GCHAPTER 1 Introduction /Basic concept

MECHANICS:
Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physics concerned with the
state of rest or motion of bodies that subjected to the action of forces. OR
t may be defined as the study of forces actin! on body when it is at rest or in motion is
ca""ed mechanics.

Classification of Mechanics
The en!ineerin! mechanics are c"assified as shown
En!ineerin! Mechanics
Mechanics of Ri!id bodies Mechanics of #eformed bodies Mechanics of f"uid
$tatics #ynamics $tatics #ynamics
BRANCHES OF MECHANICS:
Mechanics can be di%ided into two branches.
1. $tatic. &. #ynamics.
a) Statics
t is the branch of mechanics that dea"s with the study of forces actin! on a
body in e'ui"ibrium. Either the body at rest or in uniform motion is ca""ed statics
b( !na"ics)
t is the branch of mechanics that dea"s with the study of forces on body in motion
is ca""ed dynamics. t is further di%ided into two branches.
i( *inetics ii( +inematics.
i( #inetics
t is the branch of the dynamics which dea"s the study of body in motion under
the inf"uence of force i.e. is the re"ationship between force and motion are considered or
the effect of the force are studied
ii( #ine"atics)
t is the branch of the dynamics that dea"s with the study of body in motion with
out considerin! the force.
Funda"ental concept
The fo""owin! are the fundamenta" concept used in the en!ineerin! mechanics
$% Force
n !enera" force is a Push or Pu"", which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. n en!ineerin! mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to mo%e a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characteri-ed by its point of app"ication, ma!nitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a %ector 'uantity.
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&nits of force
The fo""owin! force units are fre'uent"y used.
A% Ne'ton
The $. unit of force is /ewton and denoted by /. which may be defined as
1/ 0 1 +!. 1 m1s
&
B% !nes
#yne is the C.G.$ unit of force. 1 #yne 0 1 !. 1 cm1s
&
2ne /ewton force 0 13 dyne
C% (ounds
The 4P$ unit of force is pound. 1 "b
f
0 1 "b
m
. 1ft1s
&
2ne pound force 0 5.556 /
2ne dyne force 0 &.&56 7 138
6
"bs
)% Space
$pace is the !eometrica" re!ion occupied by bodies whose positions are described
by "inear and an!u"ar measurement re"ati%e to coordinate systems. 4or three dimensiona"
prob"ems there are three independent coordinates are needed. 4or two dimensiona"
prob"ems on"y two coordinates are re'uired.
*% (article
A partic"e may be defined as a body 9object( has mass but no si-e 9ne!"ected(,
such body cannot e7ists theoretica""y, but when dea"in! with prob"ems in%o"%in! distance
considerab"y "ar!er when compared to the si-e of the body. 4or e7amp"e a bomber
aerop"ane is a partic"e for a !unner operatin! from !round.
n the mathematica" sense, a partic"e is a body whose dimensions are considered
to be near -ero so that it ana"y-e as a mass concentrated at a point. A body may tread as a
partic"e when its dimensions are irre"e%ant to describe its position or the action of forces
app"ied to it. 4or e7amp"e the si-e of earth is insi!nificant compared to the si-e of its
orbits and therefore the earth can be mode"ed as a partic"e when studyin! its orbita"
motion. :hen a body is idea"i-ed as a partic"e, the princip"es of mechanics reduce to
rather simp"ified form since the !eometry of the body wi"" not be in%o"%ed in the ana"ysis
of the prob"em.
+% Ri,id Bod!
A ri!id body may be defined a body in which the re"ati%e positions of any two
partic"es do not chan!e under the action of forces means the distance between two
points1partic"es remain same before and after app"yin! e7terna" forces.
As a resu"t the materia" properties of any body that is assumed to be ri!id wi"" not
ha%e to be considered whi"e ana"y-in! the forces actin! on the body. n most cases the
actua" deformations occurrin! in the structures, machines, mechanisms etc are re"ati%e"y
sma"" and therefore the ri!id body assumption is suitab"e for ana"ysis
Basic -uantities
n en!ineerin! mechanics "en!th, mass, time and force are basic 'uantities
$% .en,th
n en!ineerin! mechanics "en!th is needed to "ocate the position of a partic"e and
to describe the si-e of physica" system. $ome important "en!th con%ersions factors
1cm 0 13 mm 1 m 0 133 cm 1 m 0 1333 mm
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1 m 0 ;.&636< 9feet( 1 m 0 ;=.;> nch 1 Mi"e 0 1.?3= +m
)% Mass
Mass is the property of matter by which we can compare the action of one body
with that of another. This property manifests itse"f as !ra%itationa" attraction between two
bodies and pro%ides a 'uantitati%e measure of the resistance of matter to a chan!e in
%e"ocity. $ome important mass con%ersion factors are !i%en be"ow
1 *! 0 &.&35 "b
m
*% /i"e
Time is the measure of the succession of e%ents and is a basis 'uantity in
dynamic. Time is not direct"y in%o"%ed in the ana"ysis of statics prob"ems but it has
importance in dynamics.
S!ste"s of units
n en!ineerin! mechanics "en!th, mass, time and force are the basic units used
therefore@ the fo""owin! are the units systems are adopted in the en!ineerin! mechanics
$% International S!ste" of &nits 0SI):
n $ system of units the basic units are "en!th, time, and mass which are arbitrari"y
defined as the meter 9m(, second 9s(, and +i"o!ram 9+!(. 4orce is the deri%ed unit.
1/ 0 1 +!. 1 m1s
&
)% C1S s!ste"s of units
n CG$ system of units, the basic units are "en!th, time, and mass which are
arbitrari"y defined as the centimeter 9cm(, second 9s(, and !ram 9!(. 4orce is the deri%ed
units 1 #yne 0 1 !. 1 cm1s
&
*% British s!ste"s of units
n CG$ system of units, the basic units are "en!th, time, and mass which are
arbitrari"y defined as the centimeter 9cm(, second 9s(, and !ram 9!(. 4orce is the deri%ed
units 1 "b 0 1"b!. 1ft1s
&
+% &%S% Custo"ar! &nits
The basic units are "en!th, time, and force which are arbitrari"y defined as the foot
9ft(, second 9s(, and pound 9"b(. Mass is the deri%ed unit,
/ri,ono"etr!
The measurement of the trian!"e sides and an!"es is ca""ed tri!onometry. Aet us
consider ri!ht.an!"ed trian!"e ABC as shown in fi!ure
C C
2

3 a 3 a

2
A c B A c B
Than the fo""owin! ratio can be considered for both the trian!"es
$in C 0 per1hyp 0 a1b $in C 0 per1hyp 0 c1b
Cos C 0 base1hyp 0 c1b Cos C 0 base1hyp 0a1b
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Tan C 0 per1base 0 a1c Tan C 0 per1base 0 c1a
The any side of the ri!ht an!"ed trian!"e may be ca"cu"ated by
b
&
0 a
&
D b
&
$imi"ar"y consider the fo""owin! Trian!"e C
4
3 a
5 6
A c B
The any side of the trian!"e can be ca"cu"ated by usin! the cosine "aw, "et suppose
we ha%e to ca"cu"ate the side EACF that is EbF then
b 0 a
&
D c
&
G 9&bc(cos 6
$imi"ar"y, to ca"cu"ate sides EABF that is EcF and EACF that is EaF then by usin! the
cosine "ay as be"ow
c 0 a
&
D b
&
G &abcos 4
And a 0 c
&
D b
&
G &cbcos 5
The sides of the trian!"e ABC can be ca"cu"ated by usin! the sin "aw
a b c
$in 5 $in 6 $in H
(rinciple of trans"issi3ilit! of forces
The state of rest of motion of a ri!id body is una"tered if a force actin! in the body
is rep"aced by another force of the same ma!nitude and direction but actin! anywhere on
the body a"on! the "ine of action of the rep"aced force.
4or e7amp"e the force 4 actin! on a ri!id body at point A. Accordin! to the
princip"e of transmissibi"ity of forces, this force has the same effect on the body as a force
4 app"ied at point B.
The fo""owin! two points shou"d be considered whi"e usin! this princip"e.
1. n en!ineerin! mechanics we dea" with on"y ri!id bodies. f deformation of the
body is to be considered in a prob"em. The "aw of transmissibi"ity of forces
wi"" not ho"d !ood.
&. By transmission of the force on"y the state of the body is una"tered, but not the
interna" stresses which may de%e"op in the body
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Therefore this "aw can be app"ied on"y to prob"ems in which ri!id bodies are
in%o"%ed
SCA.AR AN 7EC/OR 8&AN/I/9
Scalar -uantit!
$ca"ar 'uantity is that 'uantity which has on"y ma!nitude 9numerica" %a"ue
with suitab"e unit( or
$ca"ars 'uantities are those 'uantities, which are comp"ete"y specified by
their ma!nitude usin! suitab"e units are ca""ed sca"ars 'uantities. 4or e7amp"e mass, time,
%o"ume density, temperature, "en!th, a!e and area etc
The sca"ars 'uantities can be added or subtracted by a"!ebraic ru"e e.!.
>+! D 6+! 0 1I +! su!ar 2r 5 sec D I sec 0 = sec
7ector -uantit!
Jector 'uantity is that 'uantity, which has ma!nitude unit of ma!nitude as
we"" as direction, is ca""ed %ector 'uantity. Or
Jector 'uantities are those 'uantities, which are comp"ete"y specified by
their ma!nitude usin! suitab"e units as we"" directions are ca""ed %ector 'uantities. 4or
e7amp"e %e"ocity, acce"eration, force, wei!ht, disp"acement, momentum and tor'ue etc
are a"" %ector 'uantities. Jector 'uantity can be added, subtracted, mu"tip"ied and di%ided
by particu"ar !eometrica" or !raphica" methods.
7EC/OR RE(RESEN/A/ION
A %ector 'uantity is represented !raphica""y by a strai!ht "ine the "en!th of "ine
!i%es the ma!nitude of the %ector and arrowhead indicates the direction.
4or e7amp"e we consider a disp"acement 9d( of ma!nitude 13 +m in the direction
of east. Hence we cannot represent 13 +m on the paper therefore we se"ect a suitab"e sca"e
shown in fi!. $ca"e 1 cm 0 & +m
$o we draw a "ine of "en!th I cm which show the ma!nitude of %ector
'uantity that is 13 +m whi"e the arrow indicates the direction form ori!in to east ward as
shown in fi!.
A B

: c"
Point A is ca""ed tai" that shows the ori!in.
Point B is ca""ed head, which shows the direction of %ector 'uantity.
The "en!th of "ine is the ma!nitude of the %ector 'uantity.
REC/AN1&.AR CO;ORINA/E S9S/EM
Two "ines at ri!ht an!"e to each other are +nown as co.ordinate a7es and their
point of intersection is ca""ed ori!in. The hori-onta" "ine is ca""ed 7.a7is whi"e %ertica"
"ine is ca""ed y.a7is. Two co ordinate systems are used to show the direction of a %ector is
a p"ane. The an!"e which the representati%e "ine of !i%en %ector ma+es with D %e 7 a7is in
anti c"oc+ wise direction 9


<= < 2


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9=
n space the direction of %ector re'uires the ;
rd
a7is that is K.a7is. The direction
of the %ector in space is specified by three an!"es named H, L, and M with N, O K a7es
respecti%e"y as show >



9

<
E<ERCIS $
Sho' the follo'in, ?ectors ,raphicall! fro" $ to @
$% 4orce 1I +/ 5I
3
with 7.a7es.
)% #isp"acement >I +m ;3P north of east
*% Je"ocity ?3 +mQh =3P with 7.a7es.
+% Je"ocity I +mQh 5IP with hori-onta" a7es
:% 4orce &3 +/ 1;IP with 7.a7es.
@% #isp"acement 53 + m north.east.
A% A crow f"ies northward from po"e A to po"e B and co%ers distance of 6 +m. t then
f"ies eastward to po"e C and co%ers ? +m. find the net disp"acement and direction
of its f"i!ht. Ans: $B C" :*D north of east
6. A tra%e"er tra%e"s 13 +m east &3 +m north 1I +m west and 6 +m south. 4ind the
disp"acement of the tra%e"er from the startin! point. Ans: $* C" )*D north 'est
F ree 3od! dia,ra"
A dia!ram or s+etch of the body in which the body under consideration is freed
from the contact surface 9surroundin!( and a"" the forces actin! on it 9inc"udin! reactions
at contact surface( are drawn is ca""ed free body dia!ram. 4ree body dia!ram for few
cases are shown in be"ow
w w R
R w
?3 R
1
?33 /
w
P
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R
&

