogation 60 bits (C channel). Reply word length:60 bits (all channels).

(n.r.z.). Message format: non-retum.to-zero Height data, down link: I I bits (binary). Range data,down link: l6 bits (b.c.d.)., Elevationdata, up link: 9 bits. Azimuth and flag data,up link: l5 bits. + 2'5 to t l0o Analogue azimuthguidance: selectable full scale. t 0'5 fo t 5" Analogueelevationguidance:selectable full scale. Azimuth coarse output: t 45o full scale. -5 to Elevation coarse output: t25" (A channel): +20' full scale (Cl channel). Rangeoutput: 25 nauticalmilesat l0 V;30 nautical m i l e sa t l 2 V . Velocity output: I 200 knots full scale. n.r.z. Digitaloutputs: I '01 125 MHz, bi-phase Anglesand flags:28-bit word at reply rate. Range rate. data: l8-bit word at interrogation O'144": Digital resolution: azimuth0'235'; elevation range9'26 metres.

Collision Arioidance
hasbeenthe Up until 1979collisionavoidance responsibilityof ATC tbr aircraft flying under IFR for their own safety while pilots are responsible is likely to continuelbr underVFR. This situation sometime in the future eventhough a workable system(CAS) hasbeen developed. collision avoidance systemwould protect the A self-contained ofwhether other aircraft equippedaircraft regardless was were similarly equippedor an ATC service could be built measuring Sucha system available. and directionof all aircraft of change, range, range-rate around the protected within a certainvolume of space datacould be usedto compute aircraft. Received projectedpathsso that the risk of collisioncould be a warninggivenor evaluated and,if necessary, initiated. The costof sucha automaticmanoeuvre systemprovidingthe accuracyrequiredis prohibitive, at leastfor the time being. we may havea co-operative As an alternative, systemand this is an areain'which work hasbeen exist: done. Two possibilities radar l. an interrogator/transpondersecondary rangeand systemwhich could measure in much the sameway as DME does range-rate problems in crowdedairspace but with obvious is most needed; wherethe system in which all aircraft system 2. a time multiplexed transmitin turn without interrogation. approach The calculationof the rangeat nearest

229

q
(miss distance)is complicated and requiresprcsent relativepositions,ipcluding altitude, and the speed and track ofeach aircraft involved. One approachis to usethe componentof relativevelocity perpendicular to the line joining the aircraft asshown V1 , Va, Vn arethe velocity where Fig. 13.10 in vectorsof aircraft A, aircraft B and B relativeto A of the risk of while X is the measure respectively, collision.Another,simplermethodis to usethe measure of the risk rangedividedby the range-rate, (r). a minimum methods In both known as tau being is set,below which evasive valueof the risk measure actionis taken. With the latter method,however, when the closingvelocity is small r is not a good of risk and a minimum rangecriterion measure shouldbe includedin the system.

of ARINC The CurrentGeneration Characteristics

:g

ln 1979a numberof new ARINC Characteristics (700 series) were adoptedby the AEEC. The systems DME, ILS, VOR, includeradio altimeter, covered p.a. amp.,v.h.f. comms,weatherradar ADF, Selcal., detailthe These characteristics and ATC transponder. in the 1980s. for radioequipment airlinestandards between many rninordifferences Thereareobviously and somemajor onessuch new and old characteristics of DABS into the ATC asthe incorporation is transponder.However,the most significantchange for both system the switch to serialdigital signals of the digital outputsand control. The details information transfersystem(DITS) are givenin 429-2published I March 1979. ARINC Specification 453 Additionalinformationis givenin projectpapers (VHS) bus and digital and72A,the very high speed (DFS) respec tively, functionselection frequencyi papers had not beenadoptedby May these although 1979. for the transfer the standards The DITS describes Aircraft of digitaldatabetween systenls, not just all avionics I / radio. Data flow is one way only, via twistedand Aircraft pairsof wiresat a rateof l00K bits per shielded A-L ( K b s )o r l 2 t o l 4 ' 5 K b s( 1 0 0 0K b s f o r V H S second on 32-bitwords. The is based bus). The system geometry threat Fig.13.10 Collision on a voltage logic for eachbit is based encoding 'Hi' we will briefly consider transition, of a bit of a system a stateat the beginning As an example 'Null' statebeforethe end of was workable as long ago as which to a CAS Bendix returning the interval a'Lo'to an airborne clock, logic'l'similarly involves ts 1969. The system t h a ti n t e r v arle p r e s e na '0'. The transmitter voltage while on the ground 'Null' represents a logic computerand transmitter-receiver of the system is and clock accuracy syncl.rroniz-ation l e v e la sr e+ 1 0! I V . 0 1 0 ' 5 V a n d- 1 0 1 I V f o r t h e ' H i ' , ' N u l l ' a n d' L o ' s t a t e s respectively. of an atonticclock. Duringa 3 s by means assured ways:binary lnlornrationis codedin one oi several intervalknown as att epoclt,eachparticipating fractional each duringone of 2000 time-slots aircrafttransmits codeddecirlal(b.c.d.).two's contplement Standards the rest of 1'5 ms duration:while one is transmitting binary(b.n.r.)or the International No. 5. Codel'or graphics (lSO) alphabet of altitudeand other data(e.g. organisation listen. Transmission data suchas yet Discrete defined. been rnade. not is has data heading) 'code'. Wordsare all aircraftsynchronized on/off switching is simplya I -bit The groundstationkeeps words, and hence by a gapof at least4 bits between of transmission synchronized in time;and frequency voltage there is no fact that the propagation by time and gap from is recognized a range rnaybe measured out b1'one parity is carried rate fiom Dopplershift. Thusr ntay be transition.Errcirchecking range 'bit parity is odd. i.e. tlte total per word, the required onceduringeachepochfor all reporting calculated on the to the pilot based numbeo r t ' ' l s ' i n a w o r di s o d d . aircraft. Commands of eachword is label. of the risk are: aircraftabove, evaluation The basicorganization computer's t o c l i m b , source/destinatic-rn identifier(SDI), dirtafield. t e l o w ,p r e p a r e prepare t o d i v e ,d i v e .a i r c r a f b are givenby m clinrband l'ly level. The comrnands sign/statu s a t r i xa n df i n a l l y ,b i i 3 2 , p a r i t l . T h e f i r s t o a labeluhich w o r d a r ea s s i g n etd le sn o n ei n d i c a t o r . 8 b i t so f e a c h back-lighte d g e n do in the data fleld, the informationcontained identifies be adoptedwill Any CASwhich may eventually d i s tance s,e l e c t e d D M E f r e q u e n c y , v . h . f . c o m m . e.g. but be like the Bendixsystem, not necessarily t h e S DIwhere f o r l 0 a r e u s e d 9 a n d e t c . B i t s c o u r s e . discussed and techniques someof the tactors certainly systemof a to a specific to be directed a word needs will be relevant. above 230

multi-systeminstallationor the sourcesystemof a multlsystem installationneedsto be identified. The words (lSO for alphanumeric SDI is not available alphabetNo. 5) or where the bits are usedaspart of the data field when the resolutionrequireddemands matrix it. Bits 30 and 3l areusedfor the sign/status no t, to, test, right, North, which represents wordsareusedto computeddata,etc. If several too long for one word then the transmit a message signistatusmatrix is usedto indicatefinal word, word, controlword or initial word. intermediate ideasare best illustratedby examples: above The l. ADF. typicalword 0 0 0 I I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0I I 0 I 0 0 0 0 l 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 '0 The label 0 0 I I 0 I 0' is followed by SDI '0 0' the all-call code. Data field bits I I ,12 and l3 areb.f.o. - on/off (0 for off), ADF/antenna Data respectively. mode (0 for ADF) and spare bits with select field bits 14-29arethe frequency ' bits 23-26the bits 21-29the 1000kHz selectiod, 1 0 0k H z , b i t s l 5 - 1 8 t h e I k H z a n db i t 1 4 t h e shownreading 0'5 kHz selection.The example f r o m b i t 1 4 .i s 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 l 0 l 0 l + 800 +1000 + l0 0.5+5 = l8l5'5 kHz. herebut in any case is not applicable Sign/status 00 canbe readaspositive.The final bit is setto 0 to make total one count odd.

distancewith the most significant bit (m's.b') of (m.s.c.)beingbit the most significantcharacter back from bit 29 reading shown 29. The eximple is 1 0 0 0 0 l l 0 0 l l l 0 1 0 o l 0 l 2 5 7 8 6 nautical miles are generated parameters DITS words reprcsenting DME interrogators' in units such asVOR receivers, etc. and will terminatein navigationcomputers' display driversor indicators. The rate of of suchwords varies,for examplethe transmission is 6 times per minimum rate for DME distance secondwhile radio height is 20 times per second; (l) DITS radio controlwordssuchasexamples per second' times 9 transmitted (2) aboveare and

Remarks Concluding

with currentradiosystems This book hasconsidered of a rangeof technologies.The final examples in which to showdirections chaptir hasattempted see will certainly We progress. may radio systems Ut-S and most probablyADSEL/DABS' Flight decks but a displays will makefull useof flexibleelectronic and instruments conventional of minimalcomplement indefinitely. will remain controls will probably remainanalogue Modulatingsignals sinceto go digital would systems, in propagating scaleto accommodate frequency requlreishifi up the Eventhough the required. bandwidths the wider tYPicalword 2. ATC transPonder, sigrals,they will will be analogue basisof the systems 'go digital'asearlyaspossible 0 0 l I I 0 l I 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0I in the circuitry' 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 beyond that which we Cornputlngpower will increase order are The datafield bits I l'17 in ascending the-power is already, happened has this can employ; on/off (0 for on), inertial altitudereporting there,all we needto do is think of the applications' computer, management system/flight reference after which there will be yet more computingpowei' for future i.e. IRS/FMCinputswhich arereserved the questionmark is ov-er the biggest Perhaps use(0 for IRS),ident. on/off (1 for on)' altitude future of VOR/DME asthe standard ICAO (0 for No. l), IFR/VFR which select datasource arev'l'f'/Omega' replacements aid. Possible navigational for future use(0 for IFR) and X-pulse Satniv. in one form or another'or evenLoran C; the is reserved on/off (0 for off). Datafield bits l8 to 29 beingthat they arelo.ng.range' of these advantages codefor Mode A replies pilot-selected represent is an aircraftfitted with a A poisiblescenario 2l-23 with bits l8-20 the D codegroupselect, and positionfixing nav' varietyof deadreckoning the C,24-26 the B and 21'29 the A codegroup aidsin a minimumnumberof boxesbackedup by back from shownreading powerful select.The example immensely groundtracking, accurate datalink' bit 29 is and a corpprehensive groundcomputers 0 0 r 0 l 0 l 0 l 0 0 0 CAS and MLS of the required u -ultiple ivith r a 0 =code 5 I J the aircraftof the future couldgo from accuracy of the pilot ramp t; rampwithout the intervention (b.c.d.) 3. DMEdistance be could This perfect safety. almost andln I I I 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 1 be cost prohibitive; would but now, developed 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 and anywaywho wantsa robot flying the'plane? for theDME exclusively datafieldis used

The

Recommended reading

As the reader is probablyawarethereis a dearthof books on avionics;those that exist and concern themselves with aircraft radio are perhapsa little dated.In contrastthe numberof booksivailableon electronics, computers and radiois staggering. I have chosento list most books availableon avionicswhich I think are worthy of the reader's attention. For sources of background materialon basic theoryof electronics and radio the reader is perhaps best advised to, visit a suitablelibrarv or bookshop and pick out thosewhich seemto suit him or her best. Sincethis is a fbrmidabletask. I have listedsomebookswhich I think may be useful. A briefnote is givenasa guideto contentand level of each.

