The Body Fluids

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear colorless bodily fluid found in the brain and spine. It is
produced in the choroid plexus of the brain. It acts as a cushion or buffer for the brain's
cortex, providing a basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside
the skull, and it serves a vital function in cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.

The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (the space between the arachnoid mater
and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal
cord. It constitutes the content of the ventricles, cisterns, and sulci of the brain, as well
as the central canal of the spinal cord.

Production.
The brain produces roughly 500 mL of cerebrospinal fluid per day. This fluid is constantly
reabsorbed, so that only 100-160 mL is present at any one time.
Ependymal cells of the choroid plexus produce more than two thirds of CSF. The
choroid plexus is a venous plexus contained within the four ventricles of the brain,
hollow structures inside the brain filled with CSF. The remainder of the CSF is produced
by the surfaces of the ventricles and by the lining surrounding the subarachnoid space.
Ependymal cells actively secrete sodium into the lateral ventricles. This creates osmotic
pressure and draws water into the CSF space. Chloride, with a negative charge,
maintains electroneutrality and moves with the positively-charged sodium. As a result,
CSF contains a higher concentration of sodium and chloride than blood plasma, but
less potassium, calcium and glucose and protein.

CSF serves several purposes:
Buoyancy: The actual mass of the human brain is about 1400 grams; however, the net
weight of the brain suspended in the CSF is equivalent to a mass of 25 grams. The brain
therefore exists in neutral buoyancy, which allows the brain to maintain its density
without being impaired by its own weight, which would cut off blood supply and kill
neurons in the lower sections without CSF.
Protection: CSF protects the brain tissue from injury when jolted or hit. In certain
situations such as auto accidents or sports injuries, the CSF cannot protect the brain
from forced contact with the skull case, causing hemorrhaging, brain damage, and
sometimes death.
Chemical stability: CSF flows throughout the inner ventricular system in the brain and is
absorbed back into the bloodstream, rinsing the metabolic waste from the central
nervous system through the bloodbrain barrier. This allows for homeostatic regulation of
the distribution of neuroendocrine factors, to which slight changes can cause problems
or damage to the nervous system. For example, high glycine concentration disrupts
temperature and blood pressure control, and high CSF pH causes dizziness and
syncope. To use Davson's term, the CSF has a "sink action" by which the various
substances formed in the nervous tissue during its metabolic activity diffuse rapidly into
the CSF and are thus removed into the bloodstream as CSF is absorbed.
Prevention of brain ischemia: The prevention of brain ischemia is made by decreasing
the amount of CSF in the limited space inside the skull. This decreases total intracranial
pressure and facilitates blood perfusion.
Clearing waste: CSF has been shown by the research group of Maiken Nedergaard to
be critical in the brain's glymphatic system, which plays an important role in flushing
metabolic toxins or waste from the brain's tissues' cellular interstitial fluid (ISF). CSF
flushing of wastes from brain tissue is further increased during sleep, which results from
the opening of extracellular channels controlled through the contraction of glials cells,
which allows for the rapid influx of CSF into the brain. These findings indicate that CSF
may play a large role during sleep in clearing metabolic waste, like beta amyloid, that
are produced by the activity in the awake brain.

Blood plasma is the pale-yellow liquid component of blood that normally holds the
blood cells in whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55% of the body's total
blood volume.[1] It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid (all body fluid
outside of cells). It is mostly water (up to 95% by volume), and contains dissolved
proteins (6-8%) (i.e.albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen), glucose, clotting factors,
electrolytes (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-, Cl-, etc.), hormones, and carbon dioxide
(plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation). Plasma also
serves as the protein reserve of the human body. It plays a vital role in an intravascular
osmotic effect that keeps electrolytes in balanced form and protects the body from
infection and other blood disorders.

