U

N
I
T

3
BASIC MEASUREMENTS
Jeremy Evans, L.S.
Psomas and Associates, Costa Mesa
Introduction
PhilipKissuminhisbook,Surveying Practice,definessurveyingastheart,
scienceandtechnologyofmakingsuchmeasurementsasarenecessaryto
determinetherelativepositionofpointsabove,onorbeneaththesurfaceof
theearth,ortoestablishsuchpointsinaspecifiedposition. Thekeytermsin
theabovedefinitionareart,science,technologyandmeasurements. The
scienceandtechnologyofsurveyingareeasytorecognize. Thescience
includesthelawsofmathematicsandphysicsthatsurveyorsuseeveryday
whilemakingmeasurements. Technologyincludestheinstrumentation,
calculationdevices,andmappingtechnologies(CADD)thathavebecome
necessitiesincurrentsurveypractice. Theartofsurveyingisalittleharderto
define,butincludestheuseofjudgment,gainedthroughexperience,that
allowssurveyorstochoosethetechnologiesandprocedurestodoaproject
correctlyandefficiently.
Measurementsarethecornerstonesuponwhichthesurveyorbuilds
experience. Withoutathoroughunderstandingofthebasicsurvey
measurements,asurveyorcannotexpecttomoveontothemorecomplicated
technicalissuesnorontotheprofessionalissues. Thisunitofthetraining
programwilldealwiththebasicsurveymeasurementsofdistance,direction
andelevation. Theunitwillalsoconcentrateonmeasurementanalysiswhich
includesthestudyoferrorsandhowtheyaffectmeasurements.
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Performance Expected on the Exams
Givensamplemeasurements,determinethemostprobablevalue,the
standarderrorandthestandarderrorofthemean.
Giventhestandarderrorforcertainmeasurements,equipment,and
procedures,predicttheoutcomeofasurveyusingthesemeasurements.
Explainthedifferencebetweenslopeandhorizontaldistance.Calculate
horizontaldistancesfromslopedistancesandverticalanglesordifferencesin
elevation.
Explaintheeffectsofsystematicerrorsindistancemeasurements(i.e.,
temperaturecorrection,sagcorrection,etc.)andbeabletocalculatetheirvalue.
ExplainthefundamentalprinciplesoftapingandElectronicDistance
Measurement(EDM)operation.
Explainthebasicmethodsandproceduresforusingatheodolite.
Explainthedifferencesbetweenangles,bearingsandazimuthsandbeableto
convertbetweenthem.
Key Terms
Measurements Significantfigures
Systematicerrors Randomerrors
Mistakes Precision
Accuracy Probability
Mean Residuals
Standarderror Errorofthemean
Slopedistance Horizontaldistance
Verticalangle Verticaldistance
Taping Electronicdistancemeasurement(EDM)
Elevation Leveling
Direction Angles
Bearings Azimuths
Magneticazimuths Theodolite
Doublecentering Wigglingin
Closingthehorizon
3-2
Basic Measurements
Video Presentation Outline
C D
B A
O
Figure 3-1. Measurements in three dimensions.
Types of Measurements
Horizontalangles
Horizontaldistances
Verticalangles
Verticaldistances
Slopedistances
Units of Measurements
Length
Angle
Area
Volume
3-3
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Significant Figures
Numerical Value Significant Figures
49.00 2
1600.00 2or4
.1284 4
0.21 2
00.000213 3
129.85 5
11.00 2or4
10,000.0001 9
5,280.00ft/mile infinite
Numberofsignificantfigures
Significantfiguresinadditionandsubtraction
Significantfiguresinmultiplicationanddivision
Problemsrelatingtosignificantfiguresinsurveying
Significant Figure Problem
Answerthefollowingproblemswiththecorrectnumberofsignificantfigures.
Sumof19.27,0.0000345,121and8.6
Productof28953.844and1.34
Sumof0.025,1456.3,18.466and438.6
Quotientof9430.445dividedby9.45
Direct and Indirect Measurements
Directmeasurements
Indirectmeasurements
3-4

Basic Measurements
Error Theory
Errorsinmeasurements:
1. Error(E)=MeasuredValue-TrueValue
Sourcesoferrorinmakingmeasurements:
1. Naturalerror
2. Instrumentalerror
3. Personalerror
Typesoferrors:
1. Systematicerrors
2. Randomerrors
Precisionandaccuracy:
PRECISION ACCURACY
Figure 3-2. Accuracy and Precision.
Eliminatingmistakesandsystematicerrors
Probability:
Measurement r r
2
1. 5623'45"
2. 5623'46"
3. 5623'45"
4. 5623'43"
5. 5623'44"
6. 5623'45"
7. 5623'46"
8. 5623'45"
9. 5623'44"
10. 5623'46"
11. 5623'47"
12. 5623'44"