A very good book but the emphasis is on operational useso the theorygivenis brief. Complementar ty o t h i sb o o k . 8. S.E.T.Taylor and H.A. parnrer. Grountl Stutlies for Pilots. Volurne l, Radio Aids. Granada ( 3 r d e d i r i o n ,1 9 7 9 ) . Covers the needs of prospective contnrercial pilots in so far asthe useof raclio aidsis concerned. 9. J.L. McKinleyand R.D. Brenr. Electricitt, and Electronics for Aerospatc Vchit.les.MeGruw-t{ill ( 2 n de d i t i o n t ,9 7 l ) . Covers fundamental theoryand brielly describe sv i o n i c s y s t c n ) 5B a . tsic. 10. D.C. Green,Transmissiott,st'slarrs, ll. pitnran l. M. Kayton and W.R. Fried (Editors\, Avionics (1978'1. NavigationSystems.John Wiley and Sons(1969). I l . D . C .G r e e nR , a d i oS y s t e n rl sl , . pirnran ( l97g). Authoritative book which.isstill of 1 2 . D . C .G r e e nR , a d i oS l t s t e m s I l,l . P i t r r r a ( n1 9 7 9 ) . considerable interest.Covers 1 3 . D . ( ' . G r e e nE , l e c t r o n i c s , l l .p i t m a n( l 9 7 g ) . radio and non-radio aids. Postgraduate 1 4 . D . C .G r e e nL , ' l e t , t r o t i l c ' s , l lp engineer l .i t r n a n level. (197g). 2. G.E. Beck(Editor),Novigation yan o l ' G r e e n ' s A l l Systerns. b o o k sa r ew e l l w r i t t e na n d Nostrand Reinhold( 1971\. i l l u s t r a t e dT . e c h n i c i aln evel. Similarto Kayton and Fried.alsoconsiders 1 5 . J . E .F i s h e r a n d I l . B . G a t l a n dL , lec.tntnic fs ritm marinenavigation systems.Equallyworthy Theoryinkt Prac'tice. I)ergrrnon ( lrrd ediiion. but not, perhaps, ascomprehensive t9761. sinceit has almost300 l'ewer pages. Mainly concerned with design tif circuits. 'l9791. 3. B. Kendal. Mqnualof Atktnics. Granada U n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d p r a c t i s i ne gn g i n e e r s . ' Biased towardsair tral'ficcontrol aspects 16. G.A. Streitrnatter of arrdV. I:iore.Microprocessors aircraltoperations. Complementary to this Thcoryanl Applit'utr,lrs.Reslorr ( lg79). book. O n eo f t h c b e s to l ' a r c c e n t n u n r b eo r f books 4. E.H.J. Pallert,Airuaft ElectricalSystems. on mlcroprocessors. Pitrnan ( 2 n d e d i t i o n .1 9 7 9 ) . f 7 . A . J .B a d e n F u l l e rM , i c r o w a v e sp .ergamon 5. E.H.J.Pallett, (lnd edition. Aircraft Instruments. pitman lt)7t)1. ( 2 n d e d i t i o n .t q Sl ) . Llndergradua le lc 'vel. U s e f ud l escription sf o 6. E.H.J.Pallett, Automatic Flight Control. c o l n p ( ) n e na ts n dd e v i c e s . ( 1979)'. Granada 18. Telec'onntwic'utlons S-r,s/enls Llnits, l-6. Course All of Pallett's booksarewell written with (-hairrnan : . S m o l . T h e O p e nU n i v e r s i t y press G goodillustrations.Very usefulto avionics ( l(r76). engineers. May be considered ascomDanion 19. L.' lect rrtrnag,t ct i( s and L'Iect ron ics. Cou rse volumes t o t h i sb o o k . Chairrnan J:. J . S p a r k e sT . h e O p e nU n i v e r s i t l , 7. N.H. Birch and A.E. Branrson P r e s(sl 9 7 J) . , night BriefingJ'rtr .&/ors, Volume3,Radb Aidsto Air Nayisatiort. Both l5 and l(r arehighlyrecomnrended as Pitman ( 4 t h e d i r i o n .1 9 7 9 ) . course ntatcrial.

232

I am sureI have omitted many books which are equalin merit to those listed. The editions referred to ( I st unless otherwiseindicated) are those with which I am familiar; the readeris rCvisedto check that theseare the latest editions. I havenot mentioned any mathematics textbooks. but for thosewho wish to study aircraft radio systems in depth, considerable mathematicmaturitv is needed. Many books havetitles which are variations on the theme 'Mathematics,for Technicians'most of which will be useful. The Open University is againa

'

usefulsourcefor thoserequiringappliedmathematics at undergraduate level. A huge sourceof materialon avionicscomesfrom organizations which arenot publishing houses.The reader is advised to consultthe publications listsof nationalaviationauthorities, suchas the CAA and FAA, and alsoARINC and ICAO. Aircraft and equipment manufacturers producecomprehensive manuals of varyingstandards which will be consulted by the reader, asa matterof course, in the execution of his dutiesin the aircraft industrv.

83

Glossary

a.c. - Alternating current: current flow which navigation rystems. direction periodically. changes Altitude trip - A discrete signal from a radio Acquisition - The recognitionof a signal. altimeter which changes stateas the aircraft passes ACU - Antenna CouplingUnit. through a pre-determined altitude. A/D - Analogueto Digital conversion.,, a.m. - Amplitude modulation: meaningfulvariation Address- A"Brq,qp of pits which identify a particular of the amplitude of an r.f. carrier - A quantity or signalwhich varies location in memory oi'idiri'e other data sourceor Analog,analogue destination. continuouslyand represents someother ADF - Automatic Direction Finder: a systemcapable continuouslyvarying quantity;hence an analog of automaticallygivingthe bearingto a fixed radio circuit which processes suchsignals, an analog transmitter. computerwhich performsarithmetic operations on ADI - Attitude Director Indicator: an instrument suchsignals. which demands AND gate - A logic circuit which givesan output of attitude changes which, if I if, and only if, all its inputs are l. executed,cause the aircraft to fly a path determinedby radio or other sensors. Angle of cut - The anglebetweentwo hyperbolicor ADSEL - AddressSelective circularl.o.p. at their point of intersection. SSR: British development of SSR,compatiblewith DABS. Antenna,aerial - A devicespecificallydesigned to a.f.c. - Automatic frequencycontrol: automatic convertr.f. current flow to electro-magnetic tuningof a radio receiver. radiation,or vice versa. AFCS - Automatic Flight Control System. a.o.c.- Automatic overloadcontrol: a circuit which a.g.c.- Automatic gain control of a radio receiver. prevents an excessive rateoftriggeringofa AID - Aircraft InstallationDelay: the time elapsed transponder. betweentransmission and receptionin a Radio APU - Auxiliary Power Unit: a motor-generator Altimeter installationwhen the aircraft is in the fitted to an aircraft for the purposeof providing touchdownposition. ground power and startingthe main engines. Air Data Computer- A unit which senses, evaluates A/R - Altitude Reporting: automatic coded and outputs quantitiesassociated with altitude, of altitude from aircraft to ATC in an transmission airspeed, verticalspeed and Machnumber. SSRsystem. Air speed- The speedof an aircraft relativeto the air Array - A group ofregularly arranged devices, for massthrough which it is flying. example, antennas or memorycells. AIS - Audio Integrating System: the electronic Panel. ASP - Audio Selection interfacebetweencrew members and audiosources Associated identity - The identification of co-located and destinations. VOR and DM!. beacons by synchronized Algorithm - A sequence which alwaysleads of steps transmissions of the same Morsecodecharacters of a conclusion. from eachbeacon. - Displayedcharacters Alphanumerics which may be Astable- Havingno stablestate. lettersor numerals or both. ATC - Air Traffic Control. Altimeter- Pneumatic: a pressure measuring device ATE - AutomaticTest Equipment. calibrated in feet;alsobarometric, pressure and ATU - AntennaTuning Unit. servo altimeter. Radio:a system which measures A-typedisplay- A c.r.t. displayin which the timebase the heightof an aircraftabovethe earth'ssurface. deflection is horizontal and the signal deflection is Altitude hole - [,oss vertical. of signal in an f.m.c.w.radardue to round trip traveltime beingequal to the Automatic standby- seeSignalcontrolled search. modulationperiod:of importance in Doppler 234

:!

.d
- l

:{

Backlash - PleyGdfrdrani:l linkage such as scannerdriles, Balun - Balancedto unbelancedtransformer: used. for example. rn conncstint a co.axial feeder (unbalanced) to a (xntrc fed half wavedipole antenna(balancedl. - The referencepressurelevql of a Barometric di barometricdtimeter asset by the pilot. Base- The integral value of the number of sym[ols in a countrngsystem. The central regionof a bipolar transistor. Baseline- The line joining two ground stations in a hyperbolicnavigationsystem. b.c.d. - Binary coded decimal: a positional code in which eachdecimaldigit is binary coded as a 4-bit word. Beamsoftening - Progressive reduction in gain of demandsignalchannelin landing systems. Bearing- The angle,measuredin a clockwise direction,betweena reference line through the aircraft and a line joining the aircraft and the object to which bearingis being measured.The reference line may point to magneticor true Norfh or be in line with the aircraft'slongitudinal axisfor magnetic,true or relativebearingrespectively. Beat frequency - The difference frequency resulting when two sinusoids are mixed in a nori linear device. b.f.c. - Beat frequencyoscillator: an oscillator,the output of which is mixed with an incoming c.w. signalin order to producean audiblebeat frequency. Bidirectional - Refersto an interfaceport or bus line which can transferdata in either direction. Binary number system - A counting system using 2 as its baseand employing the symbols0 and l. Binary signal- A signalwhich can take on one of two states, one lepresenting the bit 0, the other the bit l. Bipolar transistor - A solid state device utilizing two typesof current carriers:holesand electrons; capable of amplifying or switchingfunctionspvhen usedin suitablecircuits. Bistable- Havingtwo stablestates. Bit - A singlebinary digit, i.e. the symbol 0 or l. BITE - Built In Test Equipment. Blade antenna- A rigid quarter wave antenna,the bladeshapeof which givesoperationover a wide band of frequencies; electricalcomponehtsmay be housedwithin the blade for the purposeof improvingthe performance. BNR - Signalrepresenting a binary number. Bonding- Electrical:interconnecting metal parts with conductorsin order to eliminatepotential

joining parts to one differences.Mechanical: anotherby methodsother than thoseinvolving bolts,screws and rivets. Booleanalgebra- The algebra of two state,or binary, variables. Buffer - A circuit used for isolating or matching purposes. Bug - A fault, usually in software. A mark, fixed or set,on a meter face. Bus - One or more conductorsusedas an information path. A conductorusedto cany a particularpower supply to varioususer equlpments. Byte - A specificnumber of bits (usually 8) treated asa group: 8-bit word. c - Standardnotation for the speedofpropagation of e.m.waves in freespace: per c = 3 x 108 metres sec= 186000 milesper sec= 162000 n.m. per sec. CADC - CentralAir Data Computer. - An evacuated Capsule airtight containerusedto detect changes in pressure. of a radio beam suchas occurs Capture- The sensing in ILS. CAS - CollisionAvoidanceSystem. Indicator:an instrument CDI - Course Deviation which presents steering signals to the pilot which, the aircraft to follow a particular if obeyed,cause flight path. CDU - Control DisplayUnit. Cell - A circuit or deviceusedfor storingone character or word, the locationbeinggivenby a particular address. A single chemical source of electromotiveforce(e.m.f.). of interconnected electronic Chip - A collection componentsformed on a singlesiliconwafer. joint which.by Chokeflange- A type of waveguide gives of a half-wave stub, a good use short-circuited electrical across thejoint. connection Warning System. CIWS- CentralInstrument carrier Clarifier- Tuningcontrol for the inserted for s.s.b. reception. needed oscillator locations in a Clear- To placeone or more storage particular state,usuallyO. circuit in a system; Clock - The basicsynchronizing the waveformfrom sucha circuit. Clutter- Unwantedradarreturns. conductors cable- A pair of concentric Co-axial by an insulating material and usedfor separated of r.f. currents up to about line transmission 4 GHz. Code - A systemof symbolsand rulesusedfor letters represe nting informationsuchasnumbers, and control signals.