Blood plasma is prepared by spinning a tube of fresh blood containing an
anticoagulant in a centrifuge until the blood cells fall to the bottom of the tube. The
blood plasma is then poured or drawn off. Blood plasma has a density of approximately
1025 kg/m3, or 1.025 g/ml.
Blood serum is blood plasma without clotting factors; in other words, "pure" blood.
Plasmapheresis is a medical therapy that involves blood plasma extraction, treatment,
and reintegration.
Interstitial fluid (or tissue fluid) is a solution that bathes and surrounds the cells of
multicellular animals. It is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also
includes plasma and transcellular fluid. The interstitial fluid is found in the interstitial
spaces, also known as the tissue spaces.
On average, a person has about 10 litres (2.4 imperial gallons or ~2.9 US gal) of
interstitial fluid (they make up 16% of the total body weight), providing the cells of the
body with nutrients and a means of waste removal.
Production and removal
Plasma and interstitial fluid are very similar. This similarity exists because water, ions, and
small solutes are continuously exchanged between plasma and interstitial fluids across
the walls of capillaries. Plasma, the major component in blood, communicates freely
with interstitial fluid through pores and intercellular clefts in capillary endothelium.

Formation
Hydrostatic pressure is generated by the systolic force of the heart. It pushes water out
of the capillaries.
The water potential is created due to the ability of small solutes to pass through the
walls of capillaries. This buildup of solutes induces osmosis. The water passes from a high
concentration (of water) outside of the vessels to a low concentration inside of the
vessels, in an attempt to reach an equilibrium. The osmotic pressure drives water back
into the vessels. Because the blood in the capillaries is constantly flowing, equilibrium is
never reached.
The balance between the two forces differs at different points on the capillaries. At the
arterial end of a vessel, the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure, so
the net movement (see net flux) favors water and other solutes being passed into the
tissue fluid. At the venous end, the osmotic pressure is greater, so the net movement
favors substances being passed back into the capillary. This difference is created by the
direction of the flow of blood and the imbalance in solutes created by the net
movement of water favoring the tissue fluid.
Removal
To prevent a buildup of tissue fluid surrounding the cells in the tissue, the lymphatic
system plays a part in the transport of tissue fluid. Tissue fluid can pass into the
surrounding lymph vessels, and eventually ends up rejoining the blood.
Sometimes the removal of tissue fluid does not function correctly, and there is a build-
up. This can cause swelling, often around the feet and ankles, which is generally known
as edema. The position of swelling is due to the effects of gravity.

