9.5 - Industrial Chemistry

HSC Stage 6 2 Unit Chemistry
9.5 Industrial Chemistry (Option):

. Construct word and balanced formulae euations of all chemical
reactions as they are encountered in this module:
The EQUILIBRIUM Constant:
For the basic re!ersible reaction, depicted as:
aA + bB cC + d!
Uses of SULFURIC ACID:
"ertiliser #roduction:
Creating ammonium sulfate:
s"#$"ric acid + ammonia ammoni"m s"#$ate
H2S%& 'a() + 2*H+ 'a() '*H&)2S%& 'a()
$ehydratin% &%ent:
ehydration o$ ethanol:
ethano# ethy#ene + ,ater
C2H-%H '#) C2H& 'g) + H2% '#)
ehydration o$ sucrose:
s"crose carbon + ,ater
C.2H22%.. 's) .2C 's) + ..H2% '#)
O'idisin% &%ent:
/he o0idation o$ copper into copper ions:
FU11: C" 's) + 2H2S%& 'a() C"S%& 'a() + S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
!i"ation: C" 's) C"
2+
'a() + 2e
2
Re"uction: H2S%& 'a() + 2H
+
'a() + 2e
2
S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
Sulfuric Aci" I#ISATI#:
Copyright 3 2445! Ahmad Shah 6di#
(tep O)*: H2S%& '#) + H2% '#) HS%&
2
'a() + H+% 'a() $% & '() *+,mol
(tep +,O: HS%&
2
'a() + H2% '#) S%&
22
'a() + H+% 'a()
-ro"uction of Sulfuric Aci" .C#TACT -rocess/:
(ulfur $io'ide #roduction:
s"#$"r + o0ygen s"#$"r dio0ide
S '#) + %2 'g) S%2 'g)
(ulfur +rio'ide Con!ersion:
s"#$"r dio0ide + o0ygen s"#$"r trio0ide
2S%2 'g) + %2 'g) 2S%+ 'g)
Oleum &bsorption:
s"#$"r trio0ide + s"#$"ric acid o#e"m
S%+ 'g) + H2S%& '#) H2S2%5 '#)
Oleum $ilution:
o#e"m + ,ater s"#$"ric acid
H2S2%5 '#) + H2% '#) 2H2S%& '#)
ELECTRL0SIS of So"ium Chlori"e:
-olten )aCl:
1erall reaction:
2*aC# '#) 2*a '#) + C#2 'g)
%alf'e2uations:
2C#
2
'#) C#2 'g) + 2e
2
*a
+
'#) + e
2
*a 's)
Concentrated )aCl:
%alf'e2uations:
2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
2H2% '#) + 2e
2
H2 'g) + 2%H
2
'a()
$ilute )aCl:
%alf'e2uations:
2H2% '#) %2 'g) + &H
+
'a() + &e
2
2H2% '#) + 2e
2
H2 'g) + 2%H
2
'a()
1erall reaction:
2H2% '#) 2H2 'g) + %2 'g)
-ro"uction of SDIUM %0DR3IDE:
-ercury Cell:
Electrol4tic ha#$7e("ations:
A*%8 'titanium): 2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'mercur4) : *a
+
'a() + e
2
*a 'Hg)
%4"rol4sis o$ sodi"m:
sodi"m + ,ater sodi"m hydro0ide + hydrogen
2*a 's) + 2H2% '#) 2*a%H 'a() + H2 'g)
$iaphra%m Cell:
A*%8 'car5on): 2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'steel) : 2H2% 'a() + 2e
2
2%H
2
'a() + H2 'g)
-embrane Cell:
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'nic*el) : 2H2% 'a() + 2e
2
2%H
2
'a() + H2 'g)
SL6A0 -rocess:
.rine #urification:
Ca
2+
'a() + C%+
27
'a() CaC%+ 's)
9g
2+
'a() + %H
7
'a() 9g'%H)2 's)
Carbon $io'ide "ormation:
CaC%+ 's) C%2 'g) + Ca% 's)
/ydro%en Carbonate "ormation:
Car5onic aci" formation:
C%2 'g) + H2% '#) H2C%+ 'a()
Ammonia saturation:
H2C%+ 'a() + *H+ 'a() HC%+:

'a() + *H&
+
'a()
1erall:
C%2 'g) + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#) HC%+: 'a() + *H&
+
'a()
*aC# 'a() + C%2 'g) + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#) *aHC%+ 's) + *H&C#

'a()
(odium Carbonate "ormation:
Thermal "ecomposition:
*aHC%+ 's) *aC%+ 's) + C%2 'g)
&mmonia 0eco!ery:
Lime'sla*in7
Ca% 's) + H2% '#) Ca'%H)2 'a()
Ammonia reco1er4:
*H&C#

'a() + Ca'%H)2 'a() CaC#2 'a() + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#)
O!erall (ol!ay #rocess:
2*aC# 'a() + CaC%+ 's) *a2C%+ 's) + CaC#2 'a()
-RACTICALS:
1uantitati!e &nalysis of *uilibrium:
Coba#t comp#e07ion e("i#ibri"m:
Co'H2%)6
2+
'a() + &C#
'a() CoC#&
2
'a() + 6H2% '#) ;H < 4
'=6*>) 'B1U8)
2. Industrial chemistry processes ha!e enabled scientists to de!elop
replacements for natural products:
Discuss the issues associate" 8ith shrin*in7 8orl" resources 8ith re7ar" to
one i"entifie" natural pro"uct that is not a fossil fuel9 i"entif4in7 the
replacement materials use" an",or current research in place to fin" a
replacement for the name" material:
?UBB8?:
)atural 0ubber:
Up "nti# the .@&4As, a## r"bber ,as so"rced $rom p#antations o$ r"bber
trees in tropica# areas s"ch as 9a#aya and B"rmaB
/hese trees ,o"#d be CtappedA, that is, an incision made into the barD o$
the tree and the #ate0 sap co##ected and re$ined into a "seab#e r"bberB
emand $or nat"ra# r"bber increased great#y d"ring EE66 'main#y $or
mi#itary Fehic#es), and s"pp#y ro"tes ,ere interr"pted by the con$#ictB
As the nat"ra# so"rces co"#d not cope ,ith the #arge demand, a synthetic
r"bber ,as deFe#opedB
(ynthetic 0ubber:
For the ,ar e$$ort, scientists in Germany and USA deFe#oped synthetic
r"bbers, the most common o$ ,hich is SB? 'styrene7b"tadiene)B
8Fen a$ter the ,ar, nat"ra# r"bber co"#d not Deep "p ,ith demand, and
hence today H4I o$ r"bber prod"ction is syntheticB
%ther synthetic r"bbers inc#"de po#y'isoprene) and po#y'isob"ty#ene)B
I"entif4 "ata9 7ather an" process information to i"entif4 an" "iscuss the
issues associate" 8ith the increase" nee" for a natural resource that is not a
fossil fuel an" e1aluate the pro7ress currentl4 5ein7 ma"e to sol1e the
pro5lems i"entifie":
From AB%J8! Contin"ed "se o$ nat"ra# r"bber ,o"#d present many iss"es:
e$orestation o$ tropica# rain$orests to maDe ,ay $or r"bber p#antationsB
80p#oitation o$ cheap #abo"r in deFe#oping tropica# nationsB
6nconsistent s"pp#y o$ r"bber d"e to Fariab#e ,eather conditions, etcB
Beca"se o$ these iss"es, and others, the deFe#opment o$ synthetic r"bber occ"rredB
6n 7eneral, the rep#acement o$ a nat"ra# prod"ct ,ith a synthetic one stems $rom
one or more o$ the $o##o,ing iss"es:
6ncreased demand $or nat"ra# prod"ct! eFen i$ on#y temporari#yB
6nabi#ity o$ nat"ra# so"rces to Deep "p ,ith demand! eFen i$ temporaryB
ep#etion o$ #imited nat"ra# reso"rcesB
Competition o$ nat"ra# reso"rce $or other "sesB
8sca#ating prices o$ nat"ra# reso"rceB
Cheaper, and more aFai#ab#e, synthetic prod"ctB
Greater re#iabi#ity 'consistency) o$ s"pp#y o$ synthetic prod"ctB
3. -any industrial processes in!ol!e manipulation of euilibrium
reactions:
RECALL:
Re1ersi5le reactions do not go to comp#etion, b"t reach a point o$ e("i#ibri"mB
Le Chatelier:s -rinciple states that i$ a chemica# system at e("i#ibri"m is
s"bKected to a change in conditions, the system ,i## readK"st itse#$ to co"nteract
that changeB
Discuss e!plain the effect of chan7in7 the follo8in7 factors on i"entifie"
e2uili5rium reactions: press"re9 Fo#"me9 concentration an" temperat"re:
/o demonstrate the e$$ect o$ changing reaction conditions 'iBeB changing pressure9
1olume9 concentration an" temperature) on a reFersib#e reaction, taDe as an
e0amp#e the reFersib#e hydro#ysis o$ methane:
methane + ,ater + heat carbon mono0ide + hydrogen
CH& 'g) + H2% 'g) C% 'g) + +H2 'g) LH M 4
Chan%e in #ressure:
For a c#osed7system composed comp#ete#y 'or in some cases pre"ominantl4)
o$ gases, i$ the total press"re on the system is:
6*C?8AS8, the e("i#ibri"m ,i## $aFo"r the side that red"ces press"re,
that is, has #ess mo#es o$ gas! th"s opposing the change:
For this reaction, an increase in press"re ,i## enco"rage the reFerse
reaction, as there are 2 mo#es o$ gas on the #e$t, and & on the rightB
8C?8AS8, the e("i#ibri"m ,i## $aFo"r the side that increases press"re,
that is, prod"ces more mo#es o$ gas! th"s opposing the change:
For this reaction, decreasing press"re ,i## enco"rage the $or,ard
reaction, prod"cing more gas to increase the press"reB
Chan%e in 4olume:
For a c#osed7system 'no species a##o,ed to escape), a change in Fo#"me is
Fery simi#ar to a change in press"reB 6$ 1olume is:
6*C?8AS8, then the press"re decreases, and as stated aboFe, the
reaction ,i## $aFo"r the side ,ith more mo#es! so i$ the reaction $#asD ,as
s"dden#y increased in do"b#e in Fo#"me, more prod"cts ,o"#d $ormB
8C?8AS8, then the press"re increases, and a#so stated abo"t, the
reFerse reaction ,i## proceed to prod"ce #ess moresB
Chan%e in Concentration:
Ehen the concentration o$ a partic"#ar s"bstance 'species) is:
6*C?8AS8, the e("i#ibri"m point ,i## shi$t to,ards the opposite side
o$ the e("ation! this opposes the change, as it red"ces the concentration o$
the species by prod"cing more prod"cts on the opposite sideB
8G: 6$ more ,ater is added 'concentration increased) to the reaction,
the concentration o$ reactants on the opposite side ,i## increase, that is,
an increase in the $or,ard reactionB
8C?8AS8, the e("i#ibri"m point ,i## shi$t to,ards the same side o$
the e("ation the species is on! this opposes the change, as it increases the
concentration o$ the species by the opposite reactionB
8G: 6$ more carbon mono0ide is remoFed 'concentration red"ced), the
concentration o$ reactants on the same side ,i## increase, thro"gh an
increase in the $or,ard reactionB
Chan%e in +emperature:
6t m"st be determined ,hether a reaction is endothermic or e0othermic be$ore
maDing e("i#ibri"m predictions abo"t changes in temperat"reB
6$ a reaction is endothermic ',hich this e0amp#e is), then i$ temperat"re:
6*C?8AS8S, the $or,ard reaction ,i## proceed, to coo# the mi0t"re being
heated to ret"rn to e("i#ibri"m! so, i$ methane and ,ater ,ere heated, the
$or,ard reaction ,o"#d occ"r rapid#yB
8C?8AS8S, the reFerse reaction ,i## proceed, to heat the mi0t"re being
coo#edB Hence, i$ the mi0t"re ,as coo#ed, C% and H2 ,o"#d more readi#y
combine to $orm the reactantsB
6$ a reaction is e0othermic then i$ temperat"re:
6*C?8AS8S, the reFerse reaction ,i## proceed, to coo# the mi0t"re being
heated to ret"rn to e("i#ibri"mB
8C?8AS8S, the $or,ard reaction ,i## proceed, to heat the mi0t"re
being coo#edB
Interpret the e2uili5rium constant e!pression .no units re2uire"/ from the
chemical e2uation of e2uili5rium reactions:
For any reFersib#e reaction, at its point o$ e("i#ibri"m, ,e can ca#c"#ate a
constantB
/his constant is ca##ed the euilibrium constant '>)B
A simp#e reFersib#e reaction can represented genera##y as:
aA + bB cC + d
Ehen this reaction reaches e("i#ibri"m, the e("i#ibri"m constant is de$ined as:
+ip: ="t pro"ucts oFer reactants! coe$$icients change into e0ponentsB
-rocess an" present information from secon"ar4 sources to calculate ;
from e2uili5rium con"itions:
*5: Ca#c"#ate the e("i#ibri"m constant $or the $o##o,ing reFersib#e reaction, i$ at
e("i#ibri"m at &-4NC, in a .B4 1 container, there is 2B+ mo# o$ H2, 2BH mo# o$ 62 and
.5B. mo# o$ H6:
H2 'g) + 62 'g) 2H6 'g)
For this reaction, the e("ation $or the e("i#ibri"m constant is:
First#y, $ind the concentrations o$ reactants and prod"cts:
OH2P Q nRF Q 2B+R. Q 2B+
O62P Q nRF Q 2BHR. Q 2BH
OH6P Q nRF Q .5B.R. Q .5B.
Ho,eFer, note that ,e need OH6P
2
B /his is beca"se the species H6 has a coe$$icient
o$ 2 in $ront o$ it, and this changes to an e0ponent o$ 2 in the e("ation:
OH6P
2
Q '.5B.)
2
Q 2@2B&.
Hence, at &-4 NC, the e("i#ibri"m constant is:
> Q 2@2B&. R '2B+ S 2BH)
Q &-B&
& "ew )otes:
/he e("i#ibri"m constant is giFen as a n"mber on#y '"imensionless)B
%n#y the concentrations o$ 7aseous, a2ueous or li2ui" species are taDen into
acco"nt! any so#id reactantsRprod"cts are ignoredB
/he e("i#ibri"m constant '>) is on#y meas"red at e("i#ibri"m at constant
temperat"reB
9ost o$ the time, ("estions asDed ,i## not be as simp#e as p"nching in giFen
n"mbers to $ind the Fa#"e o$ >:
*5: HSC 244+! T+4 dB 'iii):
A < L reaction 1essel initiall4 containe" )=>? mol # an" )=<> mol >=
After e2uili5rium 8as esta5lishe"9 there 8as onl4 )=)? mol #= Calculate
the e2uili5rium constant for this reaction:
2*% 'g) + %2 'g) 2*%2 'g)
&nswer:
Reaction: 2*% 'g) + %2 'g) 2*%2 'g)
Moles initiall4: 4B2- 4B.2 4B4
Moles at e2uili5rium: 4B2- 20 4B.2 0 20
o B"t at e("i#ibri"m *% Q 4B4-
o So: 4B2- 20 Q 4B4-, 0 Q 4B.
H8*C8 at e("i#ibri"m:
o O*%P Q 4B4-
o O%2P Q 4B.2 4B. Q 4B42
o O*%2P Q 2 S 4B. Q 4B2
/h"s, the e("i#ibri"m constant is:
o > Q O*%2P
2
R O*%2P
2
O%2P Q H44B
*%/8: 6n order to $orm the e0pressions C4B2- 20A etcB, ,e note that at
e("i#ibri"m, there 8ill be an amo"nt o$ *%2B B"t the reaction ratio is 2:.:2
so ,e say that there ,i## be C20A amo"nt o$ *%2B B"t in order to get C20A
*%2, C20A o$ *% ,o"#d haFe had to react, and C0A or %2 ,o"#d haFe had to
react as ,e##, according to the reaction ratiosB Hence the amo"nts #e$t are
C4B2- 20A o$ *% and C4B.2 0A o$ %2B
I"entif4 that temperature is the onl4 factor that chan7es the 1alue of the
e2uili5rium constant .;/ for a 7i1en e2uation:
epending on reaction conditions $or a partic"#ar reFersib#e reaction, the position
o$ e("i#ibri"m may change, the concentration o$ species may change, the reaction
("otient may change, BU/ the Fa#"e o$ 6 is constantB
The onl4 factor that can chan7e > is /89=8?A/U?8B
For e'othermic reactions, i$ temperat"re:
Increases, then more reactants $orm ',hich are the denominator o$ the
e("ation) so hence the e("i#ibri"m constant ,i## 8C?8AS8B
Decreases, then more prod"cts $orm ',hich are the n"merator o$ the e("ation)
so hence the e("i#ibri"m constant ,i## 6*C?8AS8B
For endothermic reactions, i$ temperat"re:
Increases, more prod"cts $orm ',hich are the n"merator o$ the e("ation) so
hence the e("i#ibri"m constant ,i## 6*C?8AS8B
Decreases, then more reactants $orm ',hich are the denominator o$ the
e("ation) so hence the e("i#ibri"m constant ,i## 8C?8AS8B
PRACTICAL I"entif4 "ata9 plan an" perform a
first'han" in1esti7ation to mo"el an e2uili5rium
reaction:
/he apparat"s sho,n ,as set "p in the #aboratoryB
A trou7h ,as $i##ed ,ith ,ater, and an open tan* p#aced oFer itB A hose connected
to a p"mp ,as p#aced into the tro"gh, and #ead into the tanDB As the ,ater entered
the tanD, it #eaDed bacD into the tro"ghB
/he ,ater being p"mped to the tanD mode##ed a forward reaction, and the
#eaDage bacD to the tro"gh mode##ed the re!erse reactionB
/he e0periment began ,ith a## the ,ater in the tro"gh, b"t at a point in time, both
,ater #eFe#s ,ere e("a#B /his represented e2uili5riumB
Adding more ,ater to the tro"gh mode##ed the increase in concentration o$ a
reactant! at $irst the tro"gh #eFe# ,as higher, b"t eFent"a##y it #eFe##ed o"tB
6ncreasing the p"mp7rate mode##ed the action o$ a cata#ystB
PRACTICAL Choose e2uipment an" perform a first'han" in1esti7ation to
7ather information an" 2ualitati1el4 anal4se an e2uili5rium reaction:
For this practica#, the e("i#ibri"m o$ cobalt comple!'ions ,as "sed:
*5: Co'H2%)6
2+
'a() + &C#
'a() CoC#&
2
'a() + 6H2% '#) ;H < 4
'=6*>) 'B1U8)
.4 m1 so#"tion o$ this reaction at e("i#ibri"m ,as p#aced into test7t"besB
A Fariety o$ di$$erent @chan7es: o$ reaction conditions ,ere imposed onto
di$$erent test7t"bes, and the changes ("a#itatiFe#y ana#ysed:
/he concentration o$ Cl