2!F

Colocation- VHF navigationand DME beacons sharingthe samegeographical site; such beacons will operateon pairedfrequencies and use associate identity. Commutator - A mechanical or electronicrotating contactdevice. Compass rose- A circular scalemarked in degrees and usedfor indicatingaircraft heading. Computer - A machineor systemwhich performs arithmeticand logicalfunctions;maybe analogue or digital,electronic or mechanical. Contour - Blankingof the strongest signals in a weatherradar. Control bus - A bus usedto carry a variety of control signals. CPU - CentralProcessing Unit: a devicecapableof executinginstructionsobtainedfrom memory or other sources, a term often usedfor a microprocessor. Crossmodulation - Modulation of a desiredsignalby an unwantedsignal. Crosstrack deviation- The perpendicular distance betweenaircraft position and the desiredtrack. c.r.t. - Cathoderay tube: an evacuated thermionic devicewhich hasan electrongun at one end and a fluorescent screen at the other;the electronbeam from the gun writes a pattern on the screen which is a function of analogue signals appliedto the device. Crystal- A frequencysensitive deviceusedto determineand maintain the frequencyof oscillators or establish narrowpass or stop bands within closelimits. A point contactdiode which may find useas a mixer or rectifier in microwave systems. CVOR - Conventional VOR (beacon). CVR - CockpitVoice Recorder. c.w.-Continuous wave:continuous transmission of unmodulated r.f. duringthe time the transmitter is keyed. Cycle - One of a recurringseries of events. D/A - Digitalto Analogue conversion. DABS - Discrete Address Beacon System:American development of SSR;compatible with ADSEL. Ilata - That on which a computeror processor operates; singular: datum. Databus - Usuallyeither8 or l6 bi-directional lines capableof carryinginformation to and from the CPU,memoryor interface devices. Datasavememory - A memory devicewhich does not lose the data storedin it when power is switched off. May requirea battery. poweror voltage dB - Decibel:unit of relative 235

on a logarithmic scalewith multiplying measured factorsof l0 and 20 respectively. dBm - Unit of power: decibelsrelativeto I rnW. d.c. - Direct current:currentflow in one direction only. d.d.m. - Differencein depth of modulation: refersto the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulating frequencies used in ILS. Deadreckoning- Calculationof position using vehiclespeedor acceleration, time in motion, direction and the known co-ordinates of the initial position. The absoluteerror in a dead reckoning systemincreases, without bound, with distance flown. Deccanavigator- A c.w. hyperbolic navigation system. Decimalnumber system- A counting systemusing l0 asits baseand employingthe symbols O,1,2, 3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Decometer- A phasemeter usedin the Decca navigation system; threeareemployed:purple, red and green. fletector - An electroniccircuit which de-modulates amplitude or pulse-modulated waveforms. D/F - DirectionFinding. DH - DecisionHeight: the height at which the runway shouldbe in view when on an approach. Differentiator - A devicewhich givesan output proportionalto the rate of changb of input. Digital - A systemor deviceusingdiscretesignals to particular valuesof a varying or fixed represent quantity numerically; a signal in sucha system. Diode- A semiconductor or thermionicdevice which preventsflow of current in one direction. Dipole, half wave - An antennaconsistingof two lengths co-linear of conductoreachone quarter wavelength long at the desiredfrequencyof operation. The two polesmay form a 'V' shapeif a more omni-directionalpolar diagramthan a figure of eight is required. - Capability of readingdata from a Direct access particularaddress in memory without havingto access throughpreceding storage area. Disc - Storagedevicegivinglargecapacity and almost direct access.' signal- A signalcharacterized Discrete by being either'on'or'off'. Discriminator- A circuit which convertsfrequency jnto amplitude variations. or phasedifferences DITS - Digital Informition Transfer System: A R I N C4 2 9 . DME - DistanceMeasuring Equipment: a secondary radarsystemcapableof measuring the slant range of a fixed transponder.

Doppler effect - The changein frequencynoted , 100 ft. nearest Programmable ROM: a ROM when a wave sourceis moving relativeto an EPROM - Erasable observer. equipment, and which, usingsuitable canbe erased Doppler navigation system * A dead reckoning re-programmed. systemconsisting of a Dopplerradarand a computer which, with headinginformation from a Fan-in- The numberof inputsthat canbe handled, compass, calculates the position of the aircraft. usuallyby a logiccircuit. Doppler radar - A primary radar systemwhich Fan marker - A position fixing aid for en route utilizes the.Dopplereffect to measure alsoZ marker. two or more airways navigation: of groundspeed, velocity, Fan-out- The numberof circuitswhich canbe driven drift angle, longitudinal usuallyof a logiccircuit. lateralvelocity,verticalvelocity. from an output terminal, voltage than Doppler shift - The differencebetweentransmit and Fasterect- The application of a larger . receivefrequencies in a systemsubjectto the for normalrunningto a gyro in orderto required Dopplereffect. operating speed. reduce the time takento achieve Doppler spectrum- A band of Doppler shift a solidstatedevice f.e.t. - Field effect transistor: (c.f. bipolar frequencies produced by a Dopplerradarwith a carrier utilizingone type of curretrt finite beamwidth. transistor). DPSK - Differential Phase Shift Keying: a form of Fetch - The part of a digital computercycle during digitalrnodulation reversal in which a phase is which the locationof the next instruction the binary digit 'l'. indicates is takenfrom memory that instruction determined, thift angle- The anglebetweenheadingand track. into a register. and entered wanted or rejects d.s.b.- Doublesideband: transmission of both side Filter - A circuit which selects of frequency. bandsof an a.m.wave,the carrierbeingsuppressed. unwantedsignals, usuallyon the basis Duplexer - A devicewhich permits sharingof one Firmwave- Instructionsstoredin ROM and hence in not easilyamended. circuit or transmission channelby two signals states, one of which hastwo discrete particularuseof one antenna and for reception Flag- A signal failure. which (low) usuallyindicates transmission. DVOR - Doppler VOR (beacon). Flagbit - The softwareequivalentof a flip flop for example, to of tube: a type c.r.t. which may be usedasan indicator, d.v.s.t. Directview storage or end of a pieceof data. indicatethe beginning with a high intensity display. Flare - The final phaseof a landingduring which the Dynamic RAM - A type of RAM in which data is reduced with height. rdte of descent storedwill fade unlessperiodicallyrefreshed. through air between Flashover - Discharge which a largepotentialexists. across conductors EADI - Electronic ADI: similarlyECDI and EHSL EAROM - ElectricallyAlterable ROM:seeEPROM. Flight level - With a pneumaticaltimeterreference m b a ro r 2 9 . 9 2i n . H gt h e i n d i c a t e d s e ta t 1 0 1 3 . 2 5 Earth - seeGround. employing height,to the nearest hundredfeet,is thc flight Logic:logiccircuits ECL - Emitter Coupled to mode .bipolar transistors givingvery fast operation, level;thereply from an ATC Transponder C interrogations. fan-in and very good fan-out. reasonable of e.m.f.,usually Flight log - A devicewhich recordsan aircraft's e.h.t.- Extra high tension:a source plane,for example,a flight path in the horizontal in kilovolts,usedasa supplyfor c.r.t.'s measured map. power transmitters. roller and high often and Flip flop - A circuit havingtwo stablestates, Elapsedtime - The time betweentransmission in The circuit remains to asa bi-stable. referred reception in a radarsystem. - A property of devices which two triggers being Electroluminescent one stateuntil triggered, A to revertto the originalstate. convert electricalenergyto light. required waveswhich include may be referredto as a flip flop. e.m. wayes- Electromagnetic mono-stable representation of a Flowchart- A diagrammatic radio and light waves. which are often algorithmic. of operations e.m.f. Electromotiveforce. sequence variation modulation:meaningful f.m. - Frequency Enable- A signalwhich allowsa circuit to give an of the frequencyof a carrier. output; alternativelya gate(signal). Fruit - UnwantedSSR replies. Encodingaltimeter - A pneumaticaltimeterwith a of parallelcoded output of9 to I I bits representing Frequencypairing - The permanentassociation in different systems suchasVOR/DME frequencies the aircraft'sheight abovemean sealevel to the

237

and Localizer/GlidesloPe. Freeze- Not allowing updating of a weather radar picture. deflection. f.s.d. - Full scale Garbling - Receivedsignalsoverlappingin time. on Gate - A circuit, the output of which depends certaininput conditionsbeingmet; for example AND, OR, NAND, NOR gates.A switching waveform. The regionof an f.e.t. which controls the output current. Gimbal - A frame in which a gyro is mounted so as to allow freedomof movementabout an axis to the gyro spin axis. perpendicular Glidepath/glideslope- The vertical plane approach path to a landingsite. That part of ILS which providesverticalguidance. GPWS- Ground Proximity WarningSystem. Gray code - A one bit changecode. Grey region- A condition of uncertainty. Ground - A point of zeropotential;alsoearth. which completelyreflects Ground plane - A surface e.m. wavesand which, at the frequencyof interest, asif it extendsto infinity in all directions. behaves Ground speed- The speedof an aircraft projectedon to the earth'ssurface. Ground wave - A radio wave which follows the earth'ssurface. Gunn diode - A solid statedeviceutilizing the bunchingof current carriersand finding ' applicationasan oscillatorin microwavesystems. gyro - A spinningmassfree to rotate Gyroscope, to or both of two axesperpendicular one about one anotherand the axis of spin. In the absenieof externalforcesthe spin axis direction is fixed in space.

Hexadecimalnumber system - A counted system using l6 asits baseand employingthe symbols A ,, B , C , D , E , F . o,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 togetherwith vocabulary, A language High level rules,in which eachstatement grammatical machinecode instructions to several corresponds tedious; leSs so making the task of programming ATLAS, FORTRAN, are BASIC, examples PASCAL. etc. Hot mic. -'A microphonewhich is permanentlylive of crew operatedswitch positions; irrespective live output is fed to the CVR. HSI ' Horizontal Situation Indicator: an instrument and v.h.f. displayinginformation from the compass navigationaids,the latter being in the form of which, in the caseof VOR, relate deviationsignals on the sameinstrument. to a courseselected A meansof navigationusing navigation Hyperbolic systemof hyperboliclines definedby a co-ordinate ground basedradio transmitters.

i.c. - Integratedcircuit: a devicecontaining fabricatedas an electroniccircuitsinseparably integralpart of the deviceitself; often referredto as a chip. i.f.- Intermediatefrequency:the fixed frequencyat which most of the amplificationand selection receiver. takesplacein a superhetrodyne IFF - Identification Friend or Foe: military version of SSR. IFR - Instrument Flight Rules: apply when VFR are excludedby virtue of flying in controlled airspace or lack of visibility. IIS - InstrumentLandingSystem:the current standardICAO approachaid. transit time diode: Impatt diode - Impact avalanche biasedto its a silicon p-n junction reverse to act as a - Electricalverificationthat a data threshold;can be arranged avalanche Handshake in microwavecircuits,henceits resistance negative transferhastaken place. use in oscillators. Hard data - Data which remainsin memory with - The total oppositionto the flow of Impedance power removed. varies with impedance current;in general Hardware-- The sum total of componcnts of a system frequency. which havea physicalexistence. in.Hg - Inchesol mercury: a unit of pressure an Hard uV - Hard micro volts: the voltageacross the height of a column of mercury measurement; load. open circuit beingmeasured; by the pressure supported Headup display- Equipmentwhich allows mbar= I standard 29.92 in.Hg= 1013.25 to the pilot information to be visuallypresented at meansealevel. i.e. the pressure atmosphere, while looking through the windscreen. particularcircuit prevents,a which A signal Inhibit of the aircraft nose direction tail to Heading The from performingits function. in degrees clockwise axismeasured longitudinal INS - Inertial NavigationSystem:a non radio or true North. from eithermagnetic navigationaid which computesthe aircraft'sposi Height ring The ground return from a vertical accele' tion by deadreckoningusingthe measured gives a bright height in a WeatherRadar sidelobe platform. gyro stabilized of an airborne ration the origin. p.p.i. on centred the on ring 238