Amniotic Fluid
Development of amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid [AF] can be detected from the very beginning of formation of the
gestational sac (extra-embryonic coelom or chorionic cavity). This firstly water-like fluid
originates from the maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by
osmotic and hydrostatic forces. As the placental and fetal vessels develop, the fluid
passes through the fetal tissue, as the exsudatum of the skin. After the 20th-25th week of
pregnancy when the keratinization of skin occurs, the quantity of amniotic fluid begins
to depend on the factors that comprise the circulation of AF.
At first, amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes, but by about the 12-14th week
the liquid also contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phospholipids, and urea, all
of which aid in the growth of the fetus.
The volume of amniotic fluid is positively correlated with the growth of fetus. From the
10th to the 20th week it increases from 25ml to 400ml approximately. From the 8th week,
when the fetal kidneys begin to function, fetal urine is also present in the AF.
Approximately in the 10th week the breathing and swallowing of the fetus slightly
decrease the amount of AF, but neither urination nor swallowing contributes
significantly to AF quantity changes, until the 25th week, when keratinization of skin is
complete. Then the relationship between AF and fetal growth stops. It reaches the
plateau of 800ml at the 28 week gestational age (GA). The amount of fluid declines to
roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks GA.
The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the
time when a woman's "water breaks". When this occurs during labour at term, it is
known as "spontaneous rupture of membranes" (SROM). If the rupture precedes labour
at term, however, it is referred to as "premature rupture of membranes" (PROM). The
majority of the hindwaters remain inside the womb until the baby is born. Artificial
rupture of membrane (ARM), a manual rupture of the amniotic sac, can also be
performed to release the fluid if the amnion has not spontaneously ruptured.
Functions of amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid is inhaled and exhaled by the fetus. It is essential that fluid be breathed
into the lungs in order for them to develop normally. Swallowed amniotic fluid also
creates urine and contributes to the formation of meconium. Amniotic fluid protects the
developing baby by cushioning against blows to the mother's abdomen, allowing for
easier fetal movement and promoting muscular/skeletal development. Amniotic fluid
swallowed by fetus help in the formation of gastrointestinal tract.
Gastric acid is a digestive fluid, formed in the stomach. It is composed of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) (around 0.5%, or 5000 parts per million) as high as 0.1 M, potassium chloride
(KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by
activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive
enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells
lining the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid
production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to
buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce
mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging
the stomach. Cells in the beginning of the small intestine, or duodenum, further
produce large amounts of bicarbonate to completely neutralize any gastric acid that
passes further down into the digestive tract.
Gastric acid is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the stomach. Its
secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells
contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the gastric acid is
secreted into the lumen of the stomach. These cells are part of epithelial fundic glands
in the gastric mucosa. The pH of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5 [2] in the human stomach
lumen, the acidity being maintained by the proton pump H+/K+ ATPase. The parietal
cell releases bicarbonate into the blood stream in the process, which causes a
temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as alkaline tide.
The resulting highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food
to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein's
peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein
breakdown (inactive pepsinogen and rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen
into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking
amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have
their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent
infection.
Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are
secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi.
Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland and gradually reaches
the main stomach lumen. The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the
stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric
mucus layer.
Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the cytoplasm of the parietal cell
into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a negative potential of -40 mV to -70 mV
across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of
sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and
water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and
bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H+/K+ ATPase antiporter
pumps.
At the same time sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of
secreted K+ and Na+ ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted
hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.
The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the
canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic
with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted
in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.
There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less
than 10 mEq/hour.
There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate
in order to digest a meal:
The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is
stimulated by anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs
from higher centres in the brain through the vagus nerve. It activates parietal cells to
release acid and ECL cells to release histamine. The vagus nerve also releases gastrin
releasing peptide onto G cells. Finally, it also inhibits somatostatin release from D cells.
The gastric phase: About fifty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this
phase. Acid secretion is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by amino acids
present in the food.
The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the
small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The
duodenal cells release entero-oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting
gastrin.
The amniotic sac (also bag of waters) is the sac in which the fetus develops in amniotes.
It is a thin but tough transparent pair of membranes, which hold a developing embryo
(and later fetus) until shortly before birth. The inner membrane, the amnion, contains the
amniotic fluid and the fetus. The outer membrane, the chorion, contains the amnion
and is part of the placenta. Its wall is the amnion, the inner of the two fetal membranes.
It encloses the amniotic cavity and the embryo. The amniotic cavity contains the
amniotic fluid. On the outer side, the amniotic sac is connected to the yolk sac, to the
allantois and, through the umbilical cord, to the placenta. Amniocentesis is a medical
procedure where fluid from the sac is sampled[9] to be used in prenatal diagnosis of
chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections. If, after birth, the complete amniotic
sac or big parts of the membrane remain coating the newborn, this is called a caul.
When seen in the light, the amniotic sac is shiny and very smooth, but tough. Once the
baby is pushed out of the mother's abdomen, the umbilical cord, placenta, and
amniotic sac are pushed out in the after birth.

The aqueous humour is a transparent, gelatinous fluid similar to plasma, but containing
low protein concentrations. It is secreted from the ciliary epithelium, a structure
supporting the lens.[1] It is located in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye,
the space between the lens and the cornea. It is not to be confused with vitreous
humour, which is contained within the larger cavity of the eye behind the lens.

Composition
Amino acids: transported by ciliary muscles
98% water
Electrolytes
Ascorbic acid
Glutathione

Function
Maintains the intraocular pressure and inflates the globe of the eye.
Provides nutrition (e.g. amino acids and glucose) for the avascular ocular tissues;
posterior cornea, trabecular meshwork, lens, and anterior vitreous.
May serve to transport ascorbate in the anterior segment to act as an
antioxidant agent.
Presence of immunoglobulins indicate a role in immune response to defend
against pathogens.
Provides inflation for expansion of the cornea and thus increased protection
against dust, wind, pollen grains and some pathogens.