ions ,as increased thro"gh the addition o$
hydroch#oric acid 'HC#)B /his shi$ted the e("i#ibri"m to the ?6GH/, and the
so#"tion t"rned a darDer b#"e, as more CoC#&
2
,as $ormedB
9ore water ,as added and this shi$ted the e("i#ibri"m to the 18F/B /he
so#"tion t"rned pinDer, as more Co'H2%)6
2+
ions ,ere $ormedB
/he concentration o$ ,ater ,as decreased thro"gh the addition o$ ethanol!
this ties "p some ,ater mo#ec"#es, and ca"sed the $or,ard reaction to
increaseB
/he test7t"be ,as heated, and this ca"sed it to increase in 5luenessB /his is
beca"se the $or,ard reaction is endothermic, and proceeded to oppose the
heatB
7. (ulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals:
utline three uses of sulfuric aci" in in"ustr4:
"ertilisers:
9ost o$ the s"#$"ric acid ind"stria##y prod"ced is "sed to maDe $erti#isersB
Superphosphate $erti#iser ',hich contains ca#ci"m s"#$ates and ca#ci"m
dihydrogen phosphates) and ammoni"m s"#$ate are both commercia# $erti#isers
prod"ced "sing s"#$"ric acidB
=rod"ction o$ ammonium sulfate:
s"#$"ric acid + ammonia ammoni"m s"#$ate
H2S%& 'a() + 2*H+ 'a() '*H&)2S%& 'a()
$ehydratin% &%ent:
Concentrated s"#$"ric acid is a strong dehydrating agent! an e0amp#e o$ this
property being "sed is the prod"ction o$ ethy#ene $rom ethano#B
ehydration o$ ethanol:
ethano# ethy#ene + ,ater
C2H-%H '#) C2H& 'g) + H2% '#)
#olymers:
S"#$"ric acid is "sed in the prod"ction o$ many po#ymers 'main#y
condensation po#ymers), s"ch as rayon and ce##ophaneB
6t is "sed to e0tr"de the #i("id mass into $ibro"s po#ymer threadsB
Descri5e the processes use" to e!tract sulfur from mineral "eposits9
i"entif4in7 the properties of sulfur 8hich allo8 its e!traction an" anal4sin7
potential en1ironmental issues that ma4 5e associate" 8ith its e!traction:
Mineral "eposits re$ers to s"#$"r $o"nd in its e#ementa# $orm! "ncombinedB
/hese deposits o$ s"#$"r are o$ten "ndergro"nd and m"st be e0tracted! the process
o$ e0traction is ca##ed the F?ASCH processB
+he "rasch #rocess:
/hree concentric pipes are $orced do,n to the "ndergro"nd s"#$"r deposits B
Superheate" steam ',hich is press"rised to .64UC) is inserted into the o"ter7
most pipe, direct#y into the s"#$"r, ca"sing it to me#tB
=ress"rised air is $orced do,n
the inner7most t"be, ,hich then
p"shes the mo#ten s"#$"r V
,ater $oam thro"gh the midd#e7
t"be, bacD to the s"r$aceB
/he mi0t"re is then coo#ed, and
the s"#$"r readi#y separates $rom
the ,aterB
=?%=8?/68S o$ s"#$"r that a##o,
$or this e0traction:
S"#$"r has a #o, me#ting point
o$ ..+UC and me#ts "nder
s"perheated steamB
S"#$"r is inso#"b#e in ,ater, and
hence e0traction re("ires on#y coo#ing, and prod"ces a Fery p"re prod"ct
'@@B-I s"#$"r)B
/he #o, density o$ s"#$"r means it readi#y $orms a $oamy mi0t"re ,ith ,ater,
and a#so a##o,s it to be easi#y $orced bacD to the s"r$aceB
*n!ironmental Issues:
Ehi#e s"#$"r itse#$ is non7to0ic and odo"r#ess, it o0idises easi#y to s"#$"r
dio0ide and is red"ced easi#y to hydrogen s"#$ide, both o$ ,hich are serio"s
air po##"tants! care m"st be taDen to aFoid these reactionsB
/he ,ater "sed to maDe s"perheated steam cannot be discharged into the
enFironment, as is contains contaminants, and ,i## ca"se thermal pollution
d"e to its intense heat! it m"st be re"sedB
80traction o$ #arge amo"nts o$ s"#$"r creates #arge "ndergro"nd caFerns ,hich
can possib#y co##apse "pon themse#FesB /hese are ca##ed earth su5si"ences=
utline the steps an" con"itions necessar4 for the in"ustrial pro"uction of
H
2
S%
&
from its ra8 materials:
=rod"ction o$ s"#$"ric acid $rom ra, materia#s is ca##ed the C%*/AC/ processB
/he ra, materia#s "sed are sulfur, o!47en and 8aterB
+he Contact #rocess:
S"#$"r io0ide =rod"ction:
9o#ten s"#$"r is sprayed into a comb"stion $"rnaceB
Air that has been dried, ,ith e0cess o0ygen, is p"mped into the $"rnaceB
/he s"#$"r reacts 'Cb"rnsA) in the o0ygen, $orming s"#$"r dio0ide:
s"#$"r + o0ygen s"#$"r dio0ide
S '#) + %2 'g) S%2 'g)
Alternati1el4, some chemica# p#ants so"rce their s"#$"r dio0ide $rom ,aste
gases prod"ced by meta# re$ineries!
*5: 1ead is e0tracted $rom ga#ena '=bS), ,hich prod"ces s"#$"r
dio0ide d"ring the meta# e0traction: =bS + %2 =b + S%2
S"#$"r /rio0ide ConFersion:
/he comb"stion $"rnace #eads to the con1ersion to8er=
S"#$"r dio0ide is $ed into this m"#ti7#ayered to,er, ,here it is conFerted
into s"#$"r trio0ide! the process is ca##ed catalytic o'idationB
6t is an e("i#ibri"m reaction:
s"#$"r dio0ide + o0ygen s"#$"r trio0ide
2S%2 'g) + %2 'g) 2S%+ 'g)
/he reaction conditions "sed are:
%ne atmosphere o$ press"re, &447--4UC and an e0cess o$ o0ygenB
/he reaction "ses a cata#yst, Fanadi"m'J) pento0ideB
/he reaction proceeds in stages, in the di$$erent #eFe#s o$ the to,er, "nti# it
reaches abo"t a @@B5I conFersion rateB S88 be#o, $or more detai#sW
%#e"m Absorption:
Ehen s"#$"r trio0ide is disso#Fed in ,ater, it $orms s"#$"ric acidB
Ho,eFer, the reaction is e0treme#y e0othermic, reacting e0p#osiFe#y and
spraying s"#$"ric acid mist in a## directionsB /his is not s"itab#e $or
ind"stria# prod"ction, as it is dangero"s, and the separation o$ the mist
$rom the air is e0pensiFeB
6nstead, the s"#$"r trio0ide is then disso#Fed in a stream o$ concentrated
s"#$"ric acid, $orming oleum 'H2S2%5)B
/his is a stab#e reaction:
s"#$"r trio0ide + s"#$"ric acid o#e"m
S%+ 'g) + H2S%& '#) H2S2%5 '#)
%#e"m i#"tion:
1ast#y, the o#e"m is di#"ted ,ith p"ri$ied ,ater in a di#"tion tanDB
/his is stab#e reaction, ,hich $orms s"#$"ric acid:
o#e"m + ,ater s"#$"ric acid
H2S2%5 '#) + H2% '#) 2H2S%& '#)
/he $ina# prod"ct o$ the Contact =rocess is @HI concentration s"#$"ric acid:
Descri5e the reaction con"itions necessar4 for the pro"uction of S%
2
an"
S%
+
:
=rod"ction o$ SU1FU? 6%X68:
/his inFo#Fes the o0idation o$ sulfur to sulfur "io!i"eB
/he reaction is e0othermic, and goes to comp#etion:
s"#$"r + o0ygen s"#$"r dio0ide + heat
S '#) + %2 'g) S%2 'g)
Conditions for #roduction:
/he reaction is carried o"t in a comb"stion $"rnaceB
9o#ten s"#$"r is sprayed into "r4, o!47en'rich air and b"rnedB
=rod"ction o$ SU1FU? /?6%X68:
/his inFo#Fes a second o0idation o$ sulfur "io!i"e to sulfur trio!i"eB
6t is a#so e0othermic, BU/ it is a reFersib#e reaction that reaches e("i#ibri"m:
s"#$"r dio0ide + o0ygen s"#$"r trio0ide + heat
2S%2 'g) + %2 'g) 2S%+ 'g)
Conditions for #roduction:
?eaction is carried o"t at abo"t &447--4NC ,ith abo"t .72 atmB o$ press"reB
An 8XC8SS o$ o0ygen is "sedB
Catal4st: Janadi"m'J) pento0ide 'J2%-) on poro"s si#ica pe##etsB
/he ConFersion /o,er 'See "ia7ram aboFe):
/he conFersion occ"rs in a m"#ti7#ayered to,er in a series o$ stepsB
First#y, the s"#$"r dio0ideRo0ygen mi0t"re $rom the $"rnace, ,hich is at
abo"t .444UC is coo#ed to --4UC, and passed thro"gh the $irst bed o$
cata#yst! 54I conFerts a#most instant#yB
As it is an e0othermic reaction, the gas is then coo#ed again, b"t to &44UC
this time, and passed thro"gh the second cata#yst bed! a @5I conFersion
rate is achieFedB
/he gas is coo#ed again to &44UC, and passed thro"gh the beds "nti# @@B5I
conFersion rate is achieFed, and the resid"e gas re#eased to atmosphereB
*ote that the &44UC beds achieFe H6GH yie#d, ,hi#e the --4UC achieFe a
FAS/ rate o$ reaction! it is a de#icate 5alancin7 actB
Appl4 the relationship 5et8een rates of reaction an" e2uili5rium con"itions
to the pro"uction of S%
2
an" S%
+
:
(ulfur $io'ide:
/he prod"ction o$ S%2 is a reaction that proceeds to comp#etion! there are no
e("i#ibri"m considerations to be madeB
Ho,eFer, to increase the rate o$ reaction, the s"#$"r is #i("e$ied ',hich
increases its s"r$ace area), and an e0cess o$ o0ygen is "sedB
(ulfur +rio'ide:
/he prod"ction o$ S%+ is a reFersib#e reaction, and the conditions chosen $or
its prod"ction are made a$ter considering e("i#ibri"m $actorsB
/he reaction:
s"#$"r dio0ide + o0ygen s"#$"r trio0ide + heat
2S%2 'g) + %2 'g) 2S%+ 'g)
8TU616B?6U9 Considerations 'according to 1e Chate#ierAs =rincip#e):
/he $or,ard reaction is e!othermic, hence #o,er temperat"res $aFo"r the
$or,ard reaction, to oppose the changeB
/here are #ess moles of 7as as prod"cts compared to reactants! hence high
press"res ,i## $aFo"r the $or,ard reactionB
An e0cess o$ o0ygen is "sed to $"rther enco"rage the $or,ard reactionB
?A/8 Considerations:
High temperat"res are $aFo"rab#e, as the rate of reaction ,i## increase d"e
to more mo#ec"#ar co##isionsB
A cata#yst o$ Fanadi"m'J) o0ide on si#ica pe##ets great#y increases the rateB
/he Compromise:
/h"s, a compromise temperat"re range o$ &447--4NC is "sed, ,hich
proFides a ba#ance bet,een yie#d and rate o$ reactionB
Ho,eFer, high press"re e("ipment is e0pensiFe and dangero"s! a
compromise press"re o$ . or 2 atm is s"$$icient $or this reactionB
/he conditions chosen giFe an economicall4 practica# ba#ance bet,een
4iel" o$ prod"cts at e("i#ibri"m and the rate o$ chemica# reaction B
Descri5e9 usin7 e!amples9 the reactions of sulfuric aci" actin7 as an
o!i"isin7 a7ent an" as a "eh4"ratin7 a7ent:
?8CA11: An o0idising agent 'or o!i"ant) brings abo"t o0idation in another
s"bstance, and in the process, is itse#$ red"cedB
Sulfuric aci" has t,o important "ses:
6t is a strong o'idisin% agentB
6t is a strong dehydratin% agentB
/he ha#$7e("ation that demonstrates its o0idising abi#ities is:
H2S%& + 2H
+
+ 2e
2
S%2 + 2H2%
*ote that this is the re"uction ha#$, as e#ectrons are gainedB
*5: /he o0idation o$ copper into copper ions:
F"## chemica# e("ation:
C" 's) + 2H2S%& 'a() C"S%& 'a() + S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
%ne o$ the s"#$ates is a spectator ion:
C" 's) + H2S%& 'a() + 2H
+
'a() C"
2+
'a() + S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
Hence, the t,o ha#$ e("ations are:
C" 's) C"
2+
'a() + 2e
2
H2S%& 'a() + 2H
+
'a() + 2e
2
S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
*5: /he dehydration o$ sucrose:
6n this reaction, s"#$"ric acid dehydrates s"crose, #eaFing behind a to,er o$
spongy carbon:
s"crose carbon + ,ater
C.2H22%.. 's) .2C 's) + ..H2% '#)
Descri5e an" e!plain the e!othermic nature of sulfuric aci" ionisation:
0*C&88: Brea*in7 bonds absorbs energy, creatin7 bonds re#eases energyB
Ehen mo#ec"#ar s"#$"ric acid 'concentrate") is di#"ted 'ionise"), a great amo"nt
o$ heat is re#eased! in a sma## beaDer, the acid may spit and boi#B
*'planation:
Ehen a mo#ec"#e o$ s"#$"ric acid 'H2S%&) is p#aced in ,ater, it ionisesB
6t separates into its component ions, iBeB H
+
, HS%&
2
and S%&
22
B
6n ,ater, the H
+
ions then combine ,ith the ,ater, $orming H+%
+
ionsB
6n this partic"#ar ionisation, the energy re#eased ,hen H+%
+
is $ormed is much
G?8A/8? than the energy absorbed ,hen H2S%& is broDenB
Hence, the ionisation is strong#y e0othermicB
/here are t,o stages in s"#$"ric acid ionisation:
2. H2S%& '#) + H2% '#) HS%&
2
'a() + H+% 'a() LH Q 7@4 DYRmo#
3. HS%&
2
'a() + H2% '#) S%&
22
'a() + H+% 'a()
/he $irst ionisation goes to comp#etion, and is strong#y e0othermicB
