Jewra Pijanottwn

Miqlhc Zaznhc
Tmma Statistikc
Oikonomik Panepistmio Ajhnn
3 Martou 2003

Keflaio 1

Qroi Pijanottwn

1.1

Oikogneiec

Sunlwn

'Ola ta snola sta opoa ja anafermaste ja jewrome ti enai uposnola enc

jemelidouc sunlou , tou <<deigmatiko qrou>>. Ja sumbolzoume me kalligrafik
grmmata, A , B, C , oikogneiec sunlwn, me kefalaa latinik grmmata, A, B, C ,
snola (ta opoa enai uposnola tou , kai me pez, a, b, c, x, y, z, , stoiqea twn
sunlwn.
Mia oikogneia sunlwn A onomzetai pedo ( lgebra) an ikanopoie tic akloujec sunjkec

P.1.

P.2.

P.3.

A.
A A sunepgetai ti AC A .
An Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . n ankoun sto A tte

Sn

i=1

Ai A .

Parathrome ti h trth sunjkh pou onomzetai idithta tou <<kleisto up peperasmnec enseis>> exasfalzetai arke na isqei h fainomenik asjensterh sunjkh
A, B A sunepgetai A B A . Epshc, lgw twn nmwn tou de Morgan kai thc
sunjkhc P.2, h isqc thc P.3 exasfalzetai an A, B A sunepgetai A B A .
Mia oikogneia sunlwn F onomzetai s pedo ( s lgebra) an ikanopoie tic
sunjkec

SP.1.

F.
5

KEFALAIO 1.

SP.2.

SP.3.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

A F sunepgetai ti AC F .
An Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . ankoun sto F tte

i=1

Ai F .

Parathreste ti h monadik, all ousiastik diafor anmesa stic do nnoiec

enai ti to s pedo enai kleist wc proc arijmsimec kai qi aplc peperasmnec
enseic. Enai epshc profanc, ap touc nmouc tou de
T Morgan kai tic sunjkec
SP.2, SP.3 ti, an Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . ankoun sto F tte
i=1 Ai F , dhlad ti to
s pedo enai kleist kai wc proc arijmsimec tomc.
'Estw = (0, 1] kai A to snolo lwn twn sunlwn thc morfc
pou n N kai 0 a1 < b1 < a2 < < an < bn 1. Mpore kanec na
elgxei ekola s' aut thn perptwsh ti to A enai s pedo.
Paradegma.

ni=1 (ai , bi ]

Prtash

1.

H tom miac opoiasdpote klshc s pedwn enai pli s pedo.

Estw Ft na s pedo gia kje t T. (To snolo deiktnTT mpore na

enai peperasmno, arijmsimo, uperarijmsimo.) Ja dexoume ti F := tT Ft enai
s pedo. Prgmati, Ft gia kje t afo kje Ft enai s pedo, sunepc F .
Paromowc, an A F tte A Ft t T, ra AC Ft t T (afo kajna ap ta
Ft enai s pedo). Sunepc, AC F .
Apdeixh:

Me ton dio trpo diapistnoume ti, an Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . ankei sto

S F tte ta Ai
ankoun se kje Ft . Afo
to
F
enai
s
pedo
aut
shmanei
ti
tT
i=1 Ai Ft gia
S
kje t T kai sunepc i=1 Ai tT Ft = F .
An A enai na pedo uposunlwn tou uprqei pnta na s pedo F
pou periqei la ta snola tou A kai to opoo enai to mikrtero ttoio s pedo (up
thn nnoia ti kje llo s pedo pou periqei to A periqei epshc kai to F ). To F
ja onomzetai s pedo pou genntai ap to A .

Orismc

1.

O parapnw orismc dikaiologetai ap to exc epiqerhma. 'Estw {Ft ; t T} h

klsh lwn twn s pedwn pou periqoun to pedo A . Xroume ti h klsh
T aut den
enai ken afo periqei to dunamosnolo P(). An jsoume F = tT Ft tte
qoume kataskeusei to s pedo pou genntai ap to A , enai de safc lgw thc
kataskeuc autc ti kje llo s pedo pou periqei to A periqei kai to F .