Bile or gall is a bitter-tasting, dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver
of most vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In humans, bile
is produced continuously by the liver (liver bile), stored and concentrated in the
gallbladder (gallbladder bile) and when the organism eats, is discharged into the
duodenum. The composition of gallbladder bile is 92% water, 6% bile salts, 0.3% bilirubin,
0.9-2.4% fats (Cholesterol, fatty acids and lecithin), and 200 mEq/L inorganic salts.
Physiological functions
Bile acts to some extent as a surfactant, helping to emulsify the lipids in food. Bile salt
anions are hydrophilic on one side and hydrophobic on the other side; consequently,
they tend to aggregate around droplets of lipids (triglycerides and phospholipids) to
form micelles, with the hydrophobic sides towards the fat and hydrophilic sides facing
outwards. The hydrophilic sides are negatively charged, and this charge prevents fat
droplets coated with bile from re-aggregating into larger fat particles. Ordinarily, the
micelles in the duodenum have a diameter of around 1433 m.
The dispersion of food fat into micelles thus provides a greatly increased surface area
for the action of the enzyme pancreatic lipase, which actually digests the triglycerides,
and is able to reach the fatty core through gaps between the bile salts. A triglyceride is
broken down into two fatty acids and a monoglyceride, which are absorbed by the villi
on the intestine walls. After being transferred across the intestinal membrane, the fatty
acids reform into triglycerides, before being absorbed into the lymphatic system
through lacteals. Without bile salts, most of the lipids in food would be excreted in feces,
undigested.
Since bile increases the absorption of fats, it is an important part of the absorption of
the fat-soluble substances, such as the vitamins A, D, E and K.
Besides its digestive function, bile serves also as the route of excretion for bilirubin, a
byproduct of red blood cells recycled by the liver. Bilirubin derives from hemoglobin by
glucuronidation.
Bile is alkaline and also has the function of neutralizing any excess stomach acid before
it enters the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. Bile salts also act as
bactericides, destroying many of the microbes that may be present in the food.

