ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS

Mechanical Measurements
Act of measurementthe quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and a measurand to produce a measured result Measurand : physical parameter or variable to be measured Standard: basis for comparison of quantitative value to measurand.

Standards organizations
SASO Saudi Arabian Standards organization SO nternational Organization for Standardization OthersASM!" #$%A" AS&M" etc.

'eliability of Measurements
Measurements must be reliable to be useful ncorrect information is more damaging than no information &here is no perfect measurement Accuracy of measurements %recision of measurements (ncertainty of measurements )o not accept data without questioning the source and uncertainty of the measurements

$undamentals Methods of Measurements

&here are two basic methods of measurement: Direct comparison: with a primary or secondary standard Indirect comparisonconversion of measurand input into an analogous form which can be processed and presented as *nown function of input + A transducer is required to convert the measurand into another form

Sensors
(se of a mercury thermometer to measure temperature (se of a radar signal to measure velocity (se of a strain gage to measure the strain in a material &ransducers frequently convert mechanical measurements into electrical responses ,voltage" amperage or resistance-

.eneralized Measurement System

Sensor or transducer stage to detect measurand and /onvert input to a form suitable for processing e.g. : + &emp. to voltage + $orce to distance Signal conditioning stage to modify the transduced signal e.g. : Amplification" Attenuation" $iltering" !ncoding &erminating readout stage to present desired output ,Analog or )igital form-

.eneralized Measurement System

&ypes of nput Signals

Static )ynamic ,&ime dependence+ Steady periodic" comple0 periodic + #onperiodic: nearly periodic or transient + Single pulse. + 'andom Analog or digital: + Analog1 continuous signal" + )igital1 distinct values" step changes.

/alibration
/alibration involves the determination of the relationship between the input and output of a measurement system !liminate 2ias error &he proving of a measurement system3s capability to quantify the input accurately /alibration is accomplished by applying *nown magnitudes of the input and observing the measurement system output &he indirect measuring system must be calibrated.

CALIBRATION
Once a measurement device is selected, it must be calibrated
Calibration Comparison of instrument s readin! to a calibration standard Calibration standard created from a measurement
In"erent error

Basic issue is "o# do #e $no# t"at #"at #e record "as an% relation to #"at #e #is" to measure&

/alibration using %rimary or4and Secondary Standards

5nown input signal and find the output. ' To establis" t"e correct output scale( ' To find instrument reliabilit%( ' To eliminate bias error )s%stematic error* $or linear relation o/p I/p needs single point calibration. $or non+linear relation needs multi+point calibrations. Static calibration 6 vs 6 )ynamic calibration

%rimary Standards $or /omparison and /alibration

SI System: +eter ,! '' Sec( ,elvin volt '
+ole Ampere Radian 7!#.&8 ,meter-: -istance traveled b% li!"t in vacuum durin! 1/299792458 of a sec( MASS ,5g.-: International protot%pe (alloy of platinum and iridium) $ept near .aris( & M! ,Sec.-: -uration of 9192631770 periods of t"e radiation emitted bet#een t#o e/citation levels of Cesium'011 &!M%!'A&('! ,5elvin-: K = oC + 273

)imensional Analysis
)ata presented in dimensionless form. 'educing #o of e0perimental variables. No of variables - No of dims.= No of groups (se pi method or by inspection 2asic dimensions: M 7 & 9,*g"m"sec"o* Savin!)time23*, ! tests "vs- ! tests for $= f (%&'&(& ) )# n

4orce coef( /!"2#2 5 fn )Re%nolds number !"#/$* 6elpin! in e/p( .lannin!, insi!"t, and similitude(

(ncertainty of Measurements
Measurement error : Measured result + &r%e value &he true value of a measurand is (n*nown , !rror is un*nown &he potential value of error can be estimated ,uncertainty &wo types of error: ' Systematic errors ,bias- and 'andom errors , Statistics to estimate random errors-

SO7RC8 O4 8RRORS

BIAS AN- RAN-O+ 8RRORS

Measurement errors

2ias and 'andom !rrors

Resistive -isplacement Sensor

/apacitive )isplacement Sensor

C5 Capacitance, 9o 29r 5.ermittivit% of air and -ielectric

7inear ;ariable differential &ransformer , 7;)& -

Linear :ariable differential Transformer ) L:-T *

.rimar% coil volta!e; :S sin)<t* Secondar% coil induced emf; :05$0sin)<t=* and :>5$>sin)<t=* $0 and $> proportional to t"e position of t"e coil ?"en t"e coil is in t"e central position, $ 05$> :O7T 5 :0':> 5 @ ?"en t"e coil is is displaced , $0 A $> :O7T5)$0'$>*sin)<t=*