1.2

'Oria akoloujac sunlwn

Mia akolouja sunlwn {Bi } ja onomzetai axousa an Bi Bi+1 gia kje i. Antstoiqa, h akolouja ja onomzetai fjnousa an Bi Bi+1 gia kje i. Mia axousa
fjnousa akolouja sunlwn ja onomzetai monotonik. To rio mia axousac

1.3.

AXIWMATIKOS ORISMOS METROU PIJANOTHTAS

akoloujac sunlwn orzetai wc

limn Bn :=
T
akolouja orzoume limn Bn := n=1 Bn .

n=1

Bn . Parmoia, gia mia fjnousa

'Estw Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . mia oiadpote akolouja sunlwn (qi upoqrewtik monotonik). Orzoume to kattero rio (limes inferior) thc akoloujac wc to snolo
\

lim inf An =
n

(1.1)

Ak .

n=1 k=n

'Omoia orzoume to antero rio (limes superior) wc to snolo

[
\

lim sup An =
n

(1.2)

Ak .

n=1 k=n

T
Parathreste ston orism (1.1) ti, ta snola Bn :=
k=n Ak apotelon
S mia
Taxousa
akolouja: B1 B2
T B3 . An lim inf n An tte n=1 k=n Ak to
opoo shmanei ti
k=n0 Ak gia kpoio n = n0 (kai sunepc gia la ta epmena
n). Epomnwc to lim inf miac akoloujac sunlwn enai to snolo lwn ekenwn twn
stoiqewn pou ankoun se kje An ektc ap na peperasmno arqik pljoc.
SParmoia, ap ton orism tou anwtrou orou (1.2) blpoume ti ta snola Cn :=
k=n Ak apotelon
T S mia fjnousa akolouja: C1 SC2 C3 . An lim supn An
tte n=1 k=n Ak to opoo shmanei ti k=n0 Ak gia peiro pljoc ap touc
dektec n. Epomnwc to lim sup miac akoloujac sunlwn enai to snolo lwn ekenwn
twn stoiqewn pou ankoun se peiro pljoc ap ta An .
Parathrome epshc ti, ap touc nmouc tou de Morgan,

(lim inf An )C = lim sup AC

n,
n

kai

(lim sup An )C = lim inf AC

n.
n

Mporome epshc ekola na dexoume oti

lim inf An lim sup An .

n

S
Prgmati, gia kje mT> n isqei
ti
A

k
k=n
k=n Ak ap' pou bgzoume to
S

sumprasma ti Bn := k=n Ak k=n Ak =: Cn . All tso h akolouja {Bn } so

kai h {Cn } enai monotonikc, sunepc limn Bn limn Cn .
Tm

1.3

Axiwmatikc Orismc

Mtrou Pijanthtac

Ja onomzoume sunolosunrthsh mia sunrthsh orismnh pnw se mia klsh uposunlwn tou me timc stouc pragmatikoc arijmoc. Enai safc ti jloume na
orsoume to mtro pijanthtac wc mia sunolosunrthsh me timc sto disthma [0, 1].

KEFALAIO 1.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

H duskola gkeitai sto pedo orismo tou mtrou pijanottwn. Sthn pio stoiqeidh jerhsh mporome na orsoume to mtro pijanthtac pnw se na pedo
uposunlwn tou . Afo kje uposnolo enai na endeqmeno, h logik upagoreei
ti h klsh twn uposunlwn pou mporon na enai endeqmena prpei na enai kleist
wc proc enseic, tomc kai sumplhrmata. Aut h jerhsh mpore na enai eparkc
gia stoiqeidh problmata jewrac pijanottwn, to majhmatik endiafron tmma thc
jewrac pijanottwn, sumperilambanomnou kai tou jemelidouc nmou twn meglwn
arijmn, apaite pwc ja dome qi mno peperasmnec all kai arijmsimec enseic
kai tomc. Sunepc to fusik pedo orismo tou mtrou pijanottwn enai na s pedo
endeqomnwn.
'Estw F na s pedo uposunlwn tou . H sunolosunrthsh P : F 7 R
ja onomzetai mtro pijanthtac sto F an

Orismc 2.

MP.1

MP.2

MP.3

P () = 1.
Gia kje A F , P (A) [0, 1].
Gia kje A1 , A2 , . . . , Ai , . . . , sto F ttoia ste Ai Aj = tan i 6= j , isqei
ti
!

