Kinh Te Va Quan Ly Moi Truong

Trng i hc kinh t quc dn
Khoa Kinh t - Qun l Mi trng v th

B mn kinh t v qun l mi trng
-------------------------&---------------------------
Ch bin: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh

Gio trnh

Kinh t v Qun l mi trng

H Ni - 2003

http://www.ebook.edu.vn
Li ni u

Kinh t v Qun l mi trng trang b cho sinh vin cc ngnh kinh t v qun tr
kinh doanh nhng kin thc c bn v kinh t hc mi trng, qun l mi trng
xem xt trn gc kinh t. y l mn hc bt buc thuc nhm cc mn hc c
s cho tt c cc ngnh hc i hc Kinh t Quc dn t trc ti nay. hiu
r hn mi quan h gia kinh t v mi trng, t c mt cch ng x hp l
cho cc nh kinh t v qun tr kinh doanh trong hot ng thc tin i vi nhng
vn lin quan n mi trng, mn hc phn tch mi quan h gia mi
trng v pht trin; nhng vn c bn v kinh t hc cht lng mi trng;
nh gi tc ng mi trng v phn tch kinh t ca nhng tc ng mi trng;
nhng vn lin quan gia khan him ti nguyn, dn s, kinh t v mi trng
v nhng ni dung kin thc c bn ca qun l mi trng ph hp vi hon c
nh c th ca Vit Nam v xu hng bin i mi trng ton cu.
Gio trnh Kinh t v Qun l mi trng do tp th cc nh khoa hc ca B mn
Kinh t v Qun l mi trng, i hc Kinh t Quc dn tin hnh b sung, sa
cha v cp nht nhng kin thc mi trn c s gio trnh kinh t mi trng do
c GS.TSKH. ng Nh Ton ch bin, c Nh xut bn Gio dc xut bn
nm 1996.
Tham gia bin son v sa i gio trnh gm c PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh,
ThS. L Thu Hoa, GVC. L Trng Hoa, GVC. Nguyn Duy Hng, c th cc
chng nh sau:
Chng m u: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh
Chng I: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh, GVC. Nguyn Duy Hng, GVC. L Trng
Hoa.
Chng II: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh, ThS. L Thu Hoa, GVC. L Trng Hoa.
Chng III: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh, GVC. Nguyn Duy Hng, GVC. L
Trng Hoa.
Chng IV: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh, ThS. L Thu Hoa
Chng V: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh, GVC. L Trng Hoa, ThS. L Thu Hoa,
GVC. Nguyn Duy Hng.
Ch bin: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh.
K t khi bt u tin hnh bin son cho n khi kt thc, chng ti c s gp
tn tnh v ni dung chuyn mn, cng nh yu cu sa i ca cc tc gi:

6
GS.TSKH. L Du Phong, GS.TS. Nguyn K Tun, GS.TS. L Thng, PGS.TS.
ng Kim Chi, PGS.TS. Hong Vn Hoa, GS. TS. Hong Ton v nhiu nh
khoa hc khc. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n nhng s ng gp kin qu
bu . Nhn dp ny, chng ti cng xin c by t lng bit n chn thnh ca
mnh ti GS. TS. Nguyn nh Hng, nguyn Hiu trng i hc Kinh t Quc
dn, GS.TS. Nguyn Vn Thng, hiu trng i hc Kinh t Quc dn, Hi
ng khoa hc i hc Kinh t Quc dn, phng o to v c nhn GVC. V Huy
Tin to mi iu kin thun li chng ti hon thnh cng vic ca mnh.
Mc d c gng bm st ni dung yu cu sa i sau khi thm nh v c gng
cp nht thng tin, nhng do tnh cht c th ca mn hc, cng nh s bin i
lin tc ca s vn ng v pht trin ca khoa hc v thc tin, chng ti ngh
rng s khng trnh khi nhng thiu st v ni dung cng nh hnh thc trnh by,
chng ti mong nhn c nhng kin ng gp chn tnh t pha c gi v
ngi hc. Thay mt nhm tc gi bin son, xin c gii thiu gio trnh kinh t
v qun l mi trng cp nht v sa i.

PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh

7
Chng m u

I. Khi qut v kinh t v mi trng
Kinh t mi trng mi ch xut hin v pht trin trong nhng thp k cui ca
th k XX do nhu cu bc bch ca thc tin. hiu r hn ni dung nghin cu
ca mn khoa hc non tr ny, trc ht cn phi nm bn c c s nn tng ca
kinh t hc.
Kinh t hc l mn khoa hc nghin cu v vic con ngi v x hi la chn nh
th no s dng nhng ngun ti nguyn khan him nhm sn xut ra cc loi
hng ho (dch v) v phn phi cho tiu dng hin ti hoc tng lai ca cc c
nhn v cc nhm ngi trong x hi.
Kinh t hc ra i cch y hn hai th k, k t khi Adam Smith cho xut bn
cun sch "Ca ci ca cc dn tc" vo nm 1776.
Kinh t hc c th c phn chia theo cc lnh vc ca i sng kinh t, theo
hng nghin cu hoc theo phng php lun ang c s dng v.v, nhng
cch chia kinh t hc thnh kinh t hc v m v kinh t hc vi m l cch phn
loi ph bin nht, v n bao qut c mt s lng cc mn kinh t chuyn su
theo tng lnh vc c th.
Kinh t hc v m tp trung ch yu vo nghin cu cc quan h tng tc trong
nn kinh t. N c n gin ho cc khi cu trc ring bit trong phn tch nhm
lm cho qu trnh phn tch ton b mi quan h tng tc trong nn kinh t c th
nm bt c mt cch d dng. V d, cc nh kinh t v m thng khng quan
tm n vic phn loi hng tiu dng thnh cc mt hng nh xe p, m t, v
tuyn hay my tnh, m h thng nghin cu tt c cc mt hng ny di dng
nhm "hng tiu dng", v h quan tm ch yu n mi quan h tng tc gia
vic mua hng tiu dng ca cc c nhn v h gia nh v quyt nh mua sm
my mc, thit b, nh xng ca cc hng.
Kinh t vi m phn tch v nghin cu chi tit cc quyt nh c nhn v loi hng
ho (dch v) c th. V d, ta c th nghin cu xem ti sao cc h gia nh li
thch mua m t hn l xe p v ngi sn xut quyt nh nh th no trong vic
la chn sn xut m t hay xe p. Sau , ta c th tp hp cc quyt nh ca tt
c cc h gia nh v ca tt c cc cng ty (ngi sn xut) li bn xem tng
mc mua v tng sn lng m t l bao nhiu. Trong kinh t vi m, l thuyt cn
bng tng th l mt lnh vc kh phc tp. L thuyt ny nghin cu ng thi tt