/he second ionisation on#y occ"rs s#ight#y, and is neg#igib#eB
Hence, the ionisation o$ s"#$"ric acid mo#ec"#es is strong#y e0othermicB
I"entif4 an" "escri5e safet4 precautions that must 5e ta*en 8hen usin7 an"
"ilutin7 concentrate" sulfuric aci":
Concentrated s"#$"ric acid '@HI) is a#most comp#ete#y molecular 7 no $ree ionsB
Hence, as it is di#"ted, the mo#ec"#ar s"#$"ric acid ,i## be ionisedB
From aboFe, ,e Dno, that the ionisation is strong#y e0othermic, and hence
certain sa$ety preca"tions m"st be taDen ,hen di#"ting concentrated s"#$"ric acidB
Ehen 61U/6*G concentrated s"#$"ric acid:
Eear protectiFe c#othing, especia##y sa$ety g#assesB
Add sma## amo"nts o$ AC6 to #arger amo"nts o$ EA/8? 'this a##o,s the
heat o$ ionisation to disperse thro"gho"t the ,ater, to preFent boi#ing)B
Contin"o"s#y stir the mi0t"re to aid a smooth di#"tionB
C#ean "p any spi##s immediate#y, by "sing sodi"m hydrogen carbonateB
Ehen US6*G concentrated s"#$"ric acid:
/he strictest sa$ety meas"res m"st be emp#oyed, as it is high#y dangero"s! $"##
sa$ety7,ear m"st be ,orn, inc#"ding #ab coat and g#assesB
6t is a#so e0treme#y important not to a##o, any ,ater to enter the concentrated
s"#$"ric acid bott#e, as it may trigger a reaction that can create eno"gh heat to
ca"se the bott#e to e0p#odeB
Use a1aila5le e1i"ence to relate" the properties of sulfuric aci" to safet4
precautions necessar4 for its transport an" stora7e:
Concentrated (ulfuric &cid:
/his is @HI s"#$"ric acid, so"rced direct#y $rom prod"ction p#antsB
At this high a concentration, s"#$"ric acid is Firt"a##y a## molecular9 iBeB there
are no free ions 's"ch as H
+
or S%&
2+
)B
Hence, concentrated s"#$"ric acid ,i## not react ,ith iron or stee#, as it is on#y
the H
+
ions that taDe part in acidRmeta# reactionsB
/h"s, it is sa$e to store and transport concentrated s"#$"ric acid in stee# or iron
containers, instead o$ g#ass or p#astic containers ',hich do not react ,ith H
+
)B
6n addition, iron and stee# are stronger than g#ass or p#astic! it ,o"#d be "nsa$e
to store or transport concentrated s"#$"ric acid in #arge g#ass bott#es, ,hich can
breaD Fery easi#yB
Great care m"st be taDen to preFent any moist"re $rom being present in
Fesse#s "sed to transport concentrated s"#$"ric acid, as rapid e0othermic
ionisation may occ"rB
>eep the #id o$ the container tight#y sh"t, as s"#$"ric acid can absorb ,ater
$rom the air, #eading to a dangero"s reactionB
$ilute (ulfuric &cid:
i#"te s"#$"ric acid is completel4 ionise" and hence has $ree H
+
ions ,hich
Figoro"s#y react ,ith iron and stee#! hence iron and stee# are "ns"itab#e $or its
storage or transportB
6nstead, di#"te s"#$"ric acid m"st be stored in g#ass or p#astic bott#es, ,hich do
not react ,ith s"#$"ric acid! this #imits o"r abi#ity to transport itB
PRACTICAL -erform first'han" in1esti7ations to o5ser1e the reactions
of sulfuric aci" actin7 as an o!i"isin7 a7ent an" as a "eh4"ratin7 a7ent:
As an %X66S6*G agent:
6n a fume cup5oar", a gran"#e o$ copper is p#aced in a sma## test7t"beB
Using a dropper, .4 drops o$ concentrated s"#$"ric acid ,ere p#aced onto the
copper and the test7t"be shaDenB
As a 8HZ?A/6*G agent:
A#so done in the fume cup5oar"! .4 m1 o$ concentrated s"#$"ric acid ,as
added to a beaDer containing -4 grams o$ s"gar 's"crose) and stirredB
0*(98+(:
6n the test7t"be 'o!i"ation), b"bb#es $ormed, and s#o,#y the so#"tion began to
t"rn b#"e:
/he b"bb#es indicated the prod"ction o$ a gasB
9oist B1U8 #itm"s paper p#aced oFer the gas t"rned ?8B
Hence the gas ,as an acidic o0ide, that is, s"#$"r dio0ide 'S%2)B
/he b#"e signi$ied the prod"ction o$ copper s"#$ate 'C"S%&)B
Hence, this reaction occ"rred, demonstrating its o0idising abi#ities:
C" 's) + 2H2S%& 'a() C"S%& 'a() + S%2 'g) + 2H2% '#)
6n the beaDer '"eh4"ration/, the s"gar t"rned b#acD, and then began to smoDe,
and $orm a #arge to,er o$ b#acD carbonB /his proFed that dehydration
occ"rred:
C.2H22%.. 's) .2C 's) + ..H2% '#)
(&"*+::
6t ,as "ndertaDen in a $"me c"pboard to contain the to0ic s"#$"r dio0ide gasB
Sma## ("antities ,ere "sed to preFent too m"ch heat $orming! these are
e0othermic reactionsB
;9(+I"::
Copper ,as "sed, as the $ormation o$ a b#"e so#"tion is a c#ear and FiFid sign
o$ copper ions, and hence the o0idation o$ copperB
1itm"s paper indicated that the gas $ormed ,as s"#$"r dio0ideB
S"gar dehydration ,as "sed, as the $ormation o$ carbon is dramatic and
c#ear#y a dehydration reaction, as steam is $ormedB
REPORT A Bather9 process an" present information from secon"ar4
sources to "escri5e the steps an" chemistr4 in1ol1e" in the in"ustrial
pro"uction of H
2
S%
&
an" use a1aila5le e1i"ence to anal4se the process to
pre"ict 8a4s in 8hich the output of sulfuric aci" can 5e ma!imise":
See AB%J8 $or a Fery thoro"gh e0amination o$ the prod"ction o$ s"#$"ric acidB
<. +he industrial production of sodium hydro'ide reuires the use of
electrolysis:
RECALL:
*lectrolysis is the process ,hereby an e#ectrica# c"rrent is "sed to bring abo"t a
non7spontaneo"s chemica# reactionB
/his o$ten inFo#Fes the "ecomposition o$ a compo"nd into its component
e#ementsB
E!plain the "ifference 5et8een 7al1anic cells an" electrol4tic cells in terms
of ener74 re2uirements:
Electrol4tic cells are "sed to carry o"t e#ectro#ysis reactionsB
Bal1anic cells are "sed to create e#ectrica# c"rrentB
5al!anic Cell *lectrolytic Cell
Chemica# 8#ectrica# energy 8#ectrica# Chemica# energy
=rod"ces e#ectrica# c"rrent ?e("ires an inp"t o$ e#ectrica# c"rrent
Spontaneo"s reaction ?eaction is $orced
Anode is *8GA/6J8 '2) Anode is =%S6/6J8 '+)
Cathode is =%S6/6J8 '+) Cathode is *8GA/6J8 '2)
84 is positiFe 84 is negatiFe
*%/8: &) O= 'anode7o0idation) and 0*$ C&+ 'cathode7red"ction) ho#ds tr"e
in both types ce##s, 5ut the sign o$ the e#ectrodes is s,appedB
?emember that e#ectrons $#o, $rom the negatiFe to the positiFe termina#, despite
,hat the si##y physics peop#e might sayW
utline the steps in the in"ustrial pro"uction of so"ium h4"ro!i"e from
so"ium chlori"e solution an" "escri5e the reaction in terms of net ionic an"
full formulae e2uations:
Sodi"m hydro0ide '*a%H) is an e0treme#y commercia##y signi$icant a#Da#iB
6t is prod"ced by the electrol4sis o$ salt '*aC#) and waterB
6t is c#assi$ied as a [strong base\ as it "ndergoes comp#ete ionisationB
/here are three methods "sed to ind"stria##y prod"ce sodi"m hydro0ide $rom
sodi"m ch#oride so#"tion, and they are e0p#ained in detai# be#o,B
Distin7uish 5et8een the three electrol4sis metho"s use" to e!tract so"ium
h4"ro!i"e .i=e= the Mercur4 -rocess9 the Diaphra7m -rocess an" the
Mem5rane -rocess/ 54 "escri5in7 each process an" anal4sin7 the technical
an" en1ironmental "ifficulties in1ol1e" in each process:
/H8 98?CU?Z C811 'Castner7>e##ner =rocess):
(tructure:
/he merc"ry7ce## is composed o$ t,o tanDs, connected by a stream o$
$#o,ing merc"ry, ,hich is contin"o"s#y p"mped thro"gh a series o$ pipesB
/his ce## prod"ces *a%H by the e#ectro#ysis o$ brine '+4I *aC# so#"tion)B
%ther important by7prod"cts are ch#orine and hydrogen gasB
/he brine is p"ri$ied, and p"mped into the $irst tanDB
/he ch#oride ions are o0idised on the titani"m anodes, and the sodi"m ions
red"ced on the merc"ry cathode:
/he ch#orine gas is b"bb#ed o"t and co##ectedB
/he sodi"m disso#Fes in the merc"ry, $orming an amal7am=
/he ama#gam then $#o,s into another tanD ,hich contains p"ri$ied ,aterB
/he sodi"m spontaneo"s#y reacts ,ith the ,ater 'is h4"rol4se") and Fery
p"re sodi"m hydro0ide and hydrogen gas are $ormedB
/he hydrogen is b"bb#ed o"t and co##ected, and the *a%H tapped7o$$B
/he merc"ry is then p"mped bacD to the $irst tanDB
Chemistry:
Comp#ete chemica# e("ation:
sa#t + ,ater sodi"m hydro0ide + ch#orine + hydrogen
2*aC# 'a() + 2H2% '#) 2*a%H 'a() + C#2 'g) + H2 'g)
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'mercur4) : *a
+
'a() + e
2
*a 'Hg)
%4"rol4sis o$ sodi"m:
sodi"m + ,ater sodi"m hydro0ide + hydrogen
2*a 's) + 2H2% '#) 2*a%H 'a() + H2 'g)
+echnical Considerations:
At the anode, ch#orine gas is eFo#Fed! it is a corrosiFe, po,er$"# o0idising
agentB Hence an 6*8?/ anode o$ titanium plates is "sedB
For the cathode, mercur4 is "sed beca"se:
6t is a #i("id, and can be p"mped aro"nd a systemB
6t readi#y $orms a##oys 'amal7ams) ,ith many meta#s 'eBgB sodi"m)B
Ehen "sing a merc"ry cathode, sodi"m ions, not ,ater mo#ec"#es, are
pre$erentia##y red"ced, as opposed to "sing other cathodesB
/he titani"m p#ates are he#d Fery c#ose to the merc"ry s"r$ace to a##o, $or
Fery #arge c"rrent $#o,s! this promotes e#ectro#ysis:
+ to & Fo#ts are "sed, b"t ,ith tens o$ tho"sands o$ amperes o$ c"rrentB
/he ra, materia#s 'brine and ,ater) m"st be purifie" be$ore "seB
/he "eplete" brine m"st be contin"o"s#y rep#aced ,ith $resh brineB
A## prod"cts are 'iBeB *a%H, C#2 and H2) are commercia##y important, and
$orm the basis o$ the ch#or7a#Da#i ind"stryB A## are co##ected and so#dB
A#tho"gh the system appears to be c#osed, sma## merc"ry #osses to the
enFironmenta# are ineFitab#e! .447244g o$ merc"ry is re#eased into the
enFironment 'eBgB oceans) $or eFery tonne o$ *a%H prod"cedB
9erc"ry compo"nds can be passed on to h"mans by biomagni$icationB
/his is o$ a great concern! merc"ry is a heaFy7meta#, and a ne"roto0inB
/H8 6A=H?AG9 =?%C8SS '*e#son iaphragm Ce##):
(tructure:
/he e#ectro#ytic ce## consists o$ a carbon anode, ,ithin a so#"tion o$ brine,
,hich is ho"sed in an as5estos diaphragm she##B
/he asbestos diaphragm is #ined by a stee#7mesh cathodeB
Ehen the e#ectro#yte so#"tion soaDs thro"gh the asbestos diaphragm to the
stee# mesh, the e#ectro#ysis reaction occ"rsB
=ositiFe sodi"m ions '*a
+
) are attracted to the negatiFe cathode, and are
ab#e to pass thro"gh the asbestosB
Steam is passed oFer the cathode contin"o"s#y to ,ash o$$ a so#"tion o$
sodi"m hydro0ide, ,hich drips to the bottom o$ the ce##, and is co##ectedB
Ch#orine gas and hydrogen gas are co##ected separate#yB
Chemistry:
2*aC# 'a() + 2H2% '#) 2*a%H 'a() + C#2 'g) + H2 'g)
A*%8 'car5on): 2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'steel) : 2H2% 'a() + 2e
2
2%H
2
'a() + H2 'g)
Again, ch#orine gas is eFo#Fed at the anode, and hence a s"itab#e materia#
m"st be "sed! in this case, carbonB A#so, the pipes carrying the ch#orine
m"st be resistant to chemical attac*B
Ch#orine m"st be separated $rom the hydrogen, as they react Figoro"s#y to
$orm corrosiFe HC# gas! this ,as not a concern in the merc"ry ce## as the
reaction ,as separated into t,o tanDs, ,ith one gaseo"s prod"ct eachB
A #arge system o$ many sma## ce##s is emp#oyed, instead o$ one #arge ce##,
in order to Deep the distance bet,een the anode and cathode sma##, in
order to ma0imise c"rrent:
+B-7- Fo#ts "sed, ,ith tens o$ tho"sands o$ amperes o$ c"rrentB
/he as5estos is s"pposed to act as a barrier $or the moFement o$ ions,
a##o,ing on#y the moFement o$ *a
+
ions into the stee# mesh, and