[
X
P
Ai =
P (Ai ).
(1.3)
i=1

i=1

H teleutaa exswsh onomzetai arijmsimh prosjetikthc gia to mtro pijanthtac kai enai h jemelidhc idithta enc mtrou pijanottwn.
Isodnama, pwc ja dome sth sunqeia, ant gia thn arijmsimh prosjetikthta
mpore na upojsei kanec ton sundiasm thc peperasmnhc prosjetikthtac dhlad
thn

MP.3'

Gia kje n N kai A1 , A2 , . . . , An sto F ttoia ste Ai Aj = tan i 6= j ,

isqei ti
!
n
n
[
X
P
Ai =
P (Ai )
(1.4)
i=1

i=1

kai thn legmenh <<monotonik sunqeia sto mhdn>> h opoa shmanei ti

MP.4

Gia kje A1 , A2 , . . . , Ai , . . . , ttoia ste Ai Ai+1 kai limn An :=

isqei ti limn P (An ) = 0

lim P (An ) = P ( lim An ).

i=1

Ai =
(1.5)

1.4.

TO JEWRHMA EPEKTASHS TOU KARAJEODWRH

Enai ekolo na dexoume thn isodunama thc MP.3 me tic MP.3' kai MP.4.
Prgmati, h MP.3 sunepgetai thn MP.3' an dialxoume Ai = gia kje i > n. Ja
dexoume sth sunqeia ti sunepgetai kai thn MP.4. 'Estw ti Bi enai mia fjnousa
akolouja, ttoia ste Bi . Ta snola
S Ci = Bi \ Bi+1 , i = 1, 2, . . ., enai xna
metax touc kai ikanopoion thn sqsh i=1 Ci = B1 . Sunepc, lgw thc arijmsimhc
prosjetikthtac, isqei ti

P (B1 ) =

P (Ci ) =

i=1

P (Bi+1 ) P (Bi ).

(1.6)

i=1

H teleutaa aut sqsh baszetai sthn peperasmnh prosjetikthta: Bi+1 Bi

sunepgetai ti P (Bi \ Bi+1 ) = P (Bi ) P (Bi+1 ). Dedomnou ti h seir (1.6) enai
thleskopik, qoume ti

P (B1 ) = P (B1 ) lim P (Bn )

n

ap' pou sungoume ti limn P (Bn ) = 0 kai sunepc ti h MP.4 isqei. Ara
dexame ti MP.3 (MP.3' kai MP.4).
Mnei na dexoume kai ti (MP.3' kai MP.4) MP.3. gia kje n ti

S
Sn
S
Jtoume C :=
i=n+1 Ai .) Profanc
i=1 Ai kai Bn = C \ ( i=1 Ai ) (dhlad Bn =
isqei ti Bi Bi+1 kai Bi . Ap thn MP.4 epomnwc qoume ti
(Bn ) =
Slimn P S
n
A
)P
(
0. AllSap thn peperasmnh
prosjetikthta
qoume
P
(B
)
=
P
(
n
i=1 Ai )
i=1 i
Pn
n
kai P ( i=1 Ai ) = i=1 P (Ai ). Sunepc
!
n

X
[
P (Bn ) = P
P (Ai ).
Ai
i=1

i=1

Afnontac n sthn parapnw sqsh qoume

!

[
X
P
Ai =
P (Ai ).
i=1

1.4

To Jerhma

i=1

epktashc

tou Karajeodwr

Sthn prohgomenh pargrafo dsame nan axiomatik orism enc mtrou pijanthtac
orismnou pnw se na s pedo. Dedomnou mwc kpoiou s pedou, den enai en gnei
kajlou profanc pc na orsoume na mtro pijanthtac to opoo na ikanopoie tic
sunjkec MP.1 MP.3 kajc kai an aut enai dunat. H sunhjismnh odc gia ton

10

KEFALAIO 1.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

orism enc mtrou pijanthtac enai na to orsoume prta se mia aplosterh klsh
sunlwn kai sth sunqeia na to epektenoume sto s pedo pou genntai ap aut thn
klsh sunlwn. To akloujo jerhma (pou diatupjhke gia genik mtra stic arqc
tou 20ou aina ap ton K. Karajeodwr) mac exasfalzei aut thn dunatthta. Prin
to diatupsoume mwc ac xekajarsoume thn katstash me ton akloujo orism .
Estw F0 na pedo uposunlwn tou kai P0 : F 7 [0, 1] mia sunolosunrthsh orismnh sto s' aut. To P0 ja onomzetai mtro pijanthtac sto F
an

Orismc

3.

i) P0 () = 1.
ii) Gia kje akolouja sunlwn {Ai } tou F0 ttoiwn ste
Aj = tan i 6= j , isqei h arijmsimh prosjetikthta:
!