?"eatstone Brid!e

Strain Ba!e CBa!e 4actor 5 )DRER*E)DLEL*

2 Foun! s +odulus 5 ).EA* E )DLEL*

;iscosity Measurements

$luid ;iscosity

4lo# Rate +easurements

.itot Tube Traverse .oints

$low nstrumentation
Orifice, venturi tube, flo# tube, flo# noHHles( .itot tubes, elbo#'tap meters, tar!et meters( Rotameter and Nutatin! dis$

Obstruction 4lo# +eter

Miscellaneous $low Meters

Turbine, vorte/ s"eddin! flo# meters( +ass meters include Coriolis and t"ermal t%pes( 6ot'?ire Anemometer; 8lectricall% "eated, fine platinum #ire immersed in flo# ?ire is cooled as flo# is increased +easure eit"er c"an!e in #ire resistance or "eatin! current to determine flo# 8lectroma!netic 4lo# meter;8lectromotive force induced in fluid as it flo#s t"rou!" ma!netic field and measured #it" electrodes #"ic" is proportional to flo# rate 7ltrasonic 4lo# eIuipment; 7ses -oppler freIuenc% s"ift of ultrasonic si!nals reflected off discontinuities in fluid Laser -oppler Anemometer #"ic" emplo% -oppler effect and 6etrod%nin! of t#o si!nals

$low Meters
:orte/ ma!netic Turbine

Coriolis mass flo# meter

4lo# velocit% measurement

'otameter

+8AS7R8+8NT STAB8S
.rimar% Sensin! )Strain !a!e, t"ermometer*
Retrieves ener!% from t"e measured s%stem .roduces some form of output

:ariable conversion
C"an!es data from one p"%sical form to anot"er
8lon!ation to resistance, temperature to volume c"an!e

:ariable manipulation
.erforms mat"ematical operation on data
Amplifier, filter

+8AS7R8+8NT STAB8S
-ata transmission
Bets data bet#een measurement elements
?ire, speedometer cable, satellite do#nlin$ s%stem

-ata stora!eEpla%bac$
Stores data for later retrieval
6ard drive, RA+

-ata presentation
Indicators, alarms, analo! recordin!, di!ital recordin!

Optical %yrometer

&hermocouple

&hermocouples in Series and in %arallel

THERMOCOUPLE TIME CONSTANT

The conservation of energy:

m cp dT / dt = h A (To T)
m : mass of thermocouple junction, h : heat transfer coefficient , T : junction temperature , Cp: specific heat of thermocouple junction A : surface area of thermocouple To : environs temperature

=T To / Ti - To
Ti = initial measurement junction temperature, then the solution is

9 : e ,+t 4

where we have defined the time constant for this process as

: m cp 4h A

6ot ?ire

5ing3s 7aw

Laser -oppler Anemometer

Strain .age

.eriodic ?ave and its Spectrum

Time -omain 2 4reI( -omain

frequency spectrum e0amples

S!"#$% #&d H#&&i&' (i&do( )"&ctio&*

.eriodic Si!nals

Sine <ave )igitising

.eriodic ?ave and its Spectrum

Square <ave and its Spectrum

Analo! and -i!ital Si!nals

Analog '/ $iltering

Bias )s%stematic* and Random )precise* 8rrors

8rrors in +easurin! a :ariable

.ropa!ation of 8rrors

Combination of 8rrors

)imensional Analysis
)ata presented in dimensionless form. 'educing #o of e0perimental variables. No of variables - No of dims.= No of groups (se pi method or by inspection 2asic dimensions: M 7 & 9,*g"m"sec"o* Savin!)time23*, ! tests "vs- ! tests for $= f (%&'&(& ) )# n

4orce coef( /!"2#2 5 fn )Re%nolds number !"#/$* 6elpin! in e/p( .lannin!, insi!"t, and similitude(

Application of Mech. Measurements

Monitoring and operation of process.
/ontrol of a process (a**urate *ontrol f measurement a**.) !0perimentation:
n

+ &esting and performance operation + ;erification of properties or theory + nformation needed for analysis e.g. /hec*ing or evaluation of: Oil viscosity variation with temp. %ump performance curve piping head loss 7ift and drag of new airfoil shape==.etc.