(rocedure of dra'in, Free Bod! ia,ra"
To construct a free.body dia!ram, the fo""owin! steps are necessary)
ra' Outline Shape
ma!ine that the partic"e is cut free from its surroundin!s or iso"ated by
drawin! the out"ine shape of the partic"e on"y
Sho' All Forces
$how on this s+etch a"" the forces actin! on the partic"e. There are two c"asses of
forces that act on the partic"e. They can be acti%e forces, which tend to set the partic"e in
motion, or they can be reacti%e forces which are the resu"ts of the constraints or supports
that tend to pre%ent motion.
Identif! Each Force
The forces that are +nown shou"d be "abe"ed comp"ete with their ma!nitudes and
directions. Aetters are used to represent the ma!nitudes and directions of forces that are
not +nown.
Method of (ro3le" Solution
(ro3le" State"ent
nc"udes !i%en data, specification of what is to be determined, and a fi!ure
showin! a"" 'uantities in%o"%ed.
Free;Bod! ia,ra"s
Create separate dia!rams for each of the bodies in%o"%ed with a c"ear indication of
a"" forces actin! on each body.
Funda"ental (rinciples
The si7 fundamenta" princip"es are app"ied to e7press the conditions of rest or
motion of each body. The ru"es of a"!ebra are app"ied to so"%e the e'uations for the
un+nown 'uantities.
Solution ChecC :
1. Test for errors in reasonin! by %erifyin! that the units of the computed resu"ts are
correct
&. Test for errors in computation by substitutin! !i%en data and computed resu"ts
into pre%ious"y unused e'uations based on the si7 princip"es.
;. A"ways app"y e7perience and physica" intuition to assess whether resu"ts seem
Ereasonab"eF
Nu"erical Accurac!
The accuracy of a so"ution depends on
1. Accuracy of the !i%en data.
&. Accuracy of the computations performed. The so"ution cannot be more accurate
than the "ess accurate of these two.
;. The use of hand ca"cu"ators and computers !enera""y ma+es the accuracy of the
computations much !reater than the accuracy of the data. Hence, the so"ution
accuracy is usua""y "imited by the data accuracy.
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CHAPTER &. S9S/EM OF FORCES:
Force
n !enera" force is a Push or Pu"", which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. n en!ineerin! mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to mo%e a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characteri-ed by its point of app"ication, ma!nitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a %ector 'uantity.
4orce e7erted on body has fo""owin! two effects
1. The eEternal effect, which is tendency to chan!e the motion of the body or to
de%e"op resistin! forces in the body
&. The internal effect, which is the tendency to deform the body.
f the force system actin! on a body produces no e7terna" effect, the forces are said to
be in 3alance and the body e7perience no chan!e in motion is said to be in e-uili3riu".
&nits of force
The fo""owin! force units are fre'uent"y used.
A% Ne'ton
The $. unit of force is /ewton and denoted by /. which may be defined as
1/ 0 1 +!. 1 m1s
&
B% !nes
#yne is the C.G.$ unit of force.
1 #yne 0 1 !. 1 cm1s
&
2ne /ewton force 0 13 dyne
C% (ounds
The 4P$ unit of force is pound.
1 "b
f
0 1 "b
m
. 1ft1s
&
2ne pound force 0 5.556 /
2ne dyne force 0 &.&56 7 138
6
"bs
S!ste"s of forces
:hen numbers of forces actin! on the body then it is said to be system of forces
/!pes of s!ste" of forces
$% Collinear forces :
n this system, "ine of action of forces act a"on! the same "ine is ca""ed co""inear
forces. 4or e7amp"e consider a rope is bein! pu""ed by two p"ayers as shown in fi!ure
4
1
4
&
)% Coplanar forces
:hen a"" forces actin! on the body are in the same p"ane the forces are cop"anar
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*% Coplanar Concurrent force s!ste"
A concurrent force system contains forces whose "ines.of action meet at same one
point. 4orces may be tensile 0pullin,) or 4orces may be compressive (pushing)

+% Non Concurrent Co;(lanar Forces
A system of forces actin! on the same p"ane but whose "ine of action does not
pass throu!h the same point is +nown as non concurrent cop"anar forces or system for
e7amp"e a "adder restin! a!ainst a wa"" and a man is standin! on the run! but not on
the center of !ra%ity.
:% Coplanar parallel forces
:hen the forces actin! on the body are in the same p"ane but their "ine of actions
are para""e" to each other +nown as cop"anar para""e" forces for e7amp"e forces actin! on
the beams and two boys are sittin! on the sea saw.
@% Non coplanar parallel forces
n this case a"" the forces are para""e" to each other but not in the same p"ane,
for e7amp"e the force actin! on the tab"e when a boo+ is +ept on it.
AI/ION OF FORCES
AI/ION OF 0FORCES) B9 HEA /O /AI. R&.E
To add two or more than two %ectors 9forces(, join the head of the first %ector with
the tai" of second %ector, and join the head of the second %ector with the tai" of the third
%ector and so on. Then the resu"tant %ector is obtained by joinin! the tai" of the first
%ector with the head of the "ast %ector. The ma!nitude and the direction of the resu"tant
%ector 94orce( are found !raphica""y and ana"ytica""y.
RES&./AN/ FORCE
A resu"tant force is a sin!"e force, which produce same affect so that of
number of forces can produce is ca""ed resu"tant force
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COM(OSI/ION OF FORCES
The process of findin! out the resu"tant 4orce of !i%en forces 9components
%ector( is ca""ed composition of forces. A resu"tant force may be determined by fo""owin!
methods
$% Para""e"o!ram "aws of forces or method
)% Trian!"e "aw of forces or trian!u"ar method
*% po"y!on "aw of forces or po"y!on method

A) (ARA..E.O1RAM ME/HO
Accordin! to para""e"o!ram method Rf two forces 9%ectors( are actin!
simu"taneous"y on a partic"e be represented 9in ma!nitude and direction( by two adjacent
sides of a para""e"o!ram, their resu"tant may represent 9in ma!nitude and direction( by the
dia!ona" of the para""e"o!ram passin! throu!h the point. 2R
:hen two forces are actin! at a point such that they can by represented by the
adjacent sides of a para""e"o!ram then their resu"tant wi"" be e'ua" to that dia!ona" of the
para""e"o!ram which passed throu!h the same point.
The ma!nitude and the direction of the resu"tant can be determined either
!raphica""y or ana"ytica""y as e7p"ained be"ow.
1raphical "ethod
Aet us suppose that two forces 41 and 4& actin! simu"taneous"y on a
partic"e as shown in the fi!ure 9a( the force 4& ma+es an an!"e C with force 41
B
F)
2
O F$ A
4irst of a"" we wi"" draw a side 2A of the para""e"o!ram in ma!nitude and direction e'ua"
to force 41 with some suitab"e sca"e. $imi"ar"y draw the side 2B of para""e"o!ram of same
sca"e e'ua" to force 4&, which ma+es an an!"e C with force 41. /ow draw sides BC and
AC para""e" to the sides 2A and BC. Connect the point 2 to Point C which is the dia!ona"
of the para""e"o!ram passes throu!h the same point 2 and hence it is the resu"tant of the
!i%en two forces. By measurement the "en!th of dia!ona" !i%es the ma!nitude of resu"tant
and an!"e H !i%es the direction of the resu"tant as shown in fi! 9A(.
B C B C

F) F
R
F) F
R
2 4 2 4 2
O F$ A O F$ A
fi! 9A( 4i! 9B(
Anal!tical "ethod
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n the para""eo!ram 2ABC, from point C drop a perpendicu"ar C# to meet
2A at # as shown in fi! 9B(
n para""e"o!ram 2ABC,
2A 0 41 2B 0 4& An!"e A2B 0 C
/ow consider the SCA# in which
An!"e CA# 0 C AC 0 4&
By reso"%in! the %ector 4& we ha%e,
C# 0 4& $in C and A# 0 4& Cosine C
/ow consider S2C#
An!"e #2C 0 H. An!"e 2#C 0 =3P
Accordin! to Pytha!oras theorem
9Hyp( T 0 9per( T D 9base( T
2CT 0 #CT D 2#T.
2CT 0 #CT D 92A D A#( T
4
R
T 0 4T $inTC D 941 D 4& Cosine C( T
4
R
T 0 4T& $inTC D 4T1 D 4T& CosTC D & 41 4& Cosine C.
4
R
T 0 4T& $inTC D 4T& CosTC D4T1 D & 41 4& Cosine C.
4
R
T 0 4T& 9$inTC D CosTC( D 4T1D & 41 4& Cosine C.
4
R
T 0 4T& 91( D 4T1D & 41 4& Cosine C.
4
R
T 0 4T& D 4T1D & 41 4& Cosine C.
4
R
T 0 4T1D4T& D & 41 4& Cosine C.
F
R
F FG$HFG) H ) F$ F) Cosine 2%
The abo%e e'uation !i%es the ma!nitude of the resu"tant %ector.
/ow the direction of the resu"tant can be ca"cu"ated by
$in H 0 C#U 0 4 & $in C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1 2R
2C 4
R

Tan H 0 C# 0 4 & $in UUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
2# 41D 4& Cosine C
The abo%e two e'uation !i%es the direction of the resu"tant %ector that is H.
B) /RIAN1.E ME/HO OR /RIAN1.E .AI OF FORCES
Accordin! to trian!"e "aw or methodF f two forces actin! simu"taneous"y on a
partic"e by represented 9in ma!nitude and direction( by the two sides of a trian!"e ta+en in
order their resu"tant is represented 9in ma!nitude and direction( by the third side of
trian!"e ta+en in opposite order. 2R
f two forces are actin! on a body such that they can be represented by the two
adjacent sides of a trian!"e ta+en in the same order, then their resu"tant wi"" be e'ua" to
the third side 9enc"osin! side( of that trian!"e ta+en in the opposite order.
The resu"tant force 9%ector( can be obtained !raphica""y and ana"ytica""y or tri!onometry.
1raphicall!
Aet us consider two forces 41 and 4& actin! on the partic"e the force 41 is
hori-onta" whi"e the force 4& ma+es an an!"e C with force 41 as shown in fi! 9A(. /ow
draw "ines 2A and AB to some con%enient sca"e in ma!nitude e'ua" to 41 and 4&. Voin
point 2 to point B the "ine 2B wi"" be the third side of trian!"e, passes throu!h the same
point 2 and hence it is the resu"tant of the !i%en two forces. By measurement the "en!th
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of 2B !i%es the ma!nitude of resu"tant and an!"e H !i%es the direction of the resu"tant as
shown in fi! 9B(.
F) B

F
R
F)
2 4 5 2
F$ O F$ A
Fi, 0A) Fi, 0B)
ANA.9/ICA. OR /RI1ONOME/RIC ME/HO
/ow consider W A2B in which
An!"e A2B 0 H which is the direction of resu"tant %ector 2B ma+es with hori-on
ana" a7is.
An!"e 2AB 0 163P . C. As we +now
An!"e A2B D An!"e 2AB D An!"e AB2 0 163P.
By puttin! the %a"ues we !et
H D 163P .C D an!"e AB2 0 163P
An!"e AB2 0 H.C
By app"yin! the sine "aw to the trian!"e AB2
2A 0 AB. 0 2B
$in B $in 2 $in A
F $ F % F ) % F F R %
Sin 02 ;4) Sin 4 Sin 0$JB K2)
Note
t is better to ca"cu"ate the resu"tant of 4
1
and 4
&
by usin! cosine "aw we !et
F
R
F FG$HFG) H ) F$ F) Cosine 5%
:here 5 F $JB K 2
And the direction of resu"tant may be determined by usin! sine "aw
F $ F % F ) % F F R %
Sin 6 Sin 4 Sin 5
C) (O.91ON ME/HO
Accordin! to this methodF if more then two forces actin! on a partic"e by
reprehend by the sided of po"y!on ta+en in order their resu"tant wi"" be represented by the
c"osin! side of the po"y!on in opposite directionE 2R
f more than two forces are actin! on a body such that they can by represented by
the sides of a po"y!on Ta+en in same order, then their resu"tant wi"" be e'ua" to that side
of the po"y!on, which comp"etes the po"y!on 9c"osin! side ta+en in opposite order.
The resu"tant of such forces can be determined by !raphica""y and ana"ytica""y.
. 1& .
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1raphicall!:
Consider the fo""owin! dia!ram in which number of forces actin! on a partic"e.
E F+
F* F) 5
F:

6 2 F F*
F+ 5 F$ 6
Fr C

F
:
F)
4 2
A F
$
B
$tartin! from A the fi%e %ectors are p"otted in turns as shown in fi! by p"acin! the tai" end
of each %ector at the tip end of the precedin! one. The arrow from A to the tip of the "ast
%ector represents the resu"tant of the %ectors with suitab"e sca"e.n this po"y!on the side
A4 represents the resu"tant of the !i%en components and H shows the direction. By
measurement of A4 wi"" !i%e the resu"tant and H !i%e direction of !i%en sca"e
Anal!ticall!
The resu"tant and direction can be determined by so"%in! it step.by.step
ana"ytica""y usin! formu"as of para""e"o!ram, trian!"e "aw or tri!onometry
E<AM(.E
The screw eye is subjected to two forces 41 and 4& as shown in fi!.
#etermine the ma!nitude and direction of the resu"tant force by para""e"o!ram by usin!
the !raphica" or ana"ytica" method.



#raw the free body dia!ram of the !i%en fi!.

1i?en 41 0 133 / 4& 0 1I3 / C1 0 1IP C& 0 13P
Re-uired Resu"tant 0 4R 0X
Solution An!"e A2B 0 =3 .1I G 13 0 ?IP
A) 1raphicall!
$ca"e &3 / 0 1 cm.
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/ow draw para""e"o!ram 2ABC with ru"e and protractor accordin! to
sca"e as shown in dia!ram.
C
B
F) FR
@:D

@:D 4 F$ A
O
By measurin!
2C 0 4
R
0 13.? cm 0 13.? 7 &3 0 &1& /
H 0 I5P with 7 a7is
Result Resultant F )$) N irection F :+ 'ith E aEis
B Anal!tical "ethod
:e +now that
4r 0 4T1D4T& D & 41 4& Cosine C.
Putt the %a"ue and C0 ?IP
4r 0 9133(T D 91I3(T D & 9133( 91I3( Cosine?IP
4r 0 &1&.II /.
:e a"so +now that $in H 0 4 & $in C.
R
$in H 0 1I3 $in ?IP
&1&.II
H 0 $in
.1
1I3 $in ?IP
&1&.I
H 0 ;=.??IP with force 41
;=.??IP D 1IP
0 I5.??IP with 7 a7is.
Result Resultant F )$)%:: N irection F :+%@@:D 'ith E aEis
.
E<AM(.E *
The p"ate is subjected to the forces actin! on member A and
B as shown. f C 0 ?3P determine the ma!nitude of the
resu"tant of these forces and its direction measured from
c"oc+wise from positi%e 7.a7is. Adopt trian!"e method
!raphica""y and ana"ytica""y.

