Power System Dynamics: Electrical Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS
Dr.SUKUMARMISHRA
ELECTRICALENGINEERINGDEPARTMENT
INDIANINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,DELHI
Anyphysicalsystemhastwostates
SteadyState:Phasors areusedtorepresentthe
systemandaloadflowanalysiscanbeperformed
todeterminethestateofthesystem.The
transientd/dt termsareassumedtobezeroand
thusonlyalgebraictermsarepresent.
DynamicState:Inthisstate,variousparametersof
thesystemchangecontinuouslywithinasmall
intervaloftime.Thetransienttermsarenolonger
zeroandthusdifferentialvariablesexistalong
withalgebraicvariables.Aloadflowanalysis
cannotbeperformedasloadflowdoesnt
considerparametersbehindtheterminalbus.
Basic elements of a power system
ConceptofGrid
Itisgenerallyknownastheinfinitebus,meaning
itcanabsorborsupplyinfiniteamountsofpower.
Inatransmissionsystem,realpowerisrelatedto
frequencyandreactivepowertovoltage.Withan
infinitegrid,irrespectiveoftheamountofreal
andreactivepowerdrawnorinjected,nochange
occursinfrequencyandvoltage.
Realistically,nobusisinfiniteinthesystem.A
closeapproximationcanbeobtainedbyreducing
multiplegeneratorsaroundacommonpoint
usingaThevenin equivalentcircuit.
RequirementsofaProperlyDesigned
andOperatedPowerSystem
Must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for
active and reactive power.
"spinning reserve of active and reactive power should be maintained
and appropriately controlled at all times.
The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with
minimum ecological impact.
The "quality" of power supply must meet certain minimum
standards
(a) constancy of frequency;
(b) constancy of voltage; and
(c) level of reliability.
Subsystems of a power system and associated Controls
ControlinaPowerSystem
PrimaryControl
Occursduetotheinertiaoftherotatingmass.Firsttoreacttoa
loadchange.Allgeneratorswillreact.
SecondaryControl
Occursduetotheactionofthegovernorofthegeneratorwhich
variestheinputmechanicalpowertotheturbine.Notall
generatorswillchangetheirgovernorsettings.Thusnon
economicsharingofpowercanoccur.
TertiaryControl
Ensureeconomicallocationofpoweramongcontributing
generatorsbychangingthesetpoints ofthegovernor.
ReactivePowerControl
Inadditiontotheaboverealpowercontrolmechanisms,the
excitationofthegeneratorisvariedtocontrolthereactive
poweroutputofthemachineandthustocontrolthevoltage.
SynchronousMachine
CrossSectionofaSynchronousMachine
Thesynchronousmachinehasthefollowing
parts
Armature:Inhighrating/capacitymachines,this
partislocatedonthestationarystructure(stator)
inordertofacilitatethelosslesstransferof
electricalenergyfrom/tothewinding.Inlow
ratingmachines,itcanbelocatedontherotating
structure(rotor)too.Athreephasebalanced
distributedwindingmakesupthearmature.
Field:Thiswindingisusuallylocatedontherotor,
asitsratingislow.Aconstantdcsupplyisgivento
thiswindinginordertosetupamagneticfieldin
themachine.Dependingonthespeedofthe
rotor,dictatedbytheapplication,salientpoleor
cylindricalrotorstructuresareused.
MMFDistributionintheArmature
Duetotheslottingofthestructureonwhichthe
armaturecoilsareplacedandduetothe
distributionofthearmaturecoils,themmf inthe
airgapisnotpurelysinusoidalandissteppedin
nature.
Byaddingmorecoils,thesinglestepwavecanbe
madeintoanearsinusoidalwaveformasshown
bythefigurebelow.Theseharmonicsinthemmf
wavecanbereducedbyeitherusingfractional
pitchwindingsorbyadjustingthepitchandthe
distributionfactorofthecoil.
Withbeingtheanglearoundtheperipheryof
thestatorfromthecentreofphasea,thephase
mmf equationsare:
cos
2
cos
3
2
cos
3
a a
b b
c c
MMF Ki
MMF Ki
MMF Ki
=
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
i
a
,i
b
,i
c
aretheinstantaneousphasecurrents.The
threemmf wavesarestationaryanddisplacedin
spaceby120deg.Asthevalueofthecurrent
changes,themagnitudeofthemmf alsochanges.
Withthevalueofthecurrentasgivenabove,the
mmf expressionsare:
Thusthemmf waveisatravellingwavewitha
sinusoidalspatialdistributionwithconstant
amplitudeandaphaseanglewhichvarieswith
time.
Thespeedofrotationofthewaveisthesameas
thesynchronousspeedgivenbyelectrical
rad/s.withp
f
numberofpoles,
s
e
Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes
The magnitude of the stator mmf wave and its relative angular
position with respect to the rotor mmf wave depend on the
synchronous machine load
The electromagnetic torque on the rotor acts in a direction so
as to bring the magnetic fields into alignment.
If the rotor field leads the armature field, the torque acts in
opposition to the rotation with the machine acting as a
generator.
On the other hand, if the rotor field lags the armature field, the
torque acts in the direction of rotation with the machine acting
as a motor.
We see that the magnetic circuits and all rotor windings are
symmetrical with respect to both polar axis and the inter-polar axis.
Therefore, for the purpose of identifying synchronous machine
characteristics, two axes are defined as shown in previous fig.
The direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the centre of the
north pole.
The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of the d-axis.
The position of the rotor relative to the stator is measured by the
angle between the d-axis and the magnetic axis of phase a
winding.
The selection of the q-axis as leading the d-axis is purely arbitrary.
Need for dq-axis
Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous machine
The voltage equations of the three phases are
The flux linkage in the phase a winding at any instant is given by
Stator circuit equations
Similar expressions apply to flux linkages of windings b and c.
Stator self-inductances
The peak values of the two component waves are
The reason for resolving the mmf into the d- and q-axis components is
that each acts on specific air-gap geometry of defined configuration .