Lenc - A region bounded by lines of equal phasein a trctmction - Coded rnformation which causes the Deccaor Omeganavigationsystems. computer to perform an operationusuallyon data latch - A circuit that may be locked into one of two which forms part of the at an address available particularstableconditions. instruction. lnstruction set - The sum total of instructions which Leading edge- The edgeof a pulse which occurs first edge. in time; cf. lagging can be executedby a particularcomputer. leakage - Unwantedcouplingbetweentransmit and lntegrator - A device,the output of which is receive antennas. proportional to the sum of past inputs. diode LED - Light Emitting Diode:'a semiconductor Intensity Modulation - Variation of the velotity of biased. forward when light which emits as to a cause the electronbeamin a c.r.t. so valiation in intensity of the Limiter - A circuit which limits the voltageexcursior corresponding of a waveform. of the display. brightness Interface- The point at which two parts of a system Linear array - A one-dimensionalarray of antennas to producea beam which is narrow in arranged or two systems meet. one plane,for example,a slotted waveguide. lntprferometer- An antennaarray, togetherwith the of measuring l.o. - Local oscillator:the circuit usedto provide an phasediscriminators, capable output which is mixed with an incomingr.f in directionof arrivalof an e.m.wave. order to producethe i.f. in a superhetrodyne lnterlace Time multiplexing of modesof in radar system; receiver. in a secondary interrogation in particularmodesA and C may be interlaced Load - A devicewhich drawscurrent; to connect sucha device. SSR. part of3 secondary Localizer- That part of ILS givingazimuth guidance. Interrogator- The independent binary radarsystem. Logic circuit - A circuit which processes with the rulesof Boolean of the executionof a in accordance signals lntemrpt - The suspension out an usedin digitalsystems. algebra;extensively currentroutinewhile a computercarries table - A circuit, the output of which is the alternativeroutine; the signalwhich triggerssuch L,ook-up to the input which function valuecorresponding anactron. a ROM which, for the argument;usually represents I/O - lnput-Output. or a S)'stem:the heart of INS' example,might storethe sine(function values) IRS - Inertial Reference (arguments). angles different joining earth's of points on the number large those Isodop The line of a coil of Loop antenna-' An antenltaconsisting e.m.waves. from which reflected surface wire, usuallywound on a ferritecore,which, originatingfrom an airbornetransmitter,suffer the magneticfield ideally, reactsonly to the changing Dopplershift. same loop antenna or an Omega ADF wave; an an e.m. in perpendicular coils. two mutually in has employed frequency; variation of Jitter Random l . o . p .- L i n e o f p o s i t i o n . DME and MADGE in orderthat wantedreplies l.oran - Long rangeaid to navigation:a pulsed may be recognized. LoranA positionfixing system; hyperbolic LoranC - current,Loran D - short obsolete, Key - To turn on a radiotransmitter. rangeversionof Loran C (Loran B - never Keyboard- A devicewhich allowsan operatorto the keysor operational). informationinto a computer; inputor LSA diode - Limited Space- chargeAccumulation characters alphanumeric switches may represent diode:similarto Gunn diode. functions. dedicated bit in a binaryword- Lower l.s.b.- Leastsignificant Klystron - A thermionic deviceemployingvelocity. of an a.m.transmission the sideband sideband: of beamand capable of an electron nrodulation than the carrier. frequency of lower which is oscillatingor amplifying continuouslyat a largenumber of Integration: Scale Large ISI frequencies. microwave i.c., circuits(usually1000or more)on a single Knot -- The unit of speedusedin air and marine MSI (medium)and VLSI m.p.h. similarlySSI(small), I knot = I nautical navigation: (very large). Laggingedge- The edgeof a pulsewhich occurslast Lubber line - A referenceline againstwhich a movlng edgeif the pulseis scaleis measured. in time, i.e.the right-hand a time or drawnagainst viewedon an oscilloscope to the right. scale increasing

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- The basicinstructions,in binary Machinelanguage of a carrierwave in order to impress characteristics by a computer;maybe written code,executed informationon it. down in hexadecimal Monostable- A deviceor circuit with one stable or octal code. condition to which it will return, after a specified MADGE - MicrowaveAircraft Digital Guidance delay,when disturbed. Equipment: a secondary radarsystemwith civil Morsecode - Combinationsof dots and dashes applicationasan approachaid to offshore to lettersof the alphabet and to numerals. assigned platforms. FET: an Magnetron- A thermionic deviceemployingvelocity MOSFET- Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor f.e.t.wherethe gateconnection is insulated from modulation of an electronbeamin a magneticfield the drain to sourcechannelby an oxide of silicon. and capableof oscillatingat microwavefrequencies - Maximumpermissible m.p.e.l. exposure level:in with very high power output for short periods. relation to microwaveradiation. Magslip A four wire synchroresolver commonly sequence usedto resolve a timebase waveforminto sine and MP mode - Multipulsemode: a transmission which allowslane ambiguities to be resolved in a cosinecomponentswith respectto the azimuth DeccaNavigation System. angularposition of a radarscanner. m.s.b.- Most significantbit in a binary word. Main bang - The transmission from a pulsedradar. m.s.l.- Meansealevel. Main lobe The predominantcigar-shaped part of a MTL - Minimum TriggeringLevel; the signal directional polar diagram. antenna amplituderequired to initiatean action;of Marker beacon- A radio aid transmittinga vertical in secondary significance radarsystems. directionalbeam so allowinga pilot to fix his Multiplexing - Transmittingmore than one signal position on an app.roach path or airway. over a singlelink; signals may be separated in time mbar - Millibar:a unit of pressure measurement; frequency. or 1013.25mbar = I standard atmosphere i.e.the pressure Multivibrator - A circuit which can be rn one of two at meansealevel. states,neither,one or both of which may be stable, Memory - A devicervhich storesinformation for monostableand bistable future use. henceastable. Microcomputer- A contpletedigital computing multivibrators. system the hardware of which comprises a NAND gate - A logic circuit which givesan output of microprocessor and other LSI circuitssuchas 0 if, and only if, a.llits inputs are l. memoryand input/outputports;a single chip with NDB - Non-DirectionalBeacon:a radio transmitter circuitscapable ol' providing control.arithmetic/ at a known geographical site for useby ADF. logicoperations. nlentoryand input/output. - Representation logic Negative of the bit I by a lowMicrophone, mic. - A transducer which converts voltageand the bit 0 by a high voltage. soundwaves to electrical signals. n.m. - Nauticalmile: the lengthof a minute of arc ot - A chip which provides Microprocessor the control longitudeon the equator;approximately6076 ft and arithmetic/logic operations required by a o r 1 8 5 2m . digitalconrputer; a chip caprbleof processing Noisefigure - The s.n.r.at the input of a receiver informationin digitaltbrrn in accordance with a dividedby the s.n.r.at the'output:a measure of codedand storedsetof instructions in order to receivey,'noisiness'. c o n t r o lt h e o p e r a t i o n o l ' o t h e rc i r c u i t r yo r Nor\-retumto zero - A binary signalwhich makesa equlpment. only when the bit I needs to be transition Microstrip - Transntission linesand p3i\ive represented. components formedbv depositingmetal srripsot' Non-volatilemembry - A memory that holds data suitable shapes and dinrensidns on one sideof a afterpowerhasbeendisconnected. dielectric substrate. the other sideof which is NOR gate - A logic circuit which givesan cutput of I completely coatedwith metalactingas a ground if, and only if, all its inputsare0. plane. Null - A no error signalcondition in servosystems. - A.vagueterm usedto describe Microwaves radio frequencies above1000 MHz. Indicator. OBI - Omni-Bearing MLS - MicrowaveLandingSystem:replacement Selector: the controlwith for OBS- Omni-Bearing ILS. which the pilot selects the desiredVOR radial. oscillator:the circuit which provides m.o. - I\'laster Octal number system- A counting systemusing8 as the frequencyreference in a radio transmitter. the symbols 0, I , 2, 3, 4, 5 ,. its baseandemplo.,ing Modulation - Variation of one or more 6.7. 240

Omega- A c.w. hyperbolic navigationsystemgiving worldwide cover. Omnidirectionalantenna- An antennawhich radiates from all directionsequally; impossible in or receives to achievein three dimensions. Omni-station- A VOR ground transmitter. One bit drange coile : A binary code in which only with each count, for one bit in the word changes example,Gray code. One shot - A monostablemultivibrator. On-line- Refersto equipment in direct interactive communicationwith a computer. Refersto the of a systemor the installationand commissioning stateof a systemwhen operational. ONS - OmegaNavigationSystem. OBencentre- A p.p.i. display in which the radial timebase line has its origin on an arc of non zero zero n.m. range. radius,the arc representing OR gate- A logic circuit which givesan output of 0 if, and only if, all its inputs are 0. the Orrgn - A point with zero co-ordinates; illuminatedspot on the screenof a c.r.t. at the start of the timebase. (.in two or three Orthogonal- At right angles dimensional spaces). PA - Passenger Addresssystem. Power amplifier. Page- A number of words treated as a group; within bytes; for memory typically 4096 consecutive a portion of memory which can displaypurposes convenientlybe displayedon a VDU. - seeFrequencypairing. Pairedfrequencies The readingerror resultingfrom Parallaxeror viewingan instrument or display from other than headon. Parallel operation - Used by a digital systemin which one line or circuit dealswith only one bit in a word. Parity - A bit or bits addedto a group of bits such as to make the sum of all bits odd or even,hence'odd or evenparity which can be checkedfor error detection or correction. of power in p.e.p.- Peakenvelopepower: a measure sincecarrierpower cannotbe quoted systems; s.s.b. at the peakof the the r.f. power dissipated modulatingwaveform is given in specifications. of the quality index - A global measure Performance of a WeatherRadar system;relatedto maximum range. - Units or devices that operatein Peripherals with a computerbut arenot part of it; conjunction to a connected units or systems more generally, but not part of the underconsideration system system.