. 15 .
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1i?en
4A 0 533/ 4B 0 I33/ C1 0 ;3P with O a7is C&
0 ?3P with positi%e 7 a7is
Re-uired Resu"tant 4R 0X #irection 0 H 0X
$o"ution the an!"e between two forces ?3 D 9=3 G ;3( 0 1&3P

A: 1raphicall! $ca"e 133 "b 0 1 cm
/ow draw trian!"e 2AB with suitab"e sca"e with the he"p of
sca"e and protractor as shown in dia,ra"
A
$)BD
FA
FB
O 4

F
R
B
By measurement we !et,
2B 0 4
R
0 5.? cm 7 133 0 5?3 "b An!"e B2A 0
>3P H 0 13P
Result Resultant F +@B l3 irection F
$BD
B Anal!ticall!:
Accordin! to cosine "aw for !i%en trian!"e A2B
4
R
0 4TA D 4TB G &94A( 94B( 9cosine C(
4
R
0 9533( T D 9I33( T .& 9533( 9I33( 9cosine 9163.
1&3(
4
R
0 5I6.&I> "b
Accordin! to sine "aw for !i%en trian!"e A2B
F B F F
R
.
Sin 4 Sin 0$JB;2)
I33 0 5I6.&I> .
$in H $in 9163.C(
$in H 0 I33 $in 9163.C(
5I6.&I>
H 0 >3.6=P with force 4A
And H 0 >3.6=P .?3P 0 13 with 7 a7is
Result Resultant F +:J%):A l3 Y irection F
$B%JLP
EEa"ple +
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Four forces act on a 3od! at point O as sho'n in
fi,% Find their resultant%
$$B N
$BB N

*BD +:D
)BD JB N
$@B N
1i?en
41 0 63 / C3 0 3 at 7 a7is
4& 0 133 / C1 0 5IP with 7 a7is
4; 0 113 / C& 0 ;3P with G%e 7 a7is
45 0 1?3 / C; 0 &3P with G7 a7is
Re-uired
Resu"tant 0 4
R
0X #irection 0H 0X
$o") Graphica""y $ca"e &3 / 0 1 cm.
$tartin! from 2 the four %ectors are p"otted in turn as
shown in fi! by p"acin! the tai" end of each %ector at the tip
end of the precedin! one. The arrow from 2 to the tip of the
"ast %ector represents the resu"tant of the %ectors.
C
)BD


*BD
B

4 +:D
O A
By measurement
The resu"tant 2B 0 4
R
0 7 &3 0 1&5 /
The direction of the resu"tant 0 0 15;P with D %e 7
a7is.
Result: Resultant F $$L N irection F
$+*D
E<ERCISE )%$
$% 4ind the resu"tant and the direction of the fo""owin!
dia!ram.
i J N ii
@l3


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+)D
@BD
: N
+ l3
Ans: $)%$J N M )@%BAD
Ans: J%A$J l3 M *@%:J:D
iii i?
)+ N )B
N


*B N
$B N
$+BD

*BD

Ans )@ N M @A%*JD Ans: )L%J)@
N M @L%B:LD 'ith E;aEis%
) #etermine the ma!nitude and direction of the
resu"tant force as shown in fi!
Ans:
$)%+JL N M +*%LB)D

* #etermine the ma!nitude and the direction of the
resu"tant of two forces > / and 6 / actin! at a point with
an inc"uded an!"e of ?3P with between them. The force of
> / bein! hori-onta"
+% #etermine the ma!nitude and direction
of the resu"tant of two forces &3 / and ;3 / actin! at a
point with an inc"uded an!"e of 53P between them. The
force ;3 / bein! hori-onta"
:% Two forces are app"ied to an eye bo"t fastened to a beam.
#etermine the ma!nitude and direction of their resu"tant
usin! 9a( the para""e"o!ram "aw, 9b( the trian!"e ru"e.
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@% Two forces ( and 8 are app"ied as shown at point A
of a hoo+ support. *nowin! that P =1I "b and Q = &I
"b, determine the ma!nitude and direction of their
resu"tant usin! 9a( the para""e"o!ram "aw, 9b( the
trian!"e ru"e.
A% Two contro" rods are attached at A to "e%er AB.
+nowin! that the force in the "eft.hand rod is 4
1
= 1&3
/, determine 9a( the re'uired force 4
&
in the ri!ht.
hand rod if the resu"tant of the forces e7erted by the
rods on the "e%er is to be %ertica", 9b( the
correspondin! ma!nitude of 4
R
.
J% Two structura" members A and B are bo"ted to a
brac+et as shown. *nowin! that both members are in
compression and that the force is ;3 +/ in member A
and &3 +/ in member B, determine, the ma!nitude
and direction of the resu"tant of the forces app"ied to
the brac+et by members A and B.
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L% The two forces P and Z act on bo"t A as shown in dia!ram.
4ind their resu"tant and direction
$B% The cab"e stays AB and A# he"p support po"e AC.
*nowin! that the tension is I33 / in AB and 1?3 / in
A#, determine !raphica""y the ma!nitude and direction of
the resu"tant of the forces e7erted by the stays at A usin!
9a( the para""e"o!ram "aw, 9b( the trian!"e ru"e
$$% #etermine the ma!nitude and direction of the resu"tant of
the two forces%
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$)% Two structura" members B and C are ri%eted to the
brac+et A. *nowin! that the tension in member B is ?
+/ and the tension in C is 13 +/, determine the
ma!nitude and direction of the resu"tant force actin! on
the brac+et.
$*% The two structura" member one in tension and other in
compression, e7erts on point 2, determine the
resu"tant and an!"e C

$+% The force P and T act on body at point B rep"ace them
with a sin!"e force
RESO.&/ION OF 7EC/OR
The processes of findin! the components of
!i%en %ector 9resu"tant( is ca""ed reso"ution of %ector. 2r
The processes of sp"ittin! up of sin!"e %ector into two or
more %ector is ca""ed reso"ution of the %ector A %ector can
be reso"%ed into two or more %ectors which ha%e the same
combined affect as that the effect of ori!ina" %ector
RESO.&/ION OF 7EC/OR IN/O REC/AN1&.AR
COM(ONEN/S
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f %ector is reso"%ed into such components
which are at ri!ht an!"es 9perpendicu"ar( to each other then
they are ca""ed the rectan!u"ar components of that %ector,
now "et us consider a resu"tant %ector 4 to be reso"%ed into
two components which ma+es an an!"e C with hori-onta"
a7es as shown in fi!.
C
F

2
O
/ow draw a "ine 2C to represent the %ector in
ma!nitude, which ma+es an an!"e C with 7.a7is with some
con%enient sca"e. #rop a perpendicu"ar C# at point C
which meet 7 a7is at point #, now join point 2 to point #,
the "ine 2# is ca""ed hori-onta" component of resu"tant
%ector and represents by 47 in ma!nitude in same sca"e.
$imi"ar"y draw perpendicu"ar CE at point C, which wi""
meet y.a7is at point E now join 2 to E. The "ine 2E is
ca""ed %ertica" component of resu"tant %ector and represents
by 4y in ma!nitude of same sca"e.
E C
F
!
F

2
O F
E


Anal!ticall! or tri,ono"etr!
n SC2# An!"e C2# 0 C An!"e 2#C 0
=3[ 2C 0 4
2# 0 4
7
2E 0 C# 0 4
y
:e +now that
Cosine C 0 2#. Cosine C 0 4
7

2C 4
And F
E
F F Cosine 2
$imi"ar"y we ha%e
$in C 0 #C $in C 0 4
y
2C 4
And F! F F Sine 2
RESO.7IN1 OF A FORCE IN/O /IO
COM(ONEN/S IHICH ARE NO/ M&/&A..9 A/
RI1H/ AN1.E /O EACH O/HER
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f a force or %ector is to be re'uired to
reso"%ed into such components which are not at ri!ht an!"e to
each other then it can be determined in re%erse manner as we
find the resu"tant %ector of !i%en components by
Para""e"o!ram method, Trian!"e method or Tri!onometry
A) (arallelo,ra" "ethod
/ow consider a force 4R, which is reso"%ed into
components 41 and 4&. The force 4 ma+es an an!"e H with
force 41 and force 4& ma+es an an!"e C with component 41, so
we can ma+e a para""e"o!ram with suitab"e sca"e as shown in
fi!.
B C

F) FR
2 4 5 2
O F$ A
:e can a"so determine the components of force 4 by
ana"ytica""y as we +now that direction of the resu"tant %ector
can be determined by
$in H 0 4 & $in C. 2R
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU1
4R
Tan H 0 4 & $in C
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
41D 4& Cosine C
$o we can find 4& from e'uation 1
4& 0 4
R
$in H
$in C
$imi"ar"y from e'uation &
41 0 4 & $in C . 4& Cosine C
Tan H
B) /rian,le "ethod: /ow consider a force 4, which is
reso"%ed into components 41 and 4&. The force 4 ma+es an
an!"e H with force 41 and force 4& ma+es an an!"e C with
component 41, so we can ma+e a trian!"e with some suitab"e
sca"e as shown in fi!.
B

6
F
R
F)

4 5 2
. && .
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O F$ A

By measurements we !et the components 41 and 4&.
$imi"ar"y we can find the components 41 and 4& by usin! the
fo""owin! formu"a
F $ F F ) F F
R
%
Sin 6 Sin 4 Sin 5
4or component 41
F$ F F
R
Sin 6
Sin 5
4or component 4&
F) F F
R
Sin 4
Sin 5
E<AM(.E :
Resol?e the force )BB N into co"ponents alon, E
and ! direction and deter"ine the "a,nitude of
co"ponents%
)BB N
*BD
1i?en) 4orce 0 4 0 &33 / #irection 0C
0 ;3P
Re-uired Hori-onta" components 0 4
7
0X
Jertica" components 0 4
y
0X
Solution
A) 1raphicall! $ca"e 1 cm 0 &3 /
/ow draw a "ine 2C to represent t %ector in
ma!nitude with !i%en sca"e, which ma+es an an!"e ;3P with
7.a7is. #rop a perpendicu"ar C# at point C which meet 7
a7is at point #, now join point 2 to point #, the "ine 2# is
ca""ed hori-onta" component 947( of resu"tant %ector.
$imi"ar"y draw perpendicu"ar CE at point C, which wi""
meet y.a7is at point E now join 2 to E. The "ine 2E is
ca""ed %ertica" component 94y( of resu"tant %ector. As shown
in fi!
E C

F
!
*BD
O F
E

By measurin! we !et
2# 0 4
7
0 6.? cm 7 &3 0 1>& /
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2E 0 4y 0 I cm 7 &3 0 133 /
Result: F
E
F $A*%)B N F
!
F $BB N
B) Anal!ticall!
:e +now that 4
7
F 4 cosine C 0 &33 cosine;3
F
E
F $A*%)B N
:e a"so +now that
4
y
0 4 $in C 0 &33 $in ;3 F
!
F $BB
N
Result: F
E
F $A*%)B N F
!
F $BB N
E<AM(.E @
A push of 53 / actin! on a point and its "ine of action
are inc"ined at an an!"e of ;3P with the hori-onta". Reso"%e
it a"on! hori-onta" a7is and another a7is which is inc"ined at
an an!"e of ?IP with the hori-onta".
C
B
F)
F
@:D *BD
A


1i?en 4orce 0 4 0 53 / #irection 0 C 0 ;3P
#irection 0 H 0 ?IP
Re-uired 4orce component 0 4
1
0X 4orce
component 0 4
&
0X
Solution 1raphical Method
Aet $ca"e 13 / 0 1 cm
/ow draw the para""e"o!ram ABC# with
!i%en sca"e as shown in fi!
By measurement A# 0 41 0 &.I 7 13 0 &I /
AC 0 4& 0 &.; 7 13 0 &; /
Result F
$
F ): N F
)
F )* N
Anal!ticall!
:e ha%e 4
&
0 4 $in H 0 53 $in ;3
$in C $in ?IP
4& 0 &&.3? /
$imi"ar"y from e'uation
4
1
0 4 & $in C . 4&
Cosine C
Tan H
4
1
0 &&.3? $in ?I . &&.3? Cosine ?I
Tan ;3
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41 0 &I.;& /
Result F$ F ):%*) N F) F ))%B@ N
E<ERCISE )%)
1. Reso"%e the !i%en forces as shown in fo""owin! dia!rams
into components 41 and 4&
i ii

$B C(
)BB N

F)
*BD
):D
*BD F
$
F$
iii i?

$:@ l3
F
)
$BB N F
)

*BD
)@D
F
$
*+D F
$
). A force of 633 / is e7erted on a bo"t A as shown in fi!.
#etermine the hori-onta" and %ertica" components of
force.
JBB N
Ans: @::%*) N M +:J%J$@N


*:D
5. A man pu"" with force of ;33 / on a rope attached to a
bui"din! as shown in fi!, what are the hori-onta" and
%ertica" components of the force e7erted by the rope at
point A
Ans: $JB N M *@%JAP
J "
5

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@ "



: :hi"e emptyin! a whee" barrow, a !ardener e7erts on
each hand"e AB a force ( directed a"on! "ine C#.
*nowin! that ( must ha%e a 1;I./ hori-onta"
component, determine 9a( the ma!nitude of the force (,
9b( its %ertica" component
E\RA$A P\BA$H/G H2\$E 9PJT.( AT#.
@ Member CB of the %ise shown e7erts on b"oc+ B a force
P directed a"on! "ine CB. *nowin! that P must ha%e a
&?3."b hori-onta" component, determine 9a( the
ma!nitude of the force P, 9b( its %ertica" component.
A. The !uy wire B# e7erts on the te"ephone po"e AC a force
P directed a"on! B#. *nowin! that P has a 5I3./
component a"on! "ine AC, determine 9a( the ma!nitude of
the force P, 9b( its component in a direction perpendicu"ar
to AC.
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J% The I3."b force is to be reso"%ed into components
a"on! "ines a.a< and b.b< +nowin! that the component
a"on! a.a< is ;I "b. :hat is the correspondin! %a"ue
L% The rin! shown in fi! is subjected to two forces 4
1
and 4
&
. if it is re'uired that the resu"tant forces ha%e a
ma!nitude of +/ and are directed %ertica""y downward.
#etermine the ma!nitude of 4
1
and 4
&
pro%ided that C 0
;3P

Ans: @:)%AB+ N M ++@%+A N

$B% A jet aircraft is bein! towed by two truc+s B and C.
#etermine the ma!nitude of two forces 4B and 4C. f
the force has a ma!nitude of 4
R
0 13 */ and it is
directed a"on! positi%e 7.a7is. $et C 0 1IP
Ans: :%@L* # N M +%:$) #N
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$$% A sta+e is pu""ed out of the !round by means of two
ropes as shown. *nowin! that the tension in one rope
is 1&3 /, determine by tri!onometry the ma!nitude
and direction of the force P so that the resu"tant is a
%ertica" force of 1?3 /.
$)B N (
Ans: A)%BL@ N M ++%AB*D

):D 4
$)% The boat is to be pu""ed onto the shore usin! two
ropes, determine the ma!nitude of two forces T and P
actin! in each rope in order to de%e"op a resu"tant
force of 63 "b in direction a"on! the +ee" as shown in
fi!. ta+e C 0 53P

Ans: +)%:@A l3 M :+%A)* l3
$*% A disab"ed automobi"e is pu""ed by means of two
ropes as shown. *nowin! that the tension in the rope
P is I33 "b, determine the tension in rope T and the
%a"ue of so that the resu"tant force e7erted is as 633 "b
force directed a"on! the a7is of the automobi"e

Ans: ++)%B)B N



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$:% Find the E and ! co"ponents of each force and
deter"ine the resultant and direction

i) ii)
iii) i?)
?