Air-gap fluxes per pole along the two axes are
In the above, P
d
and P
q
are the permeance coefficients of the d- and
q-axis, respectively
Phase a mmf wave and its components
The total air-gap flux linking phase a is
The self-inductance l
gaa
of phase a due to air-
gap flux is
The total self-inductance l
aa
is given by adding to the above the
leakage inductance L
al
which represents the leakage flux not
crossing the air-gap:
Since the windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a
and are displaced from it by 120
O
and 240
O
respectively, we have
In these Equations, the stator self-inductances have a fixed plus
second harmonic terms.
In a well designed machine in which the stator and rotor
windings produce nearly sinusoidally distributed mmf and flux
waves, these higher order harmonic terms are negligible.
Variation of self-inductance of a stator phase
Variation of mutual-inductance between stator windings
Stator mutual inductances
The mutual inductance between any two stator windings also
exhibits a second harmonic variation because of the rotor
shape.
It is always negative, and has the greatest absolute value when
the north and south poles are equidistant from the centres of
the two windings concerned.
The mutual inductance l
ab
can be found by evaluating the air-
gap flux linking phase b when only phase a is excited .
The mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-
gap flux is
where L
g0
has the same meaning as in the expression for
self-inductance l
gaa
There is a very small amount of mutual flux around the ends of
windings which does not cross the air-gap. With this flux
included, the mutual inductance between phases a and b can be
written as
Similarly,
Mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings
The variation in the mutual inductance is due to the
relative motion between the windings themselves.
When a stator winding is lined up with a rotor winding,
the flux linking the two windings is maximum and the
mutual inductance is maximum.
When the two windings are displaced by 900, no flux
links the two circuits and the mutual inductance is zero.
With a sinusoidal distribution of mmf and flux waves,
Similarly,
and
Rotor circuit equations
The rotor circuit voltage equations are
The rotor circuit flux linkages may be expressed as follows:
The constants k
d
and k
q
are arbitrary and their values may be
chosen to simplify numerical coefficients in performance equations.
With k
d
and k
q
equal to 2/3, for balanced sinusoidal conditions,
the peak values of i
d
and i
q
are equal to the peak value of the stator
current as shown. For the balanced condition,
DQ Transformation
Substituting it in Equation for i
d
,
For the peak value of i
d
to be equal to 1m, k
d
should equal 2/3.
Similarly,
Under balanced conditions i
a
+i
b
+i
c
=0 and, therefore, i
o
=0.
DQ Transformation
The transformation from the abc phase variables to the dq0
variables can be written in the following matrix form
The inverse transformation is given by,
The above transformations also apply to stator flux linkages and voltages.
Stator voltage equations in dq0 components
The angle is the angle between the axis of phase a and the d-
axis.
The term p in the above equations represents the angular
velocity roy of the rotor.
The and te terms are referred to as speed voltages.
The terms and terms are referred as transformer
voltages.
Electrical power and torque
The instantaneous three-phase power output of the stator is
Eliminating phase voltages and currents in terms of dq0
components, we have
Under balanced operation, e
o
=i
o
=0 and the expression for power
is given by
The air-gap torque T
e
is obtained by dividing the power transferred
across the air-gap by the rotor speed in mechanical radians per
second.
Per Unit Representation
In power system analysis, it is usually convenient to use a per unit
system to normalize system variables.
Compared to the use of physical units the per unit system offers
computational simplicity by eliminating units and expressing system
quantities as dimensionless ratios.
A well-chosen per unit system can minimize computational effort,
simplify evaluation, and facilitate understanding of system characteristics
Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations
Dividing throughout by
Expressed in per unit notation,
Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations
With time in per unit, previous equation may be written as
Similarly,
Per Unit Rotor Voltage Equations
Dividing throughout by
Similarly,
Per Unit Power and Torque
The instantaneous power at the machine terminal is,
Dividing by the base three-phase
Similarly, with the per unit Torque is,
The per unit Power is,
SummaryofPerUnitEquations
Forthecompletesetofelectricalequationsinper
unit,refertoPage8688from[1].
RefertoExample3.1onPage91from[1].
SteadyStateAnalysis
Duetothedq0 transformation,thealternating
currents,voltagesandfluxlinkagesinthe
statorgetconvertedtosteadydirect
quantities.
Constantdirectsupplyisusedtoexcitethe
rotorfield.
Thusalltimederivativetermsdropoutofthe
perunitequationsofthemachinewhen
steadystateanalysisisperformed.
Theamortisseur currentsfalltozeroinsteady
state.
Aphasor representationcanthusbeused.
Thestatorphasevoltagesare
whereistheangularfrequencyandisthe
phaseangleofe
a
withrespecttothetimeorigin.
Afterapplyingthedq0 transformation,and
representingtheRMSvalueofterminalvoltageas
E
t
,theequationare
S
e o
where,istheanglebywhichthed axisleadsthe
axisofphasea att=0.
Usingaphasor notationinthedq plane,one
canrepresenttheterminalvoltageand
currentwithbeingtheanglebywhichtheq
axisleadstheterminalvoltagephasor and
beingthepowerfactorangle.
0
u
i
o
t
E
|
Using the equations of e
d
and e
q
, two new reactances can be defined. These reactances
denote the inductive effects of the armature mmf wave on both d and q axis and are
known as the direct axis synchronous reactance (X
d
) and quadrature axis synchronous
reactance (X
q
).
Inordertospecifythepositionoftheaxes
relativetotheterminalvoltagephasor,anew
voltagephasor isdefinedas,
Usingtheequationsofe
d
ande
q
,wecan
obtaintheexpressionfor,thevoltage
behindR
a
+jX
a
,withtheaxesasthereference.
Thephasor diagramforthisrepresentationis
showninfollowingfigure.
q
E
q
E
Undernoload,i
d
=i
q
=0andthuse
d
=0and
e
q
=X
ad
i
fd
.Hence=jX
ad
i
fd
.Thusinitially,the
angle=0.Astheloadincreases,theangle
increasesandhenceisknownasthe
internalrotorangle orloadangle.
t
E
i
o
i
o
Thesteadystateequivalentcircuitis
representedinthefigurebelowwithsaliency
neglected.Theequivalentcircuitisderived
fromthephasor diagram.