[
X
P0
Ai =
P0 (Ai ).
i=1

i=1

Ai F0 kai Ai

i=1

H diafor anmesa s' autn ton orism kai s' ekenon thc prohgoumnhc paragrfou enai ti ed upojtoume ti to pedo orismo tou P0 enai na pedo kai qi
na s pedo. Sunepc h arijmsimh prosjetikthta den isqei gia kje akolouja
sunlwn tou A all mnon gia ekenec tic akoloujec twn opown h nwsh sumbanei
na ankei epshc sto F0 .
'Estw na mtro pijanthtac P0 orismno sto pedo
F0 kai stw F to s pedo pou genntai ap to F0 . Tte uprqei na monadik mtro
pijanthtac P to opoo epektenei to P0 sto F , dhlad na mtro pijanthtac orismno
sto F kai to opoo sumfwne me to P0 sto F0 .

Jerhma 1 (Karajeodwrc).

(Prosjtoume thn dieukrnish ti ta mtra pijanthtac P0 kai P sumfwnon sto

F0 an, gia kje A F0 isqei ti P (A) = P0 (A).) H apdeixh tou jewrmatoc
epktashc ja doje sthn sunqeia. Prta ja suzhtsoume thn nnoia tou exwteriko
mtrou pijanthtac.
Estw P0 na mtro pijanthtac orismno pnw se na pedo F0 . Gia kje uposnolo A tou orzoume to exwterik mtro pijanthtac P wc
(
)

X
[
P (A) = inf
P0 (Ai ) : Ai F0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , kai A
Ai .
(1.7)
i=1

i=1

To exwterik mtro qei tic exc idithtec:

1.) Isqei ti P () = 0. Prgmati, arke na dialxoume Ai = ston orism.

1.4.

11

TO JEWRHMA EPEKTASHS TOU KARAJEODWRH

2.) To exwterik mtro enai monotonik. Prgmati, an A B tte

(
Ai F0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , : B

(
Ai F0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , : A

Ai

i=1

)
Ai

i=1

(An mia akolouja sunlwn kalptei to B , tte kalptei kai to A pou periqetai sto
B .) All to infimum pnw se na snolo pou periqei kpoio llo ja enai mikrtero
kai epomnwc P (A) P (B).
3.) Gia kje snolo A F0 isqei oti P (A) P0 (A). Aut enai profanc afo
mporome na dialxoume A1 = A, Ai = , i = 2, 3, . . ..
4.) To mtro P enai arijmsima upoprosjetik, dhlad gia kje B1 , B2 , . . . ,
isqei ti
!

[
X
P
Bi
P (Bi ).
(1.8)
i=1

i=1

Tonzoume ti sthn parapnw sqsh ta Bi enai aujareta uposnola tou , den enai
de kat' angkh xna metax touc.
Apdeixh thc upoprosjetikthtac: 'Estw  > 0 dedomnoc jetikc arijmc. Gia
dedomno i dialgw mia akolouja uposunlwn tou F0 , Ci1 , Ci2 , . . . ttoia ste

Bi

(1.9)

Cij

j=1

kai

P (Bi )

(1.10)

P (Cij ) + 2i .

j=1

Aut
ap ton orism tou P . Afo h (1.9) isqei gia kje i qoume
S ti
S
S enai dunat,
i=1 Bi ,
i,j=1 Cij . 'Ara, afo h oikogneia sunlwn {Cij } kalptei to
i=1 Bi
ap ton orism tou exwteriko mtrou isqei oti

[
i=1

!
Bi

X
i=1 j=1

P (Cij )

P (Bi ) 2

i=1

P (Bi ) .

i=1

P
S

H teleutaa sqsh grfetai kai wc

i=1 P (Bi ) P ( i=1 Bi )+ kai sunepc, afo
to  enai aujareto sumperanoume ti isqei h (1.8).
Orismc

4.