Chyme is the semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the
duodenum.
Also known as "chymus", it is the liquid substance found in the stomach before passing
through the pyloric valve and entering the duodenum. It results from the mechanical
and chemical breakdown of a bolus and consists of partially digested food, water,
hydrochloric acid, and various digestive enzymes. Chyme slowly passes through the
pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins.
Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food
into chyme in anywhere between 40 minutes to a few hours.
With a pH of around 2, chyme emerging from the stomach is very acidic. To raise its pH,
the duodenum secretes a hormone, cholecystokinin (CCK), which causes the gall
bladder to contract, releasing alkaline bile into the duodenum. The duodenum also
produces the hormone secretin to stimulate the pancreatic secretion of large amounts
of sodium bicarbonate, which raises the chyme's pH to 7 before it reaches the jejunum.
As it is protected by a thick layer of mucus and utilizes the neutralizing actions of the
sodium bicarbonate and bile, the duodenum is not as sensitive to highly acidic chyme
as the rest of the small intestine.
At a pH of 7, the enzymes that were present from the stomach are no longer active. This
then leads into the further breakdown of the nutrients still present by anaerobic
bacteria which at the same time help to package the remains. These bacteria also
help synthesize vitamin B and vitamin K.
Breast milk is the milk produced by the breasts (or mammary glands) of a human
female for her infant offspring. Milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborns before
they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to
be breastfed, either exclusively or in combination with other foods.
Production
Under the influence of the hormones prolactin and oxytocin, women produce milk after
childbirth to feed the baby. The initial milk produced is referred to as colostrum, which is
high in the immunoglobulin IgA, which coats the gastrointestinal tract. This helps to
protect the newborn until its own immune system is functioning properly. It also creates
a mild laxative effect, expelling meconium and helping to prevent the build-up of
bilirubin (a contributory factor in jaundice).
Actual inability to produce enough milk is rare, with studies showing that mothers from
developing countries experiencing nutritional hardship still produce amounts of milk of
similar quality to that of mothers in developed countries. There are many reasons a
mother may not produce enough breast milk. Some of the most common reasons are
an improper latch (i.e., the baby does not connect efficiently with the nipple), not
nursing or pumping enough to meet supply, certain medications (including estrogen-
containing hormonal contraceptives), illness, and dehydration. A rarer reason is
Sheehan's syndrome, also known as postpartum hypopituitarism, which is associated
with prolactin deficiency: This syndrome may require hormone replacement.
The amount of milk produced depends on how often the mother is nursing and/or
pumping; the more the mother nurses her baby, or pumps, the more milk is produced. It
is very helpful to nurse on demand - to nurse when the baby wants to nurse rather than
on a schedule. If pumping, it is helpful to have an electric high-grade pump so that all
of the milk ducts are stimulated. Galactagogues increase milk supply, although there
are risks for even herbal ones, therefore non-pharmaceutical methods should be tried
first.
Perspiration (sweating, transpiration, or diaphoresis) is the production of fluids secreted
by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals.
Two types of sweat glands can be found in humans: eccrine glands and apocrine
glands. The eccrine sweat glands are distributed over much of the body.
In humans, sweating is primarily a means of thermoregulation which is achieved by the
water-rich secretion of the eccrine glands. Maximum sweat rates of an adult can be up
to 2-4 liters per hour or 10-14 liters per day (10-15 g/minm), but is less in children prior to
puberty. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect due to
evaporative cooling. Hence, in hot weather, or when the individual's muscles heat up
due to exertion, more sweat is produced. Animals with few sweat glands, such as dogs,
accomplish similar temperature regulation results by panting, which evaporates water
from the moist lining of the oral cavity and pharynx.
Primates and horses have armpits that sweat like those of humans. Although sweating is
found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few, such as humans and horses,
produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.
Mechanism
Sweating allows the body to regulate its temperature. Sweating is controlled from a
center in the preoptic and anterior regions of the brain's hypothalamus, where
thermosensitive neurons are located. The heat-regulatory function of the hypothalamus
is also affected by inputs from temperature receptors in the skin. High skin temperature
reduces the hypothalamic set point for sweating and increases the gain of the
hypothalamic feedback system in response to variations in core temperature. Overall,
however, the sweating response to a rise in hypothalamic ('core') temperature is much
larger than the response to the same increase in average skin temperature.
Sweating causes a decrease in core temperature through evaporative cooling at the
skin surface. As high energy molecules evaporate from the skin, releasing energy
absorbed from the body, the skin and superficial vessels decrease in temperature.
Cooled venous blood then returns to the body's core and counteracts rising core
temperatures.
There are two situations in which the nerves will stimulate the sweat glands, causing
perspiration: during physical heat and during emotional stress. In general, emotionally
induced sweating is restricted to palms, soles, armpits, and sometimes the forehead,
while physical heat-induced sweating occurs throughout the body.
People have an average of two to four million sweat glands. But how much sweat is
released by each gland is determined by many factors, including gender, genetics,
environmental conditions, age or fitness level. Two of the major contributors to sweat
rate are an individual's fitness level and weight. If an individual weighs more, sweat rate
is likely to increase because the body must exert more energy to function and there is
more body mass to cool down. On the other hand, a fit person will start sweating earlier
and easier. As someone becomes fit, the body becomes more efficient at regulating
the body's temperature and sweat glands adapt along with the body's other systems.
Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.21%) of solute. When a
person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the
sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the
maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases. The volume
of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day. The
solute loss can be as much as 350 mmol/day (or 90 mmol/day acclimatised) of sodium
under the most extreme conditions. During average intensity exercise, sweat losses can
average up to 2 litres of water/hour. In a cool climate and in the absence of exercise,
sodium loss can be very low (less than 5 mmols/day). Sodium concentration in sweat is
30-65 mmol/l, depending on the degree of acclimatisation.
Composition
Sweat contains mainly water. It also contains minerals, lactate, and urea. Mineral
composition varies with the individual, their acclimatisation to heat, exercise and
sweating, the particular stress source (sauna, etc.), the duration of sweating, and the
composition of minerals in the body. An indication of the minerals content is sodium (0.9
gram/liter), potassium (0.2 g/l), calcium (0.015 g/l), magnesium (0.0013 g/l).[12] Also
many other trace elements are excreted in sweat, again an indication of their
concentration is (although measurements can vary fifteenfold) zinc (0.4 milligrams/liter),
copper (0.30.8 mg/l), iron (1 mg/l), chromium (0.1 mg/l), nickel (0.05 mg/l), lead (0.05
mg/l).[13][14] Probably many other less-abundant trace minerals leave the body
through sweating with correspondingly lower concentrations. Some exogenous organic
compounds make their way into sweat as exemplified by an unidentified odiferous
"maple syrup" scented compound in several of the species in the mushroom genus
Lactarius.[15] In humans, sweat is hypoosmotic relative to plasma [16] (i.e. less salty).
Sweat typically is found at moderately acidic to neutral pH levels, typically between 4.5
and 7.0.