RefertoPage101102from[1]forthe
completeproceduretoobtainthesteadystate
values.AlsorefertoExample3.2onpage102.
TransientAnalysis
Thewindingofthemachinecanbeconsidered
asasimpleRLcircuit.Theexpressionforthe
shortcircuitcurrentinaRLcircuitisgivenas
where,and.
TheconstantKischoseninsuchamannerasto
ensurethattheconstantfluxlinkagetheoryis
satisfied.Thismeansthati att=0
andi att=0
+
shouldbeequal.
Thusthecurrentcontainsatransient
componentthatdecaystozeroandasteady
statecomponent.
( )
sin
R
t
m
L
E
i Ke t
Z
e o |
= + +
2 2 2
Z R L e = +
1
tan ( / ) L R | e
=
Ina3 synchronousmachine,thefault
currentcontainstwocomponents:
Afundamentalfrequencycomponentthatdecays
initiallyveryrapidlyandthenrelativelyslowlyto
thesteadystatevalue.
Aunidirectionalcomponent(oradcoffset),which
decaysexponentiallyinseveralcycles.
Theinitialrapiddecayofthecurrentisdueto
therapiddecayofthefluxlinkingthe
subtransient circuit(amortisser windingind
axis)whiletheslowdecayisduetotheslow
decayofthefluxlinkingthetransientcircuits
(fieldandamortisser windinginqaxis).
ShortCircuitcurrentinthethreephases
FieldCurrentresponsetoshortcircuit
Eliminationofdcoffset
Thisisrequiredbecausetheanalysisofthepower
systemwithbothvaryingfundamentalfrequency
componentandvaryingunidirectionalcomponent
willbecomplexandcomputationallyinvolving.
Thisisachievedbyeliminatingthetransformer
voltagetermsfromthestatorvoltageequations.
Thesetermsrepresentthestatortransientsand
thuspreventthefluxfromchanging
instantaneously.
Thisproducesthedcoffsetinthecurrent
(constantKintheequationforcurrent).
Duetotheeliminationofthetransformervoltage
terms,thedcoffsetanditsrelatedeffectsare
eliminatedfromthedynamicperformanceofthe
machine.
However,thiseliminationmeanthattheflux
termsremainconstant.Thenormalmathematical
conventionofaderivativeequalingzerodenoting
aderivativeofaconstantdoesnotholdgoodin
thisscenario.
Thefluxlinkagedoeschangewhenashortcircuit
occursandbyeliminatingthetransformervoltage
terms,weareassumingthatthefluxchanges
instantaneously.
Thuswiththeeliminationofthedcoffset,the
armatureshortcircuitcurrentisasshownbelow:
SwingEquation
Theacceleratingtorqueofthegeneratorand
theturbinesystemcanbeexpressedas
where,
J combinedmomentofinertiaofturbineand
generatorinkgm
2
m
angularvelocityoftherotorinmech rad/s
T
a
acceleratingtorqueinNm
T
m
mechanicaltorqueinNm
T
e
electromagnetictorqueinNm
m
a m e
d
J T T T
dt
e
= =
DenotingtheinertiaconstantH,astheratioof
thekineticenergyinwattsecondsatrated
speedandtheVAbase,onecanrewritethe
acceleratingtorqueequation.
Inperunitnotationtheequationthusbecomes
Where,
r
iselec angularvelocityandp
f
isthenumber
offieldpoles
2
0
2
0
1
2
2
m
b a s e
m
b a s e m e
m
J
H
V A
d H
V A T T
d t
e
e
e
=
=
2
r
m e
d
H T T
dt
e
=
0 0 0
/
/
r f
m r
r
m f
p
p
e
e e
e
e e e
= = =
MachineOperationalParameters
Thedirectaxisandquadrature axisreactances
thathavebeendiscussedbeforeareknownas
thefundamentalparametersofthemachine.
Theycompletelyspecifytheelectrical
characteristicsofthemachine,howeverthey
cannotbedirectlydeterminedfromthe
measuredresponsesofthemachine.
Thusthereisaneedtospecifythefollowing
operationalparameters:
G(s) statortofieldtransferfunction
L
d
(s) d axisoperationalinductance
L
q
(s) q axisoperationalinductance
Thusthenetworkrepresentationofthesystemin
incrementalformisasshownbelowwiththe
equationsofthisformgivenbelowthe
representation
Theorderofthenumeratoranddenominator
polynomialsofLd(s)andLq(s)areequaltothe
numberofrotorcircuitsintherespectiveaxis.
ThedenominatorofG(s)isthesameasLd(s)but
thenumeratorisdifferentandoneorderless.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
d fd d d
q q q
s G s e s L s i s
s L s i s
A = A A
A = A
Theoperationalparameterscanbeobtainedwith
thehelpoftheequivalentcircuitsshownbelow.
Theexpressionsfortheoperationalparametersare
thusgivenby:
Where,
Inordertorelatetheseparameterstothesub
transientandtransientphenomenoninthe
machine,fourtimeconstantsaredefinedforeach
axisasfollows:
Opencircuittransienttimeconstant
Opencircuitsubtransienttimeconstant
Shortcircuittransienttimeconstant
Shortcircuitsubtransienttimeconstant
Withthesenewtimeconstants,theequationsfor
theoperationalinductancesaregivenas
'
0, 0 d q
T
"
0, 0 d q
T
'
, d q
T
"
, d q
T
Therelationbetweentheoldtimeconstantsand
thenewonesare:
Withthesetimeconstants,itisnowpossibleto
derivetheexpressionsforthesubtransientand
transientinductancesofthemachine.
Onsubstitutingtheexpressionsforthetime
constants,theexpressionfortheinductancesand
theequivalentcircuitis:
Thetypicalrelationbetweenthetime
constantsandthereactances isgivenas
RefertoTable4.2andexample4.1frompage
153159in[1].
SimplificationsinStabilityStudies
Inthestabilityanalysisofasynchronous
machine,twosimplifyingassumptionsaremade:
Thetransformervoltagetermspdandpqinthe
statorvoltageequations.