3-5
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Most Probable Value
Mean
Measures of Precision
Residual(r)=measurement-mostprobablevalue
Histogram
Standarddeviation(standarderror)
=

r
2
n-1
50%,90%and95%errors:
Probableerror(E
50
)=0.6745(SD)
90%Error(E
90
)=1.6449(SD)
95%Error(E
95
)=1.9599(SD)
Where:
SD= Standarddeviation
Measures of Accuracy
Standarderrorofthemean:
SD
E
m
=
n
Error Propagation
E
series
=En

3-6
4
3
5
0
'

0
.
0
1
6
'
+


E
edm
=E+Partspermillion
E =a
2
+b
2
+c
2
+...+n
2
sum
Where:
E=Constanterror
5

p
p
m
C
Point Location Problem
o
30 10"
B
A East
DeterminetheerrorinthepositionofPointCgiventhedataasshown.
Basic Measurements
Estimated Traverse Closure Problem
Determinetheestimatedandactualclosureofthetraversedatashownbelow:
Side Azimuth Error Distance Error
A-B 9000'00" 27" 1152.66' 0.15'
B-C 18415'16" 44" 501.92' 0.14'
C-D 27449'14" 18" 1192.10' 0.10'
D-A 1015'30" 58" 406.55' 0.20'
3-7
Classifications of Traverse Accuracy Standards
2nd Order (Modified) 3rd Order
Maximum number of courses between
checks for azimuth 15 25
30" N or Azimuth closure not to exceed* 10" N or
3" per station 8" per station
Position closure (after azimuth)
M or 1:5000 adjustment not to exceed* 1.67' M or 1:10,000 3.34'
Distance Measurement accurate within 1:15,000 1:7,500
Minimum distance to be measured with EDMs 0.1 mile 0.05 mile
Minimum number of Angle Observations:
a) One-second theodolite 4 pos. 2 pos.
b) One-minute or 20-second theodolite 1 set of 6D, 6R 1 set of 2D, 2R
Notes:
1. N is the number of stations for carrying azimuth
2. M is the distance in miles
* The expressions for closing errors in traverse surveys are given in two forms. The formula
which gives the smaller permissible closure should be used.
Table 3-1. Table 4-04-B, Caltrans Surveys Manual.
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Adjustments
Traditionaladjustments(proportional/linearadjustments)
Leastsquares
Distance Measurements
Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances
Pacing
Odometer
Opticalrangefinders
Tacheometry(stadia)
Subtensebars
Taping
EDM
Distance Measurements by Taping
Basicprocedures
Typesoftapes
3-8
Sources of Errors in Taping
Measure 100.03'
Tape .03' Short
100 0
100.00'
Actual

Figure 3-3. Measuring with a short tape.
Basic Measurements
Incorrectlengthoftape
- '
C

= ( )L'
'
L=L'+C

Where:
L = Lengthofline
= Actualtapelength
' = Nominaltapelength
L' = Measuredlengthofline
C

= Correctiontothemeasuredlengthofline
Temperatureotherthanstandard
L=L'+k(T'-T)L'
Where:
L = Lengthofline
L' = Measured(recorded)lengthofline
k = Coefficientofthermalexpansionandcontractionofthetape
T' = Tapetemperatureatthetimeofmeasurement
T = Standardizedtapetemperature
Temperature Correction Problem
Afieldcrewusesatapethathasbeenstandardizedat68Finthefieldata
temperatureof45F.Whatisthecorrecteddistanceiftheobserveddistance
is850.44ft?
Tensionotherthanstandard
L=L'+(P'-P) L'
AE
Where:
L = Lengthofline
L' = Measured(recorded)lengthofline
P' = Tensionappliedtotapeinlb
P = Standardizedtensionoftapeinlb
A = Cross-sectionalareaoftapeinsquarein
E = Modulusofelasticityofsteelinlbpersquarein
3-9

Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course

Tension Correction Problem
Afieldcrewusesatapethathasbeenstandardizedatatensionof12lb.Inthe
field,thetapeisusedatatensionof20lbtomeasureadistanceof650.45ft.
Whatisthecorrecteddistance?
Sag
W
2
(L ) w
2
L
3
C =-
s
=
s
s
24(P)
2
24(P)
2
L=L'+C
s
Where:
L = Lengthofline
L' = Measured(recorded)lengthofline
C
s
= Correctionforsag
W= Totalweightoftapebetweensupportsinlb
w = Weightoftapeperftinlb
L
s
= Unsupportedlengthoftape
P' = Tensioninlb
Sag Correction Problem
Afieldcrewusesa100'tapeweighing1.5lbthathasbeenstandardizedfor
tensiononaflatsurface.Inthefield,thecrewusesthetapesupportedatthe
endsonlyatatensionof12lbandmeasuresadistanceof350.42ft.Whatis
thecorrecteddistance?
Pooralignment
d
2
C =-
A
ZL
T
Where:
d = Distancetapeoffline
L
T
= Lengthoftape
L = L'+C
A
L = Actuallengthofline
L' = Measuredlengthofline
C
A
=Sumofalignmentcorrectionsforline
3-10
Basic Measurements
Poor Alignment Correction Problem
WhenafieldcrewmeasuresadistanceAB,theendofthefirsttapelengthis
offlineby1.26ft.Theendofthesecondtapelengthisofflinebyanadditional
0.98ft.Theendofthethirdtapelengthisofflinebyanadditional2.54ftand
theendofthefinaltapelengthisofflinebyanadditional1.66ft.Whatisthe
correctionforpooralignmentifthemeasureddistanceis350.56ft?Assume
fourtapedlengths,thefirstthreeare100fteach.
Corrections when measuring between points
Corrections when laying out points
Distance Measurement by EDM
FundamentalprincipleofEDMoperation
Reductionofslopedistancetohorizontaldistance
Zenith
Angle (Z)
Horizontal Distance (H)
S
lo
p
e
D
is
ta
n
c
e
(
S
)

D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
i
n

E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

(
D
)

Figure 3-4. Slope distance reduction.
FormeasuredZenithangle:
H =SsinZ
Forknowndifferenceinelevation:
H = S
2
-d
2
3-11
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Sources of Errors in EDM Measurement
Standarderroroftheinstrument
Temperature,pressureandhumidity
Elevation Measurements
Error Sources
Error Due to
Error Due to
Sight Not Being
Horizontal (a)
Unbalanced Sights
a
a
Horizontal
L
in
e
o
f S
ig
h
t
X X
Figure 3-5. Error due to unbalanced sights.
Angular (Direction) Measurements
Introduction
Horizontalvs.vertical
Threebasicrequirementstodetermineangle
Unitsofmeasure
3-12
Basic Measurements
Bearings and Azimuths
Reference Reference
N
Meridian N Meridian
D D
A
A
B
B
37
40
340
140
65
236
83
50
C
C
W
S
E
S
Figure 3-6. Measurement of bearings and azimuths.

Magnetic Declination and Bearings
N
W E
60 52'
46 45'
14 07' E
S
Figure 3-7. Relationship between magnetic and astronomic bearings.
3-13
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Equipment Types
W
Basic Theodolite/Transit Operations
a
b
c
Y
Z
Figure 3-8. Closing the horizon.
A
B C
C'
Figure 3-9. Double centering.
C'
Y
X'
Z'
Z'
X'
Figure 3-10. Balancing in.
3-14
Basic Measurements
Example Problems
3-15


Problem 1.
DeterminethebearingsofBCandCD.
D
88

N

4
1

A
C
B
17'
130

2
5
'

E

A
Z


4
1


2
5
'

Problem 2.
DeterminetheazimuthofBC. C

129 30'
B
A
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
Sample Test Questions
1. A-4 1991 LS
ThemeasurementstoPointCareshownbelow.A6"theodolitewitha
measuredstandarderrorof20"perangleset(directandreverse)from
allsourcesandanEDMwithastandarderrorof.02+5PPMwasused.
2
0
0
0
.
0
0
'