Phantombeacon- A waypoint, in an RNAV system based on VOR/DME, at which no actualradio exists, its positionbeingdefinedin terms beacon of bearingand distancefrom the nearestin-range beacon. - A devicewhich changes its electrical Photosensitive when exposedto light; for exarnple characteristics phototransistor. photocell,photodiode, diode:may.be PIN diode - P-type/lnsulator/N-type frequencies. power at high switch usedas a higtr - The dynamicair pressure on an Pitot pressure to the air relative by its movement aircraftcaused on both air speed it; dependent surrounding mass and staticpressure. array of antennas Planararray - A two-dimensional to producea beam which is narrow in arranged a flat plateslottedarrayas for example two planes, RadarsYstems. usedin Weather p.l.l. - Phase lock loop: a circuit which, by usinga an error signal, to generate phase discriminator so as to makeits output controlsan oscillator equal in phaseand hencefrequencyto an input or demandsignal. Polardiagram- A plot of points of equal field representation strengthwhich givesa diagrammatic properties of an antenna. of the directional Polarization- The planeof the e-fieldin an e.m. wave. to Polling- lnterrogationof circuits,units or systems to receive or determinetheir stateof readiness interruptlinesto transmitinformation;scanning by a which, if any, requireservicing determine computer. (in or out) Port - A circuit providingelectricalaccess to a system,usually a computer system. the position Positionfeedback- A signalrepresenting of the output of a positioncontrol servosystem which may be comparedwith an input or demand signalso as to producean error signal. Positionfixing - Finding the position of a vehiclein relationto a groundfeaturesuchasa radio beacon. of the bit I by a high Positivelogic - Representation and the bit 0 by a low voltage. voltage Potentiometer- A three'terminalvariableresistor; the wiper terminaland between the resistance with adjustment; varies eitherof the end terminals betweenthe end terminalsis fixed' the resistance p.p.i. - Planpositionindicator:a radardisplaywhich in a plane; positionof targets showsthe relative will be superimposed bearing on the same targets on the display if they havethe sameslant range. of positionmodulation:transmission p.p.m.- Pulse (in of position time) tEe varying by information pulseswithin a grouP' 241

Radome- A detachable aircraft nosecone'madeof dielectricmaterial;more generallyany dielectric panel or antennacover. RAM - Random Access Memory: a memory which affords immediateaccess to any location whereby information may be written in or read out. Raster- The pattern tracedby the electron beamin a c.r.t. RBI - RelativeBearingIndicator: displaysthe relativebearingof an NDB. Read- To sense information containedin some devicesuch as memory or an input port. Real time - Computation relatingto a process during the time that the process occurs;the resultsof such computation may be usedto control the relatedprocess. Refreshing- The processof restoring the chargeof capacitors which store the contentsof dynamic RAM: at intervalsof, for example,slightiy lessthan I ps cellsare automaticallyread, the resultsthen being written into the samecells. Register- A memory devicewith minimal access time usedfor the temporary storageof binary coded information; usually a collection of flip flops,onefor eachbit which can be stored. - A devicewhich can give signals Resolver representing the sine and cosineofan angle. r.f. - Radio frequency. Rho-Rho-Rho- A position fixing systemwhich relieson measurement of distanceto fixed points: rho-rhosystems giveambiguous fixes. Rho-theta- A position fixing systemwhich relieson Q+ode - A code usedin R/T operationsto identify measurement of distanceand bearingof a fixed the nature of commonly usedmessages, for point. example:QFE - atmospheric pressure at airfield Rising runway - A runway symbol on a flight level;QTE- true bearing from groundstation; director driven laterally by localizersignals and pressure QNH - atmospheric at local sealevel. verticallyby radio altimetersignals. Error: the errorintroducedin ADF RMI - Radio MagneticIndicator: an aircraft QE - Quadrantal due to re-radiation from the airframe. instrumentwhich indicatesrelativeand magnetic of the selectivityof a tuned Qfactor - A measure bearings derivedfrom VOR and ADF. circuit. RNAV - Area navigation:navigationwhich doesnot Quadrature- At right angles: a 90o phasedifference necessarily confine the aircraft to a fixed airways betweensignals. system. antenna- One of the conductorsof a Quarter-wave ROM - ReadOnlyMemory: containspermanently half wavedipole mounted on a ground planewhich storedinformation written in during manufacture; serves to 'reflect' the quarter-wave conductor so as random access is available to all stored to produce,effectively,a dipole. information. Routine - A list of correctly sequenced computer Radarmile - The time taken for an e.m. warc io instructions;the terms routine and programare travel I n.m. and back,approximately 12.36 ps. often interchangeable but the former is usually Radial - One of a set of straighthalf linesterminating appliedto a commonly usedset of instructions at a fixed point; a line of radio bearingfrom a which may be calledby other programs. 'VOR station. R/T - Radio telephony: speech communicationby Radio, radaraltimeter - seeAltimeter. modulated radio waves. 242

p.r.f. - Pulserepetition frequency: the number of pulsesper second; may be usedto quantify pulse groupsper second. Primary radar - A radar (radio detecting and ranging) systemwhich detectsthe reflectionsof its own transmissions from an uncooperative tardet. Programpins - A group of connectorpins Jomeof which may be groundedto selectparticular modes of operationof a systemfrom several options available. hogrammable - The capability of accepting data which altersthe electricalstateof internal circuitry so as to be able to perform one of several possible tasks. hogramme counter - A CPU registerwhich holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory; automaticallyincremented after a fetch cycle. hogramme, progrtrn - A set of instructions. arranged in an ordered sequence, which determine the operationscarriedout by a computer. PROM - Programmable ROM; programmed after manufactureaccordingto the user'ssilecifications; generallynot reprogrammable. p.r.p. - Pulserepetition period: the reciprocalof p.r.f. p.t.t. - Press to transmit or pressto talk. - A techniqueusedin radar Pr.rlse compression systems which allowsa relativelywide pulse to be transmitted and a narrowpulseto be processed in the videocircuits.

- In position: the conversionof known also as automatic when squitter is received; Scanconversion fronr rho-theta(angleand distance)to standby. co-ordinates X-Y (orthogonalgrid). In time: the conversion Skin effect - The tendencyof a.c. at h.f. and above to avoid the centreof a conductor so reducingthe betweenrate of receipt of data and (usually faster) useful crosssectionalareaand henceincreasing rateof display. - The process to'current flow. of causinga directionalbeam resistance Scanning througha sectorof of e.m.radiationto sweep Skywave-- A radio wave refractedback to earth by the ionosphere. of polling interrupt lines or space.The process Skywavecontamination- Receptionof a skywave devices. wavesimultaneously;an and groundor space Scott-T transformer - Used in synchro systemsfor example of multipathpropagation. three-wireto four-wire conversionor vice versa. - Memory, often on the CPU chip, in Slant range- The actual rangeof a targetin a plane Scratchpad horizontal. operationsmay which is not necessarily which data neededfor subsequent a techniqueusedin be temporarily stored. Display on which data may SLS - Side Lobe Suppression: by sidelobes. be checked beforebeingenteredinto the main SSRto preventinterrogation s.m.o.- StabilizedMasterOscillator. memory. - The process s.n.r.- Signalto noisepower ratio. leadingto acquisition. Search Soft data - Data which is lost when power is removed. Secondtrace echo An echo or return of a radar - Programs, of a languages and procedures Software which givesa falserangereadingsince transmission part of software has a no system: computer transmission receiver after a at the it arrives ' physicalexistence other than as written down on to the one givingrise to the echo. subsequent by the state paperor storedin codeasrepresented radar A radar systemwhi,chrequiresa Secondary of a signalor device. by an target;a radiolink is established cooperative - A radio wavewhich travelsin a straight Spacewave interrogator,the return or reply being suppliedby line being neither refractednor reflected. on receiptof the interrogation. a transponder - Selective Spectrum- The sum total offrequency componnts calling:automaticalertingsystem Selcal of a signal. usinga v.h.f.or h.f. groundto air link to a SPI - SpecialPositionIndicator: an additionalpulse particular aircraft or group of aircraft. - Readingdata from a particular by an SSR of r.f. which may be radiated access Sequential purposes. for identification transponder in memory havinggone through preceding address of pairs of pulsesof for Squitter - Random transmission areain order to find that address; storage for the as required beacon from a DME r.f. tape. on magnetic storage example. ' search. of signal controlled in which operation system by a digital Used Serialoperation - Singlesideband:the transmission of one s.s.b. one line or circuit dealswith all the bits in a word wave. modulated of an amplitude sideband sequentially. Radar:a secondary Surveillance Servoloop - A systemin which a signalrepresenting SSR- Secondary transponder an airborne employing system with an radar for back comparison output is fed the to identity informationrelating which transmits or error the amplifieddifference, input reference, by is available andbearing and/or altitude;range beingusedto control the output. signal, a directional time and using elapsed measuring indicator Sevensmall bar-shaped Seven-segment interrogation. in a figure of eight pattern, arranged light sources or electricalstatewhich is of the Stable- A mechanical particular combinations suclithat activating aftera disturbance. restored to be displayed' automatically a character sources causes seven which stores information Memory used memory commonly Static maskc.r.t. A type of c.r.t. Shadow not needrefreshing. in sucha way that it doe's for colourdisplays. - The air pressure due to still air; serially Static pressure Shift register- A registerwhich is accessed with height. to serial decreases can giveparallel both in and out; variations time control:variationof receiver s.t.c.- Sensitivity l onversion. o r s e r i atlo p a r a l l ec gain so asto makethe output amplitude either with time side frequencies. of Those bands Sidebands signal of the received of the range producedby modulatioit. independent of the carrierfrequency, - Thosepartsof a directional polar antenna source. Sidelobe - A smallprogram or routinewhich may Subroutine eithersideof the main lobe. diagram program or routine to perform larger by a be called to Signalcontrolled search Allowing DME operation. specific only a transmitting and searching hence commence

,ar(

243

Track - The actual direction of movementof an aircraft projectedonto the earth and measured in degrees clockwisefrom magrretic Nsrth. Track angleetror - The angulardifferencebetween track and desired track. - A devicewhich convertsinput energy Transducer ofone kind into output energyof anotherkind which bears a known relationto the input. - The triggeredpart of a secondary Transponder radarsystem. t.r.f. - Tuned radio frequency: a basicradio receiver in which selectionand amplification of the modulatedsignalis carriedout in the r.f. stages, there being no i.f. Trigger- A signal,usually a pulse,which initiatesa circuit action. Tri-statebuffer - A buffer which can assume one oi three states:0 or I when requiredto feed a load, high impedance otherwise;the high impedance stateexistsin the absence of an enablesignal. TRSB - Time Referenced ScanningBeam: adopted by the ICAO as the techniqueto be employedby MLS. TTL - Transistor-Transistor Logic: logic circuits employing bipolar transistors fabricatedon i.c.s. giving fast operation and good.fan-inand out. TACAN Tactical Air Navigation:a military sysrem Tunnel diode - A type of semiconductordevice which givesrho-thetanavigation;therangingpart which can be made to exhibit a negativeresistance has the samecharacteristics as DME. characteristic undercertainconditions. Tape,magnetic- Storagederrice usingsequential TVOR - Terminal VOR: a low power VOR station access. situatedat an airfield. Telephone, tel. - A transducer which converts Two.from five code - A code commonly usedfor electrical signals to soundwaves. frequencyselection;any two from five wiresmay Time base- A waveformwhich changes linearly with be groundedgiving ten possiblecombinations,ohe time; the term is normally appliedto the waveform for eachof the digits 0-9. which causes regulardeflectionof the electron beamin a c.r.t. so as to trace a line representing a USART - UniversalSynchronous/Asynch ronous time axis, the line alsobeing referredto as a Receiver/Transmitter: a devicewhich interfaces timebase. two digital circuits the timing of which may or Time constant- A measure of the degree of may not be related;similarly UART and USRT. resistance to change:if a systemis subjectto an - Upper sideband: the sideband u.s.b. of an a.m. externalinfluencewhich causes it to changefrom transmission which is of higher frequencythan the one stateto anotherand it wereto executethat carrier. at a rate equal to the initial rate it would change WEROM - Ultra-violet Eraseable ROM: an EPROM. ' completethe change in a time equal to the time constant. Varacterdiode - A voltagecontrolled variable To/From - Refersto selected VOR radialsor capacitance; the capacitance varieswith reverse omni-bearings; if the pilot complieswith VOR bias. derivedsteeringcommands he will be flying v.c.o.- Voltagecontrolledoscillator. towardsthe beaconif a 'to' flag is in view and Velocity feedback- A signalwhich is proportional to away from the beaconif a 'from' flag is in view. the rate of change of positionof the output of a Topple - The effect of allowingthe angularvelocity servosystem;in position control systems such of a VRG to fall below that at which it exhibits feedbackis usedto limit hunting, i.e. an excessive the propertiesof a gyro. number of overshoots. 24

Super flag - A high level warning signal providing sufficient current at 28 V d.c. to energize a relay so indicatingvalid or no-warningstatus. Superhetrodyne receiver, superhet- A radio receiver in which the received signalis mixed (hetrodyned) with a tuneablelocally generated signalin order to produce a constanti.f. Sweptgain - An alternativeterm to s.t.c. s.w.r. - Standingwaveratio: seev.s.w.r. - A type of transducer Synchro devices which convertsangularposition to an electricalsignalor vice versa;all synchrosare transformers with both rotatableand stationarycoils. Three wire devices establish a unique relationshipbetweenthe rotor angleand the voltagedistribution in the three coil stator; four wire devices establish voltages which dependon the sine and cosineof the rotor angle and are thus termed synchroresolvers. Designations are STRX or TR: synchro torque receiver;STTX or TX: synchrotorque transmitter; DTTX or TDX or CDX: differential synchro torque transmitter; CT: control transformer; RS: synchro resolver. Synchronization - Changesrelated in frequency, time or position.