Theeffectofspeedvariations
Thetransformervoltagetermscanbeneglected
becausethenetworktransientsdecayvery
rapidly.Thustomaintainequivalency,thestator
transientsarealsoneglected.Thisalsoconverts
thestatorvoltageequationsintopurealgebraic
equations.
Thisassumptionofneglectingthestatorvoltage
transientsiscounterbalancedbyassumingthat
theperunitrotorspeedis1pu i.e.
s
r
=0
Referexample5.1onPage175ofrefer[1].
AlternativeformofMachineEquations
Alternativevariablesaresometimesusedto
expressthemachinefluxvariations.These
variablesaregivenontheleft.
Thusthesummaryoftheequationsinthe
newsetofvariablesareshowntotheright.
Fortransientconditions,aphasor representation
canbeusedasisshownbelow
Theequationsaregivenby
Disturbances threatening the stability of a system:
Network failure
Tripping of a generation unit
Erroneous action in the network operation
Relatively small change in the network state, if damping is poor
Energy fluctuation as a result of disturbance:
Between capacitors and inductances
Between rotating masses (most important factor)
Boilers in power plants, combustion chambers or the kinetic energy
of water
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
The stability related to synchronous operation is categorized
according to the nature of the phenomenon usually as follows:
Steady-state stability
Dynamic stability
Transient stability
Changes can be seen in the quantities P, Q, V, I
time constants between 10 ms10 s
period of oscillations between 0.55 s
The stability of synchronous machines depends on the state of the
network and the nature of the disturbance.
Steady-state stability
Stability with respect to small changes (random variation of
loading, compensating device)
Dynamic stability
Afterafault,anindividualsynchronousmachinemayremainin
synchronismduringthefirstswing.
Afterthis,strongelectromechanicaloscillationsoccur.
Transient stability
Transient stability refers to stability with respect to large changes.
When the criterion for stability is that the generator remains in
synchronism during the first swing.
Changes refer to faults that determine the network dimensioning
and operation (bus bar fault; tripping of generation).
TRANSIENT STABILITY IS ENHANCED BY USING HIGH SPEED
EXCITATION SYSTEM WITH HIGH CEILING VOLTAGES.
BASIC FUNCTION OF POWER SYSTEMSTABILIZER:
Power system stabilizers add damping to electro-mechanical
oscillations.
Essentially, they act through the generators excitation system in
such a way that a component of electrical torque proportional to
speed change, is generated (an addition to the damping torque).
A power system stabilizer is used to add a modulation signal to a
generators AVR reference input.
Types of power system Oscillations:
Local modes of oscillations:
Oscillations associated with the Swinging of units at a generating
Station with respect to rest of the Power system (frequency 0.7 - 2.0
Hz)
Inter-area modes of oscillations :
A group of generators or plants in one area oscillates against a group
of generators at other end of a tieline ( Freq. 0.1 - 0.8 hz.)
Fundamental Concepts of Stability of Dynamic Systems:
StateSpaceRepresentation:
The behaviour of dynamic system can be described as
where n is the order of the system and r is the number of inputs.
Can be written as :
where
If the derivatives of the state variables are not explicit functions of
time, the system is said to be Autonomous.
Then,
Where
y : vector of outputs, g : vector of nonlinear functions relating state
and input variables to output variables.
State: The state of a system represents the minimum amount of
information about the system at any instant in time t
o
that is
necessary so that its future behaviour can be determined
reference to the input before t
o
.
Any set of n linearly independent system variables may be used to
describe the state of the system -- State variables;
The system state may be represented in an n-dimensional Euclidean
space -- State space.
The set of points traced by the system state in the state space as the
system moves -- State trajectory.
Linearization:
Let, x
0
: The initial state vector,
u
o
: The input vector corresponding to the equilibrium point about
which the small-signal performance is to be investigated
Let us perturb the system from the above state
Linearization:
As the perturbations are assumed to be small, the nonlinear functions
f(x,u) can be expressed in terms of Taylor's series expansion.
Linearization:
Therefore, the linearized forms of Equations
Linearization:
The above partial derivatives are evaluated at the equilibrium point
about which small perturbation is being analyzed.
Linearization:
By taking the Laplace transform of the above equations,
Linearization:
From earlier equations
Hence,
The Laplace transforms of x and y are seen to have two
components, one dependent on the initial conditions and the other on
the inputs.--Laplace transforms of the free and zero-state components
of the state and output vectors.
Linearization:
The poles of x(s) and y(s) are the roots of the equation
The values of s which satisfy the above are known as eigen values
of matrix A, and above equation is referred to as the characteristic
equation of matrix A.
Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigen values
The eigen values of a matrix are given by the values of the scalar
parameter for which there exist non-trivial solutions (i.e., other than
=0) to the equation
Where,
A is an nxn matrix (real for a physical system such as a power
system) is an nx1 vector.
To find the eigen values,
For a non-trivial solution
Expansion of the determinant gives the characteristic equation.
The n solutions of =
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
,
n
are eigen values of A.
Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigenvectors
For any eigenvalue
i
, the n-column vector
i
, which satisfies
Equation is called the right eigenvector of A associated
with the eigenvalue
i
, . Therefore, we have
Similarly, the n-row vector
i
which satisfies
is called the left eigenvector associated with the eigen value
i
.
Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigen vectors
The left and right eigenvectors corresponding to different eigen
values are orthogonal.
However, in the case of eigenvectors corresponding to the same
eigen value,
Since, as noted above, the eigenvectors are determined only to within
a scalar multiplier, it is common practice to normalize these vectors
so that
ModalMatrices
Thefollowingmatricesareintroducedinorderto
convenientlyexpresstheproperties
Thematricesexpressedareofordernxn anda
simplificationcanbeapplied.
FreeMotionofaDynamicSystem
Fromthestateequation,wecanseethatwithzero
input,afreemotionofthesystemcanbedescribed.