Ob>ectives of Mechanical Measurements

Measurement of physical variables: 4orce vector )N*, :elocit% vector )mEsec(*, T)oC*, . ).ascal*, 4reIuenc% )6H5c%cleEsec*(( +easurement of +ec"anical .arameters; &e'!"d/$( )ac* +o,' "/c( -D'0,5 ! .2 Accurate and Reliable +easurements; &ea/ "a/%e 0 "s 0 )eas%red "a/%e

/alibration using %rimary or4and Secondary Standards

5nown input signal and find the output. ' To establis" t"e correct output scale( ' To find instrument reliabilit%( ' To eliminate bias error )s%stematic error* $or linear relation o/p I/p needs single point calibration. $or non+linear relation needs multi+point calibrations. Static calibration 6 vs 6 )ynamic calibration

%rimary Standards $or /omparison and /alibration

SI System: +eter ,! '' Sec( ,elvin volt '
+ole Ampere Radian 7!#.&8 ,meter-: -istance traveled b% li!"t in vacuum durin! 1/299792458 of a sec( MASS ,5g.-: International protot%pe (alloy of platinum and iridium) $ept near .aris( & M! ,Sec.-: -uration of 9192631770 periods of t"e radiation emitted bet#een t#o e/citation levels of Cesium'011 &!M%!'A&('! ,5elvin-: K = oC + 273

+easurin! S%stem Sta!es

+LO,METER SELECTION
+-o(m%t%$ %-%m%&t Orifice *edge ,enturi tu0e 1low no22le 3itot tu0e 4l0ow meter Target meter ,aria0le area 3ositive 6isplacement Tur0ine ,orte7 4lectromagnetic 9ltrasonic :6oppler; 9ltrasonic:Travel Time; $ass :Coriolis; $ass :Thermal; *eir :,<notch; 1lume :3arshall; R%comm%&d%d S%$.ic% Clean, dirty li uids! some slurries +lurries and ,iscous li uids Clean, dirty and viscous li uids! Clean and dirty li uids Clean li uids Clean, dirty li uids! some slurries Clean, dirty viscous li uids! Clean, dirty viscous li uids Clean, viscous li uids Clean, viscous li uids C)ean, dirty li uids Clean, dirty viscous conductive li uids8 slurries 6irty, viscous li uids and slurries Clean, viscous li uids Clean, dirty viscous li uids! some slurries Clean, dirty viscous li uids! some slurries Clean, dirty li uids Clean, dirty li uids R#&'% " to # ( to # " to # " to # ( to # ( to # #' to # #' to # #' to # &' to # #' to # "' to # #' to # &' to # #' to # #' to # #'' to # .' to # P$%**"$% -o** $edium )ow tomedium )ow $edium ,ery low ,ery low $edium $edium /igh /igh $edium 5one 5one 5one )ow )ow ,ery low ,ery low T/pic#- Acc"$#c/0 % %& to %" of full scale %'-. to %& of full scale %# of full scale %# to %& of full scale %( to %. of full scale %. to %#' of full scale %# to %. of full scale %# to %#' of full scale %'-. of rate %'-&. of rate %# of rate %'-. of rate %. of full scale %# to %. of full scale %'-" of rate %# of full scale %& to %. of full scale %& to %. of full scale L (1i#2) #' to (' #' to (' . to &' #' to (' &' to (' (' #' to (' 5one 5one . to #' #' to &' . . to (' . to (' 5one 5one 5one 5one Co*t )ow /igh $edium $edium )ow )ow $edium )ow $edium /igh /igh /igh /igh /igh /igh /igh $edium $edium

7NC8RTAINTF IN .LANINB
)uring the design of the e0periment =dentify all possi0le sources of error: > 47periment set up: facility effects, environmental effects, human , ?-> $easurement system: velocity, temperature,-- 4stimate possi0le severity of each source > 6iscuss with advisor 1or those that are considered @importantA, identify strategies> 47perimental design andBor test protocols :e-g- repeat tests; 3lan for uantitative analysis of reduced data > Cuantitative analysis relies on math model of the system > Often good for measurement systems: pitot pro0e, strain gauge,---

7NC8RTAINTF STAB8S
)uring the e0periment
8/ecute e/periment #it" replications Record notes in lab noteboo$ C"ec$ for mista$es and Bias errors

)uring data reduction

Calculate error bars for measurements C"ec$ for outlier points

)uring data interpretation4reporting

Consider errors #"en interpretin! data 0st order 2Nt" order
Assure findin!s are be%ond uncertaint% of e/periment

-ispla% error bars in #a% t"at aids in understandin! findin!s

)ynamic %erformance

Sampling and Aliasing error

'esolution of an A4) /onverter

8/perimental -esi!n and Anal%sis

Simple Comparative 8/periment( One 4actor; t'Test )>'levels or treatments*

 4 Tests

Least Si!nificant -ifference

4actorial -esi!n