VFR - Visual Flight Rules: apply in uncontrolled Wavelength- The distandebetween points of airspace when visibility allows;limitations on pilot identicalphaseangle;wavelengrh ), = c/f. qualifications and equipmentfitted are minimal Waypoint- A significant point on a route. under VFR. Wheatstone bridge - An electricalmeasuring circuit Video signal- The post detector signalin a radar consisting of four impedance .rrn, .onn.-.tedin a receiver. closedchain;with an excitationsupply, connected Volatile memory - A memory that losesstoreddata to two opposite terminals in the chainthe currenr when power is disconnected. drawn from the other two terminals is determined VOR - VHF Omni-Range: a system givingthe bearing by the ratio of the impedances. to a fixed groundradio beacon. - A quarter-wave Whip antenna antenna madefrom a VORTAC - VOR and TACAN beacons on the same t h i n r n e t ar l o d . geographical site,i.e. co-located, are termed Word - A groupof bits treatedasan entity; it may c o l l e c t i v e la y V O R T A Cb e a c o n . represent an instruction, address or quantitv. VRG VerticalReference Gyro: a gyro to which Write - To recordinformation in somedevicesuchas gravltycontrolledfbrcesareappliedby an erection a memory or output port. systemsuchas to maintainthe spin axisin lhe verticalplane;usedto givesignafs proportionalto X-Y display- A p.p.i.display on which rarget pitch and roll. position is determined in terms of horizontal(X) v.s.w.r.- Voltagestandingwave ratio: the ratio of the randvertical (Y) diSplacement from a datum point: maximum to minimum voltage of the standing it may be referred to as t.v. display. waveset up on a mismatched line; = (l + (pr/pr)o.ty(l _ prlpr)o.s) v.s.w..r. > I 7*nner diode - A diode operatedwith reverse bias so equalityindicating a perf'ect match,p, and p1 that breakdownoccurs,the breakdownvoltage beingthe reverse (or reflecteci) power and forward remaining constant for a wide range of ,.urrri (or incident)powerrespectiveli. currents. Zone - A regionboundedby hyperboliclines - A hollow, round or rectangular, Waveguide metal separated by a distance equal to half a wavelength tube which is usedto transmite.m.energyat of the fundamentalfrequencyof a Deccachain. microwave frequencies.

245

Exercises

diagramof an f'm' transmitter' are givento test the reader's 2. Draw a block The following exercises diagramof a superhetreceiver' a block 3. Draw of the contnt of this knowledgeaid understanding Describe 4. four differentways in which binary if the questions volumeiihis aim will be best achieved circuits' in electronic represented be may digits arenot readuntil one is ready to attempt them' for airborne used commonly 5.- Desiribe fwo codes Havingworked through eachchapterthe exercises selection. radio frequencY with that chaptershouldbe attempted' associited of and digital representation 6. Compareanalogue attempted be should given which are papers Six test data. It is only aftir ihe whole book hasbeen read' briefly the following:I'C'A.O', ARINC' 7. Discuss that one hour be devotedto eachtest recommended ATA 100, national aviationauthorities' are not givenbut are to be found oapertthe answers papers *iittin ttte relevantchapters' Ideally the tst however'the reader Joufd be markedindependently, albeit subjective' strouldbe able to givean assessment, 2 Ghapter papers' answer-type written the of his attempt at from test can be achieved assessment An accurate io tunitrgarrangements typicalantenna l. Describe oaper6 by givingone mark for eachcorrectly system' comms h'f' 20 channel aviation a general utt.rnpt.a qu.ttion, deductinghalf a mark for each List and statethe functionof typicalaudio t: ' incorrectly attemptedquestion,leavingthe-score aircraft' on a largepassenger systems for eachquestionnot attempted,then unchanged when a crew member hupptnt *hui Describe i. multiplying the resultby 10/6 to givea Percentage' on v'h.f. comms' transmits can be usedto Senerate Someof the questions the block diagramof a CVR showing Draw 4. drawing with others,for example,thoseconcerned of the inPuts' sources the etc' could clearly listingcontrols, ramp tests, block diagrams, v.h.f' commsantennas' typical Discuss 5. herein' Even described apply to any of the systems to a howl; in an AIS leads e:. itr- to mii' feeduack it is assuggested, *iittun extlnded set of questions, fault? the isolate how would You unlikely that the syllabusfor any coursewill be prospective example, For completelycovered. will be required engineers aircraft radio maintenance in the employers and/or bodies examining satisfy to Chapter3 following areas: basicelectricaland electronicprinciples . legislation ramp,hangarand workshoppractices diagrams wiring and schematic reading etc. skiils, finding fault ADF of errorsaffecting l. List the soulces operation' quidrantalerror and explainhow it 2'. Describe maYbe ctlrrected. how an ADF groundloop swingts 3. Describe of havinghad - carriedout. In addition they must show evidence and a dual pointer RMI diagram of 4. Draw a situatton responsibilities the to assume experience sufficient ol 200"(M) on for an aircrait a heading piesentation an engineer. anotherat and aircraft the of *lth un NDB due north are ADFs 2 and I numbers which to :OO; ,.tutiu. Chapter1 tunedresPecttvelY' of ADF' basicprinciples of bandwidthin an 5' Exp[ainthe t n the significance 1 . C o m m e no diagram' installation 6. Draw an ADF block information link. 246

Chapter4
l. Describe the differences betweenthe radiated signals from Doppler and conventional VOR stations and explain why airborneequipmentoperation is not affected. ?. Explain the terms automaticand manualVOR. 3. Draw a situation diagramfor an aircraft on a headingof 090'(M) with i selected radial of 2g0; and with a fly right demand and from flag showing on the flight director. 4. Draw a dual VOR block installationdiasram. 5. Describe how information derivedfrom"a VOR receiver is presented to the crew. 6. Discuss typicalVOR antennas.

a DME ihterrogator (assumeswitched on and any warm up time expired). ?. Explain how echo protection can be achieved in DME. Why might a DME interrogatorreceive lessthan ?l^ IOO%replies'! 4. Describethe arrangements for colocated beacons. 5. Describe, in generalterms,how you would carry out a ramp test of DME. 6. Draw a simplifiedDME block schematic diagram.

Chapter8

Explain the needfor and the implementationof l, SLS in SSR. 2. Explain the terms fruit and garblingas appliedto SSR. l. Explain why a marker sensitivityswitch is 3. What is successive required. detectionand whv is it in an ATC transponder? 2. Describethe needfor and a typical implementa_ necessary 4. Draw a block schematic tion of loadingcompensation diagramand explain the fo, an ILS installation. actionof a decoder in an Draw a block diagram ATC transponder. of glideslope a receiver. 1 5. Describe how barometric Describe altituie the may be outputs from iLS to the aircraft,s t. encodedinto a form suitablefor selecting instrumentation and to other systems. the reply to a mode C interrogation. 5. Describe I L S a n dm a r k e r ihannelling 6. Draw a typicalATC transponder arrangements stating controller. how selection is made. stating the purpose of eachcontrol. 6. Describe, in general terms,how you would carry out a ramp test of an ILS. Chapter 5

Chapter9
Chapter 6 Compare platformand line of sightstabilization. l. 2. Describe, l. Explainhow, in distance briefly, video signalprocessing related in a phase measuring digital navigation weather radar. systems, errorsdue to changes in clock 3. Describe offset can be minimized how a p.p.i.display can be usedto present 2. List the factorsaffecting informationrelating to weather ahead propagation of the of Omega aircraft, signals statingfor each, how, if atill, compensation is 4. How doesa weatherradarflat plateantenna made. achieve a narrowdirectional 3. Describebriefly the general beam? procedurefor skin 5. Describe mapplngprior to deciding the safetyprecautions to be observed the positionof an Omesa when operatingweatheriadar, statingthe possible antenna. consequences 4. Describe ofnot doingso. how Decca chains aredesignated. 6. Describe 5. Explainhow laneambiguities you would checka waveguide how run in De"cca may be for condition resolved by usingthe Mp mode. 7. Discuss contour,STC and AGC in a weather 6 Describe the characteristics of the radiated signals radar. fromaLoranCchain. 8. Describe how range and bearing resolution may . be improvedin a weather radarstatinethe d i s a d v a n t a go efst a k i n gs u c hm e a s u r e i t o give Chapter7 rmprovement. 9 Explainthe basic principles of operation of a l. Describe thefour possible modesof operation of Ryan Stormscope. 247

Chapter10
l. Describethe Doppler effect asutilized in an airborneDoPPlerradar. 2. Explain how a moving antennaDoppler radar drift angle' measures factorsleadingto a choiceof f'm'c'w' 3. Discuss for Doppler radars. switch' 4. Explain the needfor a land/sea 5. Driw a simplifiedblock diagramof a Doppler navigationsYstem. in generalterms,how you would carry 6. Describe, out a ramp test of a Doppler navigator.

the airlinerof the 1980sand beyond,payingparticular of informationfrom attentionto the presentation radio sensors. of how an automatic 2. Explainthe basicprinciples datalink usingh.f. and/orv.h.f. commscould be set up. ADSEL/DABSwith currentSSR. 3. Compare could be 4. Explainone way in which satellites usedfor navigationPurposes. briefly, a TRSBMLS' 5. Describe, may be a collision risk measure how Explain 6. at. arrived DITS with currentmethodsof 7. Compare informationtranst'er. of interferometry. 8. Explainthe principles

11 Chapter
Distinguishbetweenbarometricand radio l. of both. altitude commentingon the usefulness f.m.c.w. an principles of the basic Explain 2. altimeter. 3. Why doesDoppler shift havea negligibleeffect on a radio altimeter? of error in radio altimeter 4. List the sources systems. of using constant 5. Explain the main advantages overconventional altimeters frequency difference f.m.c.w.altimeters. diagramof a pulsedradio 6. Draw a block schematic altimeter. fronl a radio requiresignals 7. Which systems involved? altimeter? What are the signals

Test Paper1
briefly, the differenttypesof antenna l. Compare, on aircraft. found be may which of a computer block diagram 2. Draw a simplified and statebriefly the functionof eachblock. 3. Draw and explaina simpleanti'crosstalk network. explainthe 4. With the aid of a block diagram actionof an h.f. ATU. how informationfrom an ADF is 5. Describe pilot. to the presented in a noiseis reduced 6. Explainhow displayed digitalweatherradar.

