PID CONTROLLER USING ARDUINO

A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the Award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BY
S.V.D.REYVANTH 09241A0233
G.SHIRISH 09241A0241
D.SIVA VARMA 09241A0243
M.RAMU 10245A0210


Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
& TECHNOLOGY
BACHUPALLY, HYDERABAD-72
2009-2013




GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
& TECHNOLOGY
BACHUPALLY, HYDERABAD-72
2009-2013
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the mini project report entitled PID CONTROLLER USING
ARDUINO that is being submitted by S.V.D.REYVANTH,G.SHIRISH,D.SIVA
VARMA,M.RAMU in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision.
The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any Graduation degree.



Prof. P.M.SHARMA Mrs. D. RAMYA
HOD, EEE Project Guide
GRIET, Hyderabad GRIET, Hyderabad

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This is to place on record our appreciation and deep gratitude to the faculty members without
whose support this project would have not ever seen the light of day.
We wish to express our profound sense of gratitude to Prof. P. S. RAJU, DIRECTOR,
G.R.I.E.T for his guidance, encouragement, and for all facilities to complete this project.
We also express our sincere thanks to Prof. P.M.SHARMA, Head of the Department,
G.R.I.E.T.
We have immense pleasure in expressing our gratitude to our guide Mrs. D. RAMYA, Assistant
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, G.R.I.E.T for her
guidance throughout this project.
We also wish our profound thanks to Mr. VASANTH KUMAR, Assistant professor,
G.R.I.E.T without whose support, completion of this project would have not been possible.

S.V.D.REYVANTH (09241A0233)
G.SHIRISH(09241A0241)
D.SIVA VARMA(09241A0243)
M.RAMU(10245A0210)












ABSTRACT
The objective of our project is to control the speed of a motor using PID controller. The PID
controller is generated by an arduino program and used in the speed control of motor.
Arduino is an open-source electronic prototyping platform based on flexible easy to use
hardware and software. It is intended for artists, designers, hobbyists and anyone interested in
creating interactive objects or environments.
Ardino can sense the environment by receiving input from a variety of sensors and can affect its
surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and other actuators. The microcontroller on the board
is programmed using the arduino programming language (based on wiring) and the arduino
development (based on processing). Arduino projects can be stand alone or they can
communicate with software running on the computer. The arduino language program is dumped
into the microcontroller and it is given to the analog input of microcontroller and the analog
outputs are connected to thyristor controller. The speed of the motor will be controlled based on
the firing angle obtained from the thyristor controller and the speed sensed through proximity
sensor would be compared with the reference value and obtained error is projected over PID
controller and the process continues till we get minimum error.
The effectiveness of controlling the speed of motor by using the software is, we are open to
change the Kp, Kd and Ki constants. Based upon the error occurred and by changing the values
suitably the required output from the system can be obtained
Prof. P.M.Sharma Mrs. D. Ramya
HOD, EEE Asst. Prof.
GRIET, Hyderabad. GRIET, Hyderabad.










Abbreviations:
DC: Direct Current
AC: Alternate Current
PID: Proportionate Integrate Derivative
M/G: Motor/Generator
PI: Proportional Plus Integral






















CONTENTS
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to project 1
1.1.1 Objective 1
1.1.1.1 Project objective 1
1.2 Control system 2
1.2.1 The control system 2
1.2.2 Open loop control 2
1.2.2.1 Open loop characteristics 2
1.2.3 Closed loop control system 3
1.2.3.1 Closed loop characteristics 3
1.2.4 Difference between open loop & closed loop operation of DC motor 3
1.3 DC Motor 4
1.3.1 Introduction 4
1.3.2 Factors controlling motor speed 4
1.3.2.1 Applied voltage control 5
1.3.2.2 Rheostat control 5
1.3.2.3 Field control 5
1.3.3 Characteristics 5
1.3.4 Application of DC motors 6
1.3.4.1 Shunt motor 6
1.3.4.2 Series motor 6
1.3.4.3 Compound motor 6
2. Proximity sensor 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Description & operation 7
2.3 Various types of sensors 9
3. PID Controller 10
3.1 Introduction 10
3.2 The three elements of PID 11
3.2.1 Proportion controller(Kp) 12
3.2.2 Integral controller(Ki) 13
3.2.3 Derivative controller(Kd) 14
3.3 Closed loop system with proportionate, integral and derivative control 15
3.4 Implementation of PID control 16
3.4.1 Choosing the structure of a PID controller 16
3.4.2 Tuning the PID controller 17
3.5 PID controller for DC motor 21
4. Arduino 26
4.1 Introduction 26
4.2 Hardware 27
4.3 Software 28
4.4 Applications 30
4.5 Types of Arduino 31
4.6 Types of Arduino 32
4.7 Open hardware and open source 33
5. Speed control of DC motor by PID using Arduino 34
5.1 Closed loop PID speed control 34
5.2 Hardware components 34
5.2.1 Motor-Generator set 35
5.2.2 Thyristor control drive 35
5.2.3 Proximity sensor 36
5.2.3.1 Methods of determining RPM 36
5.2.3.2 Low PPR solutions using the period measurement method 37
5.3 Program for PID controller 38
5.4 conclusion 45
Appendix A 46


List of figures:

Fig 1.1: General Block Diagram of open-loop system 2

Fig 1.2: General Block Diagram of closed-loop system 3

Fig 1.3: Dc motor working principle 4
Fig 2.1: Proximity sensor sensing metal target 7
Fig 2.2: Proximity sensor functioning 8
Fig 2.3: Circuit of proximity sensor 8
Fig 2.4: Types of proximity sensors 9
Fig 3.1: PID control diagram 11
Fig 3.2: Proportional Control Response 13
Fig 3.3: System variation with change in integral control 14
Fig 3.4: Proportional-Derivative Control Response 15
Fig 3.5: Closed loop system with proportional, integral, and derivative control 16
Fig 3.6: Time period graph 20
Fig 3.7: Closed Loop Control of DC Motor 21
Fig 3.8: Step response given with only proportional controller 22
Fig 3.9: Step response with integrate and derivative controller 23
Fig 3.10: Step response for different gain values 24
Fig 3.11: Controlled step response 25
Fig 4.1: Arduino hardware 27
Fig 5.1: Functional block diagram of closed loop speed control system of DC motor
34
Fig 5.2: Hardware Equipment 35
Fig 5.3: Basic block diagram 36
Fig 5.4.1: Arduino program - i 42
Fig 5.4.2: Arduino program - ii 43
Fig 5.4.3: Arduino program iii 44














List of tables:
Table 3.1 Choosing structure of a PID controller 17
Table 3.2 Methods of Tuning 18
Table 3.3 Gain values of different controllers 20























CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to project:
DC Motor plays a crucial role in research and laboratory experiments because of their
simplicity and low cost. The speed of the motor can be controlled by three methods
namely terminal voltage control, armature rheostat control method and flux control
method. Here in this project terminal voltage control method is employed.
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration
that will provide a desired system response. A controlled DC-motor was developed
allowing Arduino a hardware acts as the interface between the computer and the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming analog signals so that the
computer can interpret them. The user interface was developed in a Arduino
environment.
In this project, the aim is to explore the capability of the Arduino by developing PID -
an application of DC motor speed control.
1.1.1 Objectives:
1.1.1.1 Project objective:
The objective of this project to setup a DC motor controlled with Arduino kit.
Modeling of the DC motor system and simulate with Arduino.
The project will include:
1. Developing the PID controller using Arduino and interfacing the arduino
hardware by dumping the program.
2. Knowledge of Arduino kit. Familiar with this program and test with DC motor.


1.2 CONTROL SYSTEM
1.2.1 The Control System:
The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine,
mechanism or other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired
manner.
1.2.2 Open loop control:
Any physical system which does not automatically correct for variation in its output is
called an open-loop system. In these systems the output remains constant for a constant input
signal provided the external conditions remain unaltered. The output may be changed to any
desired value by approximately changing the input signal but variations in external
conditions may cause the output to vary from the desired value in an uncontrollable fashion.



Fig 1.1: General Block Diagram of open-loop system
1.2.2.1 Open-loop characteristics:
Shows an open-loop action (controlled chain);
Can only counteract against disturbances, for which it has been designed; other
disturbances cannot be removed;
Cannot become unstable - as long as the controlled object is stable.

1.2.3 Closed loop control:
A closed-loop control system is one in which an input forcing function is determined in
part by the system response. The measured response of a physical system is compared with a
desired response. The difference between these two responses initiates actions that will result in
the actual response of the system to approach the desired response. This in turn drives the
difference signal towards zero. Typically the difference signal is processed by another physical
system, which is called a compensator, a controller, or a filter for real-time control system
applications.



Fig 1.2 General Block Diagram of closed-loop system
1.2.3.1 Closed-loop characteristics:
Shows a closed-loop action (closed control loop);
Can counteract against disturbances (negative feedback);
Can become unstable, i.e. the controlled variable does not fade away, but grows
(theoretically) to an infinite value.
1.2.4 Difference between open loop and closed loop operation of DC Motor:
In open loop control of DC Motor the output (speed of the motor) cannot be maintained at a
desired value due to external disturbances and system variables, whereas in closed loop
operation the output can maintained due to the presence of feedback circuit. Feedback circuit
samples the output and gives signals to the error detector which compares the feedback signal
with the specified value and produces a modified signal according to the output.
1.3 DC MOTOR:
1.3.1 Introduction:
An Electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy.
Its action is based on the principle of that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-Hand
Rule.




Fig 1.3 dc motor working principle.

1.3.2 Factors Controlling Motor Speed:
The speed of the motor is given by the relation
=
Ra

. .

Where, Ra = armature resistance


1.3.2.1 Applied voltage control:
This type of speed control can be used in separately excited dc motors, where the field
supply is connected permanently to a fixed exciting voltage. The armature speed will be
approximately proportional to these different voltages.
This method is one of the simplest methods of speed control. The armature voltage is
varied using knob through PC which is explained in later chapter.

1.3.2.2 Rheostat control:
This type of speed control can be used in series, shunt and compound motors. As the supply
voltage is kept constant, the voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a variable rheostat
in series with the armature circuit.

1.3.2.3 Field control:
This type of speed control can be used in shunt and compound motors. In this method, speed
is controlled by varying the field current. Flux is directly proportional to field current. By
decreasing the flux, the speed can be increased and vice-verse.