'Ena snolo A ja onomzetai metrsimo an, gia kje E isqei ti

P (E) = P (A E) + P (AC E).

(1.11)

12

KEFALAIO 1.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

Parathreste ti E = (AE)(AC E) kai sunepc, lgw thc upoprosjetikthtac, qoume P (E) P (A E) + P (AC E). Epomnwc h (1.11) isqei an mporome
na dexoume ti
P (E) P (A E) + P (AC E).
(1.12)
'Estw M h oikogneia lwn twn metrsimwn uposunlwn tou , dhlad


M := A : P (E) = P (A E) + P (AC E), E .
Lmma

1.

(1.13)

H oikogneia M enai pedo.

H M enai profanc kleist gia sumplhrmata ap ton orism thc. Arke

na dexoume ti enai kleist kai gia peperasmnec tomc, dhlad ti, an A, B M
tte A B M . 'Eqoume ti
Apdeixh:

P (A B E) + P ((A B)C E)
= P (A B E) + P (AC B E) + P (A B C E) + P (AC
= P (B E) + P (A B C E) + P (AC B C E)
= P (B E) + P (B C E)
= P (E)

B C E)
(A M )
(A M )
(B M ).

Afo h M enai kleist ktw ap peperasmnec tomc kai sumplhrmata enai kleist
kai ktw ap peperasmnec enseic ap touc nmouc tou de Morgan kai sunepc enai
pedo.
Lmma

2.

An A1 , A2 , . . . M kai Ai Aj = gia i 6= j tte

P (

Ai ) =

i=1

(1.14)

P (Ai ).

i=1

Ja apodexoume prta thn peperasmnh prosjetikthta. 'Estw A, B

M , A B = . 'Eqoume ti
Apdeixh:

(A M )
(A B = )

P (A B) = P (A (A B)) + P (AC (A B))

= P (A) + P (B).

H peperasmnh prosjetikthta prokptei mesa me epagwg. Gia na epektenoume to

parapnw apotlesma gia arijmsimo arimj sunlwn xekinme me thn paratrhsh ti
!
!
n
n

X
[
[
P (Ai ) = P
Ai P
Ai ,
i=1

i=1

i=1

pou h prth isthta ofeletai sthn peperasmnh prosjetikthta pou mlic apodexame kai h deterh anisthta sthn monotonikthta tou P . Afo h parapnw anisthta
isqei gia kje n, isqei ti
!

[
X

P
Ai
P (Ai ).
i=1

i=1

H sqsh aut maz me thn upoprosjetikthta (1.8) dnoun thn (1.14).

1.4.

TO JEWRHMA EPEKTASHS TOU KARAJEODWRH

Lmma

3.

13

H oikogneia M enai s pedo.

Dedomnou ti h M enai kleist ktw ap sumplhrmata, arke na

apodexoume ti enai kleist ktw ap arijsimec
enseic. Arke dhlad na dexoume
S
ti, an Ai M , i = 1, 2, . . ., tte kai
A

M . Gia na apodexoume aut to

i=1 i
teleutao arke na dexoume ti
S
S
C

P (E) P ((
(1.15)
i=1 Ai ) E) + P (( i=1 Ai ) E).
T
C
(Jumhjete thn (1.12).) Orzoume tra ta snola D1 = A1 , Di = Ai i1
j=1 Aj ,
i = 2, 3, . . .. Profanc ta {Di } enai xna
touc kai epiplon ankoun la sto
S metax S
M afo enai pedo. Akma isqei ti i=1 Di =
i=1 Ai . Sunepc qwrc blbh thc
genikthtac mporome na upojsoume ex' arqc ti ta {Ai } enai xna metax touc.
Apdeixh:

UpojtoumeSloipn ti ta Ai enai xna metax touc kai orzoume thn akolouja

sunlwn Bi = ij=1 Ai . Xekinme apodeiknontac epagwgik ti gia kje n N kai
kje E
n
X
P (E Ak ).
(1.16)
P (E Bn ) =
k=1