preFenting the moFement o$ hydro0ide and ch#oride ionsB
Ho,eFer, some "n,anted ion moFement occ"rs:
Sma## amo"nts o$ C#
2
ions cross the asbestos, and react ,ith the *a
+
'$orming sa#t, *aC#, ,hich is an imp"rity in the $ina# prod"ct) and a#so
react ,ith the %H
2
'$orming the ch#orite ion, C#%
2
, a strong o0idant)B
Sma## amo"nts o$ %H
2
ions a#so moFe bacD into the brine, $orming
*a%H and C#%
2
in the dep#eted brineB
"e to the nat"re o$ the diaphragm the $ina# prod"ct a#,ays contains
*aC#, ,hich is on#y partia##y remoFed by crysta##isationB
Asbestos $ibres are ("ite dangero"s, and inha#ation o$ these $ibres can
ca"se a range o$ #"ng diseases, s"ch as asbestosis and mesothe#iomiaB
/he dep#eted brine cannot be re#eased immediate#y bacD into the
enFironment, d"e to the presence o$ sma## ("antities o$ basic *a%H, and
o0idising C#%
2
ions, ,hich haFe to be remoFedB
/H8 989B?A*8 =?%C8SS:
(tructure:
A sing#e ce## is diFided into t,o ha#Fes by an ion7e0change po#ymer
membrane made o$ pol4tetrafluoroeth4lene=
/his membrane is se#ectiFe#y permeab#e, and a##o,s the di$$"sion o$ ,ater
and sodi"m ions %*1ZB Ch#oride and hydro0ide ions cannot passB
6n the $irst ha#$, brine is p"mped in, and ,ater in the second ha#$B
%n the titani"m anode, ch#orine is prod"ced, and on the nicDe# cathode,
hydrogen and hydro0ide ions are prod"cedB
/he sodi"m ions pass thro"gh the membrane, and combine ,ith the
hydro0ide ions, $orming Fery p"re *a%H, ,hich is contin"o"s#y remoFedB
Chemistry:
2*aC# 'a() + 2H2% '#) 2*a%H 'a() + C#2 'g) + H2 'g)
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
CA/H%8 'nic*el) : 2H2% 'a() + 2e
2
2%H
2
'a() + H2 'g)
/his ce## so#Fes the prob#ems o$ both the merc"ry and diaphragm ce##s:
/here are no to0ic materia#s "sed, s"ch as merc"ry or asbestos! a Fery
inert po#ymer is "sed as the membraneB
Jery p"re *a%H is $ormed, as ,ith the merc"ry ce##, as there is no
contamination o$ the prod"ct ,ith ch#oride ions, and the dep#eted brine
is K"st *aC# so#"tionB
/itani"m is "sed as anode as it ,ithstands ch#orine attacDB
/he po#ymer has many "se$"# properties, s"ch as its se#ectiFe permeabi#ity,
as ,e## as its abi#ity to resist chemica# attacD in a strong#y basic so#"tionB
Y"st as ,ith the diaphragm ce##, a #arge system o$ many sma## ce##s is
emp#oyed, instead o$ one #arge ce##, in order to ma0imise the c"rrent:
+B-7- Fo#ts "sed, ,ith tens o$ tho"sands o$ amperes o$ c"rrentB
Beca"se o$ the nat"re o$ the membrane, and the inert e#ectrodes "sed,
there are Fery $e, enFironmenta# iss"es associated ,ith this ce##B
6ss"es inc#"de the #eaDage o$ ch#orine gas and *a%H into the
enFironmentB
80cess brine m"st not be deposited into ,ater,ays, as this ,i## increase
the sa#inity and "pset the nat"ra# ba#anceB
*%*7S=8C6F6C /8CH*6CA16/68S:
/he #ocation o$ the p#ant is a technica# consideration that m"st be in
accordance ,ith the aFai#abi#ity o$ the $o##o,ing:
Cheap e#ectricity 'as this is /H8 maKor cost)B
/here m"st be cheap brine as ,e## as $resh,ater so"rcesB
A #oca# ,orD$orce ,i##ing to ,orD at s"itab#e e0pendit"reB
6t m"st be b"i#t a,ay $rom "rban and residentia# areas, d"e to the #arge
amo"nts o$ noise and heat that the p#ants emitB
S"itab#e ,aste disposa# m"st be aFai#ab#eB
Anal4se information from secon"ar4 sources to pre"ict an" e!plain the
"ifferent pro"ucts of the electrol4sis of a2ueous an" molten so"ium
chlori"e:
8#ectro#ysis o$ mo#ten, concentrated so#"tions and di#"te so#"tions o$ sodi"m
ch#oride yie#ds di$$erent prod"ctsB
/he e#ectro#ysis prod"cts can be predicted "sing t,o concepts:
/he more concentrated an ion, the more #iDe#y it ,i## be o0idised or red"cedB
Certain species are a#,ays o0idised or red"ced more rea"il4 than others! by
#ooDing at the tab#e o$ standard red"ction potentia#s, reactions can be
predictedB
-olten )aCl:
/he on#y ions present in a samp#e o$ mo#ten *aC# are *a
+
and C#
2
, and th"s
they are the on#y ions that ,i## be o0idised and red"cedB
/h"s, the prod"cts ,i## be ch#orine gas, and sodi"m meta#B
Ha#$7e("ations:
2C#
2
'#) C#2 'g) + 2e
2
*a
+
'#) + e
2
*a 's)
Concentrated )aCl:
/his re$ers to a so#"tion ] 2mo#1
2.
B
6n a so#"tion o$ concentrated *aC# there are a#so ,ater mo#ec"#es presentB
From the ta5le of stan"ar" re"uction potentials, ,e see that:
%0idation reactions:
'7.B+6 J) : 2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
'7.B2+ J) : 2H2% '#) %2 'g) + &H
+
'a() + &e
2
?ed"ction reactions:
'72B5. J) : *a
+
'a() + e
2
*a 's)
'74BH+ J) : 2H2% '#) + 2e
2
H2 'g) + 2%H
2
'a()
*%/8: #e7ati1e 84 Fa#"es imp#y that c"rrent m"st be app#ied $or the reaction
to occ"rB A #o,er 84 Fa#"e means the reaction is more #iDe#y to occ"rB
As yo" can see, ch#oride ions are a#most K"st as #iDe#y to be o0idised compared
to ,ater mo#ec"#es! ho,eFer, d"e to the high concentration o$ ch#oride ions in
a concentrated so#"tion, ch#oride ions are pre$erentia##y o0idised at the anodeB
Ho,eFer, ,ater is m"ch more readi#y red"ced than sodi"m ions, as can be
seen, and hence sodi"m ions simp#y migrate to the cathode, b"t ,ater is
red"cedB
Ha#$7e("ations:
2C#
2
'a() C#2 'g) + 2e
2
2H2% '#) + 2e
2
H2 'g) + 2%H
2
'a()
Hence, this is the main reaction o$ the ch#or7a#Da#i ind"stry, $orming *a%H,
hydrogen and ch#orine gasB
$ilute )aCl:
/his re$ers to a so#"tion ^ 4B.mo#1
2.
B
?e$erring bacD to the aboFe data, the prod"cts can be predictedB
Eater is red"ced oFer sodi"m ions, as aboFe, b"t A1S% ,ater is o0idised oFer
ch#oride ions! this is beca"se the concentration o$ ch#oride is too #o,B
Hence, the t,o ha#$7e("ations are:
2H2% '#) %2 'g) + &H
+
'a() + &e
2
2H2% '#) + 2e
2
H2 'g) + 2%H
2
'a()
o"b#ing the red"ction ha#$, and combining the t,o together, ,e get:
6H2% '#) &H
+
'a() + &%H
2
'a() + 2H2 'g) + %2 'g)
?ecognising that &H
+
+ &%H
2
Q &H2%, and cance##ing them o"t, ,e get:
2H2% '#) 2H2 'g) + %2 'g)
H8*C8, the e#ectro#ysis o$ di#"te so#"tions o$ sodi"m ch#oride is simp#y the
e#ectro#ysis o$ ,ater, as on#y hydrogen and o0ygen gas are prod"cedB
PRACTICAL A I"entif4 "ata9 plan an" perform a first'han" in1esti7ation to
i"entif4 the pro"ucts of the electrol4sis of so"ium chlori"e:
Using a H%FF9A* apparat"s, so#"tions o$
"ifferent concentration o$ sodi"m ch#oride
so#"tion ,ere e#ectro#ysed and Fario"s
methods ,ere emp#oyed to determine the
prod"cts the reactionsB
/,o so#"tions ,ere made:
>.>2 - and 3 - o$ sodi"m ch#orideB
/he t,o so#"tions ,ere then e#ectro#ysed, "sing the apparat"s, hooDed "p to a C
po,er s"pp#y at &J, $or .4 min"tes eachB
0*(98+(:
For the 4B4. 9 'di#"te so#"tion), co#o"r#ess b"bb#es ,ere obserFed on the
e#ectrodes Fery ("icD#y, and gas began to b"i#d "p in the g#ass t"bes:
6n the o0idation '+) t"be, the gas made a 7lo8in7 splint b"rn bright#y!
hence, the gas identi$ied ,as o0ygenB
6n the red"ction '2) t"be, the gas b"rned ,ith a #o"d popB /his identi$ied
the gas as hydrogenB
For the 2 9 'concentrated so#"tion), b"bb#es ,ere a#so obserFed instant#y,
ho,eFer, the b"bb#es $rom the anode ,ere not co#o"r#ess:
6n the o0idation t"be '+), the gas ,as obserFed to haFe a s#ight ye##o,
tingeB A#so, #itm"s paper p#aced in this gas ,as 5leache" to ,hiteB /h"s,
the gas ,as identi$ied as being ch#orineB
6n the red"ction t"be '2), the co#o"r#ess gas ,as #it, and made a #o"d popB
Hence, it ,as hydrogen gas, as aboFeB
A1S%, phenolphthalein indicator ,as p#aced in the so#"tion a$ter reaction,
and it t"rned a FiFid pinD, indicating a Fery basic so#"tionB /his indicated
'b"t did not proFe) the presence o$ *a%H in the so#"tionB
Hence, e#ectro#ysis o$ 61U/8 so#"tion $orms o!47en and h4"ro7en, ,hi#e
e#ectro#ysis o$ C%*C8*/?A/8 so#"tion $orms chlorine, h4"ro7en and
so"ium h4"ro!i"eB
;9(+I"::
/he e#ectro#ysis o$ 9%1/8* sodi"m ch#oride ,o"#d haFe been most
appropriate, ho,eFer the conditions re("ired are hard to attain in the schoo#
#aboratoryB
A Ho$$man apparat"s ,as "sed, as is contained the reaction Fery ,e##, as ,e##
as contained harm$"# gases, s"ch as ch#orineB
/he concentration "sed ,ere chosen as they ,ere hypothesised to prod"ced
di$$erent prod"cts, and the Fo#tages "sed ,ere correctB
Appropriate identi$ication methods ,ere "sedB
5. (aponification is an important or%anic industrial process:
RECALL:
8steri$ication is the reaction that occ"rs bet,een a car5o!4l 7roup '7C%%H) and a
h4"ro!4l 7roup '7%H), $orming an ester 5on" '7C%%C7) and 8aterB
*sters are any compo"nds that contain the ester 5on"B
Descri5e saponification as the con1ersion in 5asic solution of fats an" oils
to 7l4cerol an" salts of fatt4 aci"s:
5lycerol:
G1ZC8?%1 is a tri7a#coho# compo"nd
deriFed $rom propane! it contains an
a#coho# gro"p 'a h4"ro!4l) on eFery carbonB
Using 6U=AC nomenc#at"re, another name
$or 7l4cerol is .,2,+7propanetrio#B
"atty &cids:
FA//Z AC6S are simp#y #ong car5o!4lic acids that occ"r in $ats and oi#sB
/here are many types o$ $atty acids, ,hich Fary in the n"mber o$ carbons
',hich common#y range $rom abo"t .27.H carbons), as ,e## as in the degree
o$ saturation 'that is, ,hether or not there are do"b#e bonds in the chain)B
*5: Lauric Aci" '.27C):
9o#ec"#ar Form"#a:
CH+'CH2).4C%%H
Str"ct"ra# Form"#a:
Simp#i$ied Str"ct"ra# Form"#a:
*%/8: For the simp#i$ied diagram, ass"me there is a carbon at eFery
corner! hydrogens are omitted, other $"nctiona# gro"ps are sho,nB
*5: Linolenic Aci" '.H7C):
9o#ec"#ar Form"#a:
CH+CH2CHQCHCH2CHQCHCH2CHQCH'CH2)5C%%H
Str"ct"ra# Form"#a:
Simp#i$ied Str"ct"ra# Form"#a:
"ats and Oils:
Fats and oils are a type o$ organic compo"nd Dno,n as /?6G1ZC8?68S:
At room temperat"re, fats are so#id, ,hi#e oils are #i("idB
A trig#yceride is a compo"nd in ,hich a## + h4"ro!4l gro"ps o$ a g#ycero#
mo#ec"#e haFe been 8S/8?6F68 ,ith car5o!4l gro"ps $rom three $atty acid
chains! ,ater is a by7prod"ctB
/hree ester bonds are $ormed! trig#ycerides are tri7estersB
*5: Bl4cer4l Tristearate:
*%/8: Ehen naming trig#ycerides! the g#ycero# is changed to g#ycery#,
and the acid is changed $rom [7ic\ to [7ate\, and the pre$i0 [tri7\ is addedB
Hence, by app#ying these r"#es, ,e can ded"ce that this $at ,as $ormed by
the reaction o$ g#ycero# ,ith + chains o$ stearic acidB
+ ,ater mo#ec"#es are a#so $ormedB
Hence, the nat"ra# $ormation o$ $ats and oi#s is an esteri$ication reactionB
SA=%*6F6CA/6%*:
(aponification is the reFersa# o$ the process that $orms fats and oilsB
6t is de$ined as the conFersion, in 5asic so#"tion, o$ $ats and oi#s into 7l4cerol
and the salts of fatt4 aci"sB
*a%H and >%H so#"tions are common#y "sedB
Sa#ts o$ $atty acids, s"ch as sodi"m stearate, are S%A=SB
Hence saponi$ication is the process o$ chemica##y prod"cing soapsB
*5: Formin7 so"ium stearate! 'CH+'CH2).6C%%*a):
Sodi"m stearate is the most common ingredient o$ soaps "sed in persona#
hygiene! it is prod"ced by saponi$ying the $at 7l4cer4l tristearateB
/he sodi"m hydro0ide '*a%H) splits the trig#yceride 'h4"rol4sis) a#ong
the ester bond 'C%%C):
/he + h4"ro!4l gro"ps '%H
) attach to the g#ycery#, $orming g#ycero#B