1.3.3 Characteristics:
Nearly constant speed
Torque varies nearly as the current
Medium starting torque (twice full load torque with twice full load current at
start)
Continuous speed range 4:1 maximum
Medium maintenance cost




1.3.4 Applications of D. C. Motors:
1.3.4.1 Shunt Motors: There are three kinds of characteristics for a motor viz. Speed-
Torque, Speed-Current and Torque-Current characteristics. After analyzing all three
characteristics for DC Shunt Motor it is observed that it is an approximately constant speed
motor. It is therefore, used where
The speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load condition to full load-
condition.
The load has to be driven at a number of prefer and any one of which is required to
remain nearly constant.
Industrial Use:Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, Shapers, Spinning and Weaving Machines etc.
1.3.4.2 Series Motors: D C Series Motor is a variable speed motor. It means speed it low at
high torque and vice-versa. However, at light or no-load, the motor tends to attain dangerously
high speed. The motor has a high starting torque. It is therefore, used where
Large starting torque is required like in Elevators and Electric Traction.
The load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required on
sewing machines etc.
Industrial Use : - Electric traction, brands, elevators, air compressors, vacuum cleaners,
hair drier, sewing machines etc.
1.3.4.3 Compound Motors: D. C. Compound Motor is of two types. It is therefore, used
where, specification required for particular motor
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque characteristics
Cumulative-compound motors are used where a fairly constant speed is required with
irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy load.
CHAPTER 2
PROXIMITY SENSOR
2.1 Introduction:
Proximity sensors provide medium- or low-resolution sensing, depending on the number
of pulses measured per revolution. The best method of using a proximity sensor is to sense the
teeth on a gear. This type of sensing typically has options for 60, 120, or 240 PPR, and the pulses
are relatively clearly defined and symmetrical. If a gear is not available, a proximity sensor can
be used to sense the head of a bolt attached to the shaft. The drawback of this method is the low
PPR (low resolution). If more than one bolt head is used, resolution improves, but pulses are
often inconsistent and not symmetrical.
2.2 Description and operation:
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect the presence of metal objects which come within
range of their oscillating field and provide target detection to zero speed. Internally, an
oscillator creates a high frequency electromagnetic field (RF) which is radiated from the coil and
out from the sensor faces (See Figure4.1). When a metal object enters this field, eddy currents
are induced into the object. As the metal moves closer to the sensor, these eddy currents increase
and result in absorption of energy from the coil which dampens the oscillator amplitude until it
finally stops.


Fig 2.1 proximity sensor sensing metal target


Fig 2.2 proximity sensor functioning
The 3-wire Models PSA-6B, 7B, and 8B each contain a Detector Circuit and NPN
Transistor Output. In these units, the Detector Circuit senses when the oscillator stops, and turns
on the Output transistor which controls the load. The Detector Circuit also turns on an integrally
case mounted L.E.D., visually indicating when a metal object is sensed.

Fig 2.3 Circuit of proximity sensor





2.3 Various types of proximity sensors:

Fig 2.4 types of proximity sensors
Proximity sensors provide medium- or low-resolution sensing, depending on the number
of pulses measured per revolution. The best method of using a proximity sensor is to sense the
teeth on a gear. This type of sensing typically has options for 60, 120, or 240 PPR (pulse per
revolution), and the pulses are relatively clearly defined and symmetrical. If a gear is not
available, a proximity sensor can be used to sense the head of a bolt attached to the shaft. The
drawback of this method is the low PPR (low resolution). If more than one bolt head is used,
resolution improves, but pulses are often inconsistent and not symmetrical.






CHAPTER 3
PID CONTROLLER
3.1 Introduction:
A proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems a PID is the
most commonly used feedback controller. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as
the difference between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The controller
attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs. In the absence of
knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best controller. However, for
best performance, the PID parameters used in the calculation must be tuned according to
the nature of the system while the design is generic, the parameters depend on the
specific system.
For this project, the PID control method will be used. PID, meaning Proportional-
Integral-Derivative, is one of the most used feedback control method. A PID controller
consists of a Proportional element, an Integral element and a Derivative element, all three
connected in parallel. All of them take the error as input. Kp, Ki, Kd are the gains of P, I
and D elements respectively, as seen in Figure 2.3. Where u(t) is the control signal sent
to the system, y(t) is the measured output and r(t) is the desired output, and tracking error
e(t) = r(t) y(t), thus a PID controller can be expressed as in Figure 2.3.

Figure 3.1 PID control diagram

In this project we will use closed loop system with PID system to control the DC motor.
The PID controller calculation involves three separate parameters, and is accordingly
sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and derivative values,
denoted as P,I, and D. The proportional value determines the reaction to the current error,
the integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors, and the
derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at which the error has been
changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a
control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating
element. Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of time: P depends on the
present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of future errors,
based on current rate of change.
3.2 The Three Elements of PID:
In simple terms, the each serves a purpose in the control mechanism.
3.2.1 Proportional Controller (K
P
):
As the name suggests, a proportional controller applies power to the heater in proportion
to the difference in temperature between the output and the reference. Thus, the P term is
referred to as the proportional gain of the controller. On its own, the characteristic of the
resulting output temperature will be such that it will typically stabilize just below the
desired reference temperature. This is so because; as its gain is increased, the system
responds by applying more power to the output, and as a result the temperature rises
quickly and approaches closer to the set-point. But as this happens, the system will react
by lowering the gain since the gap to the reference is now getting smaller. This causes
the response to become progressively under-damped as the output temperature gets closer
to the set-point. This difference between the stabilized output and the reference is called
the Steady State Error. However, if the P gain is set too high, there will be excessive
initial overshoot, after which the output will oscillate near the reference level, and
eventually becomes unstable. On the other hand, a gain set too low will never enable the
output to even reach near the reference level. The responses can be seen in Figure 8.6
below. While the proportional gain method will perform better than the unavoidable
oscillation in a simple on-off control system, on its own, it will never stabilize on the set-
point. The reason is, acting alone, if temperature equals set-point, then there is no error,
subsequently, the gain will be zero, and thus the output will also be zero.