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$@% 4ind the resu"tant and direction of fo""owin! forces as
shown in dia!ram by reso"%in! method.
i ii
+ C( + C(
@B l3
$:BN +B l3

*BD

*BD
* #(
JB l3


iii i?
$:B l3
$+B N

+:D $BB N
@)D
)+BD
*BD
*BD
)*D


)BB N
$): l3
$JB l3

$*B l3
$A% *nowin! that = ;I, determine the resu"tant of the three
forces shown.

. ;3 .
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CHA(/ER * Mo"ent of a force
The tendency of a force to mo%e the body in the
direction of its app"ication a force can tend to rotate a body
about an a7is. This a7is may be any "ine which is neither
intersects nor para""e" to the "ine of the action of the force.
This rationa" tendency of force is +now as the moment of
force.
As a fami"iar e7amp"e of the concept of moment,
consider the pipe wrench as shown in fi!ure 9a(. 2ne effect of
the force app"ied perpendicu"ar to the hand"e of the wrench is
the tendency to rotate the pipe about its %ertica" a7is. The
ma!nitude of this tendency depends on both the ma!nitude of
the force and the effecti%e "en!th d of the wrench hand"e.
Common e7perience shown that a pu"" which is not
perpendicu"ar to the wrench hand"e is "ess effecti%e than the
ri!ht an!"e pu"". Mathematica""y this tendency of force
9moment( is ca"cu"ated by mu"tip"yin! force to the moment
arm 9d(
Mo"ent a3out a point
Consider fo""owin! body 9two dimensiona"( acted by
a force 4 in its p"ane. The ma!nitude of moment or tendency
of the force to rotate the body about the a7is 2U2
perpendicu"ar to the p"ane of the body is proportiona" both to
the ma!nitude of the force and to the moment arm d,
therefore ma!nitude of the moment is defined as the product
of force and moment arm.
Moment 0 4orce 7 moment arm
M F Fd
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:here d 0 moment arm and 4 0
ma!nitude of force
Moment arm is defined as the perpendicu"ar distance
between a7is of rotation and the "ine of action of force.


irection of "o"ent of a force
The direction Mo is specified usin! the Eri!ht.hand
ru"eF. To do this the fin!ers of the ri!ht hand are cur"ed such
that they fo""ow the sense of rotation, which wou"d occur if
the force cou"d rotate about point 2. The thumb then point
a"on! the moment a7is so that it !i%es the direction and sense
of the moment %ector, which is upward and perpendicu"ar to
the shaded p"ane containin! F and d.
C.OC# IISE AN AN/I C.OC# IISE MOMEN/S
The moment are c"assified as c"oc+wise and
antic"oc+wise moment accordin! to the direction in which the
force tends to rotate the body about a fi7ed point
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ClocC'ise Mo"ent
:hen the force tends to rotate the body in the same
direction in which the hands of c"oc+ mo%e is ca""ed
c"oc+wise moment the c"oc+wise moment is ta+en as positi%e
or other wise mentioned.
AnticlocC'ise Mo"ent
:hen the force tends to rotate the body in the
opposite direction in which the hands of c"oc+ mo%e is ca""ed
anti c"oc+wise moment which is ta+en as ne!ati%e or other
wise mentioned
&nit of "o"ent
$. unit is /.m. 9/ewton. meter(
4.P.$ unit is "b. ft 9Pound. foot(
G.G.$ unit is dyne.cm 9dyne. Centimeter( etc
EEa"ple $
eter"ine the "o"ent of the force a3out point
OOP for follo'in, dia,ra"%

$ 1i?en 4orce0133 /
Moment arm0&m
Re-uired Mo0X
IorCin, for"ula) . M204orce 7 Moment arm.
$o" putt the %a"ues in first w, f
Mo0 4 7 r 0 133 7 &
Mo0 &33/.m.
Resu"t) . Moment 0 &33/.m #irection 0
c"oc+ wise
)

Gi%en
4orce 0 53"b
Re'uired@ M3 0X
:.4, Mo 0 4 7 d.
$o"
By !eometry of fi!
Moment arm 0 5ft D &cos ;3P 0 I.>;ft
Put the %a"ue in :.4.
Mo 0 4 7 r
Mo 0 53 7 I.>;
Mo 0 &&=.&6&"b.ft
Resu"tant Moment 0 &&=.&6& "b.ft #irection 0
c"oc+ wise
EEa"ple)
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eter"ine the "o"ent of the force JBB N actin, on the
fra"e a3out points AQ BQ C and %

1i?en
4orce 0 4 0 633 /
Re-uired MA0X MBX MC0X M#0X
IorCin, for"ula
Moment 0force 7 moment arm.
$o" $o"%e this 'uestion step by step
/ow first consider the Point A.
MA 0 4 7 r
MA 0 633 7 91.ID1(
MA F )BBB N%" clocC 'iseUUUUUUU
/ow Moment about B

MB 0 4 7 r 0 6337 I
MB F $)BB N " c"oc+ wiseUUUUUUUU 9&(
4rom 91( and 9&( it is e%idence that when force remain
constant then moment %aries with moment arm that is
moment depends upon moment arm. $imi"ar"y it can be
pro%ed that moment about any point %aries with force when
moment arm remain same.
/ow consider point C
Moment 0 4orce 7 distance
Mc 0 633 7 3
Mc 0 3. UUUUUUU 9;(
As the "ine of action of force passes throu!h point C
that is point of app"ication it shows that the "ine of action
shou"d be perpendicu"ar to the point i.e. ECF
/ow consider the point #.
M# 0 4 7 r.
M# 0 633 7 3.I
M#0 533 /.m
Result
MA F)BBB N%" clocC 'ise Or
MA F H )BB N%"
MB F $)BB N%" clocC 'ise Or
MB F H $)BB N%"
MC F O%
Mc F O
M F% +BB N%" anti clocC 'ise
M F ; +BBN%"
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Note: ; The positi%e si!n shows that the moment is c"oc+
wise direction and it is a"so pro%ed that moment defends
upon fo""owin! two factors.
1. The ma!nitude of the force
&. The perpendicu"ar distance from the "ine of action of
the force to the fi7ed point or "ine of the body about
which it rotates.
(RINCI(.E OF MOMEN// 7ARI1NON=S /HEOREM
t is stated that the moment of a force about a point is
e'ua" to the sum of the moments of the force components
about the point. 2r the moment produce by the resu"tant force
is e'ua" to the moment produce by the force components.
Mathematica""y M
4o
0 ] M
o
Moment produce by the force 4 about any point 2 0
Moment produce due to force components. Aet us consider a
force 4 actin! at a point A and this force create the moment
about point 2 which is r distance away from point A as
shown in fi! 9a(
F
F
$
A F
)
A
r
r
O O
fi, 0a) fi, 03)
The moment produce due to 4orce 4 is !i%en by
M
4o
0 4 7 rUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
/ow reso"%e the force into its components 41 and 4& in such a
way that
4 0 4
1
D 4
&
as shown in fi! 9b(
The moment produce by these components about 2 is !i%en
by
] M
o
0 3
] M
o
0 moment produce due to force 41 D moment produce
due to force component 4&
] M
o
0 4
1
7 r D 4
&
7 r 0 94
1
D 4
&
( r
Put 4 0 41 D 4& in the abo%e formu"a
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] M
o
0 4 7 r UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
By comparin! the e'uation 1 and by e'uation &
M
4o
0] M
o
The abo%e e'uation shows that moment produce by the 4orce
9resu"tant( is e'ua" to the moment produce by components 4
1
and 4
&
.
Note the abo%e e'uation is important app"ication to so"ution
of prob"ems and proofs of theorems. $uch it is often easier to
determine the moments of a force<s components rather than
the moment of the force.
E<AM(.E *
A &33 / force acts on the brac+et as shown determine the
moment of force about EAF

1i?en 40&33/ C 0 5IP
Re-uired M
A
0X
Solution Reso"%e the force into components 41 am 4&
410 4 cos C 410&33 cosine 5IP
F$F$+$%+)N%
4&0 4 sin C 4& 0 &33 sin 5IP
F)F )%+@JN%
:e +now that MA 0 3
M
A
0 moment produce due to component 41D moment
produce due to component 4&.
M
A
04
1
7 r
1
D 4
&

7 r
&
.
Aet us consider that c"oc+ wise moment is D %e.

M
A
0 4
1
7 r
1
D 4
&

7 r
&
M
A
0 . 151.5& 7 3.1 D &.5?6 7 93.1 D3.1(
MA 0 . 1;.?56 /
MA 0 1; .?56 / anti c"oc+ wise.
E<AM(.E )%+
#etermine the moment of each of three forces about B
on the beam.
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F$F +BB l3 F)F ):B l3
F*F :BB l3

*AD%
*BD%
+ft +ft +ft +ft

1i?en
4
1
0 533"b 4
&
0 &I3 "b 4
;
0 I33"b
r
1
0 5 4t r
&
0 5 4t r
;
0 5 4t r
5
0 5 4t
Re-uired Moment about B 0 M
B
0X
Solution
Moment due to force 41 about B)
Consider c"oc+wise moment is positi%e
M
B
0 533 7 95D5D5(
M
B
F +JQ BB l3 %ft
Moment due to %ertica" component of 4&
M
B
0 4& sin C 7 r
M
B
0 &I3 $in ;> 7 5
M
B
F @B$%J$:l3 ft clocC 'ise
Moment due to %ertica" component of 4;
M
B
0 4; sin C 7 R
M
B
0 I33 7 $in ;37 5
M
B
F @B$%J$:l3 clocC 'ise
Result M
B
F +JQ BB l3 %ft @B$%J$:l3Q @B$%J$:l3
E<ERCISE
$% 4ind the moment of the force about E2F as shown in
dia!ram
i ii

Ans : *A%: N " clocC'ise Ans : +)%+)@
clocC'ise
iii
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Ans: )$ CN "
)% 4ind the moment of each force about A as shown in
the fo""owin! force system.
i ii
)B l3
$B ton

: ton
)B ft

@B
R *BR
A B A
B
*BR $Bft
$B l3 : l3 :B ft
:B ft
$B ft
J ton
Ans: *BB l3 ft anti clocC'ise Ans:
)*@%@B* ton ft anti clocC 'ise

*. #etermine the resu"tant moment of four forces actin! on
the rod about E2F as shown is dia!ram.
Ans: ***%L) N " clocC 'ise
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+% The 4orce 4 acts at the end of an!"e brac+et shown
determine the moment of forces about E2F
Ans : LJ%:@ clocC'ise

:% A force of 53/ is app"ied to the wrench. #eterment the
moment of this force about point E2P
Ans: A%$BA clocC'ise
@% The wrench is used to "oosen the bo"t. #etermine the
moment of each force about the bo"t<s a7is passin!
throu!h point 2. 0Ans: )+%$ N;"Q $+%:
N;")
A% #etermine the moment of each of the three forces about
point A. $o"%e the prob"em first by usin! each force as a
who"e, and then by usin! the princip"e of moments.
Ans) 5;; /.
m, 1.;3 +/.m, 633 /.
m(
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J% #etermine the moment about point A of each of the three
forces
Ans) ?33
/.m, 1.1& */.m, I16
/.m
=. The tow"ine e7erts a force of P 0 5 +/ at the end of the &3
m "on! crane boom. f C 0 ;3P, determine the
disp"acement 7 of the hoo+ at A so that the force creates a
ma7imum moment about point 2. :hat is this momentX
0Ans: )+%B "Q JB CN;")
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$B% The too" at A is used to ho"d a power "awnmower b"ade
stationary whi"e the nut is bein! "oosened with the
wrench. f a force of I3 / is app"ied to the wrench at B in
the direction shown, determine the moment it creates
about the nut at C. :hat is the ma!nitude of force 4 at A
so that it creates the opposite moment about CX
0
A
n
s:
$
*%
BQ
N
;
"
Q
*
:%
)Q
N
;
"
)
$$% #etermine the direction C^ 93 _^ C ^ _^ 163[( of the force 4 so
that it produces 9a( the ma7imum moment about point A and
9b( the minimum moment about point A. Compute the
moment in each case. 0Ans: :@%*NQ
$+@NQ $++) N;"Q B N;")
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$)% Ca"cu"ate the ma!nitude of moment about base point 2
by fi%e different ways
$*% A force 4 of ma!nitude 533 / is app"ied. #etermine the
ma!nitude of moment about point 2
Ans: :%@+ N; "
$+% A pry bar is used to remo%e nai" as shown. #etermine the
moment of the force ?3 "b about point 2 of contact between
the pry and the sma"" support b"oc+.