Urine is a liquid by-product of the body secreted by the kidneys through a process
called urination and excreted through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates
numerous by-products, many rich in nitrogen, that require clearance from the
bloodstream. These by-products are eventually expelled from the body during
urination, the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body.
These chemicals can be detected and analyzed by urinalysis. Certain disease
conditions can result in pathogen-contaminated urine.

Physiology
Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans,
soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in
terms of urea removed, by perspiration. The urinary system consists of the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of
filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes
from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other
compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other
substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidney through the ureter, bladder,
and finally the urethra before passing from the body.

Composition
Exhaustive detailed description of the composition of human urine can be found in
NASA Contractor Report No. NASA CR-1802, D. F. Putnam, July 1971. That report
provided detailed chemical analyses for inorganic and organic constituents, methods
of analysis, chemical and physical properties and its behavior during concentrative
processes such as evaporation, distillation and other physiochemical operations. Urine is
an aqueous solution of greater than 95% water, with the remaining constituents, in order
of decreasing concentration urea 9.3 g/L, chloride 1.87 g/L, sodium 1.17 g/L, potassium
0.750 g/L, creatinine 0.670 g/L and other dissolved ions, inorganic and organic
compounds.
Urine is sterile until it reaches the urethra, where epithelial cells lining the urethra are
colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram negative rods and cocci. Current research
suggests urine is not even sterile in the bladder. Regardless, subsequent to elimination
from the body, urine can acquire strong odors due to bacterial action,[citation
needed] and in particular the release of ammonia from the breakdown of urea.
Some diseases alter the quantity and consistency of urine, such as diabetes introducing
sugar. Consuming beets can result in beeturia (pink/red urine containing betanin) for
some 1014% of the population.

Chemical analysis
Urine is principally water. It also contains an assortment of inorganic salts and organic
compounds, including proteins, hormones, and a wide range of metabolites, varying by
what is introduced into the body.

Color
Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, as
well as other factors. Normal urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to
amber but is usually a pale yellow. In the urine of a healthy individual the color comes
primarily from the presence of urobilin. Urobilin in turn is a final waste product resulting
from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood
cells.
Colorless urine indicates over-hydration, generally preferable to dehydration (though it
can remove essential salts from the body). Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an
attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.
Dark yellow urine is often indicative of dehydration.
Yellowing/light orange may be caused by removal of excess B vitamins from the
bloodstream.
Certain medications such as rifampin and phenazopyridine can cause orange urine.
Bloody urine is termed hematuria, a symptom of a wide variety of medical conditions.
Dark orange to brown urine can be a symptom of jaundice, rhabdomyolysis, or Gilbert's
syndrome.
Black or dark-colored urine is referred to as melanuria and may be caused by a
melanoma.
Pinkish urine can result from the consumption of beets.
Greenish urine can result from the consumption of asparagus.
Reddish or brown urine may be caused by porphyria (not to be confused with the
harmless, temporary pink or reddish tint caused by beeturia).
Blue urine can be caused by the ingestion of methylene blue (e.g., in medications).
Blue urine stains can be caused by blue diaper syndrome.
Purple urine may be due to purple urine bag syndrome.