Fig 3.2 Proportional Control Response

3.2.2 Integral Controller (K
I
)
To resolve the issue of the steady state error with Kp alone, the integral term, Ki, has to
be used. The characteristic of the integral control is that it performs an integration of the
past error values and applies a gain to minimize this error. The effect of this action is that
it changes the heater power continuously based on past performance until the time-
averaged value of the temperature error is zero. The downside to this is that the initial
overshoot may be increased since during the initial moments of heating, the difference
between actual temperature and set-point is usually greater. And since the integral
term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to
overshoot the set-point value. As such, settling time may also take longer due to this
temperature oscillation, and as past averaged error values will take time to decrease as the
error gets smaller over a period of time. However, together with Kp, a PI controlled
system is able to achieve the temperature requested by the set-point by eliminating the
steady state error, and also have a shorter rise time.

Fig 3.3 system variation with change in integral control

3.2.3 Derivative Controller (Kd) The derivative term comes into play when the
overshoot and oscillation need to be addressed. The rate of change of the error is
calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and multiplying this rate of
change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude derivative term introduces damping to
the overall system output by slowing down the rate of change of the controller output
such that the overshoot and oscillation can be reduced. But one side effect is that is that
the damping may also increase the rise time slightly. Together with P and I control
terms, the derivative term can help to improve the process stability of the system. But
according to some studies, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and can cause a
system to become unstable, so if the system is susceptible to a lot of noise or is sensitive
to noise, then it may be necessary to leave out the derivative control. Figure 8.7
illustrates the effects of a PD controlled response.

Fig 3.4 Proportional-Derivative Control Response
3.3 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM WITH PROPORTIONATE, INTEGRAL
AND DERIVATIVE CONTROL:
To summarize all three controls, proportional control causes an input signal to change as
a direct ratio of the error signal variation. It responds immediately to the current tracking
error but it cannot achieve the desired set-point accuracy without an unacceptably large gain.
Thus, proportional term usually needs the other terms. Integral control causes an output
signal to change as a function of the integral of the error signal over time duration. Integral
term yields zero steady-state error in tracking a constant set-point. It also rejects constant
disturbances. Derivative action reduces transient errors and causes an output signal to change
as a function of the rate of change of the error signal. The contributions of the three terms
will yield the control output, or the control variable:
Control Variable = Pout + Iout + Dout



Fig 3.5 Closed loop system with proportional, integral, and derivative control.

In practice, most PID controllers can be run in two modes: manual or automatic. In manual
mode, the controller output is manipulated directly by the operator, typically by pushing
buttons that increase or decrease the controller output. A controller may also operate in
combination with other controllers, such as in a cascade or ratio connection, or with nonlinear
elements, such as multipliers and selectors. In automatic mode, the PID parameters can be
adjusted during operation. When there are changes of modes and parameters, it is important
to avoid switching transients.

3.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF PID CONTROL:
As suggested earlier, to implement a PID control, engineer must first choose the structure of
the PID controller. Secondly, engineer must choose numerical values for the PID coefficients
to tune the controller.

3.4.1 CHOOSING THE STRUCTURE OF A PID CONTROLLER:
For choosing the structure of a controller, refer to the following table for tuning effects of the
PID controller terms. This table is a look-up table in which each term of the controller can be
selected to accomplish a particular closed-loop system effect of specification.
Table 3.1 Choosing structure of a PID controller

3.4.2 TUNING THE PID CONTROLLER:
The second part of setting up a PID controller is to tune or choose numerical values for the
PID parameters. PID controllers are tuned in terms of their P, I, and D terms. Tuning the
control gains can result in the following improvement of responses:

Proportional gain (Kp):
Larger proportional gain typically means faster response, since the larger the error,
the larger the proportional term compensation. However, an excessively large
proportional gain may result in process instability and oscillation.

Integral gain (Ki):
Larger integral gain implies steady-state errors are eliminated faster. However, the
trade off may be a larger overshoot, since any negative error integrated during
transient response must be integrated away by positive error before steady state can be
reached.
Derivative gain (Kd):
Larger derivative gain decreases overshoot but slow down transient response and may
lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.

The following table lists some common tuning methods and their advantages and
disadvantages. The choice of method will mostly depend on whether or not the loop can be
taken offline for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be taken
offline, the best tuning method often involve s subjecting the system to a step change in input,
measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control
parameters. Manual tuning methods can be quite inefficient, especially if the loops have
response times on the order of minutes or longer.