Ans:
AB
l3;ft
CI
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$:% Ca"cu"ate the moment of force &I3 / on the hand"e of
mon+ey wrench about the centre of bo"t
$@% Compute the moment of the force 3.5 "b about the pi%ot 2
of the wa"" switch to!!"e
$A% The ;3 / force P is app"ied perpendicu"ar to the portion
BC of the bent bar. #etermine the moment of P about
point A and B.
$J% A force of &33 / is app"ied to the end of the wrench to
ti!hten a f"an!e bo"d which ho"ds the whee" to the a7"e.
#etermine the moment M produced by this force about
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the center 2 of the whee" for the poison of the wrench
shown Ans: AJ%* N;" CI
$L% The 1&3 / forces is app"ied as shown to one end of
the cur%ed wrench. f H 0 ;3[, ca"cu"ate the moment of 4
about the center 2 of the bo"t. #etermine the %a"ue of H
which wou"d ma7imi-e the moment about 2 state the
%a"ue of this ma7imum moment
Ans: +$%: NF
" CI *)%)N +$%@ N;" CI
)B% t is +nown that a %ertica" force of 633 / is re'uired to
remo%e the /ai" at C form the board. As the nai" first
starts mo%in! determine 9a( the moment about B of the
force e7erted on the nai" 9b( the ma!nitude of the force P
which creates the same moment about B if H 0 13[ 9c( the
sma""est force which creates the same moment about B
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)B% A si!n is suspended from two chains AE and A4.
*nowin! that the tension in B4 is 5I "b, determine 9a( the
moment about A of the force e7ert by the chain at B 9b(
the sma""est d force app"ied AT C which creates the same
moment about A
(ARA..E. FORCES
:hen the "ines of action of 4orces are para""e" to each
other are ca""ed para""e" forces the para""e" forces ne%er meet
to each other. There are two types of para""e" forces as
discussed as under
$% .iCe parallel forces
:hen two para""e" forces acin! in such away that their
directions remain same are ca""ed "i+e para""e" forces


)% &n liCe parallel forces
:hen two para""e" forces acin! in such away that their
directions are opposite to each other ca""ed "i+e para""e"
forces
.
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CO&(.E
:hen two para""e" forces that ha%e the same ma!nitude
but opposite direction is +nown as coup"e. The coup"e is
separated by perpendicu"ar distance. As matter of fact a coup"e is
unab"e to produce any strai!ht."ine motion but it produces
rotation in the body on which it acts. $o coup"e can be defined as
un"i+e para""e" forces of same ma!nitude but opposite direction
which produce rotation about a specific direction and whose
resu"tant is -ero
.
A((.ICA/ION OF CO&(.E
1. To open or c"ose the %a"%es or bott"e head, tap etc
&. To wind up a c"oc+.
;. To Mo%e the padd"es of a bicyc"e
5. Turnin! a +ey in "oc+ for open and c"osin!.
Couple Ar"
The perpendicu"ar distance between the "ines of action of
the two and opposite para""e" forces is +nown as arm of the
coup"e.
Mo"ent of couple or couple "o"ent
The moment of the coup"e is the product of the force 9one
of the force of the two e'ua" and opposite para""e" forces( and the
arm of the coup"e. Mathematica""y
Moment of coup"e 0 force 7 arm of coup"e
Moment of coup"e 0 4 7 r
Aet us find the resu"tant moment of coup"e about a point 2 on the
coup"e arm AB as shown in fi!
F ;F
r
r
$
r
)

A O B
Moment about 2
]M 0 Moment about 2 due to 4 D moment about
2 due to G4
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]M 0 .4 7 r
1
D 9. 4 7 r
&
(
]M 0 .4 7 r
1
G 4 7 r
&
]M 0 . 4 9r
1
D r
&
(
]M 0 4 9r
1
D r
&
( 1
4rom dia!ram r 0 r
1
D r
&
put in e'uation 1
]M 0 4 7 r
$o the moment produce by the two un"i+e para""e" forces is e'ua"
to moment produce by one of the force of the two e'ua" and
opposite para""e" forces.
Therefore
The moment of coup"e 0 force 7 coup"e arm.
irection of couple
The direction and sense of a coup"e moment is
determined usin! the ri!ht hand ru"e, where the thumb
indicates the direction when the fin!ers are cur"ed with the
sense of rotation caused by the two forces.
C.ASSIFICA/ION OF CO&(.E
The coup"et are c"assified as c"oc+wise coup"e and
antic"oc+wise coup"e
$% ClocC'ise couple
A coup"e whose tendency is to rotate the body in a
c"oc+wise direction is +nown as c"oc+wise coup"e
)% AnticlocC'ise couple
A coup"e whose tendency is to rotate the body in
antic"oc+wise direction is +nown as antic"oc+wise coup"e

E<AM(.E J
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eter"ine the "o"ent of couple actin, on the
"o"ent sho'n
)
BB N
+" )"

)BB N
1i?en
410&33 / A105m 4&0&33 / A& 0 &m.
Re-uired Moment of coup"e 0 M 0X
IorCin, For"ula M 0 4 7 r.
Solution
Put the %a"ues in wor+in! formu"a
M0 &3395D&(
MF$)BB N% "
Result MF $)BB N% "
E<AM(.E L
eter"ine the "o"ent of couple actin, on the
"o"ent sho'n%


1i?en 4104& 0=3"b 4; 0 45 0 1&3"b.
Re-uired Moment of coup"e 0 M0X
Solution The moment of coup"e can be determined at any point
for e7amp"e at A, B or #.
Aet us ta+e the moment about point B
MB 0 ] 4 R.
MB 0 .4
1
7 r
1
G 4
&
7 r
&
.
MB 0 . =39;( G 1&3 91(
MB 0 . ;=3 "b ft
Result MB F MAFM F*LB l3 %ft counter clocC
'ise%
Mo"ent of couple F *LB l3%ft count cloche
'ise
BEAM A beam is a "on! strai!ht bar ha%in! a constant cross.
sectiona" area. Beams are c"assified as
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1 Canti"e%er beam & $imp"y
supported beam
; 2%er han!in! beam 5 Ri!ht"y
fi7ed or bui"t in beam
I Continuous beam.
$% Cantile?er 3ea"
A beam, which is fi7ed at one and free at the other end, is
ca""ed canti"e%er beam. As shown in fi!
)% Si"pl! supported 3ea"
A beam which is pinned 9pi%oted( at one end and ro""er
support at other end is ca""ed simp"y supported beam. As shown
in fi!
.OA
The e7terna" app"ied force is ca""ed "oad. Aoad is in the
form of the force or the wei!ht of artic"es on the body is ca""ed
"oad.
$% Concentrated or (oint load
A "oad, which is app"ied throu!h a +nife.ed!e, is ca""ed
point or concentrated "oad.
;3 /
)% &nifor"l! distri3uted load
A "oad which is e%en"y distributed o%er a part or the
entire "en!th of beam is ca""ed uniform"y distributed "oad or \
#.A
*% &nifor"l! ?ar!in, load
The "oad whose intensity %aries "inea""y a"on! the "en!th of beam
o%er which it is app"ied is ca""ed uniform"y %aryin! "oad.
Note
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Any beam may be point, uniform"y distributed and
uniform"y %aryin! "oad
E<AM(.E $B 4ind the reaction of the shaft at point shown%

1i?en $pan 0 A 0 6m 7 0 &m, y 0 &m, K
0 &m
41 0 & */ 4& 0 ; */ 4;0 & */.

Re-uired $hear force and moment dia!ram
Solution Ta+e moment about EAF a"so consider the upward force
and c"oc+ wise moment is positi%e
]MA 0 3
RE 9A( G 4; 97 D y D -( G 4& 97 D y( G 41 97( D RA
93( 0 3.
RE 96( . & 9?( G ; 95( G & 9&( D 3 0 3
RE 0 ;.I */
/ow for RA we can ca"cu"ate by
]4 0 3
RA . 41 . 4& . 4; D RE 0 3
RA . & . ; . & D ;.I 0 3

E<AM(.E )%$$
Find reaction at A and C for shaft sho'n% /he
support at A is a thrust 3earin, and support C is a
Sournal 3earin,% Also dra' shear force 3endin, "o"ent
dia,ra"%



1i?en $pan 0 A 0 5m. Aoad 0 P 0 I +/.
Re-uired RA 0X RC 0X
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Solution Ta+e moment about EAF a"so considers upward
force and c"oc+wise moment is positi%e.
]MA 0 3
Rc 9A( G P 97( D RA 93( 0 3.
Rc 95( G I 9&( 0 3
Rc F )%: C N
To ca"cu"ate the reaction at point A
]4 0 3
RA . PD Rc 0 3
RA G I D &.I 0 3 RA F )%: C N
E<AM(.E )
Find the reaction of a si"pl! supported
3ea" @" lon, is carr!in, a unifor"l! distri3uted load of
:CN/" o?er a len,th of *" fro" the ri,ht hand%
1i?en
P 0 I + / 1m A 0 ? m O 0 ;m, K 0 ;m.
Re-uired Reaction at A Y B 0 RA Y RB 0X
Solution first of a"" we wi"" chan!e the uniform"y distributed
"oad into the point "oad
0 I 7 ;0 1I +/
Ta+e moment about A a"so consider that the upward force or "oad and
c"oc+wise moment is positi%e.
]MA 0 3
Rc 9A( G P 9y D -1&( D RA 93( 0 3
RB 9?( G 91I( 9; D 1.I( D RA 93( 0 3
RB F $$% ): CN
To ca"cu"ate the reaction at point A
]4 0 3
RA . PD RB 0 3
RA .1I . 11.&I
RA F *%A:%CN
E7ercise &
@% 4ind the moment of coup"e shown what must the force of a
coup"e ba"ancin! this coup"e ha%in! arm of "en!th of ?ft.
Ans: *@ l3 ftQ @ l3

A% The tires of a truc+ e7ert the forces shown on the dec+ of
the brid!e rep"ace this system of forces by an e'ui%a"ent
resu"tant force and specify its measured form point A.

Ans: $)%$ CipQ $B%B+ ft
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J% The system of para""e" forces acts on the top of the
:arne truss. #etermine the e'ui%a"ent resu"tant force of the
system and "ocation measured from point A

Ans: +%: CNQ )%)) "
L% A man and a boy carry a mass of &3 +! b1w them by
means of a uniform po"e 1.>m "on! and mass of =+!. :here
the wei!ht must p"aced so that the man may carry twice as
mush of wei!ht as that boy.
Ans: $$$%$J NQ %B+@+@ "
$B% Two un"i+e para""e" forces of ma!nitude 533 / and 133
/ actin! in such a way that their "ines of action are 1I3 mm
apart. #etermine the ma!nitude of the resu"tant force and
the point at which it acts.

Ans: *BB N M :B ""
$$% 4ind reaction at point A and B for the beam shown set P0
?33"b a 0 Ift b 0 >ft.

$)% 4ind the reaction at the points for the beam as shown

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$* 4ind the reaction at the points as shown in dia!ram
$+ 4ind the reaction at the points as shown in dia!ram

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CHA(/ER * E8&I.IBRI&M OF (AR/IC.E
AN BO9
E-uili3riu" of a (article
:hen the resu"tant of a"" forces actin! on a partic"e is
-ero, the partic"e is said to be in e'ui"ibrium.
A partic"e which is acted aupon two forces
Ne'ton=s First .a')
f the resu"tant force on a partic"e is -ero, the partic"e
wi"" remain at rest or wi"" continue at constant speed in a
strai!ht "ine.
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EEercise
$% #etermine the ma!nitude of 4
1
and 4
&
so that the partia" is
in e'ui"ibrium

$)% #etermine the ma!nitude and direction of 4
1
and 4
&
so
that the partia" is in e'ui"ibrium
Ans:
+)%:@A l3 M
:+%A)* l3

$*% #etermine the ma7imum wei!ht of the en!ine that can be
supported without e7ceedin! a tension of 5I3 "b in chain AC
and 563 "b in chain AC.

Ans: )+B l3s
. II .
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E8&I.IBRI&M
A partic"e is in e'ui"ibrium if it is at rest if ori!ina""y at
rest or has a constant %e"ocity if ori!ina""y in motion. The
term e'ui"ibrium or static e'ui"ibrium is used to describe an
object at rest. To maintain e'ui"ibrium it is necessary to
satisfy /ewton<s first "aw of motion, which re'uires the
resu"tant force actin! on partic"e to be e'ua" to -ero. That is
TF F B A
:here ]4 0 $um of a"" the forces actin! on the partic"e
which is necessary condition for e'ui"ibrium. This fo""ows
from /ewton<s second "aw of motion, which can be written
as
]4 0 ma.
Put in e'uation A ma 0 3
Therefore the partic"e acce"eration a 0 3. Conse'uent"y the
partic"e indeed mo%es with constant %e"ocity or at rest.
ME/HOS FOR /HE E8&I.IBRI&M OF FORCES
There are many methods of findin! the e'ui"ibrium but the
fo""owin! are important
1. Ana"ytica" Method &. Graphica" Method
$% Anal!tical "ethod for the e-uili3riu" of forces
The e'ui"ibrium of forces may be studied ana"ytica""y
by Aami<s theorem as discussed under
.AMI=S /HEOREM
t states, Ef there are three forces actin! at a point be
in e'ui"ibrium then each force is proportiona" to the sine of
the an!"e between the other two forcesF.
Aet three force 4
1
, 4
&
and 4
;
actin! at a point and the
opposite an!"es to three forces are M , L, and H as shown in
fi!ure

F
)


F
$


Mathematica""y
4
4
1
0 4
&
0 4
;
5 6
$in L $in M $in H

F
*
E<AM(.E A
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eter"ine the tension in ca3les AB and A for
e-uili3riu" of the ):B C, en,ine as sho'n%
/
AB

*BD
/
A


I

1i?en Mass of En!ine 0 &I3 *!. An!"e 0 C
0 ;3P
Re-uired) Tension in the cab"e 0 TAB 0X T
A#
0X
IorCin, For"ulas T
A#
0 T
AB
0
:
$in H $in L
$in M
Solution
:e +now that : 0 m!.
: 0 &I3 7 =.61 0 &5I&.I / 0 &5I&.I11333
: 0 &.5I; */
4rom the !eometry of dia!ram we ha%e
H 0 =3 D ;3 0 1&3P
L 0 =3P
M 0 163 G ;3 0 1I3P
Put the %a"ues in the wor+in! formu"a
T
A#
0 T
AB
0
:
$in 1&3 $in =3
$in 1I3
Therefore T
A#
0 5.&5= */
$imi"ar"y T
AB
0 5.=3? */
Result: /
A
F +%)+L #N
/
AB
F +%L$ #N
. I6 .
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Alternate "ethod The same 'uestion may be so"%ed by
reso"%in! method
IorCin, For"ulas ] 4 0 3
Solution
:e +now that : 0 m!.
: 0 &I3 7 =.61 0 &5I&.I / 0 &5I&.I11333
: 0 &.5I; */
/ow reso"%e force TAB, TA# and : as shown in fo""owin!
dia!ram
/AB
*BD
/A