/he $atty acids 'carbo0y#ate ions) react ,ith the *a
+
ions, $orming the +
[sa#ts o$ $atty acids\ 'in this case sodi"m stearate)B
Descri5e the con"itions un"er 8hich saponification can 5e performe" in the
school la5orator4 an" compare these 8ith the in"ustrial preparation of
soap:
(chool 8aboratory (aponification:
6n a g#ass beaDer, a Fery p"re $at or oi# 's"ch as oli1e oil or #ard) is mi0ed ,ith
an e!cess o$ sodi"m hydro0ide so#"tionB
/his mi0t"re is gent#y heated "sing a B"nsen b"rnerB
/he soap c"rds are sa#ted7o"t "sing e0cess sat"rated sodi"m ch#oride so#"tion:
*ote that the $atty acids are partia##y so#"b#eB
By great#y increasing the concentration o$ ions in the so#"tion '"sing #arge
amo"nts o$ *aC#), the sa#ts o$ the $atty acids 'iBeB soap) are enco"raged to
precipitate and $orm the #ayer o$ soap c"rdsB
/he soap is then 8ashe" ,ith ,ater, and the a("eo"s so#"tion is discardedB
A paper to,e# is "sed to partia##y dry the soapB
/here is no attempt made to recoFer the g#ycero#, per$"me, co#o"r or shape the
soap, and there is possib#y #arge ,astage o$ reagents 'as sodi"m hydro0ide and
sodi"m ch#oride ,ere "sed in e0cess)B
Industrial (aponification:
/he starting $at or oi# "sed in ind"stry is Fery $ar $rom p"re! ,aste $ats $rom
b"tcher shops and abattoirs are co##ected and "sedB
/he $atRoi# is c#eaned to a standard #eFe#, and then mi0ed ,ith a care$"##y
meas"red amo"nt o$ sodi"m hydro0ide! e0pensiFe reagents are care$"##y "sed
in ind"stria# processes, to #o,er costsB
/he saponi$ication occ"rs in [Dett#es\ '#arge stee# containers) in batches, "nder
high press"re and high temperat"reB
A$ter the soap is sa#ted o"t, it is separated $rom the so#"tion and driedB
=er$"me and co#o"rs are added, and it is then shaped and pacDagedB
/he resid"e a("eo"s so#"tion is not discarded! g#ycero# is disti##ed o"t o$ it and
so#d as a "se$"# prod"ctB 80cess *aC# is re"sedB
Account for the cleansin7 action of soap 54 "escri5in7 its structure:
RECALL that #iDe "issol1es #iDe:
=o#ar s"bstances disso#Fe in other po#ar s"bstancesB
*on7po#ar s"bstances disso#Fe in other non7po#ar s"bstancesB
Eater is po#ar, ,hi#e grease and dirt are non7po#ar! they do not mi0 'disso#Fe):
/he force that Deeps t,o immiscib#e 'non7mi0ing) #i("ids separated $rom each
other 's"ch as ,ater and oi#) is ca##ed 6*/8?FAC6A1 /8*S6%*B
A surfactant 's"r$ace acting agent) is a chemica# [,etting7agent\ that #o,ers the
interfacial tension bet,een t,o #i("ids, and hence, a##o,s them to mi0B
S%A= is a s"r$actant! it a##o,s po#ar 8ater and non7po#ar 7rease,"irt to mi0B
6ts chemica# property as a s"r$actant is a res"#t o$ its str"ct"reB
(tructure of (oap:
Soap is the sa#t o$ a $atty acid 'eBgB so"ium stearate)
6n so#"tion, soap disassociates into its positiFe cation 's"ch as *a
+
), and its
negatiFe $atty7acid chainB
/he s"r$actant 'c#eansing) property o$ soap is ca"sed %*1Z by the str"ct"re
o$ the negatiFe#y charged $atty7acid chain! the cation has no e$$ect:
As yo" can see, the $atty acid chain is made "p o$ a negatiFe#y7charged po#ar
head, and an "ncharged, non7po#ar tai#:
/he head is said to be HZ?%=H616C ',ater7#oFing), as it is ab#e to
disso#Fe into ,ater 'iBeB $orm hydrogen bonds ,ith ,ater)B
/he tai# is said to be HZ?%=H%B6C ',ater7hating), as the non7po#ar tai#
does not disso#Fe into ,ater 'iBeB disso#Fes in grease)B
Cleansin% &ction of (oap:
Soap c#eans and remoFes greaseRdirt $rom obKects by the $o##o,ing steps:
2. A dirty obKect is p#aced in soapy ,aterB
3. /he soap immediate#y begins to attach to the grease 'the hydrophobic tai#s
penetrate the grease BU/ the hydrophi#ic head remains in the ,ater)B
7. /he grease is #i$ted o$$ the obKect as the soap s"rro"nds the greaseB
<. /he grease is comp#ete#y #i$ted o$$ the obKect, and is s"rro"nded by soapB
/he grease mo#ec"#e is comp#ete#y encased ,ithin a sheath o$ soap mo#ec"#es
,ith their hydrophi#ic heads in contact ,ith ,ater, ,hi#e the hydrophobic tai#s
contain the grease mo#ec"#e! this sheath a##o,s it to disso#Fe in ,aterB
As the mi0t"re is agitated, more grease is #i$ted o$ the s"r$ace o$ the dirty
obKect, and more greaseRsoap partic#es are $ormedB
/he greaseRsoap partic#es are negatiFe#y charged 'd"e to the negatiFe head o$
the soap), and hence they repe# each other, preFenting the grease $rom
c#"mping bacD togetherB
/hese ,ater so#"b#e partic#es are then simp#y ,ashed o$$ ,ith ,ater:
Hence, the str"ct"re o$ soap acco"nts $or its c#eaning 's"r$actant) propertiesB
E!plain that soap9 8ater an" oil to7ether form an emulsion 8ith soap actin7
as an emulsifier:
An emulsion is a sta5le mi0t"re o$ 2 immiscib#e #i("ids, ,ith tiny drop#ets o$ one
#i("id eFen#y dispersed thro"gho"t the otherB
*orma##y, mi0t"res o$ 2 immiscib#e #i("ids rapid#y separate 's"ch as oi# and
,ater)! em"#sions are stabi#ised by the action o$ 89U1S6F68?S:
8m"#si$iers are the same as s"r$actantsB
/hey red"ce the interfacial tension to a##o, immiscib#e #i("ids to mi0B
6n the e0amp#e o$ a ,aterRoi# em"#sion, the em"#si$ier "sed is soap! hence a soapy
oi#R,ater mi0t"re consists o$ oi# partic#es eFen#y dispersed thro"gho"t the ,aterB
6n this case, there is more ,ater than oi#, and hence the oi# is dispersed thro"gho"t
the ,ater! i$ there ,as more oi# than ,ater, the ,ater ,o"#d be dispersed
thro"gho"t the oi#, as is the case ,ith 5utterB
Distin7uish 5et8een soaps an" s4nthetic "eter7ents in terms of:
the structure of the molecule
chemical composition
effect in har" 8ater
As stated aboFe, soaps are sa#ts o$ $atty acids! soap is a natural s"r$actantB
S4nthetic s"r$actants are ca##ed deter%entsB
/here are three types o$ detergents: A*6%*6C, CA/6%*6C and *%*76%*6CB
Soaps and detergents haFe di$$erent str"ct"res and propertiesB
?eca##: %ar" 8ater is ,ater that has high #eFe#s o$ 9g
2+
and Ca
2+
ionsB
(oap:
S/?UC/U?8:
/he cation 'iBeB *a
+
) has no e$$ect on the c#eaning action o$ soap, and so
,e main#y consider the str"ct"re o$ the $atty acid ionB
6t is made o$ a hydrophi#ic head connected to a #ong hydrophobic tai#B
CH896CA1 C%9=%S6/6%*:
Soap is the sa#t '"s"a##y the sodi"m or potassi"m sa#t) o$ a $atty acidB
9ost soaps are so"ium stearateB
6t is a hydrocarbon mo#ec"#e 'consists on#y o$ H, C and %)B
/he hea" is a carbo0y#ate anion 'C%%), ,hich is negatiFe#y chargedB
/he tail is a #ong "ncharged hydrocarbon chainB
8FF8C/ 6* HA?EA/8?:
Soap 'so"ium stearate) does not $"nction ,e## in hard7,aterB
Ehen soap is "sed in hard ,ater, the stearate ion reacts ,ith the high
#eFe#s o$ 9g
2+
and Ca
2+
ions, $orming magnesi"m and ca#ci"m stearatesB
/hese mo#ec"#es are not ,ater so#"b#e! they $orm precipitatesB
/hese precipitates occ"r as a greyish Csoap scumAB
Soap7sc"m stains ceramic sinDs, baths as ,e## as c#othes! a#so, as it
remoFes stearates $rom the ,ater, it red"ces the e$$ectiFeness o$ the soapB
&nionic $eter%ents:
S/?UC/U?8:
/hese detergents are ca##ed CanionicA beca"se the act"a# s"r$actant ion
'eFerything e0cept the *a
+
) has a ne7ati1e chargeB
/he str"ct"re is simi#ar to soap! the s"r$actant ion consists o$ a #ong
hydrocarbon tai# connection to an anionic headB
Ho,eFer, the str"ct"re and chemica# composition o$ the head is di$$erentB
CH896CA1 C%9=%S6/6%*:
Anionic detergents are most#y the sa#ts o$ al*4l 5enCene sulfonatesB
/hat is, they consist o$ a hydrocarbon tai# 'al*4l gro"p) connected to a
ben_ene ring, bonded to a Cs"#$onateA gro"p 'S%+
)B
/he s"#$onate gro"p is po#ar, and hence, hydrophi#icB
8FF8C/ 6* HA?EA/8?:
/he e$$iciency o$ anionic detergents is decreased to a Fery s#ight e0tent by
hard7,ater, b"t not near#y as great as $or soapB
/his is not d"e to the $ormation o$ inso#"b#e precipitates, b"t rather
beca"se the s"r$actant anions $orm Cso#"b#e comp#e0esA ,ith 9g
2+
and
Ca
2+
B /his red"ces the amo"nt o$ aFai#ab#e s"r$actantB
Ho,eFer, anionic detergents are sti## Fery e$$ectiFe#y c#eaning agents, eFen
in high7ion hard ,aterB
Cationic $eter%ents:
S/?UC/U?8:
Ca##ed CcationicA beca"se the s"r$actant ion has a net positiFe charge 'as
opposed to the negatiFe charge o$ soap and anionic detergents)
1iDe most s"r$actants, they consists o$ a hydrophobic, hydrocarbon tai#
connected to a charged, hydrophi#ic headB
CH896CA1 C%9=%S6/6%*:
/hese detergents are main#y hali"e sa#ts o$ 2uaternar4 ammonium cationsB
T"aternary ammoni"m cations are ammoni"m '*H&
+
) deriFatiFes! that is,
the $o"r hydrogens 'hence 2uaternar4) o$ an ammoni"m ion haFe been
rep#aced by a#Dy# gro"ps! "s"a##y, + hydrogens are rep#aced by methy#
gro"ps, and one hydrogen is rep#aced by a #ong hydrocarbon chainB
Ammoni"m cations haFe a permanent positiFe charge! they are ne"tra#ised
by ha#ogens 'eBgB C#
:
or Br
:
), and hence are ha#ide sa#tsB
8FF8C/ 6* HA?EA/8?:
Cationic detergents do not react ,ith the cations in hard7,aterB
Hence, they are comp#ete#y e$$ectiFe eFen in hard7,aterB
)on?Ionic $eter%ents:
S/?UC/U?8:
Un#iDe ionic detergents, non7ionic detergents haFe no distinct head or tai#
and do not ionise in ,aterB
/hey consist o$ a #ong hydrocarbon chain, connected to another
hydrocarbon chain containing o0ygen atoms, ending in a hydro0y# gro"pB
CH896CA1 C%9=%S6/6%*:
*on7ionic s"r$actants are a#so ca##ed etho!4lates, beca"se they are $ormed
by Koining together many Cetho!4A gro"ps 'CH2CH2%)B
/he presence o$ o0ygen maDes certain sections o$ the mo#ec"#e po#ar 'iBeB
hydrophi#ic)! the o0ygen atoms $orm hydrogen bonds ,ith ,ater, ,hi#e
the non7po#ar tai# bonds to the greaseB
/he detergent mo#ec"#es then s"rro"nd the grease mo#ec"#e, simi#ar to the
,ay ionic detergents s"rro"nd greaseB
8FF8C/ 6* HA?EA/8?:
*on7ionic detergents do not react at a## ,ith ions in the ,ater
Hence they are comp#ete#y "na$$ected by hard7,aterB
Distin7uish 5et8een anionic9 cationic an" non'ionic "eter7ents in terms of
chemical composition an" uses:
See AB%J8 $or in7depth coFerage o$ the di$$erent types o$ detergentsB
Uses:
&nionic $eter%ents:
/hese detergents are m"ch more e$$icient c#eaning agents than soapB
/hey are a#so ab#e to generate #arge amo"nts o$ $oamB
Anionic detergents are the most common c#eaning agents! "sed in #i("id
and po,der #a"ndry detergents, hand7soaps, shampoo, toothpaste, etcB
Cationic $eter%ents:
/hese detergents are a m"ch sma##er gro"p than anionic detergentsB
/hey are "sed in $abric so$teners, as they bond to the negatiFe $abric $ibres
#eaFing a so$t, smooth $ee#, as ,e## as in hair conditioners, ,here the
positiFe heads attach to the negatiFe hair sca#es, and the a#Dy# tai# sticDs
o"t, #eaFing a smooth, ,a0y $ee# and shiny appearanceB
/he ammoni"m gro"p is a#so s#ight#y disin$ecting, and so cationic
detergents are "sed in antiseptics, disin$ectants and biocidesB
)on7Ionic $eter%ents:
/hese detergents c#ean e$$ectiFe#y b"t prod"ce Fery #itt#e $oamB
Hence they are "sed in app#ications s"ch as $ront7#oading ,ashing
machines and dish,ashers, ,here e0cess $oam ,o"#d ca"se oFer7$#o,ingB
/heir main "se, ho,eFer, is as an em"#si$ying agent in paints, adhesiFes,
pesticides and cosmetics 'eBgB #ipsticD stabi#i_ers)B
Bather9 process an" present information from secon"ar4 sources to i"entif4
a ran7e of fats an" oils use" for soap'ma*in7:
+allow! processed anima#7$ats '"s"a##y ,aste)B 6t prod"ces common soapB
Coconut Oil! pressed o"t o$ dried cocon"ts 'copra)! it is a re#atiFe#y p"re oi#B /his
prod"ces a hard soap that #athers Fery ,e##B
(hea .utter! the $at deriFed $rom the $r"it 'or n"t) or the Shea treeB 6t prod"ces a
so$t soap that is Fery moist"rising and gent#e on sDinB
Sol1e pro5lems an" use a1aila5le e1i"ence to "iscuss9 usin7 e!amples9 the
en1ironmental impacts of the use of soaps an" "eter7ents:
.iode%radability:
Soap has Fery #itt#e enFironmenta# impact beca"se it is Fery easi#y broDen
do,n into carbon dio0ide and ,ater d"e to the action o$ bacteriaB
/here are t,o types o$ anionic detergents: detergents ,ith branched chains,
and detergents ,ith "nbranched 'linear) chains:
Branche"'chain anionic "eter7ents ,ere the $irst detergents $ormedB /hey
,ere not biodegradab#e, and #ed to considerab#e enFironmenta# prob#ems:
etergent b"i#t "p in ,ater,ays, and riFers and dams ,ere constant#y
coFered in #ayers o$ $oamB
6t ,as aesthetica##y and enFironmenta##y "n,antedB
/he $oam red"ced s"n#ight entering the ,ater, a$$ecting the photosynthesis
o$ ,ater p#antsB /his #ed to a drop in disso#Fed o0ygen #eFe#sB
/he linear "eter7ents ,ere then created! these are m"ch more biodegradab#e
than the branched detergents and so#Fed the $oam prob#emB
*'cess 8e!els of #hosphates:
Soaps do not contain any phosphates 'or on#y trace amo"nts)B
As stated aboFe, anionic detergent are a$$ected s#ight#y by the presence o$
9g
2+
and Ca
2+
ions in hard7,aterB
S"bstances ca##ed C5uil"ersA are added to detergents to increase their
e$$iciency! b"i#ders 's"ch as so"ium tripol4phosphate: *a-=+%.4) react ,ith
the ions in hard7,ater, so$tening the ,aterB B"i#ders a#so increase the
a#Da#inity o$ the ,ater, ,hich increases the detergents c#eaning po,erB
Ho,eFer, the increasing #eFe# o$ phosphates in ,ater,ays as a res"#t o$
phosphate b"i#ders is a maKor enFironmenta# prob#emB
80cess phosphates in ,ater,ays #ead to e"trophication and a#ga# b#oomsB
/hese are a maKor enFironmenta# concern, as this ,i## #ead to the dep#etion o$
o0ygen in the systemB
/his ca"ses seFere degradation o$ ,ater ("a#ity, the promotion o$ anaerobic
conditions and the dist"rbance o$ a nat"ra# ecosystemB
PRACTICAL A -lan an" perform a first'han" in1esti7ation to carr4 out
saponification an" test the pro"uct:
/his saponi$ication ,as per$ormed in a 2-4 m1 beaDerB
+4 m1 o$ 6 mo#R1 *a%H so#"tion ,as p#aced in the beaDerB
.4 m1 o$ o#iFe oi# ,as added to the beaDerB
Boi#ing chips ,ere added, and the mi0t"re heated ,ith a B"nsen b"rnerB
/he mi0t"re ,as boi#ed, ,hi#e stirring, "nti# the oi# #ayer disappearedB
/he mi0t"re ,as coo#ed, and then &4 m1 o$ sat"rated *aC# so#"tion ,as addedB
/he beaDer ,as coo#ed in a ,ater bath, and then the mi0t"re ,as $i#tered "sing
m"s#in c#othB /he resid"e ,as ,ashed ,ith ,ater, and then co##ected and driedB
0*(98+(:
An o$$7,hite spongy mass o$ soap ,as co##ectedB
(&"*+::
Sa$ety g#asses, g#oFes and #ab7coats m"st be "sed, as dangero"s concentrated
sodi"m hydro0ide is "sedB /he mi0t"re may spit d"ring boi#ingB
Boi#ing chips ,ere "sed to enco"rage gent#e heatingB
/he soap ,as ,ashed to remoFe any traces o$ corrosiFe *a%HB
;9(+I"::
Saponi$ication ,as done in a beaDer rather than a re$#"0 apparat"s as none o$
the reactants ,ere Fo#ati#eB
%#iFe oi# ,as "sed beca"se it is a cheap and p"re oi#B
PRACTICAL A -erform a first'han" in1esti7ation to "emonstrate the effect
of soap as an emulsifier:
Jegetab#e oi#, ,ater and the soap prod"ced $rom the AB%J8 practica# ,ere "sedB
First -4 m1 ,ater and 24 m1 oi# ,ere p#aced in a beaDer and mi0ed Figoro"s#yB
/he t,o #i("ids rapid#y separated into 2 distinct #ayers! they ,ere immiscib#eB
/hen, the soap mass ,as broDen into sma## pieces and added to the mi0t"reB
6t ,as again mi0ed Figoro"s#y! ho,eFer, this time, the #ayers did not separate, b"t
$ormed a c#o"dy Cem"#sionAB
Hence soap acted as an em"#si$ier, and em"#si$ied the 2 #i("idsB
PRACTICAL A -erform a first'han" in1esti7ation to 7ather information
an" "escri5e the properties of a name" emulsion an" relate these properties
to its uses:
-ayonnaise:
9ayonnaise is an em"#sion o$ Fegetab#e oi# and egg yo#Ds, ,ith the em"#si$ier
being the #ecithin $o"nd nat"ra##y in the egg yo#DB
%ther additions may be made $or $#aFo"r, s"ch as Finegar, m"stard o$ sa#t, b"t
the basic composition o$ mayonnaise is oi# and egg yo#DsB
9ayonnaise is made by s#o,#y adding oi# to an egg yo#D, ,hi#e ,hisDing
Figoro"s#y to disperse the oi#! the #ecithin stabi#ises the mi0t"reB
#roperties in 0elation to 9ses:
9ayonnaise is a Fery S/AB18 em"#sion, d"e to the strong em"#si$ying
properties o$ #ecithinB 6t does not separate into its component #i("ids eFen
,hen stored $or #ong periods o$ timeB
/his property is "se$"# as it is a $ood prod"ct! it needs to stay in an edib#e
condition, in storage, $or re#atiFe#y #ong periods o$ timeB
9ayonnaise a#so has the property o$ haFing a creamy Cmo"th7$ee#A, and not
$ee#ing oi#yB 9ost peop#e $ind the sensation o$ eating p"re oi# "np#easant, b"t
$ind the creamy taste o$ mayonnaise enKoyab#eB Ho,eFer, mayonnaise is
act"a##y on aFerage 5-I oi#B /he property o$ the em"#sion as haFing a creamy
te0t"re adds to its "se as a $oodB
@. +he (ol!ay process has been in use since the 2A@>s:
I"entif4 the ra8 materials use" in the Sol1a4 process an" name the
pro"ucts:
/he S%1JAZ =?%C8SS is the maKor chemica# ind"stria# process "sed to
synthesise sodi"m carbonate '*a2C%+)B
0aw -aterials:
Limestone 'ca#ci"m carbonate! CaC%+)B
Brine 'sat"rated sodi"m ch#oride so#"tion! *aC#)B
Ammonia '*H+)B
#roducts:
So"a Ash 'sodi"m carbonate! *a2C%+)B
Calcium chlori"e 'CaC#2)B
Descri5e the uses of so"ium car5onate:
/he main "se o$ sodi"m carbonate is in the man"$act"re o$ 7lassB Abo"t -4I o$
the tota# prod"ction o$ *a2C%+ is "sed to prod"ced $or this p"rpose:
Sand 'si#icon dio0ide), soda ash 'sodi"m carbonate) and #imestone 'ca#ci"m
carbonate) are heated together , at e0treme#y high temperat"resB
/hey are me#ted together, and then coo#ed rapid#y to $orm g#assB
9any other "ses o$ *a2C%+ stem $rom its property o$ being a base! it creates
a#Da#ine so#"tions ,hen disso#Fed in ,ater:
6t is "sed as a cheap a#Da#i in ne"tra#ising e0cess acids $rom chemica# #absB
6t is sometimes "sed as a a#ternatiFe base in saponi$ication 'instead o$ *a%H)B
Sodi"m carbonate is a#so "sed to so$ten hard7,ater, as it precipitates Ca
2+
ions o"t
o$ so#"tion, $orming inso#"b#e ca#ci"m carbonate 'CaC%+)B
6t is a#so "sed to b#each paper, maDe pigments, as ,e## as pharmace"tica#sB
I"entif49 7i1en a flo8 chart9 the se2uence of steps use" in the Sol1a4 process
an" "escri5e the chemistr4 in1ol1e" in:
5rine purification
h4"ro7en car5onate formation
formation of so"ium car5onate
ammonia reco1er4
B?6*8 =U?6F6CA/6%*:
/he $irst step in the process is gathering ra, materia#sB
1imestone 'CaC%+) is mined as a re#atiFe#y p"re minera#B
Ho,eFer, brine m"st be concentrated and p"ri$iedB
First#y, *aC# so#"tion is so"rced $rom sea8ater 'or "ndergro"nd brine7,e##s),
and "sing so#ar eFaporation ponds, the concentration is increased to +4IB
/he brine is then p"ri$ied to remoFe 9g
2+
and Ca
2+
ions! sodi"m carbonate
and sodi"m hydro0ide are added to precipitate o"t inso#"b#e ca#ci"m
carbonate 'CaC%+) and magnesi"m hydro0ide '9g'%H)2):
Ca
2+
'a() + C%+
27
'a() CaC%+ 's)
9g
2+
'a() + %H
7
'a() 9g'%H)2 's)
A flocculant is added and the precipitates are sDimmed o$$ the brineB
HZ?%G8* CA?B%*A/8 F%?9A/6%*:
Car5on "io!i"e is $ormed by the therma# decomposition o$ ca#ci"m carbonate
in the lime Biln, #eaFing calcium o!i"e as a by7prod"ct:
CaC%+ 's) C%2 'g) + Ca% 's)
A#so, co*e 'carbon) is present in the Di#n, ,hich comb"sts e0othermica##y to
prod"ce more heat, as ,e## as proFides more carbon dio0ide:
C 's) + %2 'g) C%2 'g)
/hen, in the ammonia absorber 'or ammonia saturator), the brine so#"tion is
sat"rated ,ith ammonia '*H+)B
/his ammoniaRbrine so#"tion is $ed into the carbonatin% tower, ,here it is
coo#ed to abo"t 4NCB
Carbon dio0ide '$rom the aboFe reactions) is b"bb#ed into this so#"tion, and
thro"gh a series o$ reFersib#e reactions, sodi"m hydrogen carbonate is $ormed:
First#y, the car5on "io!i"e reacts ,ith ,ater, $orming car5onic aci":
C%2 'g) + H2% '#) H2C%+ 'a()
/his ,eaD acid then reacts ,ith the ,eaD base ammonia, $orming the
h4"ro7en car5onate ion, and ammonium:
H2C%+ 'a() + *H+ 'a() HC%+:

'a() + *H&
+
'a()
/he so"ium ion then reacts ,ith the hydrogen carbonate ion, and this
$orms a precipitate that is Fery inso#"b#e at #o, temperat"res! this is ,hy
the so#"tion is coo#ed to abo"t 4NC:
*a
+
'a() + HC%+:

'a() *aHC%+ 's)
Hence, the oFera## ionic e("ation that occ"rs in the car5onator to8er is:
*a
+
'a() + C%2 'g) + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#) *aHC%+ 's) + *H&
+
'a()
Adding in the chlori"e spectator ion 'C#: ) giFes yo" the comp#ete
e("ation:
*aC# 'a() + C%2 'g) + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#) *aHC%+ 's) + *H&C#

'a()
F%?9A/6%* %F S%6U9 CA?B%*A/8:
/he so#"tion #eaFing the car5onator is $i#tered and the *aHC%+ co##ectedB
/he sodi"m hydrogen carbonate is then taDen to a furnace and $ina##y
conFerted into so"ium car5onate by heating! the C%2 $ormed is recyc#ed:
*aHC%+ 's) *aC%+ 's) + C%2 'g)
A99%*6A ?8C%J8?Z:
Ammonia is considered to be a cata#yst o$ the So#Fay =rocess beca"se it is not
cons"med in the reaction, b"t a##o,s the reaction to proceedB
6t is a#so the most e0pensiFe reagent, and hence e$$icient recyc#ing is
e0ercisedB
/he lime ,aste 'ca#ci"m o0ide! Ca%) $rom the #ime Di#n is Cs#aDedA 'reacted
,ith ,ater) to $orm slaBed lime 'ca#ci"m hydro0ide! Ca'%H)2):
Ca% 's) + H2% '#) Ca'%H)2 'a()
/he resid"e so#"tion $rom the bicarbonate $i#ter is an ammonium chlori"e
so#"tion! this is reacted ,ith the ca#ci"m hydro0ide, rec#aiming the ammonia:
*H&C#