Table 3.2 Methods of Tuning

Many manufacturing and industrial process companies have in-house guidelines for tuning of
PID controllers in particular process plant units. Therefore, it is often possible to provide
rules and empirical formulas for the PI D controller tuning procedure. Some of these
guidelines base their procedures on the routines of the commonly used Ziegler-Nichols
methods. The two Ziegler-Nichols methods use an online process experiment followed by the
set of rules to calculate the numerical values of the PID parameters. Numerous improvements
and extensions of the associated rules have been achieved since their introduction. Ziegler-
Nichols is a type of continuous cycling method for controller tuning. The term continuous
cycling refers to a continuous oscillation with constant amplitude and is based on trial-and-
error procedure. The following are the steps to implement the method:

1. Allow the process to reach steady state as much as possible, then turn off the integral
mode (or set time to zero) and turn off the derivative mode.
2. Assign a small value to proportional-only controller gain K (e.g. 0.5) and place the
controller in automatic mode.
3. Make a small set-point change so that the control variable moves away from the set-
point.
4. Increase the gain slightly.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until continuous oscillation is achieved which is known as the
ultimate gain.
6. Calculate the PID controller settings using the Ziegler-Nichols tuning relations in the
table below.
7. Evaluate the Ziegler-Nichols controller settings by introducing a small set-point
change and observing the closed-loop response. Fine tune the settings, if necessary.













Table 3.3 Gain values of different controllers



Figure 3.6 Time period graph


Note: K is the ultimate gain. T is the time or period in minutes measured in the gain
calibration above.
By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide
control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can
be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error , the degree to which
the controller overshoots the set-point and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use
of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system
stability. Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the
appropriate system control. A PID controller will be called a P, I, PI, or PD controller in the
absence of the respective control actions. If the PID controller parameters are improperly
chosen, the controlled process input can become unstable. Instability is often caused by
excess gain, particularly in the presence of significant time delay. In most applications,
stability of response is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of
process conditions.

3.5 PID CONTROLLER FOR DC MOTOR:
In this the desired target speed of the motor is set by the user. This value is then fed into the
speed controller to change the motor speed. The loop is closed by a tachometer. The
controller constantly adjusts the value of the DC voltage applied to the motor to maintain the
desired speed. The control loop is shown in the following figure:



Figure 3.7 Closed Loop Control of DC Motor


The transfer function for DC motor's speed is expressed as:


Where:

K: Electromotive force control = 0.01 Nm/Amp
R: Electrical resistance = 1 O
L: Electrical inductance = 0.5H
J : Moment of inertia of rotor = 0.01 kgm^2/s^2
b: Damping ratio of mechanical system = 0.1 Nms
V: Source voltage
tita: Rotating speed

Therefore, the rotating speed of the motor is directly proportional to the input voltage. First,
lets try a proportional- only control with a gain (Kp) of 100 and step input of 1 rad/sec. A
step response is received as follows:


Figure 3.8 Step response given with only proportional controller

From the figure above, we see that both the steady-state error and overshoot are too large.
Since adding an integral term will eliminate the steady state error and a derivative term will
reduce the overshoot, next we try a PID controller with small Ki = 1 and Kd = 1. After that,
the step response curve looks like this:

Figure 3.9 Step response with integrate and derivative controller

However, now the settling time is too long. So we increase Ki to 200 in order to reduce the
settling time. After that, the step response curve looks like:



Fig 3.10 Step response for different gain values

Now we see that the response is much faster than before; however, the large Ki has worsened
the transient response (big overshoot). So we increase Kd to 10 in order to reduce the
overshoot. After that, the step response curve looks like:

Fig 3.11 Controlled step response

As a result, we can now use a PID controller with the following parameters to adjust the
value of the DC voltage applied to the motor to maintain the desired speed.

Kp = 100
Ki = 200
Kd = 10
The response from the PID controller is controlled in this way.





CHAPTER 4
ARDUINO
4.1 Introduction:
An Arduino board with a RS-232 serial interface (upper left) and an Atmel ATmega8
microcontroller chip (black, lower right). The 14 digital I/O pins are located at the top and the 6
analog input pins at the lower right.
Arduino is an open-source single-board microcontroller, descendant of the open-source Wiring
platform, designed to make the process of using electronics in multidisciplinary projects more
accessible. The hardware consists of a simple open hardware design for the Arduino board with
an Atmel AVR processor and on-board input/output support. The software consists of a standard
programming language compiler and the boot loader that runs on the board.
Arduino hardware is programmed using a Wiring-based language (syntax and libraries), similar
to C++ with some slight simplifications and modifications, and a Processing-based integrated
development environment.
The Arduino project received an honorary mention in the Digital Communities category at the
2006 Prix Ars Electronics.








4.2 HARDWARE:

Fig 4.1 Arduino hardware.
An Arduino board consists of an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller with complementary
components to facilitate programming and incorporation into other circuits. An important aspect
of the Arduino is the standard way that connectors are exposed, allowing the CPU board to be
connected to a variety of interchangeable add-on modules known as shields. Some shields
communicate with the Arduino board directly over various pins, but many shields are
individually addressable via an IC serial bus, allowing many shields to be stacked and used in
parallel. Official Arduinos have used the megaAVR series of chips, specifically the ATmega8,
ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, and ATmega2560. A handful of other processors have
been used by Arduino compatibles. Most boards include a 5 volt linear regulator and a 16 MHz
crystal oscillator (or ceramic resonator in some variants), although some designs such as the
LilyPad run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-
factor restrictions. An Arduino's microcontroller is also pre-programmed with a boot loader that
simplifies uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory, compared with other devices that
typically need an external programmer.