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c cc th trng cho tt c cc loi hng ho (dch v). T , bng cch suy lun
lgc, ta c th hiu c ton b c cu tiu dng, sn xut v trao i trong ton
b nn kinh t ti mt thi im nht nh.
Kinh t mi trng nghin cu cc vn mi trng vi vin cnh v nhng
tng phn tch kinh t. N khai thc t c hai pha: kinh t v m v kinh t vi m,
nhng t kinh t vi m nhiu hn. Kinh t mi trng tp trung ch yu vo vn
ngi ta ra quyt nh nh th no, ti sao gy ra nhng hu qu i vi mi
trng v chng ta c th thay i cc th ch, chnh sch kinh t ra sao a cc
tc ng mi trng vo th cn bng hn, n nh hn vi nhng mong mun v
yu cu ca chng ta v ca bn thn h sinh thi. V vy, mt trong nhng vic
u tin l phi lm quen vi nhng tng c bn v cc cng c phn tch ca
kinh t vi m. Da vo nhng c s phng php lun v phng php ca kinh t
vi m, cc nh kinh t mi trng phi l gii mt cch ng n v r rng hng
lot vn t ra nh ti sao mi trng li b suy thoi, s suy thoi mi trng
dn n nhng hu qu g v c th lm g ngn chn v gim s suy thoi mi
trng mt cch c hiu qu nht? C nhiu loi cu tr li cho cc vn nu
trn. Chng hn, ta c th cho rng mi trng b suy thoi l do hnh vi v thi
ng x ca con ngi tri vi lun thng, o l. V th, bo v tt mi trng,
cn phi khng ngng nng cao nhn thc v mi trng, thng xuyn gio dc
o c mi trng cho ton th cng ng bng nhiu hnh thc khc nhau.
cng l mi quan tm hng u ca bt c mt x hi vn minh no. Tuy nhin,
nng cao thc trch nhim, gio dc o c mi trng l vic lm thng
xuyn, l mt qu trnh lu di nhm ci to v xy dng mi o c, tc phong
v li sng sao cho thn thin vi mi trng. lm c vic , i hi phi c
thi gian v khng th cng mt lc gii quyt c tt c cc vn mi trng
quan trng v cp bch ang t ra.
Cch tr li th hai cho vn ti sao ngi ta li gy nhim mi trng, lm
cho mi trng b suy thoi l cch xem xt v mt kinh t v xem xt cc c
quan, thit ch kinh t (v x hi) c cu trc ra sao v hot ng nh th no
m c th to iu kin d dng cho ngi ta ph hoi mi trng. (C quan, thit
ch kinh t chng ti dng y l bao gm cc t chc cng cng v t nhn, lut
php v cc t chc m x hi s dng cu trc hot ng kinh t. V d: th
trng, cc cng ty, s hng cng cng, c quan lut thng mi, v.v). Chng ta
d nhn bit rng, ngi ta gy nhim, lm suy thoi mi trng l v l
phng cch r tin nht gii quyt cht thi cn li sau khi ngi tiu dng
dng xong mt th g , hoc sau khi ngi sn xut sn xut xong mt th g
. Ngi c nhng quyt nh ny v sn xut, tiu th v thanh ton cht thi
trong phm vi mt s c quan, thit ch kinh t v x hi. Cc c quan, thit ch
ny cu trc nn nhng khuyn khch, dn dt ngi ta quyt nh theo hng ny,

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ch khng phi theo hng khc. Nh vy, vn t ra y l nghin cu v
thit k quy trnh khuyn khch hot ng c hiu qu, c bit l cu trc li n
sao cho c th nh hng ngi ta ra cc quyt nh ng n, ph hp vi mc
tiu bo v mi trng, pht trin phong cch v li sng thn thin, lnh mnh vi
mi trng.
C kin cho rng, ngi ta gy nhim, lm suy thoi mi trng l v ng c
li nhun. Do , cch duy nht gim nhim mi trng, nng cao cht lng
mi trng l lm gim ng c li nhun. iu ny ng, nhng hon ton cha
, bi v khng ch c cc cng ty, x nghip do ng c li nhun thc y, nn
gy ra nhim mi trng, m c cc c nhn ngi tiu dng cng ang gy ra
nhim mi trng khi rc thi ba bi xung cc cng rnh, ao, h hoc s dng
cc phng tin giao thng c ng c c k, lc hu, x nhiu khi, v.v, y,
cc c nhn ngi tiu dng khng h ngh n l hay li, cho nn bn thn li
nhun khng phi l nguyn nhn lm cho ngi ta gy nhim mi trng.
Tng t nh vy, nhiu doanh nghip Nh nc sn xut cc hng ho (dch v)
cng cng i khi gy nhim mi trng nghim trng m khng h b thc
y bi ng c li nhun. Hoc l, trong cc nn kinh t k hoch ho tp trung
quan liu, bao cp trc y l nhng nn kinh t thiu ng c li nhun, nhng
mi trng vn b suy thoi nghim trng mt s vng; khng kh v ngun nc
b nhim nng nhiu thnh ph v khu cng nghip, gy nh hng xu ti sc
kho ca dn c v ph v cn bng sinh thi, v.v Nh vy, ng c li nhun
bn thn n khng phi l nguyn nhn chnh gy ra s suy thoi, nhim mi
trng.
Nhng iu phn tch trn chng t rng, cc khuyn khch c tm quan trng c
bit trong hot ng ca mt h thng kinh t. Thut ng "khuyn khch" y
c hiu l mt ci g ht ngi ta vo hay y ngi ta ra khi mt chun
(ch) nht nh, kch thch, hng v dn dt ngi ta pht huy cch ng x hp
chun, sa i cch ng x lch chun. "Khuyn khch kinh t" l mt ci g
thuc phm tr kinh t c tc dng hng dn ngi ta tp trung c gng ca mnh
vo sn xut hoc tiu dng kinh t theo mt s hng nht nh. Khuyn khch
kinh t khng ch l s tr cng bng ca ci vt cht, hng dn hnh vi, cch ng
x ca ngi ta sao cho c th thu c ngy cng nhiu ca ci vt cht m cn c
c nhng khuyn khch phi vt cht, hng dn ngi ta thay i hnh vi, thi
kinh t, v d nh lng t trng, s mong mun c mt cnh quan mi trng xanh,
sch, p hay c vng to nn mt tm gng tt cho ngi khc noi theo.
Bt c mt h thng kinh t no cng s gy ra nhng tc ng ph hoi mi
trng, nu nh cc khuyn khch trong h thng kinh t khng c cu trc
trnh cc tc ng xu. Cc nh kinh t mi trng cn phi i nghin cu bn