'a() + Ca'%H)2 'a() CaC#2 'a() + *H+ 'a() + H2% '#)
/he ammonia is recyc#ed bacD to the ammonia absorber, the ,ater Koins the
so#"tion, and the on#y ,aste prod"ced is the ca#ci"m ch#orideB
O!erall:
Adding "p a## the aboFe e("ations, the So#Fay =rocess can be s"mmarised as:
2*aC# 'a() + CaC%+ 's) *a2C%+ 's) + CaC#2 'a()
Discuss en1ironmental issues associate" 8ith the Sol1a4 process an"
e!plain ho8 these issues are a""resse":
$isposal of Calcium Chloride:
Jast amo"nts o$ ,aste ca#ci"m ch#oride are prod"ced by operating So#Fay
=#ants aro"nd the ,or#dB
A#tho"gh a sma## portion o$ ca#ci"m ch#oride is "se$"#, s"ch as in de7icing
roads, as a concrete additiFe, and as a drying agent, most o$ it is "se#essB
/he disposa# o$ CaC#2 into ,ater,ays poses a signi$icant enFironmenta# iss"eB
6$ it is disposed into oceans, ,ith s"itab#e di#"tion, it poses #itt#e risD! ho,eFer,
disposa# into riFers and #aDes beca"se the increase in ch#oride ions ,o"#d be
e0treme#y detrimenta# to $resh,ater #i$eB
6n some cases, the so#"tions are eFaporated to dryness, and the minera#s b"ried
"ndergro"nd! it is s"itab#e, b"t Fery e0pensiFeB
+hermal #ollution:
Some o$ the reactions prod"ce #arge amo"nts o$ heat! ,ater is "sed as a
coo#ant $or these reactionsB
/his heated ,ater cannot be direct#y re#eased bacD into the ,ater,ays it ,as
taDen $rom, as this ,o"#d ca"se signi$icant therma# po##"tionB
Hence, the ,ater is coo#ed in coo#ing tanDs, and then dischargedB
&mmonia 8eaBa%es:
espite the e$$icient ammonia recyc#ing process, sma## amo"nts are re#eased
into the enFironment! ammonia is an air po##"tant, partic"#ar#y i$ discharged
aro"nd "rban areasB
Care$"# design and monitoring o$ So#Fay =#ants great#y red"ces this prob#emB
-rocess information to sol1e pro5lems an" 2ualitati1el4 anal4se the relati1e
2uantities of reactants an" pro"ucts in each step of the process:
*5: Ehat masses o$ #imestone 'HHB5I CaC%+) and brine '+4B@I *aC#) are
needed to prod"ce a tonne o$ S%6U9 CA?B%*A/8`
First#y, ,e state the chemica# e("ation to determine the reaction ratios:
2*aC# 'a() + CaC%+ 's) *a2C%+ 's) + CaC#2 'a()
Finding the mo#ar mass o$ sodi"m carbonate:
molar mass '*a2C%+) Q 2 '22B@@) + '.2B4.) + + '.6B4)
Q .46B4 gRmo#
Finding the n"mber o$ mo#es o$ *a2C%+ in tonne:
moles '*a2C%+) Q mass , molar mass
Q '.444444) R '.46B4)
Q @&++B@6
Finding the mass o$ limestone "sed:
moles 'CaC%+) Q moles '*a2C%+) ! reaction ratio o$ .:.
Q @&++B@6
molar mass 'CaC%+) Q '&4B.) + '.2B4) + + '.6B4)
Q .44B. gRmo#
mass 'CaC%+) Q moles S molar mass
Q @&++B@6 S .44B.
Q @&&++@B&4 g
BU/ limestone is HHB5I CaC%+B Hence, the mass o$ #imestone is:
mass '#imestone) Q @&&++@B&4 R HHB5 S .44 Q 2.>@ tonnes C
Simi#ar#y, $inding the mass o$ brine "sed:
moles '*aC#) Q 2 S moles '*a2C%+) ! reaction ratio o$ 2:.
Q 2 S @&++B@6
Q .HH65B@2
molar mass '*aC#) Q '2+B4) + '+-B-)
Q -HB- gRmo#
mass '*aC#) Q moles S molar mass
Q .HH65B@2 S -HB-
Q ..4+55+B+2 g
BU/ 5rine is +4B@I *aC#B Hence, the mass o$ brine is:
mass 'brine) Q ..B+55+B+2 R +4B@ S .44 Q 7.5D tonnes C
Use a1aila5le e1i"ence to "etermine the criteria use" to locate a chemical
in"ustr4 usin7 the Sol1a4 process as an e!ample:
/he criteria $or se#ecting a location $or an ind"stria# p#ant are:
A1aila5ilit4 of ra8 materials! in the case o$ So#Fay =rocess, this might mean
b"i#ding the p#ant c#ose to either the sea '$or brine) or a #imestone ("arryB
A1aila5ilit4 of sufficient ener74 at competiti1e prices! this is not so m"ch an
iss"e $or the So#Fay =rocess 'as compared to e#ectrochemica# processes), as
stages ,here energy inp"t is re("ired are K"st the $"rnacesB
Locations of mar*ets for the pro"uct! sodi"m carbonate has a "niFersa#
marDet, as it is a m"ch in demand prod"ctB /ransportation o$ prod"ct easyB
Suita5le sites for 8aste "isposal! this is a 9AY%? consideration ,hen $inding
a #ocation o$ So#Fay p#ants, as Fast amo"nts o$ ca#ci"m ch#oride are madeB
A1aila5ilit4 of a 8or*force at reasona5le cost=
PRACTICAL A -erform a first'han" in1esti7ation to assess ris* factors an"
then carr4 out a chemical step in1ol1e" in the Sol1a4 process9 i"entif4in7
an4 "ifficulties associate" 8ith the la5orator4 mo"ellin7 of the step:
/he chemica# steps o$ the So#Fay =rocess mode##ed in this practica# ,ere the
ammonia sat"rator and the carbonating to,erB
Jario"s techni("es ,ere "sed to sa$e#y mode# the t,o ind"stria# stepsB
&mmonia (aturator:
/o mode# this step, .4 m1 o$ concentrated ammonia so#"tion '+4I) ,as
mi0ed ,ith .4 m1 o$ brine 'sat"rated so"ium chlori"e so#"tion)B
.4g o$ ammonium chlori"e crysta#s ,ere disso#Fed into the so#"tion, and then
more contin"o"s#y added "nti# no more ,o"#d disso#FeB
/he c#ear so#"tion ,as then "ecante" into a conica# $#asDB
?6S> FAC/%?S:
Ammonia is high#y to0icB 6t ,as hand#ed in the $"me c"pboardB
6FF6CU1/68S:
A higher concentration o$ ammonia is "sed in the So#Fay =rocessB
/his is hard to attain in the schoo# #aboratory 'and "nsa$e), so instead,
ammoni"m crysta#s ,ere "sed to $aci#itate the carbonationB
Carbonatin% +ower:
.-g o$ "r4 ice ,as p#aced into the conica# $#asD, and it ,as a##o,ed to me#tB
A$ter abo"t .- min"tes o$ b"bb#ing 'C%2) a precipitate began to $ormB
/his precipitate ,as identi$ied as so"ium h4"ro7en car5onateB
?6S> FAC/%?S:
Dr4 ice is e0treme#y co#d and can ca"se $rostbiteB Hand#e ,ith tongsB
6FF6CU1/68S:
C%2 is prod"ced by ca#ci"m carbonate decomposition in the So#Fay
=rocess, b"t this method is not s"itab#e in the #ab! the high temperat"res
,o"#d maDe it "nsa$e, and co##ecting the C%2 ,o"#d be di$$ic"#tB
6nstead, dry ice is "sed as a concentrated $orm o$ C%2B


9.5 - Industrial Chemistry

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9.5 - Industrial Chemistry

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HSC Stage 6 2 Unit Chemistry

9.5 Industrial Chemistry (Option):

) attach to the g#ycery#, $orming g#ycero#B

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