I EMtheory 2012

Physics 425 Modern Optics Electromagnetic Theory
Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

1
I. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Maxwells Equations

The basis of EM theory and hence EM radiation and optics.

i) Gauss Law:

Electric field lines (lines of electric flux) originate on positive charges and
terminate on negative charges

where is the charge density,
z y x
= z y x , and D, the electric displacement, is given by

E P E E D ) 1 (
o o
+ = + = =

E = electric field
= electric permittivity

0
= permittivity of free-space (vacuum)
P =
0
E = polarization of the material
= electric susceptibility (describes electric response of material to E)

ii) Gauss Law for Magnetism:

There are no free magnetic charges (i.e. magnetic monopoles) so that the
magnetic field lines (lines of magnetic flux) are continuous.

where B is the magnetic field.

iii) Faradays Law:

A changing magnetic flux (B-field through unit area) generates an emf (E-field).

the negative sign indicates that the induced emf opposes the changing
magnetic flux (Lenzs Law).
= D
0 = B
t
=
B
E
2

iv) Ampres Law:

A moving charge (a current) produces a magnetic field.

where, J is the current density,

t
D
is the displacement current density,
and H, the magnetic field strength, is related to B by
M H H B + = =
o

= magnetic permeability

0
= permeability of free-space (vacuum)
M = magnetization of material (i.e. the response of the material to the H-field)

Also, the current density is related to the E-field through the conductivity, , of
the material, i.e. Ohms Law;

E J =

[LEMMA: Origin of the displacement current.
Consider charging a capacitor of area A;

Between the capacitor plates, B 0, despite the fact that no current exists.
Notice, however, that for a capacitor

( )
|
\
|
=
A
Q
t
E
t A
Q
E
A
I
t
D
=

which is effectively a current density.]

t
+ =
D
J H
I
I
E
B
B
B 0
Charge +Q
Charge -Q
3

The Wave Equation for EM Radiation

A number of approximations and conditions will be imposed on Maxwells equations
before deriving the generalized wave equation for the propagation of EM radiation. That
is, in this course we will
a) only consider materials with no free charges: = 0
b) neglect magnetic interactions (i.e. not consider magneto-optics):
0
,
M 0
c) assume that is uniform, isotropic and non-dispersive for the E-field in
the direction of propagation of the EM radiation:
0 , 0
t
= =

Maxwells equations then become

( ) 0 0 = = = E E D (1)
0 = B (2)
t
=
B
E (3)

+ =
t
D
J H
dt
o o
E
E B

+ = (4)
since H B
o
= and E J =

Taking the curl of equation (3) and using equation (4) gives

( ) ( ) B
B
E
= |
\
|
=
t t

|
\
|
=
t t
o o
E
E

2
2
o o
t t
=
E E

But, ( ) ( ) E E E
2
= and 0 = E from equation (1), so that

t t
o
2
2
o
2

E E
E

generalized wave equation for propagation of EM radiation in a non-magnetic medium
(
0
) without any excess charge ( = 0).

4
[NOTE:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
E
E
E
z y x
z
y
x
= E
where E
x
is the x component of E, etc.]

Similarly for the B-field we obtain

t t
o
2
2
o
2

B B
B

The solutions to these differential equations are functions (i.e. waves) which propagate
with a velocity v given by

=

=
o
o
c
1
v

since the speed of light in a vacuum is given by
o o
c = / 1

For non-magnetic material, the refractive index is given by

+ =
= 1
o
n

so that the refractive index may be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
to that in the material, i.e.

v
c
n =

Now, since any function can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal waves using Fourier
techniques, it is convenient to limit the discussion to functions of the form

( ) [ ] t t t = r k r e r E cos ) , ( ) , ( E
( ) [ ] . . exp ) , (
2
1
) , ( c c t i t t + = r k r e r E E

where e is a unit vector that defines the direction of E,
E(r,t) is the complex amplitude of E,
= 2 is the angular frequency of the oscillating E-field ( = frequency)
and k is the wavevector that defines the direction of propagation of the wave.
5

[ASIDE: [ ] ) t , ( exp ) t , ( ) t , ( r r r = i E E so that one can write
( ) [ ] . . ) , ( exp ) , (
2
1
) , ( c c t t i t t + + = r r k r e r E E ]

NB
1. One can show that EM radiation is a transverse wave by considering a plane wave,
i.e. one for which the amplitude is a constant (
o
t E E = ) , (r )

( ) [ ]
)
`
+ = . . exp
2
1
) , ( c c t i t
o
r k e r E E
( ) { } ( ) [ ] . . exp
2
1
c c t i i
o
+ = r k r k eE
0 ) , ( ) , ( = = t i t r E k r E

from Gauss Law.