Chapter12
area of a general l. Draw the block diagram system. navigation on of RNAV based 2. Explainthe basicprinciples VOR/DME beacons. and 3. Draw and labeltypical RNAV, deviation triangles. slantrange by a typical the functionsperformed 4. Describe computerbeingpart of a VOR/DN{E digitalnavigation RNAV system. based 5. Explainthe actionof a typicaldataentry/record unit. terms,how you would carry in general 6. Describe. RNAV system. out a ranlp testof a VOR/DNIEbesed

Test Paper2
a c.w. carrier' two waysof modulating Describe l. aids under the radio using navigation 2. Discuss rho'rho-rho, rho'theta, reckoning, dead headings, and hYPerbolic. theta-theta and explainthe block diagranr 3. Draw a simplified particular paying synthesizer actionof a frequency to se,lection. attention of a VOR receiver' 4. Draw a block diagram 5. Definethe termsjitter and squitter. terms,how you would carry in general 6. Describe, sightscanner of line of a out a ramp test sYStem' stabilization

Test Paper 3 Chapter 13 l. 244 of the instrumentation tertns, in general Describe usedwith the modesof propagation Describe l. radioequiPment. airbclrne

l. An e-m. waveof frequency30 MHz will havea wavelength of (a) l0m, (b) lOcm,(c) l0 ft. 2. A loop antenna is usedf or (a) VOR and ADF, (b) ADF and Omega,(c) Omegaand VOR. 3. Above30 MHz propagation is by (a) space wave,(b) sky wave,(c) ground wave. 4. Fadingat l.f. and m.f. may be due to (a) poor receiver sensitivity,(b) atmospheric attenuation, (c) simultaneous receptionof sky and ground wave. 5. A carrierof amplitude 5 V is amplitude Test Paper4 modulatedby a signalof amplitude3 V, the percentage modulationis (a) 157o,(b)tbJ%,(c) 60Io. l. Describehow a capacitive type antenna operates; 6, A constantamplitudemodulatingfrequencyof 500 kHz causes list systems which might usesuch an antenna. a carrierto vary between 8798.5MHz 2. Explain how an interrupt signalmight be usedto and 8801.5MHz, the modulationindex is h\ ll3. (b) 3, (c) 6. achieve a data transferfrom a radio sensorto a 7. Which of the following is not equivalentto navigation computer. 2 3 ' s ? ( a ) l 0 l I 1 2 ,( b ) 2 7 s , ( c ) 1 5 , u . 3. Describe briefly the basicprinciplesof ILS. 8. The b.c.d.equivalent 4. List the facilitiesprovided by a typical general of 3C16is (a) 0l l0 0000, (b) I I I 100,(c) 001I I 100. aviationAIS. 9. Which of the following, wherethe l.s.b.is an 5. Draw a simpleinterlock arrangement for a dual odd parity bit, represents h.f. installation. 68,e? (a) 10001001, ( b ) I 1 0 0 0 1 0 0(,c ) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 6. Describehow the possibility of lnterference is 10. An address minimizedin a multiple radio altimeter installation. bus usuallyconsists of (a) l6 bi-directionallines,(b) l6 unidirectional lines, (c) both bi- and uni-directional lines. I l. Rho-thetanavigation is the basisof Test Paper5 (a) VOR/DME, (b) Omega, (c) ADF. 12. To avoid earth loops in audio systems cable l. Describe, briefly, the fetch-decode-increment. screens should be (a) earthed at both ends, executecycle of a computer. (b) not earthed at eitherend,(c) earthed at one end 2. List sources of interferenceto aircraft radio only. systems and statemethodsusedto minim2e the 13. An aircraft v.h.f. communications transceiver effectsof suchsources. will provide(a) 720 channels at 50 kHz spacing, 3. Discuss the term squelch. (b) 360 channels at25 kHz spacing, (c)720 channels 4. Explain the principlesof lane ambiguity at 25 kHz spacing. resolutionin ONS. 14. An aircraft at flight level l0O will be able to 5. Describe, in generalterms,how you would carry communicate with a v.h.f.groundstationat 100 ft out a ramp test of a VOR. abovem.s.l. at an approximatemaximum rangeof 6. At a point in a 180 n.m.leg of a flight the (a) 123 n.m.,(b) 12.3n.m.,(c) 135 n.m. following situation exists: 15. The minimum 1000Hz, 30%modulated signal heading 090"(M) levelto achieve an output s.n.r.of 6 dB from an drift port 10" airline standardv.h.f. receiver is (a) I pV, (b) 3 gW, distanceto go 80 n.m. ( c ) 0 . 1 8x l 0 - r 2 W . desiredtrack 085"(M) 16. A typical a.f. response of a v.h.f. transceiver is Draw the situation diagramand calculatethe across (a) 500 to 2000 Hz, (b) 300 to 25OO Hz, distance the wind readingif and headinghave (c) 300 to 4000 Hz. remained for the leg so far. (Assume unchanged 17. Typical radiatedpower from an airline = 0.017 radians/degree and that sin 0 0 if 0 < 0.2 standard v.h.f. commstransmitter would be radians). (a).10 W,(b) 30 w, (c) 50w. 18. In an airline standard h.f. installationthe ATU would reduce the v.s.w.r. of the antenna and ATU

2. Define the terms hardwareand software. 3. Describe, with the aid of a sketch,a typical h.f. wire antennainstallationpaying particular attention to safetyfeatures. 4 Sketcha typical error curve for ADF statingeE, loop and field alignmenterrorsfor your curve. 5. Draw and explain a simplified ATC transponder block diagram. 6. Draw a typical weatherradar control panel statingpurposeofeach control.

Test Paper6

249

to betterthan (a) l.l: l, (b) 1.3:I, combined (c) 1.5: l. h.f. commssystemhas a 19. An ARINC standard typical power output of (a) 400 W p.e.p.,(b) 700 W

(a)962 in the range transmit 37. TACANbeacons to l2l3 MHz,(b) 1030to 1090MHz,(c) 978 to

l2l3 MHz. 38. DME gives(a) range,(b) slant range,(c) ground speed. (c) 1000 W p.e.p. p.e.p., lossof signal by (a) the is coded 39. If a DME is in track subsequent transmission 20. A Selcal (b) thepulse the equipmentto (a) search, spacing, will cause of r.f. bursts, number (b) automaticallystandby,(c) go into memory. (c) the modulatingtonesused.' (a) radiated reduces 40. Mode A and C pulsespacingare, respectively network An anti-crosstalk ii. (a) 8 and 2l gs, (b) 12 and 36 ps, (c) 8 and l7 ps. interference, (b) reduces conducted interference, will 41 . Selectionof 5237 on an ATC transponder on both h.f. systems (c) prevents transmission in order of transmission givethe following pulses, simultaneously. a n ,) F l A l A 4 B . 2 C l C 2 D l D 2 D 4 F 2 , 2 2 . A i r l i n e s t a n d a r d A D F s w i l l , a f t e r Q E c o r r e c t i o( (b) Fl cl Al c2 A4Dl B2D2D4 F2, havean error bound of (a) 3', (b) 5", (c) 8". valuesof the peaks (c) Fl Cl C2 Al A4B2Dl D2D4 F2. of the absolute 23. The average 42. The output of an encodingaltimeter for an of an ADF error curvegive(a) field alignmenterror, (c) altitude of 7362 ft would give the code (b) loop alignmenterror, QE correction. phasc (a) reference Al A2 A4 Bl B2 C2C4D2,(b) Al A2 A4B/., phase the leads Itthe varlable )4. (c) A2 ,44 Cl C2. by 30" the magneticbearingto the VOR station will 43. The -3dB bandwidth of an ATC transponder Ue1a):O', (b) 210",(c) 150b. the is (a) 6 MHz, (b) 3 MHz, (c) 12 MHz. 090' and of receiver omni-bearing 25. With a selected should not reply if An ATC transponder phase by 280'. 4. referenci phase lagging the variable (a) Pl > Y2.+ 9 dBs,(b) Pl > P2 + 4.5 dBs' the flighi director will show (a) fly right; from, (c) Pl ( P2. (b) fly right;to, (c) fly left; to. 45. An X-band weather radar will operate at is VOR receiver of a 26. The frequencyrange (a\9375 MHz, (b) 5400 MHz, (c) 8800 MHz. ( a ) 1 0 8t o I 1 7 . 9 5 M H z ,( b ) 1 0 8t o 11 1 . 9 5M H z , Secondtraceechoesare avoidedby 6. (c) I l8 to 135.95 MHz. (a) a p.r.f. greaterthan someminimum, choosing is at 27. The VOR audio identificationtone than someminimum, a p.r.p.greater (b) (c) choosing 1020 Hz. (b) 1000 Hz, (a) 1350Hz, either or both of the receiver )6. Which of the following is a localizerfrequency? (c) increasing power. and transmitter sensitivity (a) I10.20 MHz, (b) 109.15MHz, (c) I12.10 MHz. ground returnstc pronounced pilot reports glideslop e . The does 47 )9. In which oi tire following bands is cause likely most the display, the of (c) side (b) u.h.f. one (a) v.h.f., h.f., operate? (a) systempermanehtlyin the mappingmode, in a localizer 3b. If the 90 Hz tone predominates tilt faulty, (c) gyro toppled. (b) scanner indicatorwill show (a) on the deviatiorr receiver on the weather radial lines are observed (c) Broken (b) fly right. 48. left, fly course, 31. The v.j.w.r. of a localizerantennashouldbe no radarindicator, the most likely causeis (a) a.f.c. (b) dirt in the magslip, circuit sweeping, more than (a) 5: I , (b) 3: I , (c) I .5:I . anotherradar' for from (c) interference 32. An ONS, usingsoftwarecorrection 49. A weatherradarwith a p.r.f. of 200 and a duty predictableerrors,will giveaircraft position to an cycle of l0 x 10-3 would havea bandwidth of u..uru.y (r.m.s.)of (a) l-2 nm, (b) 0-l nm, approximately(a) I MHz, (b)_500kHz, (c) 3 MHz. (c) 2_inm. facilities gives navigation worldwide 50. A typicalmemory sizefor a digital weather 3t. Omega I 1.33 and on 10.2, transmitting (a) stations radaremployingan X-Y displayis (a) 4 kbit' five using (b) 8 kbit, (c) 32 kbit. 13.6 kHz, (b) eight stationstransmittingon.10.2, placedstations 51. If Pand R aretheVRG pitch and rollsignals 11.33and 13.6kHz,(c) strategically and 0 is the azimuth anglethen the signals. respectively transmittingfrequencymultiplexed for a line of sight stabilization signal (a) demand of a mastet usually consists 34. A Deccachain systemis (a) Psin0+ Rcos0,(b) Pcos0+ Rsin0, pat, (c) independent (b) a master-slave and three slaves, (c) Pcos0x Rsin0. statlons. 52. An X-bandDoppler radarshowsa ground 35. The usablenight rangeof Deccais about estimateof the of 400 knots, a reasonable speed (c) (b) 360 nm. (a) 120 nm, 240 nm, (a) 5 kHz, (b) 500 Hz, would be shift Doppler 100 kHz, (a) pulsed at r.f' radiates C Loran 36. ,c) 12 kHz. (b) pulsedr.f. at 14 kHz, (c) c.w. at 100 kHz. 250

53. An f.m.c.w. Doppler radar operating at a frequencyof 8800 MHz, modulatedat 500 kHz with angle of 60' will have altitude holes at a depression multiplesof approximately(a) 500 ft, (b) 2000 ft, (c) 8000 ft. 54. Wobbulationin a Doppler radar is usedto overcomethe effects of (a) reflections from the dielectricpanel,(b) overwatercalibrationshift errors, (c) altitude holes. 55. A radio altimeterwould not be connectedto (a) MADGE, (b) a flight director, (c) an ATC transponder. 56. The DH lamp comeson when the aircraft is (a) over the outer marker, (b) below a pilot set barometricaltitude, (c) below a pilot set radio altitude. 57. It is found that the most suitable positions for a and antennas radio altimetertransmitter-receiver
:!,

leadsto a minimum total feeder length of 9 ft and an path length of 8 ft; what antennaround-antenna would be a suitableAID setting? (a) 20 ft, (b) 40 ft. (c) 57 ft. 58. A phantom beaconis (a) a co-located VOR/DME beaconwith no identity transmission, (b) a TACAN beacon,(c) relatedto a VOR/DME and bearing. beaconby pilot set distance 59. An aircraft is 20 n.m.'and045'(M) from a VOR/DME beacon;the rangeof the current waypoint, which is due eastof the beacon.is shownas 20 nm; approximatelyhow far is the waypoint from the beacon?(a) 20 nm, (b) 30 nm, (c) 40 nm. elevationinformation 60. MADGE mode Cl derives by using(a) radio altitude and slant range, (b) interferometry,(c) a directionalbeamnarrow in elevation.