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cht, c ch hot ng ca cc h thng kinh t hiu c cc h thng khuyn
khch ca chng hot ng ra sao v c th thay i chng nh th no c c
mt nn kinh t pht trin mt cch hp l, hot ng c hiu qu, m khng gy ra
nhng tc ng xu n mi trng. Cc h thng khuyn khch rt phong ph v
a dng, c th c phn thnh cc nhm ch yu sau y:
- Cc khuyn khch c nhn v h gia nh nhm gim dn lng cht thi trong
sinh hot v tng cng s dng cc sn phm c t cht thi hn. V d: p dng
ch tr tin l ph theo s lng rc thi hng thng hay hng nm thay cho
thu l ph thu gom rc thi qun bnh v c nh theo thi gian hay theo u ngi.
- Cc khuyn khch doanh nghip Nh nc v t nhn, c bit l cc doanh
nghip cng nghip, nhm thc y cc doanh nghip tm mi cch gim cc
cht thi trong qu trnh sn xut bng cch thng qua v cng ch thi hnh cc
lut, php lnh, ngh nh, quy ch c lin quan n bo v mi trng, bng cch
son tho v p dng h thng khuyn khch ti chnh sao cho c th hp dn cc
doanh nghip gy nhim t hn. V d: kt hp thu ti sn ca doanh nghip vi
thnh tch bo v mi trng; tu theo mc gy nhim mi trng ca doanh
nghip m nh thu cao hay thp, hoc xt min gim thu. Nu doanh nghip thi
nhiu cht c hi lm nhim mi trng th s b nh thu cao v ngc li.
- Cc khuyn khch ngnh nhm hnh thnh v pht trin ngnh cng nghip mi
trng v cc ngnh sn xut khc da trn c s s dng cc quy trnh cng ngh
khng c hoc c t cht thi. Cng nghip mi trng l ngnh cng nghip pht
trin cc phng php k thut x l cht thi, ti tun hon, sn xut cc my
mc, thit b mi kim tra nhim mi trng v nghin cu, p dng cng ngh
mi gim st nhim mi trng. Xy dng v pht trin rng ri cc quy trnh
cng ngh khng c hoc c t cht thi nhm cung cp cho th trng cc sn
phm mi khng c hi cho mi trng, sch v an ton i vi sc kho ca con
ngi.
- Son tho chnh sch mi trng nhm ci thin cht lng mi trng mt cch
c hiu qu.
Trong vic son tho cc chnh sch mi trng, kinh t mi trng ng vai tr
ch yu nht. C rt nhiu kiu, loi chng trnh v chnh sch cng cng dnh
cho cc vn mi trng tt c cc cp: a phng, vng, quc gia, tiu khu
vc, khu vc v quc t. Chng khc nhau nhiu v hiu qu cng nh hiu lc.
Mt s cc chng trnh v chnh sch mi trng c son tho tt v r rng l
c nhng tc ng tch cc, c li cho mi trng. Cn a s cc chng trnh v
chnh sch mi trng cha c son tho tt nn cha i vo thc t cuc sng,
hiu qu thp. Chnh v hiu qu chi ph thp, thm ch khng c hiu qu, nn
chng thng kt thc vi nhng chi ph rt ln v t c tc dng i vi vic ci

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thin cht lng mi trng. V th, vic nghin cu son tho cc chnh sch
mi trng sao cho c hiu qu, c hiu lc v kh thi l mt nhim v cc k
quan trng ca kinh t mi trng.
Cc nhm khuyn khch nu trn l nhng vn ca kinh t v m. Chng nh
hng hnh vi v thi ng x hp l ca cc c nhn v tp th ngi tiu dng
cng nh ngi sn xut. Tuy nhin, cc vn mi trng cn lin quan cht ch
vi thi ca kinh t hc v m, tc l lin quan cht ch vi c cu v thnh tu
kinh t ca c mt quc gia vi t cch l mt n v thng nht, bi v khi chng
ta nghin cu cc vn nh tng sn phm quc ni (GDP), t l lm pht, t l
tht nghip, v.v l chng ta ang tp trung vo nhng thnh tu ca quc gia
nh l mt tng th, ngha l chng ta ang nghin cu kinh t v m.
Cc bin php kim sot nhim mi trng c quan h rt mt thit vi t l tht
nghip v tng trng kinh t. y c hng lot cc cu hi m cc nh kinh t
mi trng cn phi tm cho c cc cu tr li ng n, tho ng.V d: Cc
chnh sch mi trng nghim ngt hn c to ra khuynh hng lm chm s tng
trng kinh t v lm tng t l tht nghip hay khng? Nu c, th bao nhiu? Cc
quy tc, iu l v mi trng c tc ng n t l lm pht hay khng? Nu c,
th tc ng nh th no?
Ngc li, cc vn ca kinh t v m cng lin quan cht ch vi cc vn mi
trng. y cng tn ti v s cc cu hi thuc phm tr kinh t mi trng.
Chng hn, tng trng kinh t c tc ng n cht lng mi trng hay khng?
Nu c, th tc ng nh th no? C phi t l tng trng cng cao, ngha l bin
php truyn thng ca chng ta nh GDP, th mi trng cng b suy thoi hay
khng, hay l ngc li? y l nhng vn c ngha rt ln i vi cc nc
ang pht trin, c bit l i vi nc ta ang bc vo thi k mi - thi k y
mnh cng nghip ho v hin i ho.
Kinh t mi trng s dng rt nhiu loi cng c phn tch, trc ht l phn tch
chi ph - hiu qu v phn tch chi ph - li ch.
Phn tch chi ph - hiu qu l cng c m cc nh kinh t mi trng s dng
tm cch lm sao cho c th hon thnh tt mc tiu cht lng mi trng cho
vi s tin t nht. Ni cch khc l h tm cch tn t tin nht hon thnh mc
tiu ci thin cht lng mi trng nh no . V d: phn tch chi ph - hiu
qu ca cc phng n k thut gim thiu tiu th nhin liu - nng lng, nguyn
vt liu trong sn xut sao cho tn t tin nht m vn bo m s lng v cht
lng sn phm cung cp cho th trng.
Khi phn tch chi ph - hiu qu, cc nh kinh t mi trng ch quan tm n chi
ph thc hin mt vi mc tiu mi trng ra, cn trong phn tch chi ph - li

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ch, th c chi ph ln li ch ca mt chng trnh hay mt chnh sch no c
o lng v biu din bng nhng iu kin c th so snh vi nhau c. Phn
tch chi ph - li ch l cng c phn tch ch yu m cc nh kinh t mi trng
dng nh gi cc quyt nh v mi trng. N c s dng vo nhng nm
u th k XX nh gi mt s d n nh pht trin ngun nc chng hn.
Ngy nay, n c s dng rng ri trong ton b khu vc cng cng. i khi
ngi ta dng n h tr cho vic la chn chnh sch hu hiu nht, i khi mt
cng ty no dng n bin minh cho iu h mun lm v i khi cc c quan
Chnh ph dng n trong vic nghin cu ban hnh hoc xo b cc quy ch, th
ch. Phn tch li ch - chi ph l cng c quan trng nht v c s dng rng ri
nht trong kinh t mi trng.
Kinh t mi trng cn quan tm nghin cu v gii quyt cc vn quc t ca
mi trng. Khng phi tt c cc vn v mi trng u lin quan n nhim
v cng khng phi tt c cc vn mi trng u xy ra trong cc nc ring
l. Mi trng l vn mang tnh vng, khng phn bit ranh gii hnh chnh a
phng hay quc gia. Mi trng tr thnh vn ton cu. gii quyt
nhng vn mi trng cp bch ton cu nh bo tn a dng sinh hc, s thay
i kh hu, v.v, cn ng vin tr tu v ngun lc ca mi quc gia, cn n lc
chung ca cng ng th gii. Nhim v ca cc nh kinh t mi trng l nghin
cu cc phng php chi ph hu hiu nht, vn thc hin quyn ti sn quc
gia, vn chuyn giao cng nghip quc t, vn phn chia chi ph cho cc nc
giu v cc nc ngho sao cho cng bng, vn chia s li ch dch v mi
trng v.v
II. i tng ca mn hc
Mi trng (MT) ang l vn cp bch ca thi i, l thch thc gay gt i
vi tng lai pht trin ca tt c cc quc gia trn hnh tinh, trong c Vit
Nam. Gii quyt vn v cng rng ln v phc tp ny, i hi s c gng
thng xuyn, n lc chung ca mi c nhn, mi cng ng, mi quc gia v ton
th nhn loi, i hi s hp tc cht ch lin ngnh ca nhiu mn khoa hc, trong
c Kinh t mi trng (Environmental Economics).
Kinh t mi trng l mt mn khoa hc nghin cu mi quan h tng tc, ph
thuc v quy nh ln nhau gia kinh t v mi trng (h thng h tr cuc sng
ca tri t) nhm bo m mt s pht trin n nh, hiu qu, lin tc v bn
vng trn c s bo v mi trng v ly con ngi lm trung tm.