`
Force Ma,nitude
/
An,le
2P
HoriUontal
Co"ponents
FE F F Cosine 2
7ertical Co"ponents
F! F F Sine 2
1
TAB
. ;3
TAB Cosine ;3 0 .6??
TAB
TAB $ine ;3 0 3.I
TAB
&
TA#
. 3
TA# Cosine 3 0
TA#
TA# $ine 3 0 3
; : &5I&.I =3 &5I&.I Cosine =3
3
&5I&.I $ine =3 0
&5I&.I
:e +now that
D ]47 0 3
.6?? TAB G TA# G 3 0 3 A
D ] 4y 0 3
3.I TAB D 3 G &.5I&I 0 3 B
4rom E'uation A
TAB 0 T A# C
3.6??
Put in e'uation B
.I 9T A# ( D 3 . &.5I&I 0 3
3.6??
/A F +%)+J #N
Put in e'uation C
TAB 0 5.&56
3.6??
/AB F +%L$ #N
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Resu"t) TA# 0 5.&56 */ TAB 0 5.=1 */
. ?3 .
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CHA(/ER * FRIC/ION
A force which pre%ents the motion or mo%ement of
the body is ca""ed friction or force of friction and its direction
is opposite to the app"ied e7terna" force or motion of the
body. 4riction is a force of resistance actin! on a body which
pre%ents or retards motion of the body. 2r
:hen a body s"ides upon another body, the property due
to which the motion of one re"ati%e to the other is retarded is
ca""ed friction. This force a"ways acts tan!ent to the surface
at points of contact with other body and is directed opposite
to the motion of the body.
EEplanation
Consider a b"oc+ restin! on, a hori-onta" p"ane surface.
Attach a strin! to one side of the b"oc+ as shown in 4i!.
The other end of the
strin! is connected to the sprin! ba"ance. App"y an e7terna"
force on the ba"ance. Gradua""y increase the ma!nitude of the
e7terna" force. nitia""y the body wi"" not mo%e and the effect
of the app"ied force is nu""ified. This is because there acts a
force on the b"oc+ which opposes the motion or mo%ement of
the b"oc+. The nature of this opposin! force is ca""ed friction.
t depends upon many factors. The major cause of friction is
the microscopic rou!hness of the contact surfaces. /o
surface is perfect"y smooth. E%ery surface is composed of
crests and fa""s as shown in fi! b. t is the inter"oc+in!
of the crests of one surface into the fa""s of the other surface
which produces the resistance a!ainst the mo%ement of one
body o%er the other body. :hen the force e7erted is
sufficient to o%ercome the friction, the mo%ement ensures and
the crests are bein! sheared off. This !i%es rise to heat and
raises the "oca" temperature. This is a"so the reason of the
wear of the contact surfaces. This phenomenon of friction
necessitates the presence o f"uid fi"m between the two
surfaces to a%oid wear of surfaces. The process of creatin!
the f"uid fi"m is ca""ed "ubrication.
/9(ES OF FRIC/ION
4riction is of the fo""owin! two types.
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$% Static Friction
t is the friction actin! on the body when the body is
at the state of rest or the friction ca""ed into p"ay before the
body tends to mo%e on the surface is ca""ed static friction.
The ma!nitude of the static friction is e'ua" to the app"ied
force. t %aries from -ero to ma7imum unti" the mo%ement
ensures.
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)% !na"ic Friction
t is the friction actin! on the body when body is in
motion is ca""ed dynamic friction. #ynamic friction is a"so
+nown as +inetic friction. The ma!nitude of the dynamic
friction is constant.
The dynamic friction has two types
i. $"idin! 4riction ii. Ro""in! 4riction
i% Slidin, friction
The s"idin! friction acts on those bodies, which s"ide
o%er each other for e7amp"e the friction between piston, and
cy"inder wi"" s"ide friction because the motion of the motion
of the piston in cy"inder is s"idin! and there is surface contact
between piston and cy"inder.
ii% Rollin, Friction
The ro""in! friction acts on those bodies which ha%e
point contact with each other for e7amp"e the motion of the
whee" on the rai"way trac+ is the e7amp"e of ro""in! motion
and the friction between the whee" and rai"way trac+ is
ro""in! friction. t is e7perimenta""y found that the ma!nitude
of the s"idin! friction is more than the ro""in! friction because
in the ro""in! friction there is a point contact rather than
surface contact.
.IMI/IN1 FRIC/ION
The ma7imum friction 9before the mo%ement of body(
which can be produced by the surfaces in contact is +nown as
"imitin! friction
t is e7perimenta""y found that friction direct"y %aries
as the app"ied force unti" the mo%ement produces in the body.
Aet us try to s"ide a body of wei!ht w o%er another body by a
force P as shown in fi!
Motion of the body


F (


Pan
A "itt"e consideration wi"" show that the body wi"" not
mo%e because the friction 4 which pre%ents the motion. t
shows that the app"ied force P is e7act"y ba"anced by the
force of friction actin! in the opposite direction of app"ied
force P. if we increase the force P by increasin! the wei!ht in
the pan, the friction 4 wi"" adjust itse"f accordin! to app"ied
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force P and the body wi"" not mo%e. Thus the force of friction
has a property of adjustin! its ma!nitude to become e7act"y
e'ua" and opposite to the app"ied force which tends to
produce the motion.
There is howe%er a "imit beyond which the friction
cannot increase. f the app"ied force increases this "imit the
force of friction cannot ba"ance app"ied force and body
be!ins to mo%e in the direction of app"ied force. This
ma7imum %a"ue of friction, which acts on body just be!in to
mo%e, is +nown as "imitin! friction. t may be noted that
when the app"ied force is "ess than the "imitin! friction the
body remains at rest, and the friction is ca""ed static friction,
which may ha%e any %a"ues -ero to "imitin! friction.
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NORMA. REAC/ION
Aet us consider a body A of wei!ht E:F rest o%er
another surface B and a force P actin! on the body to s"ide
the body on the surface B as shown in fi!
R
Bod! A (
Surface B
F
I F ",
A "itt"e concentration wi"" show that the body A
presses the surface B downward e'ua" to wei!ht of the body
and in reaction surface B "ift the body in upward direction of
the same ma!nitude but in opposite direction therefore the
body in e'ui"ibrium this upward reaction is termed as norma"
reaction and it is denoted by R or /.
Note
t is noted the wei!ht : is not a"ways perpendicu"ar
to the surface of contact and hence norma" reaction R is not
e'ua" to the wei!ht : of body in such a case the norma"
reaction is e'ua" to the component of wei!ht perpendicu"ar to
surface.

CO EFFICIEN/ OF FRIC/ION
The ratio of "imitin! friction and norma" reaction is
ca""ed coefficient of friction and is denoted by a.
Aet R 0 norma" reaction
And 4 0 force of friction 9"imitin! friction(
a 0 Co efficient of friction
4 0 a
R
F F V R
AN1.E OF FRIC/ION
The an!"e of a p"ane at which body just be!ins to s"ide
down the p"ane is ca""ed an!"e of frication. Consider a body
restin! on an inc"ined p"ane as shown in dia!ram.
R
F

'
2
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The body is in e'ui"ibrium under the Acton of the fo""owin!
forces
1. :ei!ht of the body actin! %ertica""y downwards 0 w
&. 4riction force actin! a"on! upwards 0 4
;. /orma" reaction actin! at ri!ht an!"e to the p"ane 0R
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Aet the an!"e of inc"ination be !radua""y increased ti"" the
body just starts s"idin! down the p"ane. This an!"e of inc"ined
p"ane at which a body just be!ins to s"ide down the p"ane is
ca""ed the an!"e of friction. And it is e'ua" to the an!"e between
norma" reaction R and the resu"tant between frictiona" force 4
and norma" reaction R
'


F
2 F
R
R
4rom dia!ram
Tan C 0 4 1 R
But 4 1 R 0 a
:here a is the co.efficient of friction,
Tan H 0 a
.AIS OF FRIC/ION
These "aws are "isted be"ow)
$% .a's of Static Friction
$ The force of friction a"ways acts in a direction
opposite to that in which the body tends to mo%e.
) The ma!nitude of force of static friction is just
sufficient to pre%ent a body from mo%in! and it is e'ua" to
the app"ied force.
*% The force of static friction does not depend upon,
shape, area, %o"ume, si-e etc. as "on! as norma" reaction
remains the same.
+% The "imitin! force of friction bears a constant ratio
to norma" reaction and this constant ratio is ca""ed coefficient
of static friction.
)% .a's of !na"ic Friction

$ :hen a body is mo%in! with certain %e"ocity, it is
opposed by a force ca""ed force of dynamic friction.
) The force of dynamic friction comes into p"ay
durin! the motion of the body and as soon as the body stops,
the force of friction disappears.
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* The force of dynamic friction is independent of
area, %o"ume, shape, si-e etc. of the body so "on! the norma"
reaction remains the same.
Howe%er, to some e7tent it %aries with the ma!nitude of
%e"ocity of the body. 4orce of dynamic friction is hi!h for
"ow speeds and "ow for %ery hi!h speeds.
+ The ratio of force of dynamic friction and norma"
reaction on the body is ca""ed coefficient of dynamic friction.
E8&I.IBRI&M OF A BO9 ON A RO&1H
HORI>ON/A. (.ANE
:e +now that a body "yin! on a rou!h hori-onta"
p"ane wi"" remain in e'ui"ibrium but when e%er a force is
app"ied on the body it wi"" tend to mo%e in the direction of
force. Consider a body mo%in! on a hori-onta" P"ane under
the inf"uence of force P which is inc"ined at an an!"e C to the
surface. As shown in fi!
R (

2

F

'
:here
w 0 wei!ht of the body
P 0 app"ied force
H 0 An!"e of Repose
4 0 friction
C 0 an!"e of inc"ination of the p"ane the
hori-onta"
Reso"%e the app"ied force P into its component that is
Hori-onta" component 0 P Cos C Jertica"
component 0 P $in C
/ow consider the hori-onta" Y %ertica" e'ui"ibrium condition
of the body then
4 0 P Cos C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
And w 0 R D P $in C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
The %a"ue of P can be determined by fo""owin! formu"a
( F ' Sin 4%
Cos 02 K 4)
4or minimum force P
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( F I Sin 4
MO/ION OF BO9 ON INC.INE (.ANE IN
&(IAR IREC/ION
Aet
: 0 wei!ht of the body P 0 app"ied
force
H 0 An!"e of Repose C 0 an!"e of inc"ination
of the p"ane the hori-onta"
/ow consider the fo""owin! two cases
Case $) Ihen an,le of inclination of the force to plane is 5
R (

5


' Sine 2 2 ' Cos 2
F '
2
Consider the forces actin! on body which are para""e" to the
p"ane a"so consider the e'ui"ibrium of body
P cosine L 0 w sin C D 4
P cosine L 0 w sin C D aR
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
$imi"ar"y the forces actin! on body norma" to the p"ane and
consider the e'ui"ibrium condition
R D P sin L 0 w cosine C
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU&
The ma!nitude of the force P can be ca"cu"ated by the
fo""owin! formu"a

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( F I Sin 02 H 4)
Cosine 05 K 4)
Case )) Ihen the force is parallel to the plane
R
(



' Sine 2 ' Cos 2
F
2 '
By considerin! the e'ui"ibrium of the forces para""e" and
norma" to the p"ane we ha%e
P 0 w $ine C D 4
P 0 w $ine C D aRUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
And R 0 w Cosine C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
The force P can be ca"cu"ated by the fo""owin! formu"a
( F %I Sin 02 H 4)
Cos 4
Motion of 3od! on Inclined plane in do'n'ard direction
Aet
: 0 wei!ht of the body P 0 app"ied
force
C 0 an!"e of inc"ination of the p"ane the
hori-onta"
H 0 An!"e of Repose L 0 an!"e of force P
/ow consider the fo""owin! two cases
Case $ Ihen an,le of inclination of the force to plane is 5
(
R
5

F

' Sine 2 2 ' Cos 2
2 '
/ow consider the forces actin! para""e" to the p"ane a"so the
e'ui"ibrium of forces
P cosine L D 4 0 w sin C
P cosine L DaR 0 w sin C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
$imi"ar"y consider the force norma" to the p"ane
R D P sin L 0 w cos C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
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The ma!nitude of the force P can be ca"cu"ated by the
fo""owin! formu"a
( F %I Sin 02 ; 4)
Cos 05 K 4)
Case ) 'hen the force is parallel to the plane

R (


F

2 ' Cos 2
' Sine 2
2 '
4rom dia!ram we ha%e
P D 4 0 w $ine C
P D aR 0 w $ine C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 1
$imi"ar"y R 0 w Cos C UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU &
The force P can be ca"cu"ated by fo""owin! formu"a
( F %I Sin 02 ; 4)
Cos 4
. >1 .
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E8&I.IBRI&M OF .AER
A "adder is a de%ice which is used to c"imb up or down
to the roof or wa""s. t consists of two "on! upri!hts and number
of run!s which ma+es the steps of the "adder.
Consider a "adder which is restin! on !round and "eanin!
a!ainst wa""s as shown in the fi!. Aet
A 0 Aen!th of "adder
w
1
0 :ei!ht of "adder acts at midd"e of the "adder
w
&
0 :ei!ht of man c"imbin! up acts at the distance 7
from the "ower end
b
f

0 co efficient of friction between f"oor and "adder

b
w

0 co efficient of friction between "adder and wa""
Aet us suppose "adder s"ips down wards
4
f