Duetothecrosscouplingbetweenthestatevariables
theanalysisofthissystembecomescomplex.Inorder
tosimplifythis,anewstatevectorisdefinedas
Withthisrepresentation,thecouplingbetweenthe
statevariablesiseliminated.Thustheequationfor
eachstatevariableisasimplefirstorderdifferential
equationwithasolutionas
Thusrepresentingthissolutionintermsofthe
originalstatevariables,weget
Usingthedefinitionwecanwriteitas
Where,c
i
=
Thetimeresponseofthei
th
statevariableisthus
givenas
Thusthefreeresponseisalinearcombinationofn
dynamicmodescorrespondingtothen eigenvalues
ofthestatematrix.
Thescalarproductc
i
=
i
x(0) representsthe
magnitudeoftheexcitationofthei
th
mode.
Mode shape and eigenvectors:
Consider,
&
The right eigenvector gives the mode shape, i.e., the relative activity
of the state variables when a particular mode is excited.
Eg: The degree of activity of the state variable x
k
in the i
th
mode is
given by the element
ki
of the right eigenvector
i
.
Mode shape and eigenvectors:
The magnitudes of the elements of
i
give the extents of the
activities of the n state variables in the i
th
mode, and the angles
of the elements give phase displacements of the state variables
with regard to the mode.
Eigenvalue sensitivity
So,
Premultiplying by
i
, and noting that
i
= 1 and
Eigenvalue sensitivity:
The elements of are zero, except for the element in the k
th
row and j
th
column which is equal to 1.
Sensitivity of the eigenvalue
i
to the element a
kj
of the state matrix is
equal to the product of the left eigenvector element
ik
and the right
eigenvector element
ji
.
/
kj
A a c c
Participation factor
One problem in using right and left eigenvectors individually for
identifying the relationship between the states and the modes is that
the elements of the eigenvectors are dependent on units and scaling
associated with the state variables.
Solution: A matrix called the participation matrix (P), which
combines the right and left eigenvectors as follows as a measure of
the association between the state variables and the modes.
Participation factor
The element p
ki
=
ki
ik
is termed the participation factor. It is a
measure of the relative participation of the k
th
state variable in the i
th
mode, and vice versa.
Since
ki
measures the activity of x
k
in the i
th
mode and
ik
weighs
the contribution of this activity to the mode, the product P
ki
measures
the net participation.
In view of the eigenvector normalization, the sum of the participation
factors associated with any mode or with any state variable
is equal to 1.
since,
PhillipsHeffron ModelofSMIB
AlsoknownastheK
1
K
6
modelofthesystem.
Developedbylinearising thesystemofequations
Thegeneratorisrepresentedbytheclassicalmodel
andallresistancesareneglected.
Astherotorofthegeneratoroscillatesduringa
disturbance,theanglechanges.
o
Fromtheequationsofmotion,weget
Linearising theaboveequationandsubstitutingfor
thevariableweget
WhereKsisthesynchronising torquecoefficient.
e
T A
Thusinmatrixform,thelinearised equationsandits
representationintheblockdiagramformasshown
below:
Thecharacteristicequation,naturalfrequencyand
dampingratioofthesystemcanthusbeobtained
as
Toincorporatetheeffectofthefieldcircuit,the
thirddifferentialequationofthemachinehasto
beused.Inaddition,thenetworkKVLequations
fromtheterminalofthemachinetotheinfinite
bushavetobesolvedsimultaneouslyinorderto
obtaintheexpressionsfori
d
andi
q
.These
expressionsarethenusedinthedifferential
equationtoeliminatethealgebraicvariables.
Section12.3.2onpage737of[1]developsthese
equationsbasedonthedifferentialequationfor
.Onthesesamelinestheequationscanbe
developedforthedifferentialequationfor.
Themathematicaldevelopmentofthese
equationsisleftasanassignment.
'
q
E
Theblockdiagramrepresentationwiththefield
circuitdynamicsisasshownbelow:
WithreferencetoExample12.3onpage752of[1],
Thustwonewstatevariablesareaddedtotheclassicalmodel.Itisleftasanassignmentto
obtainthemathematicalequationsfortheexciterwithE
q
andE
fd
ThebasicstructureofaPSSisshownbelowandhasthreeblocks:again,awashoutblock
andaphasecompensationblock
Destabilisation duetoapplicationofPSS
thiswasthattheshaftspeedmeasuredatthegeneratorendhadahighcomponentofthe
16Hztorsional mode
Multimachine Analysis
Indevelopingthemodelforasystemwithmultiple
generators,thecushionofhavingtheinfinitebus
voltageasaconstantreferenceisnotavailable.
Inaddition,thedifferentialequationsforthe
synchronousmachineshavebeenformulatedwith
theassumptionthattheinternalvoltageliesalong
theQaxisonly.
Inasystemwithoneslackbus,thedq frameof
referencecanbedecidedinsuchamannersuch
thattheslackbusvoltageliesontheqaxisandall
otherterminalvoltagesareobtainedwiththisasa
reference.
However,thisresultsinnonzerovaluesforvoltage
alongthedaxisofeachsynchronousmachineas
theinternalvoltageofthemachineisatanangle
withrespecttotheterminalvoltage.Thisthuscalls
foraneedtochangetheaxisofreferenceasone
movesfromthenetworkequationstothemachine
equations.
Therelationbetweenthequantitiesonthetwo
framesofreferenceareasgivenbelowfora
machineonthei
th
bus:
Thusthetransformationmatrixforthisbusis
Inordertoobtainthevalueoftheangle
i
the
internalvoltageequationsofthemachineareused
alongwiththeterminalquantitiestransformedinto
themachineframeofreference.Thisisshown
below:
cos sin
sin cos
Q q i d i
D q i d i
V V V
V V V
o o
o o
= +
= +
cos sin
sin cos
i i
mn
i i
T
o o
o o
(
=
(

Theloadsateachbusarerepresentedasaconstant
admittanceas:
Theinjectionattheloadbusthusbecomeszeroas
theadmittancebecomesapartoftheadmittance
matrixofthenetwork.
| | | || | | | | | | |
' '
' '
1 1
;
0 0
cos sin cos sin
sin cos sin cos
0
tan
i i i i i i
i i
i
i i
i i
i i i
i i i
d q q q q d d
D D
q
i i i i
q d
i i i i Q Q
m m mn mn
q Q D
i
q D Q
v X i v E X i
I V
X
E X
I V
E x T I T V
X I V
X I V
o o o o
o o o o
o

= =
( (
( (
( (
+ =
( (
( (
( (

( (

+ =
=
+
i i
i
L L
load
i
P jQ
Y
V
+
=
Consolidatingallgeneratorbusestogetherandall
loadbusestogether,thesystemcanbewrittenin
matirx formasgivenbelowwhereY
11
Y
22
are
elementsoftheadmittancematrixandi
g
,i
L
arethe
generatorandloadbusinjectionswhilev
g
andv
L
arethegeneratorandloadbusvoltages.