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III. Nhim v ca mn hc
1. Trang b nhng c s phng php lun v phng php nghin cu mi quan
h bin chng gia pht trin kinh t v bo v mi trng .
2. Trang b nhng c s l lun nhn nhn, phn tch nh gi mi trng trong
bi cnh ca c ch th trng.
3. nh gi nhng tc ng (tch cc v tiu cc) ca cc hot ng pht trin
(kinh t v x hi) n mi trng. Tip cn phn tch kinh t ca nhng tc ng
ti mi trng.
4. Nghin cu mi quan h tng tc gia ti nguyn, dn s, kinh t v mi
trng.
5. Gp phn thm nh cc chng trnh, k hoch, d n pht trin thng qua phn
tch chi ph - li ch v phn tch chi ph - hiu qu.
6. Gp phn hoch nh cc chnh sch v chin lc pht trin, nhng phng
thc qun l mi trng hp l.
7. Nng cao nhn thc v mi trng, v mi quan h cht ch, ph thuc v quy
nh ln nhau gia mi trng v pht trin mi c nhn, mi cng ng c
hnh vi ng n v mc ch pht trin bn vng. c bit l i vi cc chuyn
gia kinh t v qun tr kinh doanh.
IV. Phng php nghin cu mn hc
L mt mn khoa hc cn non tr, lin ngnh v mang tnh tng hp cao, Kinh t
mi trng s dng nhiu quan im, nhiu phng php tip cn v nghin cu
khc nhau, truyn thng cng nh hin i. Trong phi k n trc ht l:
1. Quan im v phng php duy vt bin chng v duy vt lch s.
Duy vt bin chng v duy vt lch s cho php chng ta nhn nhn v gii quyt
vn c c s khoa hc, m bo tnh lo gic, chng hn nhim v suy thoi mi
trng hay s gim st a dng sinh hc c ngun gc t u, hu qu ca nhng
hin tng ny s gy ra nhng tc hi v kinh t nh th no? S dng cc quan
im v phng php ny s loi tr c nhng nh gi c tnh ch quan, duy
ch.
2. Quan im phn tch tnh, phn tch tnh so snh v phn tch ng.
- Phn tch tnh thc cht l phn tch cn bng hiu qu.
- Phn tch tnh so snh thng c s dng khi c s thay i ca ngoi
cnh nh bin ng v gi do tc ng ngoi ng. Phng php s dng thng l

14
phn tch bin, s dng php ton vi phn xem xt.
- Phn tch ng l phng php phn tch v xem xt bin thin theo thi
gian.
3. Tip cn h thng, phn tch h thng v cn bng vt cht.
Mi trng thc cht l mt h thng ca cc thnh phn t nhin v vt cht nhn
to c mi quan h rng buc vi nhau trong mt trng thi cn bng ng, chnh
v vy s dng phng php phn tch h thng v cn bng vt cht cho php tm
ra c nhng thnh phn mi trng b tc ng, t xc nh nguyn nhn gy
ra bin i mi trng, s mt cn bng ca h thng vt cht, tc ng ti hot
ng kinh t v cuc sng con ngi.
4. Cc phng php nh gi tc ng mi trng (EIA), lng ha tc ng ti
mi trng.
S dng cc phng php nh gi tc ng ti mi trng l c s chng ta
lng ho nhng tc ng ra gia tr tin t. Nhng phng php ny ch yu
c s dng nh gi nhng thit hi gy ra cho mi trng.
5. Phng php phn tch chi ph - li ch.
Vi phng php ny ch yu s dng quan im phn tch kinh t nghin cu.
Chi ph v li ch trong nghin cu kinh t mi trng khng ch tnh ti chi ph v
li ch c nhn m cn bao gm c nhng chi ph v li ch i vi ti nguyn v
mi trng.
6. Phng php m hnh.
Kinh t hc mi trng hin i thng s dng cc m hnh lng ho gi tr
bng tin cc tc ng ti mi trng hoc d bo xu hng ca nhng bin i v
kinh t do tc ng ti mi trng. Nhng m hnh thng s dng c ngun gc
t c s ton hc v m hnh kinh t truyn thng c m rng v tnh ti cc yu
t mi trng.

Tm tt chng m u.

Trong phn mt khi qut v kinh t v mi trng, trong phn tch xut x v
s ra i ca Kinh t hc mi trng, lin quan ca mn hc ny vi cc mn khoa

15
hc khc, c bit l vi kinh t hc vi m v kinh t hc v m, trn c s lm
r tnh c th ca kinh t hc mi trng l g?
Trong phn hai v i tng ca mn hc, phn tch ca ni dung ch r vn c
bn l nghin cu mi quan h ga Kinh t v mi trng.
Phn ba v nhim v ca mn hc, c by nhim v c bn c trnh by khi thc
hin nghin cu ni dung khoa hc lin quan n Kinh t mi trng.
Phn bn trnh by su quan im v phng php nghin cu c bn i hi
ngi hc cn phi nm c khi nghin cu Kinh t mi trng.

Cu hi n tp chng m u.

1. Vai tr v v tr ca Kinh t mi trng trong h thng cc khoa hc Kinh t.
2. Trnh by i tng, nhim v v phng php nghin cu mn Kinh t mi
trng.