Gia n = 1 h parapnw sqsh enai profanc. Upojtoume ti h (1.16) isqei gia mia
sugkekrimnh tim tou n kai ja dexoume ti aut sunepgetai thn isq thc gia n + 1.
Prgmati, dedomnou ti Bn Bn+1 = Bn kai BnC Bn+1 = An+1 qoume ti

P (E Bn+1 ) = P ((E Bn+1 ) Bn ) + P (E Bn+1 ) BnC )

= P (E Bn ) + P (E An+1 )
n+1
X
P (E Ak ).
=

(Bn M )

k=1

Sunepc h (1.16) isqei gia kje n N.

Ak M isqei ti
S
S
C
P (E) = P (E nk=1 Ak ) + P (E ( nk=1 Ak ) )
n
X
S
C
=
P (E Ak ) + P (E ( nk=1 Ak ) )

Dedomnou ti Bn =

Sn

k=1

k=1
n
X

S
C
P (E Ak ) + P (E (
k=1 Ak ) ).

k=1

H teleutaa anisthta isqei lgw monotonikthtac tou P kai, afo isqei gia kje
n sumperanoume ti

P (E)

S
C
P (E Ak ) + P (E (
k=1 Ak ) )

k=1

S
S
C

P (E (
k=1 Ak )) + P (E ( k=1 Ak ) )

14

KEFALAIO 1.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

pou h teleutaa anisthta prokptei ap thn upoprosjetikthta. Sunepc dexame

thn exswsh (1.15).
Lmma

4.

To s pedo M periqei to pedo F0 kai P (A) = P0 (A) gia kje A F0 .

'Estw A F0 . Ap ton orism tou P qoume ti,

Pgia kje E

kai  S> 0 uprqoun A1 , A2 , . . . , sto F0 ttoia ste P (E)

i=1 P0 (Ai )  kai

E i=1 Ai . Sunepc qoume

Apdeixh:

P (E A) + P S(E AC )
S

C
P ((
i=1 Ai ) A) + P (( i=1 Ai ) A )

X
X

P (Ai A) +
P (Ai AC )
i=1

(lgw monotonikthtac)
(lgw upoprosjetikthtac)

i=1

P (Ai A) + P (Ai AC )

i=1

P0 (Ai A) + P0 (Ai AC )

(afo P (B) P0 (B) gia B F0 )

P0 (Ai )

(prosjetikthc tou P0 sto F0 )

i=1

X
i=1

P (E) + .
Ap thn parapnw seir anisottwn prokptei ti P (E A) + P (E AC ) P (E)
afo to  enai aujareto kai sunepc ti A M . All to A tan na opoiodpote
stoiqeo tou F0 sunepc F0 M .

S
Tloc parathrome ti,San A, A1 , A2 , . .S
. ankoun sto F0Skai A
i=1
PAi tte

A
)

qoume ti P0 (A) = P0 (A(

A
))
=
P
(
AA
)
=
P
(
i
0
0
i=1 i
i=1 P0 (Ai ).
i=1
i=1 i
Epomnwc kai

P (A) = inf

(
X
i=1

P0 (Ai ) : Ai F0 ,

)
Ai A

P0 (A).

i=1

Afo mwc dh xroume ti P (A) P0 (A) sumperanoume ti P0 (A) = P (A) gia

A F0 .
Ap ta lmmata 1-4 sumperanoume ti to M enai na s pedo pou periqei to F0
(kai epomnwc kai to F ) pnw sto opoo qoume orsei na mtro (to P = P ) to opoo
sumfwne me to P0 pnw sto F0 . Mnei na apodexoume thn monadikthta dhlad to
ti, an Q enai na llo mtro pou sumfwne me to P0 sto F0 tte sumfwne me to P
sto F . Prgmati, gia A F ,

1.5.

15

TUQAIES METABLHTES

P (A) = P (A) = inf

(
X

P0 (Ai ) : Ai F0 ,

i=1

= inf

(
X

Q(Ai ) : Ai F0 ,

i=1

(
inf

!
Ai

)
Ai A

i=1

)
Ai A

i=1

: Ai F 0 ,

i=1

)
Ai A

i=1

Q(A)
Epomnwc P (A) Q(A). All me ton dio trpo mporome na dexoume ti P (AC )
Q(AC ) dhlad ti P (A) Q(A). Sunepc P (A) = Q(A), prgma pou shmanei ti
h epktash tou mtrou P0 sto F enai monadik. Aut oloklhrnei kai thn apdeixh
tou jewrmatoc tou Karajeodwr.