At a conceptual level, when using the Arduino software stack, all boards are programmed over
an RS-232 serial connection, but the way this is implemented varies by hardware version. Serial
Arduino boards contain a simple inverter circuit to convert between RS-232-level and TTL-level
signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via USB, implemented using USB-to-serial
adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the
unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other
methods. (When used with traditional microcontroller tools instead of the Arduino IDE, standard
AVR ISP programming is used.)

The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other circuits. The
Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins, six of which can produce
pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs. These pins are on the top of the board, via
female 0.1 inch headers. Several plug-in application shields are also commercially available.
The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards may
provide male header pins on the underside of the board to be plugged into solderless
breadboards.
4.3 SOFTWARE:
The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for
the Processing programming language and the Wiring project. It is designed to introduce
programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a
code editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation,
and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There
is typically no need to edit makefiles or run programs on a command-line interface. Although
building on command-line is possible if required with some third-party tools such as Ino.
The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of the same
name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier. Arduino programs are
written in C/C++, although users only need define two functions to make a runnable program:

* setup() a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings
* loop() a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
The integrated pin 13 LED
A typical first program for a microcontroller simply blinks an LED on and off. In the Arduino
environment, the user might write a program like this
Program:
#define LED_PIN 13
void setup () {
pinMode (LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable pin 13 for digital output
}

void loop () {
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, HIGH); // turn on the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second (1000 milliseconds)
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, LOW); // turn off the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second
}

It is a feature of most Arduino boards that they have an LED and load resistor connected
between pin 13 and ground, a convenient feature for many simple tests.[29] The above code
would not be seen by a standard C++ compiler as a valid program, so when the user clicks the
"Upload to I/O board" button in the IDE, a copy of the code is written to a temporary file with an
extra include header at the top and a very simple main() function at the bottom, to make it a valid
C++ program. See Cyclic executive
The Arduino IDE uses the GNU toolchain and AVR Libc to compile programs, and uses avrdude
to upload programs to the board.As the Arduino platform uses Atmel microcontrollers Atmels
development environment, AVR Studio or the newer Atmel Studio, may also be used to develop
software for the Arduino. For educational purposes there is third party graphical development
environment called Minibloq available under a different open source license.
4.4 Language Reference
Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: structure, values (variables and constants),
and functions.
Structure
setup()
loop()
Control Structures
if
if...else
for
switch case
while
do... while
break
continue
return
goto
F urther Syntax
; (semicolon)
{} (curly braces)
// (single line comment)
/* */ (multi-line comment)
#define
#include
Ari thmeti c Operators
= (assignment operator)
Variables
Constants
HIGH | LOW
INPUT | OUTPUT|INPUT_PULLUP
true | false
integer constants
floating point constants
Data Types
void
boolean
char
unsigned char
byte
int
unsigned int
word
long
unsigned long
short
float
double
string - char array
String - object
array
Functions
Di gi tal I /O
pinMode()
digitalWrite()
digitalRead()
Anal og I /O
analogReference()
analogRead()
analogWrite() - PWM
Due onl y
analogReadResolution()
analogWriteResolution()
Advanced I /O
tone()
noTone()
shiftOut()
shiftIn()
pulseIn()
Ti me
millis()
+ (addition)
- (subtraction)
* (multiplication)
/ (division)
% (modulo)
Compari son Operators
== (equal to)
!= (not equal to)
< (less than)
> (greater than)
<= (less than or equal to)
>= (greater than or equal to)
Bool ean Operators
&& (and)
|| (or)
! (not)
Poi nter Access Operators
* dereference operator
& reference operator
Bi twi se Operators
& (bitwise and)| (bitwise or)
Conversi on
char()
byte()
int()
word()
long()
float()
Vari abl e Scope & Qual i fi ers
variable scope
static
volatile
const
Random Numbers
randomSeed()
random()
Bi ts and Bytes
lowByte()
highByte()
bitRead()
bitWrite()
bitSet()

micros()
delay()
delayMicroseconds()
Math
min()
max()
abs()
constrain()
map()
pow()
sqrt()
Tri gonometry
sin()
cos()
tan()
bitClear()
bit()
External I nterrupts
attachInterrupt()
detachInterrupt()
noInterrupts()

4.5 Applications:
* Xoscillo - open-source oscilloscope
* Open-source hardware for scientific equipment.
The original Arduino hardware is manufactured by the Italian company Smart Projects. Some
Arduino-branded boards have been designed by the American company SparkFun Electronics.
4.6 Types of Arduino:
Fifteen versions of the Arduino hardware have been commercially produced to date