Asi
L
=0,sincetheloadshavebeenconvertedto
constantadmittance,arelationcanbeobtained
betweenthegeneratorbusvoltagesandcurrents
as:
11 12
21 22
g g
L L
i Y Y v
i Y Y v
( ( (
=
( ( (

1
11 12 22 21 g g g g
i Y Y Y Y v Y v
( ( ( ( ( = =

Separatingthecurrentsandvoltagesintodandq
axiscomponents,thematricesare:
Thusbysolvingthedifferentialequationsinthe
machineframeofreferenceandthealgebraic
equationsinthenetworkframeofreference,the
dynamicanalysisofamultimachine systemcanbe
carriedout.
1
1
11 11 12 12
1
1
11 11 12 12
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 1
Re( ) Im( ) Re( ) Im( ) . . .
Im( ) Re( ) Im( ) Re( ) . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
.
.
. . . . . . .
.
.
. . . . . . .
.
.
D
Q
D
Q
g
D
g g g g
g
Q
g g g g
g D
g Q
nX n
nX
i
v
Y Y Y Y
i
v
Y Y Y Y
i v
i v
(

(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

| | | || |
2 1 nX
m
i Y v
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
VoltageStabilityofPowerSystem
TransmissionSystemAspects
Voltagestabilityofpowersystemis
determinedbytwobasisnotions
Maximumpowerthatcanbedeliveredtotheload
Relationshipbetweenloadpowerandnetwork
voltage
Ifloadpowercrossedmaximumdeliverable
powerlimit,mechanismofloadpower
restorationbecomeunstable
SingleLoadInfiniteBusSystem:
SingleLoadInfiniteBus(Contd.)
InfiniteBusisrepresentedbyidealvoltagesourceE
TransmissionlineisrepresentedbyseriesresistanceRand
reactanceX
Lineshuntcapacitanceisneglected
Loadcanbemodeledas
Maximum Deliverable Power :
Current I can be expressed as,
Active power consumed by the load,
Condition for maximum power,
Maximum Deliverable Power
Solving previous equations under the constraint
Maximum Load Power can be delivered,
Load end voltage at maximum power,
For a highly inductive transmission line, resistance R can be
neglected compared to the reactance X
With R tend to zero, optimal load resistance also goes to zero
and Maximum Load Power goes to zero which is unrealistic
Maximum Deliverable Power
Considering transmission line with non-zero resistance highly
capacitive load required for maximum power flow to match
dominant inductive transmission line
Optimal power flow condition has to be calculated for a known
load power factor
Maximum Power under given load power factor
For a known load power factor load impedance can be
expressed as,
Currents and Load active power equations can be modified as,
Condition for maximum power :
Condition for optimal load resistance and reactace under
maximum power flow:
Optimal load resistance for a lossless transmission line (R=0)
can be expressed as,
Maximum Active Power for a lossless transmission line:
Reactive power and receiving end voltage for maximum
active power can be expressed as,
For a lossless transmission line and unity power factor load,
optimal load resistance, maximum active power and receiving
end voltage becomes,
Maximum Power derived from Load Flow equations
Assumptions for Load Flow for Single Load Infinite Bus system:
Transmission line has been considered lossless
Infinite bus has been considered as Ideal Voltage source as phase
reference by setting
Load voltage magnitude and phase angle are denoted by V and
Load Voltage can be expressed as,
Complex power absorbed by the load can be expressed as,-
Eliminating from the expression of real and reactive power
following equation can be derived,-
Condition to have at least one solution is,
simplifying the above equation,
Based on the above expression, we can say that the locus of
maximum power points in the (P, Q) plane is parabola.
All points inside parabola has two load flow solutions
Outside the parabola there is no solution.
Negative P denotes maximum generation and positive P denotes
maximum load under given power factor
Locus is symmetrical with respect to Q axis which means
maximum power that can be injected at the load end is exacly
equal to maximum power that can be absorbed.
From the locus, it can be inferred that any active power can be
consumed provided enough reactive power is injected at the load
bus ( Q < 0 )
For P = 0,
For Q = 0,
Power Voltage Relationships :
From load flow equations following expression can be obtained,
Considering condition holds, the
solutions for V can be given by,
In (P,Q,V) space solution of V gives a two dimensional
surface
Upper part of the surface corresponds to the solution with
plus sign
Lower part corresponds to the solution with minus sign
Projection of the maximum power point curve on the (P,Q)
coincides with parabola
Meridians drawn with solid line in the figure corresponds to
intersections with vertical planes Q = P tan
Projecting these meridians onto the (P,V) plane provides the
curves of load voltage as a function of active power for the
various tan , generally known as the PV Curves or Nose
Curves
Similar to PV curve, by projecting the meridians onto the (Q,V)
plane QV curve can be produced
The following observations can be made regarding the curves,
For a given load power below maximum power, there are two solutions:
one with high voltage and lower current, other with lower voltage and
higher current; High voltage solution closer to the Generator voltage E is
more acceptable.
With more load compensation ( small tan ) maximum power increases
and voltage at which maximum power occurs also increases which is
dangerous in the sense that maximum transfer capacity may be reached
at voltages close to normal operation values.
For over compensated load, there is a portion of the upper PV curve
along which voltage increases with load power because under leading
power factor when load consumes more active power, more reactive
power is produced by the load.