Odor
The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific
diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened
urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones.
Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the
body's breakdown of asparagusic acid. Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol,
coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents.[citation needed] Particularly
spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys
without being fully broken down before exiting the body.

Turbidity
Turbid (cloudy) urine may be a symptom of a bacterial infection, but can also be
caused by crystallization of salts such as calcium phosphate.

pH
The pH of urine can vary between 4.6 and 8, with neutral (7) being norm. In persons with
hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in
the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. Urine pH can be monitored by a physician[12] or at
home.
A diet high in citrus, vegetables, or dairy can increase urine pH (more basic). Some
drugs also can increase urine pH, including acetazolamide, potassium citrate, and
sodium bicarbonate.[citation needed]
A diet high in meat can decrease urine pH (more acidic).[citation needed]
Cranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown
not to acidify urine. Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride,
chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine mandelate.

Volume
Average urine production in adult humans is about 1 2 L per day, depending on state
of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.
Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of
excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and
anuria one of < 100 mL per day.
Density or specific gravity
Normal urine density or specific gravity values vary between 1.0031.035 (gcm3), and
any deviations may be associated with urinary disorders.
Synovial fluid is a viscous, non-Newtonian fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints.
With its yolk-like consistency ("synovial" partially derives from ovum, Latin for egg), the
principal role of synovial fluid is to reduce friction between the articular cartilage of
synovial joints during movement.
Structure
The inner membrane of synovial joints is called the synovial membrane and secretes
synovial fluid into the joint cavity. The fluid contains hyaluronic acid secreted by
fibroblast-like cells in the synovial membrane and interstitial fluid filtered from the blood
plasma. This fluid forms a thin layer (roughly 50 m) at the surface of cartilage and also
seeps into microcavities and irregularities in the articular cartilage surface, filling all
empty space.[2] The fluid in articular cartilage effectively serves as a synovial fluid
reserve. During movement, the synovial fluid held in the cartilage is squeezed out
mechanically to maintain a layer of fluid on the cartilage surface (so-called weeping
lubrication). The functions of the synovial fluid include:
reduction of friction synovial fluid lubricates the articulating joints
shock absorption as a dilatant fluid, synovial fluid is characterized by the rare quality
of becoming more viscous under applied pressure; the synovial fluid in diarthrotic joints
becomes thick the moment shear is applied in order to protect the joint and
subsequently, thins to normal viscosity instantaneously to resume its lubricating function
between shocks
nutrient and waste transportation the fluid supplies oxygen and nutrients and
removes carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes within the
surrounding cartilage.
Composition
Synovial tissue is sterile and composed of vascularized connective tissue that lacks a
basement membrane. Two cell types (type A and type B) are present: Type A is derived
from blood monocytes, and it removes the wear-and-tear debris from the synovial fluid.
Type B produces synovial fluid. Synovial fluid is made of hyaluronic acid and lubricin,
proteinases, and collagenases. Synovial fluid exhibits non-Newtonian flow
characteristics; the viscosity coefficient is not a constant and the fluid is not linearly
viscous. Synovial fluid has thixotropic characteristics; viscosity decreases and the fluid
thins over a period of continued stress.
Normal synovial fluid contains 34 mg/ml hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid), a polymer of
disaccharides composed of D-glucuronic acid and D-N-acetylglucosamine joined by
alternating beta-1,4 and beta-1,3 glycosidic bonds. Hyaluronan is synthesized by the
synovial membrane and secreted into the joint cavity to increase the viscosity and
elasticity of articular cartilages and to lubricate the surfaces between synovium and
cartilage.
Synovial fluid contains lubricin (also known as PRG4) as a second lubricating
component, secreted by synovial fibroblasts. Chiefly, it is responsible for so-called
boundary-layer lubrication, which reduces friction between opposing surfaces of
cartilage. There also is some evidence that it helps regulate synovial cell growth.
It also contains phagocytic cells that remove microbes and the debris that results from
normal wear and tear in the joint.