0 friction produce between f"oor and "adder towards
wa"" as "adder mo%es away from the wa"".
4
w
0 friction produce between wa"" and "adder upwards
as "adder mo%es down 'ards
F
'
B R
'
.
)
'
)
'
$

A 2 C
F
f
.
+
.
*


.
$
4or the sa+e of con%ince we consider that the friction at
B is -ero i.e. the wa"" is perfect"y smooth. /ow ta+e the
moment about B.
R
f
7 A
1
0 4
f
7 A
&
D w
&
7 A
;
D w
1
7 A
5
:here 4
f
0 b
f
7 R
f

R
f
E .
$
F 0W
f
E R
f
E .
)
) H '
)
E .
*
H '
$
E .
+
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU
A
$imi"ar"y consider the friction at A is -ero i.e. the f"oor is
perfect"y smooth as shown in fi!ure%
F
'
B R
'
.
)


'
)
'
$
A 2 C
.
+
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.
*

.
$

Therefore R
w
7 A
&
0 4
w
7 A
1
D w
1
7 A
;
D w
&
7 A
5
:here 4
w
0 b
w
7 R
w

R
'
E .
)
F 0W
'
E R
'
E .
$
) H '
$
E .
*
H '
)
E .
+
UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU
A
. >; .
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E<AM(.E $
A horse e7erts a pu"" of ; */ just to mo%e a carria!e
ha%in! a mass of 633 +!. #etermine the co efficient of friction
between the whee" and the !round
Ta+e ! 0 13 m1secT
1i?en P 0 ; */ Mass 0 m 0 633 *! ! 0 13 m1secT
Re-uired co efficient of friction 0 a 0X
IorCin, for"ula F F V R
Solution we +now that : 0 m!
: 0 633 7 13 0 6333 /
A "itt"e consideration wi"" show that the wei!ht of the
carria!e is e'ua" to the norma" reaction because that the body
is hori-onta" to the p"ane as shown in fi!
Therefore : 0 R and P 0 4
R
Put the %a"ues in wor+in! formu"a we !et
;33 0 a 6333
a 0 3;>I
(
Result co efficient of friction F B%*A:

F
' F ",
E<AM(.E )
A pu"" of 5=3 / inc"ined at ;3P to the hori-onta" is
necessary to mo%e a b"oc+ of wood on a hori-onta" tab"e. f
the coefficient of friction between to bodies in contact is 3.&
what is the mass of the b"oc+
1i?en P 0 5=3 / C 0 ;3P a 0 3.&
Re-uired mass of b"oc+ 0X
Solution
/ow consider the fo""owin! dia!ram and a"so reso"%e the
force P into hori-onta" and %ertica" components.
R ( F
+LB N

2 (
Sine 2
( Cosine 2
F F V R


' F ",
/ow app"y the condition of e'ui"ibrium the forces actin! in 7
a7is is positi%e
D ] 47 0 3
P Cosine C G 4 0 3
. >5 .
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P Cosine C G a R 0 3
5=3 Cosine ;3G 3.& 7 R 0 3 Therefore
R F )$)$%A@)
/ow consider the forces actin! in y a7is is positi%e
D ] 4y0 3
R D P $ine C G : 0 3
R D P $ine C G m! 0 3
&1&1.>?& D 5=3 $ine ;3G m 7 =.61 0 3
m 0 &51.&?3 *!
Result "ass of the 'ooden 3locC F )+$%)@B #,
. >I .
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E<AM(.E *
A body of mass 133 *! rests on hori-onta" p"ane the
co efficient of friction between body and the p"ane 3.53. 4ind
the wor+ done in mo%in! the body throu!h a distance of &3 m
a"on! the p"ane.
1i?en m 0 133 *! a 0 3.53 d 0 &3 m
Re-uired wor+ done 0X
IorCin, for"ula 1 : 0 4 7 d
& 4s 0 a R
Solution we +now that R 0 : 0 m!
R 0 : 0 13 7 =.61 0 =6.1 /
Put the %a"ues in &
nd
wor+in! formu"a we !et
4s 0 3.53 7 =6.1
4s 0 ;=.&5 /
/ow put the %a"ues in 1
st
wor+in! formu"a
: 0 ;=.&5 7 &3
: 0 >56.6 /
Resultant 'ei,ht F A+J%J N
E<AM(.E +
A wei!ht of I3 / is restin! on the hori-onta" tab"e and
can be mo%ed by a hori-onta" force of &3 /. 4ind the co
efficient of friction, the direction and ma!nitude of the
resu"tant between norma" reaction and frictiona" force
1i?en : 0 I3 / P 0 &3 /
Re-uired co efficient of friction 0 a 0X
#irection 0 C 0X
Resu"tant 0 $ 0X
IorCin, for"ula 1 4 0 a R
' F :B N
& $ 0 RT D 4sT
; Tan C 0 a
$o"ution put the %a"ue in 1
st
wor+in! formu"a
P 0 &3 /
4s 0 a R
&3 0 a 7 I3
F
V F B%+
R
put the %a"ue in the &
nd
wor+in! formu"a
S
$ 0 I3T D &3T
S F :*%J: N
Put the %a"ue in the ;
rd
wor+in! formu"a
Tan C 0 a
. >? .
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Tan C 0 3.5
C 0&1.631P
Result Co efficient of friction F V F B%+
irection F 2 F )$%JB$D
Resultant F S F :*%J: N
. >> .
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E<AM(.E :
A "adder I m "on! rests on a hori-onta" !round and
"eans a!ainst a smooth %ertica" wa"" at an an!"e >3P with the
hori-onta". The wei!ht of the "adder is =33 / and acts at its
midd"e. The "adder is at the point of s"idin!, when a man
wei!hin! >I3 / stands on a run! 1.I m from the bottom of the
"adder. Ca"cu"ate the coefficient of friction between the "adder
and the f"oor.
)%: " B
)BD
.
+
E
$%: " .
*
.
)
'
)
'
$

ABD
F
f
A .
$
C
R
f



1i?en Aen!th of "eader 0 A 0 I m wei!ht of "eader
0 w
1
0 =33 /
:ei!ht of man 0 w
&
0 >I3 / inc"ination of
"eader 0 C 0 >3P
#istance co%ered by man from bottom 0 1.I m
Re-uired coefficient of frication between "adder and
f"oor 0 b
f
0X
IorCin, for"ula R
f
7 A
1
0 9b
f
7 R
f
7 A
&
( D w
&
7 A
;
D w
1
7
A
5
Solution we +now that
R
f
0 w
1
D w
&
R
f
0 =33 D >I3
R
f
0 1?I3 /
:e can ca"cu"ate A
1
, A
&
, by considerin! the !eometry of the
fi!ure. /ow consider the trian!"e ABC
Cos >3 0 A
1
1A 0 A
1
1I A
1
0 1.>131 m
And $in >3 0 A
&
1A 0 A
&
1I A
&
0 5.?=6 m
$imi"ar"y we can ca"cu"ate the A
;
Y A
5
by considerin! the
!eometry of the fi!ure
$in &3 0 A
5
1&.I A
5
0 3.6I m
And $in &3 0 A
;
1I.1.I A
;
0 1.1=> m
Put the %a"ues in the wor+in! formu"a to ca"cu"ate the
coefficient of friction between the f"oor and "adder
R
f
7 A
1
0 9b
f
7 R
f
7 A
&
( D w
&
7 A
;
D w
1
7 A
5
1?I3 7 1.>131 0 b
f
7 1?I3 7 5.?=6 D >I3 7
1.1=> D =33 7 3.6I
. >6 .
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b
f
0 3.15=
Resultant Coefficient of friction F W
f
F B%$:
E<ERCISE *
$% A b"oc+ ha%in! a mass of &&3 *! is restin! on a wooden
tab"e what is the minimum force necessary to impart
motion to the b"oc+ when the coefficient of friction
between the b"oc+ and the tab"e is 3.&I.
A
n
s:
:
*
L
N
)% A 1& / force is just ab"e to s"ide a b"oc+ of wei!ht of 133
/ on a hori-onta" p"ane board. :hat is the co efficient of
frictionX :hat is the "east %a"ue of the inc"ination of the
p"ane so as to a""ow the b"oc+ to s"ide downward by se"fX

Ans: B%)$ and @%BD
*% A b"oc+ of wood wei!hin! ; "b. rests on a hori-onta"
tab"e. A hori-onta" force 1.&I "b. is just sufficient to
cause it to s"ide. 4ind the coefficient of friction for the
two surfaces and the an!"e of friction

Ans: B%+) M ))%@D
+% A b"oc+ of wood wei!hin! >.I +! rests on a hori-onta"
tab"e and can just be mo%ed a"on! by a force e'ua" to & +!
wei!ht. Another ; +! is p"aced on the b"oc+ what is the
"east hori-onta" force which wi"" just mo%e the b"oc+

Ans: )%J C, M B%)@@A
:% A body of wei!ht ? "b rests on a hori-onta" tab"e and the
coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is 3.;&.
:hat hori-onta" force wi"" be re'uired to start the body
mo%in!X

Ans: $%L) l3s
@% A b"oc+ of wood of wei!ht &.I +! rests on a rou!h
hori-onta" board and the coefficient of friction between
the surfaces is 3.5 by means of strin! inc"ined at ;3P to
the board. A pu"" is e7erted on the b"oc+ witch is just
sufficient to ma+e it mo%e. Ca"cu"ate the amount of the
pu"".

Ans: B%L*J C,
. >= .
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A% A body rests on a rou!h hori-onta" board. This is
!radua""y ti"ted unti", when it is inc"ined at &&P to the
hori-onta", the body be!ins to mo%e down the p"ane.
:hat is the coefficient of friction between the body and
the p"aneX f the body wei!hs &.I what is the ma!nitude
of the force of friction when the body be!ins to s"ip.

Ans: B%L*@ N
J% A b"oc+ of wood rests on an inc"ined p"ane and the
coefficient of friction between it and the p"ane is 3.;1. At
what an!"e must the p"ane be inc"ined to the hori-onta" so
that the b"oc+ be!ins to mo%e down the p"aneX

Ans: $A%))D
L% A b"oc+ rests on a hori-onta" board. The board is
!radua""y ti"ted upward and the b"oc+ be!ins to s"ide
down the board when the an!"e of inc"ination is C1 is &1P.
After the b"oc+ starts mo%in!, it is found that it +eep
s"idin! at constant speed when the an!"e of ti"t is 1IP.
4ind the coefficient of static friction and the coefficient of
dynamic friction between the b"oc+ and the board.

Ans: B*J+ M B%)@J
$B% A body of wei!ht is &3 "b is p"aced on a rou!h inc"ined
p"ane whose s"ope ;>P. if the coefficient of friction
between the p"ane and the body is 3.& find the "east force
actin! para""e" to the p"ane re'uired
To pre%ent the body by s"idin! down
Ans: J%J+) l3s
To pu"" the body up the p"ane
Ans: $:%)* l3s
$$% A uniform "adder of "en!th ;.&I m and wei!hin! &I3 / is
p"aced a!ainst a smooth %ertica" wa"" with its "ower end
1.&Im from the wa"". The coefficient of friction between
the "adder and f"oor is 3.;. :hat is the frictiona" force
actin! on the "adder at the point of contact between the
"adder and the f"oorX

Ans: :)%BJ* N
. 63 .
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CHA(/ER + CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9
The center of !ra%ity is a point where who"e the
wei!ht of the body act is ca""ed center of !ra%ity. As we
+now that e%ery partic"e of a body is attracted by the earth
towards its center with a ma!nitude of the wei!ht of the
body. As the distance between the different partic"es of a
body and the center of the earth is the same, therefore these
forces may be ta+en to act a"on! para""e" "ines. A point may
be found out in a body, throu!h which the resu"tant of a""
such para""e" forces acts. This point, throu!h which the who"e
resu"tant 9wei!ht of the body acts, irrespecti%e of its position,
is +nown as center of !ra%ity 9brief"y written as C.G(. t may
be noted that e%ery body has one and on"y one center of
!ra%ity.
CEN/ROI
The p"ane fi!ures 9"i+e trian!"e, 'uadri"atera", circ"e etc.(
ha%e on"y areas, but no mass. The center of area of such
fi!ures is +nown as Centroid. The method of findin! out the
Centroid of a fi!ure is the same as that of findin! out the
center of !ra%ity of a body.
A<IS OF REFERENCE
The center of !ra%ity of a body is a"ways ca"cu"ated with
referrer to some assumed a7is +nown as a7is of reference. The
a7is of reference, of p"ane fi!ures, is !enera""y ta+en as the
"owest "ine of the fi!ure for ca"cu"atin! y and the "eft "ine of
the fi!ure for ca"cu"atin! 7.
ME/HOS FOR CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 OF SIM(.E
FI1&RES
The center of !ra%ity 9or Centroid( may be found out by any
one of the fo""owin! methods
. By !eometrica" considerations
&. By moments method
;. By !raphica" method
$ Center of 1ra?it! 3! 1eo"etrical Considerations
The center of !ra%ity of simp"e fi!ures may be found out
from the !eometry of the fi!ure
A) /he center of ,ra?it! of plane fi,ure
$% The center of ! of uniform rod is at its midd"e point.
A
B
.
. 61 .
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Center of !ra%ity 0 A 1 & from point A or B

)% The center of !ra%ity of a rectan!"e is at a point, where its
dia!ona"s meet each other. t is a"so a mid point of the "en!th
as we"" as the breadth of the rectan!"e as shown in fi!
C

G 0 A1&
from A# or BC
h G 0 h1&
from AB or #C
Area 0 A 7
h
A B
.
. 6& .
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*% The center of !ra%ity of a s'uare is a point, where its
dia!ona"s meet each other. t is a mid point of its side as
shown in fi!
G 0 a1& from any
side
a Area 0 &7 a
a
+. The center of !ra%ity of a para""e"o!ram is at a point,
where its dia!ona"s meet each other. t is a"so a mid point of
the "en!th as we"" as the hei!ht of the para""e"o!ram as shown
in fi!
C