E is perpendicular to the direction of propagation k.

Similarly, using 0 = B , one can show that 0 ) , ( = t i r B k , so that B is
perpendicular to k.

2. Also, since for a plane wave E k E = and B
B
t
i =
, Faradays Law gives

B E k i =

Thus, using ( ) 0 = E k E , we have 0 = B E i

E and B are also perpendicular to each other.

3. The above results imply the following orientation of E, B and k in an EM wave:

E
B
k
6

Propagation in a Non-conducting Material ( = 0)

__
Dielectrics (e.g. glass, quartz )

When = 0, the wave equation for the E-field reads

0
2
2
0
2
=

t
E
E

Substituting the plane wave E-field, ( ) [ ] c.c. exp
2
1
) , ( + = t i e t r k r E E , gives

0
2
0
2
= + k

since E E
2 2
k = and E
E
2
2
2
=
t

So, since
2
o o
1

c
= and
2
o
n = , we get

c
n
k
c
n
k

2
2 2
2
o
o o
2
= =
|
|
\
|
=

The two roots correspond to propagation in the +k and k directions. Taking the positive
root and noting that = 2 and c =
0
(
0
is the vacuum wavelength) we get

o
n
c
n
k
2 2
= =

as expected since for propagation in a material of refractive index n;
n
c
= v and
n
o
= , BUT the frequency is unchanged.

7
N.B.
1. The velocity
n
c
= v is actually the phase velocity of the wave. Consider
propagation of a plane wave in the z-direction;

( ) [ ] c.c. exp
2
1
) , ( + = t i e t r k r E E

BUT, ( )
|
\
|
= |
\
|

= t
z
t z
k
t kz
v

2. A relationship between E and B can be obtained using

B E k = i

from Faradays Law

Taking the magnitude of both sides of this equation gives

B E = k

since k and E are perpendicular so that E E E k k k = = sin .

i.e. in a vacuum (n = 1), |E| is c times larger than |B|.

Phase velocity,
n
c
k
=
= v
B E
n
c
=
8
Irradiance and the Poynting Vector

From EM theory, the energy density associated with an EM wave is given by

( )
|
|
\
|
+ = + = B B E E H B E D
0
1
2
1
2
1
U

using E D = and
o
= B H .

With B B E

= =
o
n
c 1
and noting that
2
2
E = = E E E , we can write

EB B E U
0
2
0
2
1
= =

Now, if the EM wave propagates at a velocity v , then the flow of energy per unit time
(the power) across a unit area, denoted by S, is given by

S = v U ,

since the units of S are (m/s)(J/m
3
) = W/m
2
. Hence

H E B E B E
n
c
S = = =
o o

1

John Henry Poynting (1852-1914) noticed this relation and formulated a vector S to
completely define the magnitude and direction of the energy flow;

the Poynting vector.

Since the magnitude of S = v |E
2
|, we get

( ) [ ]
2
exp
2
1
v
)
`
+ = c.c. t i ,t S r k ) r ( eE
( ) [ ] { } c.c. t i
*
+ +
= E E E r k e . e 2 exp
4
v
2
*. = 1

The time-average of this quantity, <S>, is known as the irradiance, I. So, since
<exp[2i(k.r - t)]> = 0, we have
H E S =
9

* *
S I EE E E +
>= =<
4
v

since |E|
2
= E
*
E.

N.B.
1. In a vacuum, v = c and =
0
, so we get the result

2
0 2
1
E = c I

2. Sometimes the term intensity is used for I.

2
0
2
1
2
2
1
v E E = = nc I
10
Propagation in Conducting Materials

__
metals (copper, silver, gold, etc.)

For 0, the full wave equation needs to be solved, i.e.

t t

E E
E
0
2
2
0
2
.

Substituting ( ) [ ] c.c. r k ) r ( e r E + = t i ,t t exp
2
1
) , ( E gives

= +
o o
i k
2 2

|
\
|
+ =
i
k
o
2 2

|
\
|
+ =
i
k
o

So k is complex due effectively to a complex electronic permittivity,
~
, given by

+ = i
~
.