Saliva is a watery substance located in the mouths of animals, secreted by the salivary
glands. Human saliva is 99.5% water, while the other 0.5% consists of electrolytes, mucus,
glycoproteins, enzymes, and antibacterial compounds such as secretory IgA and
lysozyme. The enzymes found in saliva are essential in beginning the process of
digestion of dietary starches and fats. These enzymes also play a role in breaking down
food particles entrapped within dental crevices, protecting teeth from bacterial decay.
Furthermore, saliva serves a lubricative function, wetting food and permitting the
initiation of swallowing, and protecting the mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity from
desiccation.
Various species have special uses for saliva that go beyond predigestion. Some swifts
use their gummy saliva to build nests. Aerodramus nests are prized for use in bird's nest
soup. Cobras, vipers, and certain other members of the venom clade hunt with
venomous saliva injected by fangs. Some arthropods, such as spiders and caterpillars,
create thread from salivary glands.
Functions
Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene.
Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental carries, gum disease
(gingivitis), and other oral problems increases significantly.
1. Lubricant
Saliva coats the oral mucosa, mechanically protecting it from trauma during
eating, swallowing and speaking. In persons with little saliva (xerostomia),
soreness of the mouth is very common, and the food (especially dry food) sticks
to the inside of the mouth.

2. Digestion
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a
food bolus. This lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed
easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase,
also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars
such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small
intestine. Only about 30% starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity.
Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to
begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn
infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.

3. Antimicrobial function
Saliva has both a mechanical cleansing action and a specific (immunoglobulins,
e.g. IgA) and non-specific immunologic action (e.g. lysozyme, lactoferrin and
myeloperoxidase). These factors control the micro-organisms that survive in the
mouth. It also has a protective function, helping to prevent dental plaque build-
up on the teeth and washing away adhered food particles. Saliva is also key in
preventing ascending infections of the salivary glands (e.g. parotitis).

4. Ion reservoir, buffer function
Saliva is supersaturated with various ions. Certain salivary proteins prevents
precipitation, which would form salts. These ions act as a buffer, keeping the
acidity of the mouth within a certain range, typically pH 6.27.4. This prevents
minerals in the dental hard tissues from dissolving.

5. Hormonal function
Saliva secretes carbonic anhydrase (gustin), which is thought to play a role in the
development of taste buds.

6. Role in taste
Saliva is very important in the sense of taste. It is the liquid medium in which
chemicals are carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated with lingual
papillae). Persons with little saliva often complain of dysgeusia (i.e. disordered
taste, e.g. reduced ability to taste, or having a bad, metallic taste at all times).

7. Wound licking
A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants,
which leads people to believe it is beneficial to "lick their wounds". Researchers
at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve
growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed
twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to
heal wound in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however,
researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory
IgA, lactoferrin, lysozyme and peroxidase.[7] It has not been shown that human
licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by
removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove
infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of
wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or
person. The mouth of animals is the habitat of many bacteria, some pathogenic.
Some diseases, such as herpes, can be transmitted through the mouth. Animal
and human bites are routinely treated with systemic antibiotics because of the
risk of septicemia.

8. Glue to construct bird nests
Many birds in the swift family, Apodidae, produce a viscous saliva during nesting
season to glue together materials to construct a nest.[8] Two species of swifts in
the genus Aerodramus build their nests using only their saliva, the base for bird's
nest soup.
References:
Boron, Walter F. (2003). Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approach.
Elsevier/Saunders
Maton, Anthea (1993). Human Biology and Health. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.