16
Chng I
Mi trng v pht trin

I. Mi trng
1. Khi nim v mi trng
1.1. Khi nim chung v mi trng
Mi trng l mt khi nim rt rng, c nh ngha theo nhiu cch khc nhau,
c bit sau hi ngh Stockholm v mi trng 1972. Tuy nhin nghin cu v
nhng khi nim lin quan n nh ngha a ra trong lut bo v mi trng ca
Vit nam, c nhng khi nim ng ch sau y.
Mt nh ngha ni ting ca S.V.Kalesnik (1959, 1970): "Mi trng (c nh
ngha vi mi trng a l) ch l mt b phn ca tri t bao quanh con ngi,
m mt thi im nht nh x hi loi ngi c quan h tng h trc tip vi
n, ngha l mi trng c quan h mt cch gn gi nht vi i sng v hot
ng sn xut ca con ngi" (xem S.V.Kalesnik: Cc quy lut a l chung ca
tri t. M.1970, tr. 209-212).
Mt nh ngha khc ca vin s I.P.Gheraximov (1972) a ra nh ngha mi
trng nh sau: "Mi trng (bao quanh) l khung cnh ca lao ng, ca cuc
sng ring t v ngh ngi ca con ngi", trong mi trng t nhin l c s
cn thit cho s sinh tn ca nhn loi.
Gn y trong bo co ton cu nm 2000, cng b 1982 nu ra nh ngha mi
trng sau y: "Theo t ngha, mi trng l nhng vt th vt l v sinh hc bao
quanh loi ngi Mi quan h gia loi ngi v mi trng ca n cht ch n
mc m s phn bit gia cc c th con ngi vi mi trng b xo nho i".
Trong quyn "a l hin ti, tng lai. Hiu bit v qu t, hnh tinh ca chng
ta, Magnard. P, 1980", nu ra kh y khi nim mi trng: "Mi trng l
tng hp - mt thi im nht nh - cc trng hung vt l, ho hc, sinh hc v
cc yu t x hi c kh nng gy ra mt tc ng trc tip hay gin tip, tc thi
hay theo k hn, i vi cc sinh vt hay i vi cc hot ng ca con ngi"
Trong Tuyn ngn ca UNESCO nm 1981, mi trng c hiu l "Ton b cc
h thng t nhin v cc h thng do con ngi to ra xung quanh mnh, trong
con ngi sinh sng v bng lao ng ca mnh khai thc cc ti nguyn thin

17
nhin hoc nhn to nhm tho mn cc nhu cu ca con ngi".
Trong quyn: "Mi trng v ti nguyn Vit Nam" - NXB Khoa hc v k thut,
H., 1984, a ra nh ngha: "Mi trng l mt ni chn trong s cc ni chn,
nhng c th l mt ni chn ng ch , th hin cc mu sc x hi ca mt thi
k hay mt x hi". Cng c nhng tc gi a ra nh ngha ngn gn hn, chng
hn nh R.G.Sharme (1988) a ra mt nh ngha: "Mi trng l tt c nhng g
bao quanh con ngi".
thng nht v mt nhn thc, chng ta s dng nh ngha trong "Lut bo v
mi trng" c Quc hi nc CHXHCN Vit Nam kho IX, k hp th t
thng qua ngy 27 - 12 -1993 nh ngha khi nim mi trng nh sau:
"Mi trng bao gm cc yu t t nhin v yu t vt cht nhn to, quan h mt
thit vi nhau, bao quanh con ngi, c nh hng ti i sng, sn xut, s tn
ti, pht trin ca con ngi v thin nhin" (iu 1. Lut bo v mi trng ca
Vit Nam)
Khi nim chung v mi trng trn y c c th ho i vi tng i tng v
mc ch nghin cu khc nhau.
1.2. Mi trng sng
i vi cc c th sng th mi trng sng l tng hp nhng iu kin bn ngoi
nh vt l, ho hc, sinh hc c lin quan n s sng. N c nh hng ti i
sng, s tn ti v pht trin ca cc c th sng. Nhng iu kin ch c trn
tri t, trnh khoa hc hin nay cha xc nh c cc hnh tinh khc trong v
tr c mi trng ph hp cho s sng.
1.3. Mi trng sng ca con ngi
Mi trng sng ca con ngi trc ht phi l mi trng sng. Tuy nhin i
vi con ngi th mi trng sng ca con ngi l tng hp cc iu kin vt l,
ho hc, sinh hc, x hi bao quanh con ngi v c nh hng ti s sng v pht
trin ca tng c nhn, tng cng ng v ton b loi ngi trn hnh tinh. Nh
vy nu so snh gia mi trng sng v mi trng sng ca con ngi th mi
trng sng ca con ngi i hi nhung iu kin rng buc nghim ngt hn.
Nh vy trn hnh tinh tri t khng gian mi trng sng ca con ngi cng b
thu hp hn.
Lin quan n khi nim mi trng, cn c khi nim h sinh thi. l h
thng cc qun th sinh vt cng sng v cng pht trin trong mt mi trng nht
nh, c quan h tng tc vi nhau v vi mi trng .
Khi nghin cu mi trng, chng ta thng s dng khi nim a dng sinh hc;
l s phong ph v ngun gen, v ging, loi sinh vt v h sinh thi trong t

18
nhin. Khi xem xt a dng sinh hc c xt 3 cp : cp loi, cp qun th v
qun x
- i vi a dng sinh hc cp loi, bao gm ton b cc sinh vt sng trn tri t,
t vi khun n cc loi thc, ng vt v cc loi nm.
- cp qun th, a dng sinh hc bao gm s khc bit v gen gia cc loi, khc
bit v gen gia cc qun th sng cch ly nhau v a l cng nh khc bit gia
cc c th cng chung sng trong mt qun th.
- a dng sinh hc cn bao gm c s khc bit gia cc qun x m trong cc
loi sinh sng v cc h sinh thi, ni m cc loi cng nh cc qun x sinh vt
tn ti v c s khc bit ca cc mi trng tng tc gia chng vi nhau.
1.4. Cc thnh phn ca Mi trng
Thnh phn mi trng ht sc phc tp, trong mi trng cha ng v s cc
yu t hu sinh v v sinh, v vy kh m din t ht cc thnh phn mi trng.
tm v m xt th thnh phn mi trng c th chia ra 5 quyn sau y.
- Kh quyn: kh quyn l vng nm ngoi v tri t vi chiu cao t 0 - 100 km.
Trong kh quyn tn ti cc yu t vt l nh nhit, p sut, ma, nng, gi, bo.
Kh quyn chia thnh nhiu lp theo cao tnh t mt t, mi lp c cc yu t
vt l, ha hc khc nhau. Tng st mt t c cc thnh phn:
Khong 79% l Nit; 20% oxy; 0,93% Argon; 0,02% Ne; 0,03% CO
2
; 0,005% He;
mt t Hydro, trong khng kh cn c hi nc v bi.
Kh quyn l b phn quan trng ca mi trng, n c hnh thnh sm nht
trong qu trnh kin to tri t.
- Thch quyn: i quyn ch phn rn ca tri t c su t 0 - 60 km tnh t
mt t v su t 0 - 20km tnh t y bin. Ngi ta gi l lp v tri t
Thch quyn cha ng cc yu t ho hc, nh cc nguyn t ho hc, cc hp
cht rn v c, hu c.
Thch quyn l c s cho s sng.
- Thu quyn : L ngun nc di mi dng. Nc c trong khng kh, trong t,
trong ao h, sng, bin v i dng. Nc cn trong c th sinh vt.
Tng lng nc trn hnh tinh khong 1,4 t Km
3
, nhng khong 97% trong l
i dng, 3% l nc ngt, tp trung phn ln cc ni bng thuc bc cc v
Nam cc. Nh vy lng nc ngt m con ngi c th s dng c chim t l
rt t ca thu quyn.
Nc l thnh phn mi trng cc k quan trng, con ngi cn n nc khng