This means that the refractive index is complex: so we may write

( )
I R
in n
c c
n
k +
=
~
,

so that

( )
I R I R
n in n n
c
k 2
2 2
2
2
2
+
= .

Equating the real and imaginary parts for the two expressions for k
2
gives

( ) ( ) = =
o I R o I R
n n
c
n n
c
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2
1

( ) ( ) =
o I R o I R
n n
c
n n
c
2 2
2 2
2

11

Solving for the real and imaginary parts of n gives

(
(
+ |
\
|
= 1 1
2
2
2
o
R
n

(
(
\
|
= 1 1
2
2
2
o
I
n

BUT, what does a complex n mean?

Consider a plane wave propagating in the z-direction, i.e.

( ) [ ] c.c. exp
2
1
) , ( + = t i t r k e r E E

( )
c.c. exp
2
1
+
(
\
|

+
= t z
c
in n
i
I R
E e
c.c. exp exp
2
1
) , ( +
(
\
|

(
\
|
= t
c
z n
i z
c
n
t
R I
E e r E

So, a non-zero n
I
produces an attenuation (absorption) of the EM wave. In terms of the
irradiance, this can be written as

[ ] z I z I
o
= exp ) (

where, since
2
2
1
v E = I ,

2
0 2
1
) 0 ( E = = = v z I I
o

and , the absorption coefficient, is given by

Now, for most metals 1 >>
, so that

=
o
o
I
n 2
2
2

c
n
I
=
2

12

Skin depth,

=
=
o
d
2
1 1

the 1/e penetration depth of the irradiance into the conductor.

N.B.
1. The skin depth is often taken to refer to the E-field rather than I, in which case

=
o
d
2

2. The complex refractive index is sometimes written as

( ) + = i n n 1
~

where is the extinction coefficient.

13

Radiation Pressure and Momentum

Suppose a plane wave propagating in the z-direction with E parallel to the x-axis and B
parallel to the y-axis is incident on a conductor surface in the x-y plane.

The E-field generates a current in the x-direction which interacts with the B-field to give
a force in the z-direction, because

( )dV
vol
=
.
B J F
c.f.
=
L
d I B l F .

where the volume element dV = dxdydz.

Since we only have J
x
and B
y
, we get

dF
z
= J
x
B
y
dxdydz

for a volume element dV. Thus, there is a pressure on an area dA = dxdy given by

dP
z
= J
x
B
y
dz .

Now, from
t
+ =
D
J H we may write

t
E
z
H
y
H
J
x
y
z
x

|
|
\
|
=
since 0
1
=
=
z
o
z
B H
x
y
z
E
B
k
y
B

x x
E J =
z
F
=0
14
dz
t
E
B
z
H
B dP
x
y
y
y z
|
|
\
|
=

But, for this case
x y o y
E H B
v
1
= = and since
z z t
z
t
v we have

dz
z
E
H
z
H
E dP
x
y
y
x z
|
|
\
|
= v
v
1
0

( ) dz H E
z
dP
y x z
|
\
|
=
v
1

dz
z
U
dz
z
S
dP
z
|
\
|
= |
\
|
=
v
1

since U H E S
y x
v = = = H E .

Thus, for an EM wave incident on a conductor at z = 0, whose thickness l >> d, we get

( ) ( ) [ ] 0
0
= = = |
\
|
z U l z U dz
z
U
P
l
z

We may also evaluate a momentum density, since

z z z
z
z
dz
d
A dz
d
dt
dz
A dt
d
A A
F
P
p p p v 1 1
= = = =

2
v
1 S
dz
d
A
z
=
p

v
, Pressure Radiation
S
U P = =
Momentum Density,
2
v
S
g =
=0
15
N.B.
1. The definition of momentum for an EM wave is entirely consistent with quantum
theory since, when v = c, we have

volume volume
h
volume c
h
c
U
c
S
p
=
= =
) ( ) (
2

momentum of a photon,
= =
h
k h p .

2. For both radiation pressure and momentum incident on a surface, only the normal
component has any effect.

3. For reflective surfaces, the change in momentum of the EM radiation must be
considered (e.g. for 100% reflection, p is twice the normal component of the
incident radiation).

16
Dispersion

We can gain some insight into the reasons for dispersion (i.e. n()) by considering a
gaseous medium whose molecules can be represented simplistically by an electron bound
by a spring to a central nucleus (the mechanical oscillator model).