Generator Reactive Power Requirement :
Considering previous study with lossless line generator
reactive power production can be expressed as sum of the
load and the network losses
where the line current I relates to the generator apparent
power S
g
through
substituting I and noting that P
g
= P in the absence of real
power losses,
or,
Generator Reactive Power Requirement (contd.):
Solving the equation with respect to Q
g
yields,
So, one can obtain P Q
g
curve as shown in following figure.
Instability Mechanism :
Power consumed by the load varies with voltage and
frequency
Load has been considered as a function voltage V and an
independent variable z , which corresponds to the amount of
connected equipment z can be stated as load demand.
For a specific z, load can be depicted as a curve in (P,Q,V)
space this curve intersects V(P,Q) surface at one or more
points these are possible operating point for specific load
demand
When we project set of intersection points for all values of
load demand z onto the (P,V) plane the we obtain network PV
characteristics as opposite to load PV characteristics
Instability Mechanism (contd.) :
Considering exponential load model, load can be modeled as,
Each dotted line is the load PV Curve for same value of P
o
in
the previous diagram
A and B are two operating points characterized by same power
P but different demand z
Consider a small increase in demand z at point A, the higher
demand causes some voltage drop but results in a higher load
power- this is the expected mode of operation of a power
system
At point B, larger load demand is accompanied by a decrease
in both the Voltage and the load power if the load is purely
static operation at point B is possible, not viable due to low
voltage and high current
If some load controller tend to increase load demand to
achieve a specific power consumption, the operating point B
becomes unstable
In case of a large disturbance, value of X and E may vary
drastically which may cause the network PV characteristics
shrink drastically so that the post disturbance network PV
curve does no longer intersect the load characteristics this
may cause Voltage Collapse
Effect of Compensation :
Compensation means injecting reactive power to improve
power system operation i.e.
Keeping voltage close to nominal value
Reduce line current and hence line losses
Contribute to Stability Enhancement
Most often compensation is provided by Capacitors,
counterbalancing the predominantly inductive nature of the
transmission line or load
Compensation may be provided by reactors where reactive
power absorption is of concern
Line Series Compensation :
Series compensation is used basically to decrease the
impedance of transmission lines carrying power over long
distance
Line Series Compensation (Contd.):
The Line net reactance is given by,
Degree of compensation can be defined by,
Degree of compensations are usually in the range of 0.3 0.8
Replacing X by X
net
in shows that P
max
increases
Voltage under maximum power condition does not change as
Shunt Compensation :
The connection of shunt capacitors is simplest and widely used form
of compensation
Effect of line charging has been considered in the transmission line
model
Shunt Compensation ( Contd.):
Thevenin equivalent seen by the load (i.e. left of the dotted
line in the fig.) can be expressed as,
Maximum deliverable power and the correponding load
voltage ( under power factor cos ) will be,
Both P
max
and V
maxP
increase by same percentage when
capacitive compensations are added/network capacitances are
taken into account
Above figure shows a situation where as load power
increases, more shunt compensation has to be added in order
to keep the voltage within the limit (0.95 to 1.05 pu)
Heavy line shows resultant PV curve
As the load grows in areas lacking generations, more shunt
compensation is used to keep voltage in the normal operating
range --- as a result normal operating point progressively
approaches maximum deliverable power and under stressed
condition due to some disturbance system may become
unstable.
In systems with large capacitive effect shunt reactors has to
be connected under lightly loaded condition to avoid
overvoltage
Static Var Compensator :
SVC is a voltage controlled shunt compensation device
In transmission system, SVC connected to a MV bus varies
the equivalent shunt susceptance quickly so as to maintain
voltage at HV and EHV bus constant
SVCs are fast acting devices, acting typically over several
cycles
The following are the main two techniques used to obtain a
variable susceptance
In Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) a variable number of shunt
capacitor units connected to the system by thyristors used as switches.
In Thyristor Controlled Reactors (TCR) the firing angle of the
thyristors connected in series with the reactors is adjusted to vary the
equivalent reactance
In steady state condition the reactive power produced by the
SVC is given by,
where V
MV
is the MV bus voltage and B is the variable
susceptance which varies as follows,
where K is the SVC gain, V
o
is the voltage reference and B
min
,
B
max
corresponds to extreme thyristor conduction condition
Impedance of step-up transformer has been neglected for
simplicity in the QV curve shown considering effect of SVC
The flat portion of the QV curve corresponds to equations
-flat portion is very close to a straight line with a small
droop due to higher value of K (25-100)
The parabolic part corresponds to B at one of the limits
Static Var Compensator (Contd.):
Consider a shunt compensated system with adjustable capacitor
replaced by a variable SVC
With continuously acting TCR the characteristics becomes the
solid line as shown in previous figure
Considering initially system operates at point A on the dashed
PV curve number 1, and the load power has been increased
from P
A
to P
C
In the absence of SVC action the new operating point would be
B however this causes a voltage drop that the SVC will
counteract by increasing its susceptance
The resulting network char. Due to SVC action is the dashed
PV curve no. 2 and the new operating point is C
All points like A, C fall on slightest slope line, which
corresponds to Voltage control by SVC
VQ Curves :
VQ Curve expresses the relationship between the reactive
support Q
C
at a given bus and the voltage at that bus
Consider a fictitious generator with zero active power and
recording the reactive power Q
C
produced as the terminal
voltage V is being varied.
In a 2-bus example as shown in following figure, the load
flow equations can be written as,
VQ curve is the characteristics of both the network and the
load here load has been considered as constant power load
for simplicity
VQ Curves (contd.) :
For each value of V, has been calculated using the real
power equation of the load flow,
Now, the reactive power Q
C
has been computed using
following equations,
In the VQ Curve ( shown in previous diagram) Curve 1 refers
to the system operating far below the maximum power
The two intersecting point with V axis corresponds to no
compensation --- higher voltage solution (point O) is the
normal operating point
Q
1
and Q
2
value shown in the figure are reactive power
margin with respect to loss of an operating point
Curve 3 corresponds to a situation where system cant
operate without reactive power injection
The shown margin Q
3
is negative and provides a measure of
the Mvar distance to system operability
The case of introducing a shunt capacitor is shown in the
following diagram
The parabola Q
C
= BV
2
corresponds to the minimal
compensation needed to restore an operating point (point O)
The parabola corresponds to the compensation
needed to get the desired voltage V
d
Sub Synchronous Resonance
Introduction :
Frequency of mode of oscillation for a single mass rotor model
is usually in the range of 0.2 to 2 Hz
In reality, a steam turbine rotor has a very complex mechanical
structure consisting of several predominant masses ( such as
rotor of turbine sections, generator rotor, couplings and exciter
rotor) connected by shafts of finite stiffness
So, when this complex multi-mass model has been considered
then under some perturbation, torsional oscillation results
between different sections of the turbine-generator rotor.