19
ch cho sinh l hng ngy m cn cho hot ng sn xut kinh doanh v dch v
mi lc mi ni.
- Sinh quyn: Sinh quyn bao gm cc c th sng (cc loi sinh vt) v nhng b
phn ca thch quyn, Thy quyn v Kh quyn to nn mi trng sng ca cc
c th sng. V d cc vng rng, ao h, m ly, ni ang tn ti s sng.
Sinh quyn c cc thnh phn hu sinh v v sinh quan h cht ch v tng tc
phc tp vi nhau. c trng cho hot ng ca sinh quyn l cc chu trnh trao
i cht v cc chu trnh nng lng.
- Tr quyn: T khi xut hin con ngi v x hi loi ngi, do b no ngi ngy
cng hon thin nn tr tu con ngi ngy cng pht trin, n c coi nh cng
c sn xut cht xm to nn mt lng vt cht to ln, lm thay i din mo
ca hnh tinh chng ta.
Chnh v vy, ngy nay ngi ta tha nhn s tn ti ca mt quyn mi, l tr
quyn (Noosphere), bao gm cc b phn trn tri t, ti c tc ng ca tr tu
con ngi. Tr quyn l mt quyn nng ng.
S phn chia cu trc ca mi trng thnh cc quyn trn y cng rt tng i.
Thc ra trong lng mi quyn u c mt cc phn quan trng ca quyn khc,
chng b sung cho nhau rt cht ch.
2. Bn cht h thng ca mi trng
Cc nh ngha mi trng nu trn, tuy c khc nhau v quy m, gii hn, thnh
phn mi trng v.v, nhng u thng nht bn cht h thng ca mi trng
v mi quan h gia con ngi v t nhin.
Di nh sng ca cuc cch mng khoa hc - k thut hin i, mi trng cn
c hiu nh l mt h thng. Ni cch khc, mi trng mang y nhng c
trng ca h thng.
Nhng c trng c bn ca h thng mi trng l:
2.1. Tnh c cu (cu trc) phc tp
H thng mi trng (gi tt l h mi trng) bao gm nhiu phn t (thnh phn)
hp thnh. Cc phn t c bn cht khc nhau (t nhin, kinh t, dn c, x hi)
v b chi phi bi cc quy lut khc nhau, i khi i lp nhau.
C cu ca h mi trng c th hin ch yu c cu chc nng v c cu bc
thang. Theo chc nng, ngi ta c th phn h mi trng ra v s phn h.
Tng t nh vy, theo th bc (quy m), ngi ta cng c th phn ra cc phn h
t ln n nh.

20
D theo chc nng hay theo th bc, cc phn t c cu ca h mi trng thng
xuyn tc ng ln nhau, quy nh v ph thuc ln nhau (thng qua trao i vt
cht - nng lng - thng tin) lm cho h thng tn ti, hot ng v pht trin. V
vy, mi mt s thay i, d l rt nh, ca mi phn t c cu ca h mi trng
u gy ra mt phn ng dy chuyn trong ton h, lm suy gim hoc gia tng s
lng v cht lng ca n.
2.2. Tnh ng
H mi trng khng phi l mt h tnh, m lun lun thay i trong cu trc,
trong quan h tng tc gia cc phn t c cu v trong tng phn t c cu. Bt
k mt s thay i no ca h u lm cho n lch khi trng thi cn bng trc
v h la c xu hng lp li th cn bng mi. l bn cht ca qu trnh vn
ng v pht trin ca h mi trng. V th, cn bng ng l mt c tnh c bn
ca mi trng vi t cch l mt h thng. c tnh cn c tnh n trong
hot ng t duy v trong t chc thc tin ca con ngi.
2.3 Tnh m
Mi trng, d vi quy m ln nh nh th no, cng u l mt h thng m. Cc
dng vt cht, nng lng v thng tin lin tc "chy" trong khng gian v thi
gian (t h ln n h nh, t h nh n h nh hn v ngc li: t trng thi ny
sang trng thi khc, t th h ny sang th h ni tip, v.v). V th, h mi
trng rt nhy cm vi nhng thay i t bn ngoi, iu ny l gii v sao cc
vn mi trng mang tnh vng, tnh ton cu, tnh lu di (vin cnh) v n ch
c gii quyt bng n lc ca ton th cng ng, bng s hp tc gia cc quc
gia, cc khu vc trn th gii vi mt tm nhn xa, trng rng v li ch ca th h
hm nay v cc th h mai sau.
2.4 Kh nng t t chc v iu chnh
Trong h mi trng, c cc phn t c cu l vt cht sng (con ngi, gii sinh
vt) hoc l cc sn phm ca chng. Cc phn t ny c kh nng t t chc li
hot ng ca mnh v t iu chnh thch ng vi nhng thay i bn ngoi
theo quy lut tin ho, nhm hng ti trng thi n nh.
c tnh c bn ny ca h mi trng quy nh tnh cht, mc , phm vi can
thip ca con ngi, ng thi to m hng gii quyt cn bn, lu di cho cc
vn mi trng cp bch hin nay (to kh nng t phc hi ca cc ti nguyn
sinh vt suy kit, xy dng cc h cha v cc vnh ai cy xanh, nui trng
thu v hi sn, v.v)
3. Phn loi mi trng
Ty theo mc ch nghin cu v s dng, c nhiu cch phn loi mi trng

21
khc nhau. C th phn loi mi trng theo cc du hiu c trng sau y:
3.1 Theo chc nng
- Mi trng t nhin:
Mi trng t nhin bao gm cc nhn t ca t nhin tn ti khch quan ngoi
mun ca con ngi nh khng kh, t ai, ngun nc, nh sng mt tri, ng
thc vt Mi trng t nhin cung cp cc ngun ti nguyn t nhin cho ta nh
khng kh th, t xy dng nh ca, trng cy, chn nui, cc loi khong
sn cho sn xut, tiu th v l ni cha ng, ng ho cc cht thi, cung cp cho
ta cnh p gii tr tng kh nng sinh l ca con ngi.
- Mi trng x hi:
Mi trng x hi l tng hp cc quan h gia ngi vi ngi. l nhng lut
l, th ch, cam kt, quy nh, c nh, hng c cc cp khc nhau nh:
Lin Hp Quc, Hip hi cc nc, quc gia, tnh, huyn, c quan, lng x, h tc,
gia nh, t nhm, cc t chc tn gio, t chc ton th Mi trng x hi nh
hng hot ng ca con ngi theo mt khun kh nht nh to nn sc mnh
tp th thun li cho s pht trin, lm cho cuc sng ca con ngi khc vi cc
sinh vt khc.
- Mi trng nhn to:
Mi trng nhn to bao gm cc nhn t do con ngi to nn, lm thnh nhng
tin nghi cho cuc sng ca con ngi nh t, my bay, nh , cng s, cc khu
vc th, cng vin nhn to, cc khu vui chi gii tr v.v
3.2 Theo quy m:
Theo quy m ch yu ngi ta phn loi mi trng theo khng gian a l nh
mi trng ton cu, mi trng khu vc, mi trng quc gia, mi trng vng,
mi trng a phng.
3.3 Theo mc ch nghin cu s dng
- Mc ch nghin cu s dng theo ngha rng, mi trng bao gm tt c cc
nhn t t nhin v x hi cn thit cho s sng, sn xut ca con ngi nh ti
nguyn thin nhin, khng kh, t, nc, nh sng, cnh quan, cc quan h x
hi tc l gn lin vic s dng ti nguyn vi cht lng mi trng.
- Mcch nghin cu s dng theo ngha hp:
Mi trng theo ngha hp thng ch xt ti nhng nhn t t nhin v x hi trc
tip lin quan ti cht lng cuc sng ca con ngi.