Since m
nucleus
>> m
e
, we may ignore the response of the nucleus with respect to that of the
electron, which experiences a force F = qE. The equation of motion that describes the
response of the system is then

e
o
m
qE
x
dt
dx
dt
x d
= + +
2
2
2

where ( ) [ ] c.c. exp
2
1
+ = = t kz i E E E since E is in the x-direction,
x = displacement of the electron from the equilibrium position,
= damping constant in rad/s,
and the resonance frequency,
e
o
m
s
= , with s being the spring constant.

Now, because the driving term
e
m
qE
oscillates at , the displacement will be of the form
( ) [ ] c.c. exp
2
1
+ = t i x x
o

Substitution into the simple harmonic motion equation qives

=
i
m
qE
x
e
2 2
0

E
k
y
z
x
EM wave
electron, m
e
,q
nucleus
(rest of the
molecule)
17
since ( )x i
dt
dx
= and ( )x i
dt
x d
= 2
2 2
2
2
.

For N molecules per unit volume, the induced polarization in the gas P = Nqx since qx is
the dipole moment of the molecule. But, since D = E + P =
0
(1 + )E, we may write

= =
i
m
E Nq
Nqx E
e
2 2
0
2
0

So, using n
2
= 1 + , we get

where
p
e o
m
Nq
=
2
is the plasma frequency.

So, the refractive index is again complex, n = n
R
+ in
I
, with the contribution to n
I
predominantly near the resonance
0
;

In the shaded region, which has width equal to the full-width at half-maximum
(FWHM) of the Lorentzian absorption resonance, the dispersion of n
R
() is anomalous:
i.e. n
R
decreases as decreases (normally n
R
increases towards shorter wavelengths).

+ =
i
m
Nq
n
e
2 2
0
0
2
2
1
R
n
Absorbtion
c
n
I
=
2

o

1
18
N.B.
1. For more than one resonant frequency
=

+ =
n
j
j oj
j
e o
i
f
m
Nq
n
1
2 2
2
2
1 ) (

Where f
j
is the oscillator strength for the resonance at
oj
.

2. In a dense dielectric, it is the local field E
L
in the material (not the applied EM E-field)
that determines the polarization P. In non-polar dielectrics which have radial symmetry,
the local or Lorentz field is given by

0
3
+ =
P
E E
L
.

This modifies the dispersion relation to read

=

=
+
n
j
j oj
j
e o
i
f
m
Nq
n
n
1
2 2
2
2
2
3 2
1

3. For a typical material (e.g. fused silica), n
R
() looks like

where K
e
is the dc ( = 0) dielectric constant.

4. In the visible spectral region, the dispersion relation is often described using a
Sellmeier equation;

2
2
2
) (

+ = D
C
B
A n ,

where A, B, C, and D are positive constants with C =
2
UV resonance
.
1
e
K
R
n
01
02
03

Infrared
Visible Ultra-violet X-rays
19

Phase and Group Velocities

The phase velocity
k n
c
= = v describes the velocity of propagation of the EM waves
phase front. But, what is the group velocity?

Consider two plane waves of equal amplitude E
o
but with different frequencies (
1
= +
and
2
= - ) both propagating in the z-direction. The total E-field, if
e e e
2 1
= = , is then given by

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { } . c.c exp exp
2
1
+ + + + = t z k k i t z k k i
o total
E e E

( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] { } . c.c . exp exp
2
1
+ + = c c t kz i t kz i
o
E e

[ ] ( ) [ ] . c.c exp cos + = t kz i t kz
o total
E e E

So, although the E-field still propagates at the phase velocity
|
\
|
=
k
v , the amplitude
modulation due to the beating of the two frequencies propagates at a velocity given by
/k the group velocity, v
g
. More generally;

This is the velocity at which the center of an optical pulse (i.e. an amplitude modulation)
propagates.

N.B.
Since
) (
v
= =
n
ck
k , we may write

+
=
(
=
d
dn
n
dk
dn
n
k
g
1
v
1 v v

since
=
d
dn
d
dn
dk
d
dk
dn
g
v
Group Velocity,
dk
d
g
= v
20
i)
d
dn
> 0 (normal dispersion) v
g
< v
ii)
d
dn
< 0 (anomalous dispersion) v
g
> v

BUT information cannot travel at a velocity greater than c, which has important
consequences when v > c (n < 1) and
d
dn
< 0.

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Physics 425 Modern Optics Electromagnetic Theory

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

= z y x , and D, the electric displacement, is given by

, Faradays Law gives

= , BUT the frequency is unchanged.

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