C
N
40 (1 SET)
Not to Scale
B
A East 7000.00'
Required:
A. ComputeandsketchthestandarderrorellipseforpointC.Labeland
dimensionthesemimajoraxis,semiminoraxis,andtheorientation
angle,U.Assumeuncorrelatedmeasurements.
B. Whatistheprobabilitythatthemeasuredpointiswithinoronthe
standardellipse?
C. Whatarethedimensionsofthesemimajorandsemiminoraxisif
probabilityof95%iswanted?
D. Whatistheminimumnumberofanglesetsneededtodecreasethe
semimajoraxisto0.12'onthestandarderrorellipse?
E. Eachoftheerrorellipsesshownonthefollowingpageindicatesthe
relativecomparativeaccuracyofestablishingapointlocationwithone
ofthefollowinginstrumentcombinations,AthroughF.Inthespaces
providedinthesolutionbooklet,indicatethelettercorrespondingto
theinstrumentcombinationthatbestworkswiththeellipses.
Angle Angle Measured With: Distance Measured With:
A Transit EDM
B Compass SteelTape
C Theodolite EDM
D Compass GuntersChain
E Transit SteelTape
F Theodolite SteelTape
Assumethelineis2000'atanazimuthof45.
3-16
Basic Measurements
N
E
1. _____
N
N
N
E
4. ______ 3. _____
6. ______ 5. _____
2. ______
E
N
E
N
E E
3-17
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
2. Asteeltapestandardizedat68F.andsupportedthroughoutundera
tensionof12lbwasfoundtobe99.991ftlong.Thistapewasusedtolay
outahorizontaldistanceABof650.23ft.Thegroundwasonasmooth4%
grade;thus,thetapewasusedfullysupported.Determinetheslope
distanceifapullof25lbwasusedandthetemperaturewas42F.(The
crosssectionalareaofthetape=0.005sq.in.andtheelasticityofsteel=
29,000,000lb/sq.in)
3. Fromthebearingsbelow,computetheazimuths(measuredfromthe
North)anddeterminetheangle,measuredclockwise,betweensuccessive
bearings.
N7334'22"E,S3215'45"E,N3212'24"E,N8959'17"W.
4. AlineABisprolongedtopointCbydoublecentering.Twoforesight
pointsC'andC"areset.Whatisthetheangularerrorintroducedina
singleplungingifthelengthBCis900.44ftandC'C"is0.69ft?
Answer Key
1. A. Semiminoraxis=errorindistance
= .02+(
2000
(5))
1000000
=0.03'
or
=

(.02)
2
+
2000
(5))
2
1000000
=0.022
Semimajoraxis=errorinangle
20"
= x2000
206265
= 0.194
Orientationangle(U)isanglebetweensemimajoraxisandthexor
eastingaxis
40+90=130
B. ProbabilityP[UC
2
]isrepresentedbythevolumeunderthe
bivariatenormaldensitysurfacewithintheregiondefinedbythe
errorellipse.ForthestandarderrorellipseC1,theprobabilityis
0.394or39.4%.
3-18
Basic Measurements
C. ForP[UC
2
]=0.95,C=2.447
= datafrompublishedtables
semimajoraxis = 0.194x2.447=0.475
or = 0.030x2.447=0.073
semiminoraxis = 0.022x2.447=0.054
0.194
D. Numberofanglesetsneeded= = 0.12
n
n =2.61,therefore3sets
E. EllipseNo. InstrumentCombination
1 E
2 A
3 C
4 D
5 F
6 B
2. Trueslopedistancetobelaidout:
4%of650.23' = 26.009'(whichequalstheverticaldistance)
Slopedistance = 650.23
2
+26.009
2
= 650.75'
Correctionforincorrectlength:
((99.991-100)/100)650.75=-0.059'
Correctionfortemperature:
(0.0000065(42-68))650.75=-0.110'
Correctionfortension:
(25-12)(650.75/(.005(29,000,000))=0.058
Slopedistancetolayout:
650.75-(-0.059)-(-0.110)-0.058=650.86'
3-19
Caltrans LS/LSIT Video Exam Preparation Course
3. Bearingstoazimuths:
N7334'22"E=7334'22"
S3215'45"E=180-3215'45"=14744'15"
N3212'24"E=3212'24"
N8959'17"W=360-8959'17"=27000'43"
Clockwiseangles:
14744'15"-7334'22"=7409'53"
360+3212'24"-14744'15"=24428'09"
27000'43"-3212'24"=23748'19"
4. 0.69'/2=0.345'=Theerrorinasingleplunging
Tangentoftheangle=0.345/900.44
Tangentoftheangle=0.0003831
Angle=001'19"
References
CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation,Surveys Manual,Chapters2,4,5
and6.
Buckner,R.B.,Surveying Measurements and Their Analysis,FirstEdition,
LandmarkEnterprises,RanchoCordova,California,1983.
Mikhail,EdwardM.,andGordonGracie,Analysis and Adjustment of Survey
Measurements,VanNostrandReinhold,NewYork,1981.
Kissum,Philip,Surveying Practice,FourthEdition,McGrawHill,NewYork,
1988.
Wolf,PaulR.andRusselC.Brinker,Elementary Surveying, EighthEdition,
HarperandRow,NewYork,1989.
3-20