1. The Serial Arduino, programmed with a DE-9 serial connection and using an ATmega8
2. The Arduino Extreme, with a USB interface for programming and using an ATmega8
3. The Arduino Mini, a miniature version of the Arduino using a surface-mounted ATmega168
4. The Arduino Nano, an even smaller, USB powered version of the Arduino using a surface-
mounted ATmega168 (ATmega328 for newer version)
5. The LilyPad Arduino, a minimalist design for wearable application using a surface-mounted
ATmega168
6. The Arduino NG, with a USB interface for programming and using an ATmega8
7. The Arduino NG plus, with a USB interface for programming and using an ATmega168
8. The Arduino Bluetooth, with a Bluetooth interface for programming using an ATmega168
9. The Arduino Diecimila, with a USB interface and utilizes an ATmega168 in a DIL28
package (pictured)
10. The Arduino Duemilanove ("2009"), using the ATmega168 (ATmega328 for newer
version) and powered via USB/DC power, switching automatically
11. The Arduino Mega, using a surface-mounted ATmega1280 for additional I/O and memory.
12. The Arduino Uno, uses the same ATmega328 as late-model Duemilanove, but whereas the
Duemilanove used an FTDI chipset for USB, the Uno uses an ATmega8U2 programmed as a
serial converter.
13. The Arduino Mega2560, uses a surface-mounted ATmega2560, bringing the total memory
to 256 kB. It also incorporates the new ATmega8U2 (ATmega16U2 in revision 3) USB chipset.
14. The Arduino Leonardo, with an ATmega32U4 chip that eliminates the need for USB
connection and can be used as a virtual keyboard or mouse. It was released at the Maker Faire
Bay Area 2012.
15. The Arduino Esplora, resembling a video game controller, with a joystick and built-in
sensors for sound, light, temperature, and acceleration.

4.7 Open hardware and open source:
The Arduino hardware reference designs are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the Arduino Web site. Layout and production files
for some versions of the Arduino hardware are also available. The source code for the IDE and
the on-board library are available and released under the GPLv2 license.
Arduino and Arduino-compatible boards make use of shields, which are printed circuit boards
that sit atop an Arduino, and plug into the normally supplied pin-headers. These are expansions
to the base Arduino. There are many functions of shields, from motor controls, to breadboarding
A list of Arduino-compatible shields is maintained at the Arduino Shield List website. A number
of shields can also be made DIY.






CHAPTER 5
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR BY PID USING ARDUINO
5.1 Closed Loop PID Speed Control: The desired speed is obtained from the
user and the actual speed of the motor is received through the proximity sensor from the
speed measurement circuitry. The desired speed, the actual speed and the PID gains
calculated from the ultimate gain method are given as inputs to the PID controller which
in turn produces the controller output in the range of 0-5V through the 1:1 buffer. The set
up for controlling the speed of the motor is done as shown in functional block diagram of
closed loop system in Figure
Fig 5.1 Functional block diagram of closed loop speed control system of dc motor
5.2 Hardware Components:
Motor-Generator set
Thyristor Control Drive
Proximity Sensor
Arduino

Fig 5.2: Hardware Equipment
5.2.1: Motor-Generator set:
The motor used is a separately excited dc motor whose field is kept constant and the
armature voltage is varied using Thyristor drive. Here the generator acts as a load.
5.2.2: Thyristor Control Drive:
The thyristor dc drive remains an important speed-controlled industrial drive, especially
where the higher maintenance cost associated with the DC. A motor brush (c.f. induction motor)
is tolerable. The controlled (thyristor) rectifier provides a low-impedance adjustable 'DC'.
Voltage for the motor armature, thereby providing speed control.
DC supply is given to armature circuit and field circuit through thyristor drive. The drive
is so connected that if the knob is varied from 0-5v it supplies 0-230v to armature. It also helps in
smooth speed control of motor.

Fig 5.3 basic block diagram
The main power circuit consists of a six-thyristor bridge circuit, which rectifies the
incoming AC. supply to produce a dc. Supply to the motor armature. The assembly of thyristors,
mounted on a heatsink, is usually referred to as the 'stack'. By altering the firing angle of the
thyristors the mean value of the rectified voltage can be varied, thereby allowing the motor speed
to be controlled.
5.2.3 Proximity Sensor:
The best method of using a proximity sensor is to sense the teeth on a gear. This
type of sensing typically has options for 60, 120, or 240 PPR (pulse per revolution), and the
pulses are relatively clearly defined and symmetrical. If a gear is not available, a proximity
sensor can be used to sense the head of a bolt attached to the shaft. The drawback of this method
is the low PPR (low resolution). Hence to improve resolution 6 bolts are attached to the shaft.
5.2.3.1Methods of Determining RPM:
There are two methods for determining RPM:
I. The Frequency measurement method.
II. The period measurement method.
Frequency measurement is better for fast-moving devices such as motors and turbines
that typically turn in thousands of revolutions per minute.
Period measurement is better for devices that move more slowly, such as shafts that turn
in less than 10 RPM.
High PPR Solutions Using the Frequency Measurement Method:
For this discussion, high PPR is considered to be at least 60 PPR. When using high PPR
sensors, such as shaft encoders or proximity sensors sensing gear teeth, the easiest way to
determine RPM is to monitor the pulse frequency from the sensor using a digital input module
and the Get Frequency command in PAC Control Professional. Then calculate the RPM using
this equation:

5.2.3.2 Low PPR Solutions Using the Period Measurement Method:
For this discussion, low PPR is considered to be anything less than 60 PPR. Because it can be
measured with higher resolution (0.1 ms), measuring the pulse period is the best method of
measuring RPM when using low PPR sensors, such as proximity sensors sensing a bolt head or
photoelectric sensors. Period is the time from the start of one pulse to the start of the next pulse.
This equation shows the relationship between frequency and period:
Frequency=1/ period
When using period measurement to monitor RPM, calculate the RPM using this equation:
RPM = 60/ (Pulse Period x PPR)
The main issue when using Period measurements occurs when the PPR is greater than 1
and the pulses are not symmetrical. For example, when shaft speed is constant and you are
sensing two bolt heads per revolution, if the bolts are not exactly evenly spaced, the periods will
be different, causing the RPM indication to be erratic.
5.3 Program for PID controller:
//library which contain data pertaining count of frequency//
#include <FreqCount.h>
//working variables description//
float Kp = A2; // A2 pin is adopted for Kp//
float Ki = A3; //A3 pin is adopted for Ki//
float Kd = A5; //A5 pin is adopted for Kd//
float out=0;
float gatepulse = 8;
int setsped = 1200;
float sped1 =0;
float error =0;
float err1 =0;
float y0 =0;
float yn =0;
float yout =0;
float integ_yout = 0;
float diff=0,diff1=0,diff2 =0,diff_yout;
void setup()
{
pinMode(Kp, INPUT);
pinMode(Ki, INPUT);
pinMode(Kd, INPUT);
//initializes the analog pins as inputs//
pinMode(gatepulse, OUTPUT);
//initializes the digital pin as output//
Serial.begin(9600);
FreqCount.begin(10);
}
void loop()
{
unsigned long count =0;
if (FreqCount.available())
{
count = FreqCount.read();
//FreqCount.read is a command from the library of frequency count included at the top of
program//
//the command reads the frequency count of pulses from proximity sensor//
}
sped1 =count*(10);
Serial.println(sped1);
y0 = setsped-sped1;
delay(10);
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
{
count =0;
if (FreqCount.available())
{
count = FreqCount.read();
}
sped1 =count*(10);
error = setsped-sped1;
//block for differentiation//
diff = (error-y0)/0.01;
diff1=diff1+diff;
err1 =err1+2*error;
delay(10);
}
count =0;
if (FreqCount.available())
{
count = FreqCount.read();
}
sped1 =count*(10);
yn = setsped-sped1;
diff2 = (yn-diff)/0.01;
diff_yout = (diff1+diff2)/6;
//diff_yout gives the output from differentiation block//
integ_yout =(0.005)*(y0+yn+err1);
//integ_yout gives the output for the integration//
out = analogRead(Kp)*yn+analogRead(Ki)*integ_yout+analogRead(Kd)*diff_yout;
if(out>200)
{
analogWrite(gatepulse,200);
}
else if(out<=0)
{
analogWrite(gatepulse,127);
}
else
{
analogWrite(gatepulse,out);
}
}
The screen shots of the program in Arduino programming are shown below:

Fig 5.4.1 Arduino program - i

Fig 5.4.2 Arduino program - ii

Fig 5.4.3 Arduino program iii
5.4 Conclusion:
Hence, we conclude our project by stating that we made an attempt to design PID controller
operation using arduino though there are various types of other processes which can execute the
function of PID controller like lab view software, hardware circuit, microprocessor etc.,
Reason for doing this project is to show that this method of PID operation decreases labour
when compared to other methods but what we felt during processing our project is there is lot of
possibility to short circuit as it includes large number of connections and there is also the
possibility of arduino failure as it could be overloaded when buffer fails.
But while doing project we came to know about eminence of arduino software and the struggle
put by the manufacturers in designing such a versatile kit which can access both analog as well
as digital signals and also preview the values it is receiving at every instant based on delay given.








Appendix - A
Arduino Data sheet
Arduino Uno


Arduino Uno R3 Front

Arduino Uno R3 Back











Arduino Uno R2 Front Arduino Uno SMD Arduino Uno Front Arduino Uno Back
Overvi ew:
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver
chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a
USB-to-serial converter.
Revision 2 of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier
to put into DFU mode.
Revision 3 of the board has the following new features:
1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new pins
placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage provided
from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the board that use the AVR,
which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with 3.3V. The second one is a not
connected pin, that is reserved for future purposes.
Stronger RESET circuit.
Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.
"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno
and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest
in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
Summary:
Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
Schemati c and reference desi gn:
EAGLE files: arduino-uno-Rev3-reference-design.zip (NOTE: works with Eagle 6.0 and newer)
Schematic: arduino-uno-Rev3-schematic.pdf
Note: The Arduino reference design can use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use
an ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in the schematic for reference. The pin configuration
is identical on all three processors.
Power:
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power
jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:
VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply
voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied
with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of
the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can
damage your board. We don't advise it.
3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
GND. Ground pins.
IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and
select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working with
the 5V or 3.3V.
Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
Input and Output:
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output,
using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead()functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected
by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins
are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using
the SPI library.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible
to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire library.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to
shields which block the one on the board.
See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega328 ports. The mapping for the
Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.
Communi cation:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.
The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI
communication, use the SPI library.
Programmi ng:
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select "Arduino
Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). For details,
see the reference and tutorials.
The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to
upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates
using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-
Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available .
The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which can be activated by:
On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of Italy)
and then resetting the 8U2.
On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode.
You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac OS X and
Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an external programmer
(overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed tutorial for more information.
Automati c(software) reset:
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno is
designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer. One of
the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of theATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of
the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset
line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you
to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means
that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated
with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac
OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the
following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to
ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first
few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board
receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with
which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data.
The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the
trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to
disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum
thread for details.
USB overcurrent protection:
The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts
and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse
provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse
will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.
Physi cal characteristics:
The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with the
USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes allow
the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8
is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.