22
3.4 Theo thnh phn
- Phn loi theo thnh phn ca t nhin ngi ta thng chia ra:
+ Mi trng khng kh
+ Mi trng t
+ Mi trng nc
+ Mi trng bin
- Phn loi theo thnh phn ca dn c sinh sng ngi ta chia ra:
+ Mi trng thnh th
+ Mi trng nng thn
Ngoi 2 cch phn loi trn c th cn c cc cch phn loi khc ph hp vi mc
ch nghin cu, s dng ca con ngi v s pht trin ca x hi. Tuy nhin, d
bt c cch phn loi no th cng u thng nht mt s nhn thc chung: Mi
trng l tt c nhng g c xung quanh ta, cho ta c s sng v pht trin.
4. Vai tr ca mi trng i vi con ngi
i vi mt c th con ngi, cng nh i vi cng ng con ngi v c x hi
loi ngi, mi trng sng c ba chc nng.
- Mi trng l ni cung cp ngun ti nguyn cn thit cho cuc sng v hot
ng sn xut ca con ngi.
- Mi trng l ni cha ng cc ph thi do con ngi to ra trong cuc sng v
sn xut ca mnh.
- Mi trng l khng gian sng, cung cp cc dch v cnh quan thin nhin.
4.1 Mi trng l ni cung cp ti nguyn
Ti nguyn thin nhin bao gm c ti nguyn ti to, ti nguyn khng ti to v
cc dng thng tin m con ngi khai thc, s dng u cha ng trong mi
trng.
Ti nguyn thin nhin c trong thch quyn, thy quyn, kh quyn v trong sinh
quyn. Khi m con ngi cha n c cc hnh tinh khc tm kim cc ngun
ti nguyn mi, th ni con ngi c th khai thc ti nguyn ch c trong mi
trng ca chng ta. Hng nm con ngi khai thc ti nguyn nhiu thm, do nhu
cu vt cht ngy cng tng v s lng v cht lng.
Bng 1.1. Mc khai thc du m, kh t, khong sn ca th gii t nm 1950
n 1994.

23

Nm
Ti nguyn
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1994
Du th
(10
6
tn)
518 1049 2281 2976 2963 2953
Kh thin nhin
(10
6
tn)
180 442 989 1459 2005 2128
Than
(10
6
tn)
884 1271 1359 1708 2109 2083
Ngun: Tn hiu sng cn 1995 Vin Tm nhn th gii
NXB Khoa hc k thut
Vi tng hng nm v nhu cu nhin liu v nguyn liu ca th gii, cc c
tnh phng on nhiu loi khong sn s cn kit vo th k ti, nu nhn loi
khng tm c cc ngun cung cp v nguyn liu thay th khc.
4.2 Mi trng vi chc nng l ni cha ph thi
Trong mi hot ng ca con ngi t qu trnh khai thc ti nguyn cho sn xut
ch bin to ra sn phm, n qu trnh lu thng v tiu dng u c ph thi.
Ph thi bao gm nhiu dng, nhng ch yu chng c tn ti ba dng l ph
thi dng kh, dng rn, dng lng. Ngoi ra cn c cc dng khc nh nhit, ting
n, ha cht nguyn t, phn t, hp cht... V tt c cc ph thi u a vo mi
trng.
Trong x hi cha cng nghip ho, mt dn s thp, cc ph thi thng c
ti s dng. Th d cc cht bi tit c dng lm phn bn, cc ph thi t nng
sn, lm sn c dng lm thc n cho gia sc, nhin liu. Nhng ci khng th
ti s dng, ti ch thng c phn hu t nhin bi cc sinh vt v vi sinh vt,
sau mt thi gian ngn tr li thnh nhng hp cht hoc nguyn t dng lm
nguyn liu cho cc qu trnh sn xut mi.
Trong x hi cng nghip ho, mt dn s cao, lng ph thi thng rt ln,
khng ni cha ng, qu trnh t phn hu khng theo kp so vi lng cht
thi to ra. Hay ngi ta thng gi lng cht thi vt qu mc chu ti ca mi
trng. y l nguyn nhn c bn gy ra nhng bin i v mi trng.

Bng 1.2: Mc thi Cc bon, Lu hunh v Ni t t nm 1950 n nm

24
1994.

Nm
Ti nguyn
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1994
Cc bon (10
6
tn) 1620 2543 4006 5172 5941 5925
Ni t (10
6
tn) 6,8 11,8 18,1 22,3 26,3 26,5
Lu hunh (10
6
tn) 30,1 46,2 57,0 62,9 68,7 68,7
CFC (10
3
tn) 42 150 640 880 820 295
Ngun: Tn hiu sng cn - 1995 - Vin Tm nhn th gii
NXB Khoa hc k thut
4.3 Mi trng vi chc nng l khng gian sng v cung cp cc dch v cnh
quan
Con ngi ch c th tn ti v pht trin trong khng gian mi trng, mi trng
l ni duy nht cho con ngi c hng cc cnh p thin nhin, th thi v
tinh thn, tho mn cc nhu cu tm l.
Khng gian mi trng m con ngi tn ti tri qua hng t nm nay khng h
thay i v ln, c ngha khng gian mi trng l hu hn. Trong khi dn
s loi ngi trn tri t v ang tng ln theo cp s nhn. Nh vy v hnh
chung khng gian mi trng mi ngi c hng s gim xung v cht lng
suy gim nhanh chng. S tho mn cc nhu cu dch v ca con ngi cng gim
theo dn.
Bng 1.3: Dn s th gii v din tch trn u ngi qua cc nm
Nm -10
6
-10
5
-10
4
0 1650 1840 1930 1994 2010
Dn s
(10
6
ngi)
0,125 1,0 5,0 200 545 1000 2000 5000 7000
Din tch
(ha/ngi)
120.000 15000 3000 75 27,55 15 7,5 3,0 1,88
Ngun: C s khoa hc mi trng 1995 - L Thc Cn
Vi tng dn s nh hin nay th dn s th gii s t 8 t vo nm 2020. Dn
s tng nhanh l thch thc to ln, n ko theo nhiu vn mi trng phc tp.