G 0 A1&
from A# or BC
h G 0 h1&
from AB or #C
Area 0 A
7 h
A B
.
:. The center of !ra%ity of a trian!"e is at the point, where the
three medians 9a median is a "ine connectin! the %erte7 and
midd"e point of the opposite side( of the trian!"e meet as
shown in 4i!.
C
G
0 &h1; from point C
h G
0 h1; from point A,B
A
rea 0 b 7 h

&

A 3 B
@. The center of !ra%ity of the circ"e is the center of the circ"e
. 6; .
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G 0 r or d1& from any
point from the circumference
Area 0 7 rT

A% The center of !ra%ity of the semi circ"e is at a distance 5 r1;
from diameter AB
G 0 5 r1;
from diameter AB
Area 0 7 rT
)
1
A B
. 65 .
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J% The center of !ra%ity of 'uarter circu"ar at a distance 5 r1;
from diameter AC
C
G 0 5 r1;
from radius AC
Area 0 7 rT
5

A B
r
L% The center of !ra%ity of sector is at a distance &rsinC1;C
from center c.
r G 0
&rsinC1;C
Area 0 C 7 rT
O
R
$B. The center of !ra%ity of a trape-ium is at a distance of
h1;7 cbD&a1bDad form the side AB as shown in 4i!.
a
G 0 h b D &a
b
; b D a

h
h 1
Area 0 h 9a D b(
&
3
$$% The center of !ra%ity semi circu"ar arc is at distance & r1
from AB

G 0 & r1 from
AB
1 Aen!th of Arc 0
& 7 r



A B
. 6I .
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J% The center of !ra%ity of 'uarter arc is at a distance & r1
B
G 0 & r1
Aen!th of arc AB 0
r 1&
G
A
r
B) /HE CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 OF SO.I BO9
$% The center of !ra%ity of a sphere is at a distance r from any
point
G 0 r or d1& from any
point from the circumference
Jo"ume of sphere 0 5 7
7 re
;
)% The center of !ra%ity of a hemisphere is at a distance of
;r16 from its base, as shown in fi!.
G 0 ; 7 r
6
Jo"ume of
sphere 0 & 7 7 re

;

*% The !ra%ity of ri!ht circu"ar so"id cone is at a distance h15
from its base, measured a"on! the %ertica" a7is
G 0 h15
Jo"ume of cone 0 1
7 7 rT 7 h
;
. 6? .
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+% The center of !ra%ity of a cube is at a distance of h15 from
e%ery face 9where h is the "en!th of each side(.
G 0 h15
Jo"ume of cube 0
"en!th 7 width 7 hei!ht
:% The center of !ra%ity of a cy"inder is h1& from diameter AB
G 0 h1&
Jo"ume of cy"inder 0
7 rT 7 h
h

. 6> .
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CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 B9 MOMEN/S
The center of !ra%ity of a body may a"so be found out
by moments as discussed be"ow% Consider a body of mass M
whose center of !ra%ity is re'uired to be found out. /ow
di%ide the body into sma"" strips of masses whose centers of
!ra%ity are +nown as shown in fi!
!
E$
E)
E*

E
E
Aet
m
1
, m
&
, m
;
ff. 0 mass of strips 1, &, ;,
7
1
, 7
&
, and 7
;
f 0 the correspondin! perpendicu"ar
distance or the center of !ra%ity of strips from O a7is
Accordin! to principa" of moment
M 7 0 m
1
7
1
D m
&
7
&
D m
;
7
;
M 7 0 ] m 7
E F T " E 1
M
:here ] m 0 m
1
D m
&
D m
;
D ffff..
And ] 7 0 7
1
D 7
&
D 7
;
D fffff..
$imi"ar"y
! F T " ! &
M
The p"ane !eometrica" fi!ures 9such as T.section, 1.section,
A.section etc.( ha%e on"y areas but no mass the center of
!ra%ity of such fi!ures is found out in the same way as that of
so"id bodies. Therefore the abo%e two e'uations wi"" become
E F T a E
A
2r E F a
$
E
$
H a
)
E ) H a
*
E
*
HXXX
a
$
H a
)
H a
*
HXX
! F Ta !
A
2r ! F a
$
!
$
H a
)
!
)
H a
*
!
*
HXXX
. 66 .
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a
$
H a
)
H a
*
HXXX
E<AM(.E +
Find the center of ,ra?it! of a $BB "" E $:B "" E *B ""
/;section% As sho'n in the fi,
$BB ""

*B ""

$:B ""


1i?en Hei!ht 0 1I3 mm width 0 133 mm
thic+ ness 0 ;3 mm
Re-uired center of !ra%ity 0 y 0X
IorCin, for"ulae ! F Ta ! or ! F a
$
!
$
H a
)
!
)
H a
*
!
*
HXXX
A a
$
H a
)
H a
*
HXXX
Solution
Y Bod! Area ""G istance 0!) "" Area E !
$ Rectan!u"ar ABC# a1 0 133 7 ;3 0 ;333 ;31& 0 1I ;333 7 1I 0 5I333
) Rectan!u"ar E4GH a& 0 91I3 G ;3( 7 ;3 0 ;?33 1I3.;31& 0 1;I ;?33 71;I0 56?333
] 0 =?33 T F I;1333
Put in the wor+in! formu"a
y 0 ]a y 0 I;1333 O 0 =5.3= mm
A =?33
Result center of ,ra?it! F L+%BL ""
E<AM(.E )
Find the center of ,ra?it! of a channel section $BB "" E
:B"" E $: ""%
A B
C
E

$BB ""

1
. 6= .
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F H
$: ""
I S
:B ""

Re-uired center of !ra%ity 0X
IorCin, for"ula 7 0 a
1
7
1
D a
&
7 & D a
;
7
;
Dfff
a
1
D a
&
D a
;
Dff
. =3 .
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Solution Consider the rectan!"e ABC
Area 0 a1 0 I3 7 1I 0 >I3 mmT 7
1
0 I3 1 & 0 &I mm
Consider the rectan!"e CE4G
Area 0 a& 0 9133 .1I.1I( 7 1I 0 13I3 mmT
7
&1
0 1I 1 & 0 >.I mm
Consider the rectan!"e 4HV
Area 0 a; 0 I3 7 1I 0 >I3 mmT 7
;
0 I3 1 & 0 &I mm
Put the %a"ues in the wor+in! formu"a
7 0 a 1 7 1 D a & 7 & D a ; 7 ; 0 >I3 7 &I D 13I3
7 >.I 7 >I3 7 &I
a1 D a& D a; &I D >.I D
&I

7 0 1> .6 mm
Result Center of ,ra?it! F $A%J ""
CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 OF &NS9MME/RICA.
SEC/IONS
$ometimes, the !i%en section, whose center of !ra%ity
is re'uired to be found out, is not symmetrica" either about 7.
a7is or y.a7is. n such cases, we ha%e to find out both the
%a"ues of center of !ra%ity of 7 and y which means with
reference to 7 a7is and y a7is
E<AM(.E *
Find the centroid of an une-ual an,le section $BB "" E
JB "" E )B""%
C
$BB ""
F 1
)B ""
A B E
JB ""
Re-uired center of !ra%ity 0X
IorCin, for"ula 7 0 a 1 7 1 D a & 7 &
a1 D a&
y 0 a 1 y 1 D a & y &
a1 D a&
Y Bod! Area ""G istance 0E) "" istance 0!) ""
$ Rectan!u"ar ABC# a1 0 133 7 &3 0 &333
71 0 &3113 013 y1 01331& 0 I3
. =1 .
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) Rectan!u"ar BE4G a& 0 963 G &3( 7 &3 0 1&33
7& 0 &3 G ?31& 0I3 y& 0 &31& 0 13

Put the %a"ue in the first wor+in! formu"a
7 0 a 1 7 1 D a & 7 & 0 9&333 7 13 ( D 91&33 7
I3( 7 0 &I mm
a1 D a& 13 D ?3
y 0 a 1 y 1 D a & y & 0 9 &333 7 I3 ( D 91&33 7
13( y 0 ;I mm
a1 D a& 13 D ?3
Result E F ): "" ! F *: "
. =& .
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CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 OF SO.I BOIES
The center of !ra%ity of so"id bodies 9such as
hemisphere, cy"inder, ri!ht circu"ar so"id cone etc( is found
out in the same way as that of the p"ane fi!ures. The on"y
difference between the p"ane and so"id bodies is that in the
case of so"id bodies we ca"cu"ate %o"umes instead of areas
E<AM(.E +
A so"id body formed by joinin! the base of a ri!ht
circu"ar cone of hei!ht H to the e'ua" base of ri!ht circu"ar
cy"inder of hei!ht h. ca"cu"ate the distance of the center of
!ra%ity of the so"id from its p"ane face when H 0 1&3 mm and
h 0 ;3 mm
1i?en cy"inder hei!ht 0 h 0 ;3 mm
Ri!ht circu"ar cone 0 H 0 1&3 mm
Re-uired center of !ra%ity 0X
$)B ""
IorCin, for"ula
y 0 % 1 y 1 D % & y &
%1 D %&
Solution
Consider the cy"inder
*B ""
Jo"ume of cy"inder 0 g 7 rT 7 ;3 0 =5.&6? rT
C.G of cy"inder 0 y
1
0 ;31& 0 1Imm
/ow consider the ri!ht circu"ar cone
Jo"ume of cone 0 g1; 7 rT 7 1&3 0 ;>>.15; rT
C.G of cone 0 y
&
0 ;3 D 1&315 0 ?3 mm
Put the %a"ues in the formu"a
y 0 % 1 y 1 D % & y & 0 =5.&6? rT 7 1I D ;>>.15; rT 7
?3
%1 D %& =5.&6? rT D;>>.15; rT
y 0 53.> mm
Result center of ,ra?it! F +B%A ""
CEN/RE OF 1RA7I/9 OF SEC/IONS II/H C&/
O&/ HO.ES
The center of !ra%ity of such a section is found out by
considerin! the main section@ first as a comp"ete one and then
deductin! the area of the cut out ho"e that is ta+in! the area of
the cut out ho"e as ne!ati%e. /ow substitutin! the area of the
cut out ho"e as ne!ati%e, in the !enera" e'uation for the center
of !ra%ity, so the e'uation wi"" become
7 0 a
1
7
1
. a
&
7 &
a
1
. a
&

. =; .
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2r y 0 a
1
y
1
. a
&
y
&

a
1
. a
&

. =5 .
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E<AM(.E :
A semicirc"es of =3 mm radius is cut out from a
trape-ium as shown in fi! find the position of the center of
!ra%ity
C a F )BB ""

h F $)B ""
A
B
3 F *BB ""
LB ""
1i?en
/rapeUiu" ABC
b 0 ;33 mm a 0 &33 mm h 0 1&3
mm
$emicirc"e radius 0 r 0 =3 mm
IorCin, For"ula y 0 a
1
y
1
. a
&
y
&

a
1
. a
&

Solution
Area of trape-ium 0 a D b 7 h 0 &33 D ;33 7 1&3 0 ;3333
mmT
& &
centre of !ra%ity of tra-e-ium 0 y
1
0 h 0 c b D & ad
; b D a
5
y
1
0 1&3 c ;33 D & 7 &33d 0 I? mm
; ;33 D &33
5
Area of semicirc"e 0 area of the circ"e 0 g rT 0 g =3T 0
6=133 mmT
& & &
Center of !ra%ity of the semicirc"e 0 5 r 0 5 =3 0 ;6.16;
; g ; g

Put the %a"ues in wor+in! formu"a
y 0 ;3333 7 I? G 6=133 7 ;6.16;
;3333 . 6=133
Result Center of the ,ra?it! F @L%$ ""
. =I .
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E<ERCISE +
$% An section has the fo""owin! dimensions in mm units.
Top f"an!e 0 1I3 7 I3 Bottom f"an!e 0 ;33
7133 :eb 0 ;33 7 I3
4ind the center of !ra%ity 9centroid(

Ans: $@B%A ""
)% A uniform "amina shown in fi! consists of rectan!"e, a
semi circ"e and a trian!"e. 4ind the centre of !ra%ity





Ans: A$%$ ""
*% 4ind the centre of !ra%ity of T section with f"an!e 1I3 mm
7 13 mm and web a"so 133 mm 7 13 mm.
$:B
$B


$:B ""

Ans: $$: ""
+% 4ind the center of !ra%ity a T section with top f"an!e 133
mm 7 &3 mm web &33 mm 7 ;3 mm and the bottom f"an!e
;33 mm 7 53 mm
$BB ""
)B ""

)BB ""
*B ""
. =? .
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+B ""
*BB ""
Ans: AL""
. => .
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:% 4ind the center of !ra%ity of an une'ua" an!"e section 13
cm 7 1? cm 7 & cm


$B c"

) c"

$@ c"

Ans: :%@A "" and )%@A ""
@% A body consists of a ri!ht circu"ar so"id cone of hei!ht 53
mm and radius ;3 mm p"aced on a so"id hemisphere of radius
;3 mm of the same materia" find the position of the center of
!ra%ity of the body


+B ""

*B""


Ans: )J%+ ""
A% A hemisphere of ?3 mm diameter is p"aced on the top of
the cy"inder ha%in! ?3 mm diameter. 4ind the center of
!ra%ity of the body from the base of the cy"inder if its hei!ht
is 133 mm.

Ans: @B%) ""
J% A semicircu"ar area is remo%ed from a trape-ium as shown
in fi! determine the position of the center of !ra%ity
@B ""
. =6 .
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*B ""

+B "" +B ""
Ans
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L% A circu"ar ho"e of I3 mm diameter is cut out from a
circu"ar disc of 133 mm diameter as shown in fi! find the
center of !ra%ity of the section

$BB "" :B ""

Ans: +$%A ""
$B% 4ind the center of !ra%ity of a semicircu"ar section ha%in!
outer and inner diameters of &33 mm and 1?3 mm
respecti%e"y as shown in fi!.

$@B ""

)BB ""

Ans: :A%: ""
?ideoZcet%iitC,p%ernet%in
:ww.ceton"ine.iit+!p.ernet.in
. 133 .
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