251

Index

Acquisition,108 ADSEL,22I delay, l9l, 197 Aircraft installation Airwaysmarker,72 Altitude hales.178 Angleof cut, 8l Antennaeffect,5 I Antennatuning unit, 33 Antennas. 3 Area navigation display and control, 207 generalized system, 202 RNAV computer,206 2I 3 standardization, principles, 204 VOR/DME-based ARINC, 19,230 Associated identity, I l1 ATC 600A (rFR), 120,136 ATC transponder block diagram operation,128 characteristics, I 35 coding,123 controlsand operation,127 encoding altimeter, 132 falsetargets, 125 installation, 126 interrogation, l2l principles, 121 ramp testing,135 rcply,122 sLS,125,128,133 Attitude director indicator,'l4, 217 Audio integrating system, 37 panel,38 Audio selection Auto standby, 106 Autoland, 198 Automaticdata input/output, 210 Automaticdirectionfinder 47 block diagramoperation, calibration and testing, 55 characteristics, 55 ' controlsand operation,54 installation.52 principles, 45 errors,49 system controt. t28 Automaticoverload Azinruthmarks,154 Balancing half cycle,15I Balun,63 Base line, 8 l. 95 Basic rate,l0l 143 Bearing resolution, 48 Beatfrequency oscillator,

Bendix

BX-2000,206 cN-2011,2l 206 NP-2041A, RDR lE,164,166 R D R 1 1 0 0 ,r 4 8 RDR 1200,146 Boeing 7 4 7 ,t 4 , 3 7 767,217 advancedflight deck, 219 British Aerospace Cabininterphone, 37, 4O 80 Centilane, Clock offset, 82 Coastal refraction,50 Cockpitvoicerecorder,38,42 Coding,8 Codingdelay, l0l Collins Alt 50, 200 2 EFIS-700 ,1 7 wxR700,216 Collision avoidance,229 beacons, ll0 Colocated map,85 Conductivity 143, 154 Conto.ur, 160 Cosec'beam, 555, 67, 78 Cossor deviationindicator,63 Course nrosstalk, r.3,33 i ,bi,221 Datalink, 219 At\C81,102 Decca Decca Doppler 70 serie.,183 navigator Decca a m b i g u i t i e9 s7 , ,99 antenna, 99 95, 96 chain, 99 installation, Mk 1S/Danac,99Mk 19,99 positionfixing,96 signals, 96 height. 69, 196 Decision Decometer,95,96 Deviationindicator,70 tube, 144 Directview storage DITS,230 Diurnaleffect, 85 DME I 14 analogue, ' block diagramoperation,ll2

252

channel arrangements, I l0 characteristics. I I 7 controls and operation, I l2 digital, I l4 g r o u n d s p e e d ,1 0 9 i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , 10 6 i n s t a l l a t i o n ,I I I interrogation, 109 principles, 105 ramp testing, 119 reply,109 time to station, 109 Doppler navigation system antenna mechanization. I 74 beam geometry, I 75 characteristics, I 85 controls and operation, 184 Doppler effect, 173 Doppler shift, 173, 187, 190 Doppler spectrum, 175 f i x e d a n t e n n a s y s t e m ,1 8 1 installation,182 movlng antennasystem,179 navlgation calculations, I 79 o v e r w a t e re r r o r s , 1 7 8 testing,185 t r a n s m i s s i o n ,1 7 6 Drift angle,174 Drift indication (weathcr radar). 160 Echo protection, 108, 125 Electromagnetic propagation, 4 Electromagnetic radiation, 2 Electromagnetic spectrum, 4 Encoding altimeter, 132, 210 Fan marker, 72 Field alignment error, 52 Flat plate antenna, 145 Flight interphone, 37, 38 F r a m e p u l s e s ,1 2 2 F r e e z e ,1 4 8 F r e q u e n c yp a i r i n g , 7 1 , I l 0 Fruiting,125 Carbling, 125 Geomagnetic field, 85 Ground conductivity, 85 G r o u n d c r e w c a l l s y s t e m ,3 8 , 4 2 Group count down, 128 H e a d u p d i s p l a y( H U D ) . 2 1 9 Hc4}rt ring, 145 ILF- ;cmms rn:enna, 30 t{c<i diagram operation, 32 *r:rlieristics, 34 ccqu=:lr and operation, 3l -m[ls'a. l! re-'-.=-:i :*- f9 irr-

Horizontalsituationindicator,63, 217 Hyperbolicnavigation principles, 80 ldentification,friend or foc, l2 I IFR ATC 600A, 120, 136 NAV 40IL, 67 NAV 4O2AP, 78 R D 3 0 0 ,1 6 7

ILs

a n t e n n a s ,7 6 block diagram operation, 72 categories,69 characteristics, 77 controls and operation, 76 coverage,70,72 difference in depth of modulation, 70 fiequency pairing,7l 'glideslope, 70 identification, 70 installation, 74 loading compensation, 75 I o c a l i z e r ,6 9 matker,72 principles, 69 r a m p t e s t i n g .7 8 I n d e x i n g , 1 0 2 ,1 0 4 Instrument flight rules, 202 Intensity modulation, 140 Interference, I 3 lnterferometer , 223, 226 I n t e r r o g a t o r , 1 0 5 , 1 2 1, 2 2 7 Isodop, I 75 Janus configuration, 175, 187 Jitter,106 Khg

K C U s 6 5 A ,2 1 0 K D E 5 6 6 ,2 1 0 Kr 20416,'ts KMA20,75 K N 7 2 .7 3 ,7 5 KN 74,205 K N 7 5 ,7 5 K N R6 6 5 , 2 l l K N S8 0 , 1 2 , lll K P I5 3 3 ,l l l K P r 5 5 2 ,6 4 KX 1758,75 KY 196,2r,23 Laneambiguities, 86, 97 Lanecount, 80 Laneslip,80 Lanewidth, 80 Laning,80 Line of position,79 Litton LTN 211,87 (lLS), 75 Loadingcompensation Lobeswitching. 179 Loop alignment error,52 Loopantenna, 3,45 ' Loop swing,55 LoranC block diagram operation,I 03

tt[IO,rl llcltd

-:- 35 :

rli

l*.uil*: ::Cr:). 148 -5lI{ f series. 193

253

"&t

LoranC Gont'd) chain,101 102 installation, principles,102 101 signals, MADGE block diagram opention, 227 controls and instrumentation, 227 parameters, 229 principles, 225 Mapping,150 Marconi A D 5 6 0 ,1 7 9 A D 6 5 0 , 1 8 2 ,1 8 5 80 Master, exposivelevel, 164 Maximum permissible 9, 26, 94, 208 Microcomputer, Microwavelanding system'224 Middlemarker,?2 Modal interference,85 122 Modeinterlace, Modulation,5 Mountain effect, 50 MP mode,97 Multiplexing, T N A V 4 0 1 Lo F R ) , 6 7 NAV 402AP(tFR),78 Night etfect,50 Noisefigure,170 effect,85 Nonspheroidal Notching,99 Omega broadcastpattem, 84 95 characteristics, controls and oPeration,90 hardware,93 installation, 87 89 interface. position fixing, E6 ramptesting,95 signalpropagation,84 skin mapping,8T software,90 83 stations, selector,63 Omni-bearing Opencentre,15l 108 Outboundsearch, Outer marker,72 Overwatercalibration shift error, l?8 38, 40 address, Passenger entertainment, 38, 4l Passenger reply, 108 Percentage index, 171 Performance 58, 203 Phantombeacon, offset,82 Phase indicator,63, I I I Pictorialnavigation Ptanposition indicator, 140 Planararray, 145 Polar cap disturbance,86 Polardiagram,3 static,l3 Precipitation Programdiscretepins, 89

14l Pulsecompression, Pulsecrowding,215 Pulsewidth limiter, 129 Quadrantalerror, 5 I error correctioncuwe,57 Quadrantal Quadrantalerror corrector,5 2 Radarrangeequation,169 tester,165 Radarsystems Radio 4, I I categorization, I historical develoPment, principles,2 and transmitters,7 receivers Radio altimeter block diagramoperation, 192 200 characteristics, factors affecting performance,19I indicator,196 196 installation, delay,l9l, 197 installation interface,198 monitoring and self test, 195 199 multiple installation, principleq,189 ramp testing,200 sinusoidalfrequencymodulation, 201 indicator,53 Radiomagnetic Radome,147 marks,151,154, 157 Range resolution,l4l Range Rate aiding, 86 RCA AVQ 85,114 DataNavlI, 162 Primus20. 154 Primus 3 0 , 1 5 5 ,1 6 l 40, 151 Primus 50, 16l Primus 200, 146,163 Primus Weather ScoutI, 147 RD 300 (IFR), 167 Reciprocalsearch,108 altitude, 190, 19l, l9E Residual 79, 8l P$o2,Rho3navigation, 58, 105 navigation, Rho-theta '14,199 Risingrunway, 139,158 RyanStormscope, 223 Satcom/satnav, Scannerstabilization, 143, L57 Scott-T-transformer,.93 Seabias,178 Search,107 142 Secondtraceechoes, radar, l2l Secondarysurveillance Selcal,35 antenna,45 Sense time control, 143,194 Sensitivity 38, 40 interphone, Service -sia;i;fibe Signalactivatedsearch,105 87 Skin mapping, 105,206 Slantrange, Slave,80

I 25,r28,Bt ;;tression,'

2g

Solareffects,85 SperryFMCS,217 Spikeeliminator,129 149 Spoking, 22, 23 Squelch, Squitter,106 50 Staticinterference, Staticmemory,108 50 Stationinterference, Stationrate.101 139, 168 Stormscope, L-band, ll1, 126 Suppression, Sweptgain, 143 TACAN, IO5 VOR.58 Terminal TIC T24A, ttg T268, T288, T298,78 T278,67 T 3 0 B ,6 7 , 7 8 T 3 3 8 ,T 4 3 B ,1 3 7 T50A, 120 beam,224 scanning Time referenced Track,107 105,12l, 160 Transponder, 191 TRT radio altimeters, Velocity memory,108 Vertical effect, 5 I VHF comms 23 block diagramoperation, 28 characteristics, 22 controlsand operation, 20 installation. principles, 20 ramp testing,29

Visual flight rutes,69, 202 VLF comms,87

voR
manual, 61, 65 automatic, block diagram operation, 55 65 characteristics, controlsand operation, 65 conventional,58 doppler,6l 59 identification, installation, 63 o u t p u t s , 6 36 ,6 principles, 58 ramp testing,5T VSWR check,weatherndat,167 Weatherradar l50 analogue, beaconmode, 160 162 characteristics, 164 conditionand assembly, controlsand operation,147 digital,rho-theta,15I digital,t.v. (X-Y), 156 146 installation. multifunctiondisplay,161 160 other applications, principles, 140 ramp test, 165 safety precautions,154 scanner, 145 scannerstabilization, 143, l5'l Wobbulation,f 78, l9l Z-matker,72 Zone,Decca,96

255