1.5

1.5.1

Tuqaec Metablhtc

Metrsimoi Qroi - Metrsimec sunartseic

'Estw f : 7 0 . H sunrthsh f orzei mia sunrthsh (thn opoa ja sumbolzoume

pli me f ) pou apeikonzei uposnola tou se uposnola tou 0 . Sugkekrimna, an
A , tte f (A) := { 0 0 : 0 = f ()gia kpoio A}. Ac upojsoume epshc
ti f () = 0 , dhlad ti h apeiknish f enai ep. Parathrome ti, an T enai na
snolo deiktn,
i) f (Ac ) f (A)C .

S
S
A
= tT f (At )
ii) f
t
tT

T
T
iii) f
tT At
tT f (At )
H antstrofh apeiknish f 1 orzetai asqtwc an h f enai 1-1 kai sumperifretai
kaltera ap thn f up thn nnoia ti
a) f 1 (Ac ) = f 1 (A)C .

S
S
1
(At )
b) f 1
tT At =
tT f

T
T
1
g) f 1
(At )
tT At =
tT f

16

KEFALAIO 1.

QWROI PIJANOTHTWN

An C enai mia oikogneia uposunlwn tou tte orzoume

C 0 := f (C ) = {C 0 0 : C 0 = f (C) gia kpoio C }.

An F 0 enai na s-pedo uposunlwn tou 0 tte F = f 1 (F 0 ) enai na
s-pedo uposunlwn tou .
Prtash 2.

Afo = f 1 (0 ), F . 'Estw A F pou A = f 1 (A0 ) pou

A0 F 0 . Tte AC = (f 1 (A0 ))C = f 1 (A0C ) F (afo A0C F 0 ). Tloc, stw
Ai = f 1 (A0i ), i = 1, 2, . . . stoiqea tou F .
!

[
[
[
1
0
1
0
Ai =
Ai F .
f (Ai ) = f

Apdeixh:

i=1

i=1

H teleutaa sqsh ofeletai sto gegonc ti

upojsewc s-pedo.

i=1

i=1

A0i F 0 afo to F 0 enai ex'

An C 0 enai mia oikogneia uposunlwn tou 0 kai (C 0 ) to s-pedo pou

genntai ap autn tte (f 1 (C 0 )) = f 1 ((C 0 )).

Prtash

3.

'Estw C := f 1 (C 0 ). Enai profanc ti (C ) f 1 ((C 0 )) afo to

teleutao enai s-pedo kai periqei to C . Gia na apodexoume thn antstrofh prtash
orzoume
F 0 := {B 0 P(0 ) : f 1 (B 0 ) (f 1 (C 0 ))}.

Apdeixh:

To F 0 enai s-pedo afo

(a) 0 F 0 dedomnou ti f 1 (0 ) = (f 1 (C 0 )).
(b) An B 0 F 0 tte B 0C F 0 afo f 1 (B 0C ) = (f 1 (B 0 ))C (f 1 (C 0 )).

S
S 1 0
S
0
0
(g) An Bi0 F 0 tte f 1 (
(Bi ) (f 1 (C 0 )). Sunepc,
i=1 Bi ) =
i=1 f
i=1 Bi
F 0.
Ex orismo isqei ti f 1 (F 0 ) (f 1 (C 0 )). Epshc C 0 F 0 afo f 1 (C 0 )
(f 1 (C 0 )). Afo to F 0 enai s pedo, (C 0 ) F 0 kai sunepc, ap tic sqseic
autc qoume ti
f 1 ((C 0 )) f 1 (F 0 ) (f 1 (C 0 )).

Metrsimoc qroc onomzetai na zegoc (, F ) pou F enai na s pedo uposunlwn tou .

Mia sunrthsh f : (, F ) 7 (0 , F 0 ) onomzetai metrsimh an, gia
kje B 0 F 0 , f 1 (B 0 ) F .
Orismc

5.