Special problem related to torsional oscillation includes the
following,
Turbine Generator Torsional Char.
Shaft System Model :
Shaft System Model (Contd.):
Examples of Torsional Characteristics :
Figure shows natural frequency and
mode shapes of the rotor of a 555 MVA ,
3600 r/min fossil-fuel-fired generation
unit with a static exciter
Damping coefficients are assumed to be
negligible
Since, we are considering rotor with
five masses , there are five modes of
oscillation as shown in the figure.
The relative rotational displacements of
the individual masses for each mode of
oscillation are given by the right
eigenvector of the corresponding Eigen
value.
In the figure, each eigenvector has been
normalized
Examples of Torsional Characteristics (Contd.):
Torsional Interaction with Power System Controls :
Torsional Oscillation of turbine generators are inherently
lightly damped.
Level of damping may vary some extent with steam
conditions and unit output, normally it is not affected by
generator unit or network controls
Torsional mode instability may happen due to interactions
with the generating unit excitation and prime mover control
and with nearby HVDC inverter control .
Interaction with Generator Excitation Controls :
Torsional mode destabilization by excitation control was first
observed in 1969 during application of a power system
stabilizer (PSS) on a 555 MVA, 3600 r/min fossil-fuel-fired unit
at the Lambton generation station at Ontario
The PSS was found to excite the lowest torsional mode
Shaft speed measured at generator end has a high component of
16 Hz torsional mode
The stabilizer transfer function is designed to provide zero
phase shift between the input speed signal and air-gap torque at
the system mode frequency of 1.67 Hz, so as to result in a
purely damping torque component as shown in following figure
However the generator characteristics are such that this results
in a phase lag of about 135
o
at 16 Hz. As a result a negative
damping torque has been produced .
Interaction with Generator Excitation Controls :
The problem was solved by sensing speed between the two
LP turbine section, close to the node of 16 Hz torsional mode
At the speed pickup location , other torsional modes also have
very low amplitude
In addition an electronic filter, with a notch of 16 Hzand
substantial attenuation at other torsional frequencies , was used
in the stabilizing path
Interaction with nearby DC Converters :
Interaction with nearby DC Converters :
Intraction with nearby DC Converters (Contd.):
Intraction with nearby DC Converters (Contd.):
Sub-Synchronous Resonance :
Sub-Synchronous Resonance (Contd.):
Power System Stabilizer and Transient Stability
Introduction :
The function of a PSS is to add damping to the generator rotor
oscillations.
This is achieved by modulating the generator excitation so as
to develop a component of electrical torque in phase with
rotor speed deviations
Shaft Speed, Integral of Power and Terminal frequency are
among the commonly used input signals to the PSS
Alternative Types of PSS :
(a) Stabilizer based on shaft speed signal (delta-omega) :
Stabilizer based on direct measurement of shaft speed has been used on
many thermal units
Delta-omega stabilizer has many limitations
The primary disadvantage is the need to use a torsional filter. In
attenuating the torsional components of the stabilizing signal the filter
also introduces a phase lag at lower frequencies
The phase lag at lower frequencies has a destabilizing effect on the
exciter mode, thus imposing a maximum limit on the allowable
stabilizer gain
Due to the imposed limits on stabilizer gain, overall effectiveness of the
PSS damping system oscillation also reduces.
In addition the stabilizer has to be custom-designed for each type of
generating unit depending on its torsional characteristics.
The delta-P-omega stabilizer described next was developed to
overcome these limitations.
Delta-P-omega Stabilizer :
The objective is to derive the equivalent speed signal so that it does
not contain torsional mode
Torsional components are inherently attenuated in the integral of signal
The problem is to measure the integral of free of torsional modes
In many applications has been neglected . This is satisfactory except
when changing load on the unit and other system conditions when the
mechanical power changes
Delta-P-omega Stabilizer (Contd.):
Delta-P-omega stabilizer makes use of the above relationship to simulate a
signal proportional to the integral of the mechanical power change by adding
signals proportional to shaft-speed change and integral of electrical power
change.
This signal will contain torsional oscillations unless a filter is used.
Mechanical power changes are relatively slow even for fast valve movement
, the derived integral of mechanical power signal can be conditioned with a
simple low pass filter to remove torsional frequencies.
Frequency Based Stabilizers :
Terminal frequency signals has been used as the stabilizing signal
for several PSS applications
Normally, terminal frequency signal is used directly as the stabilizer
input signal.
In some cases, terminal voltage and current are used to derive the
frequency of a voltage behind a simulated machine reactance so as
to approximate machine rotor speed
In this system, as in the case of speed-based stabilizers , care must
be taken to filter torsional modes when they are used on steam
turbine units.
The sensitivity of the frequency signal to rotor oscillations increases
as the external transmission system becomes weaker, tending to
offset the reduction in gain from stabilizer output to electrical
torque that results from a weak transmission system
Hence the gain of a frequency based stabilizer may be adjusted to
obtain the best possible performance under weak ac transmission
system conditions where the contributions of the stabilizer is
required most
Frequency Based Stabilizers (Contd.):
Digital Stabilizers :
References
[1].Prabha Kundur,PowerSystemStabilityand
Control,TMH,1994.
[2].ThierryvanCutsem andCostasVournas,
VoltageStabilityofElectricPowerSystems,
Springer,1998.

Power System Dynamics: Electrical Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power System Dynamics: Electrical Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS

You might also like