25
5. Quan h tng tc gia kinh t v mi trng
Mi quan h tng tc gia kinh t v mi trng l mt biu hin c th ca mi
quan h tng tc rng ln hn, bao trm hn, thng xuyn hn v xuyn sut
mi thi i k t khi xut hin x hi con ngi trn hnh tinh chng ta. l mi
quan h tng tc gia con ngi, x hi v t nhin. Mi quan h tng tc l
mt trong nhng hin tng ch yu ca lch s th gii vt cht ca hnh tinh Tri
t, l hin tng c ngha v cng v i, mang tnh v tr m nhng kt qu
cui cng ca n chng ta cn cha th no nhn thy v tin on c. Hin
tng ny tng c cc th h tin bi nghin cu, ang c th h ng i
nghin cu nhiu v s c cc th h tng lai nghin cu su hn hiu bit
thu o hn. Vn ny s tn ti mi mi, khng bao gi kt thc, bi v chng
ta ch tim cn n chn l m thi.
Mi quan h tng tc gia con ngi, x hi v t nhin l ti nghin cu ca
hng lot khoa hc: trit hc, lch s, a l, a cht, sinh hc, kinh t hc, kinh t
chnh tr v rt nhiu khoa hc khc. C th ni rng, y l mt trong nhng ti
a din v a chiu nht ca khoa hc hin i. V mt trit hc, ti ny c
cc nh kinh in ca ch ngha Mc - Lnin t ra nghin cu. V mc d cho n
nay tri qua nhiu giai on lch s, song nhng tin , nhng gii php c tnh
nguyn tc cho vn cc k rng ln v phc tp ny ca cc nh kinh t ca ch
ngha Mc - Lnin vn gi nguyn gi tr khoa hc v thc tin. S pht trin
nhanh chng ca x hi, ca cch mng khoa hc v cng ngh hin i, qu trnh
quc t ho kinh t v i sng x hi, v.v em li rt nhiu mi l cho mi
quan h tng tc gia con ngi , x hi v t nhin. iu , tt yu dn n
vic xem xt li vn ny mt trnh khoa hc, k thut v cng ngh cao
hn, cp nht hn nhm lm phong ph thm nhng nguyn tc, nguyn l khoa
hc mi bng nhng hiu bit su sc hn, nhng tng to bo v th v hn.
y, chng ta khng cn thit phi phn tch ton b cc kha cnh ca vn
quan h tng tc gia con ngi, x hi v t nhin, m ch dng li s phn
tch mi quan h tng tc kinh t v mi trng - phn ct li nht ca mi quan
h tng tc rng ln v phc tp nu trn.
H thng mi trng bao gm cc thnh phn mi trng vi chc nng c bn l
ngun cung cp ti nguyn cho con ngi, l ni cha ng ph thi, l khng gian
sng cho con ngi. Cc kh nng ny ca h thng mi trng l hu hn. H
thng kinh t lun lun din ra cc qu trnh khai thc ti nguyn (R-Resourse), ch
bin nguyn liu (P-Production), v phn phi tiu dng. (C-Consumer).
Nh vy hot ng ca h thng kinh t tun theo chu trnh sau:

p c R
26

Ti nguyn (R) c con ngi khai thc t mi trng nh khong sn, du m,
than, g ci nh vy ti nguyn l nguyn liu v nng lng u vo cho h
thng kinh t.
Ti nguyn sau khi khai thc c ch bin thnh cc sn phm ph hp vi mc
tiu ca con ngi, qu trnh ny c gi l qu trnh sn xut (P).
Cc sn phm s c phn phi tiu dng (C). Trong qu trnh chuyn i
nng lng ny u km theo cc cht thi vo mi trng. Cc cht thi t qu
trnh khai thc (W
R
), l cc dng ti nguyn khai thc nhng khng c a
vo h thng kinh t.
Cc cht thi t qu trnh sn xut, ch bin ti nguyn (W
P
), l khng trnh khi v
trn thc t cha c cng ngh ch bin no t hiu sut s dng nguyn liu
100%.
Cc cht thi t qu trnh tiu dng cc sn phm (W
C
), cht thi bao gm cc dng
lng, kh v rn.

R p c
W
R
W
p
W
c
p c R

Tng lng thi t h thng kinh t s l W
W = W
R
+ W
P
+ W
C
Hot ng ca h thng kinh t tun theo nh lut th nht nhit ng hc, l
nng lng v vt cht khng mt i v khng t sinh ra, ch chuyn t dng ny
sang dng khc. Cng chnh t quy lut cho thy ti nguyn m con ngi khai
thc cng nhiu th cht thi cng tng.
Trn c s phn tch cho chng ta nhn xt v mi quan h gia mi trng v
pht trin kinh t. H thng kinh t ly ti nguyn (R) t h thng mi trng cng
nhiu th cht thi (W) t h thng kinh t a vo mi trng cng ln.

R = W = W
R
+ W
P
+ W
C
Tm li chc nng c bn ca bt k mt h thng kinh t no nh sn xut, phn
phi v tiu th cng u din ra trong lng th gii t nhin bao quanh. Th gii
t nhin ng vai tr cung cp nguyn liu v nng lng. Khng c nguyn liu
v nng lng th khng th c sn xut v tiu th. Do , h thng kinh t tc
ng ln th gii t nhin trc ht thng qua vic khai thc v s dng ngun
nguyn liu v nng lng sn c trong t nhin. Mt khc, cc hot ng sn xut

27
v tiu th cng thng xuyn sn sinh ra cc cht thi, m sm hay mun, chng
s "tm ng tr v" vi th gii t nhin bao quanh. Xem s 1.1.

28

Sn
xut
Tiu
dng
Hng sn xut H gia nh
u ra
u vo
H t nhin nui dng cuc sng
(Khng kh, t, nc, nguyn nhin liu, tin nghi, ...)
Ly ra
Tr li
Mt
tri
H kinh t

S 1.1. H kinh t v mi trng
Tu theo cc cht thi c s dng nh th no, cc cht thi ny c th dn n
nhim hoc suy thoi mi trng t nhin. Mi quan h c bn ny c th c
minh ho bng s 1.2.
Kinh t
R W
Mi trng t nhin

S 1.2
Mi quan h gia kinh t ti nguyn v kinh t cht thi
Ngun: Bary C.Field. Environmental Economics: An introduction. 1994, p.21

29
Trong s 1.2, k hiu R th hin dng ti nguyn i vo sn xut v tiu th.
Nghin cu vai tr cung cp ti nguyn ca th gii t nhin c gi l kinh t ti
nguyn thin nhin (hay gi tt l kinh t ti nguyn). K hiu W cho thy tc ng
ca hot ng kinh t n cht lng ca mi trng t nhin. Nghin cu dng
cht thi v tc ng ca chng n th gii t nhin c coi l kinh t cht thi.
Kim sot nhim l mt ch quan trng, nhng khng phi l duy nht ca
kinh t mi trng. Tc ng ca con ngi n mi trng v cng a dng v
bng nhiu cch khng phi l nhim hiu theo ngha truyn thng, theo ngha c
in. Chng hn, s ph hoi mi trng sng do pht trin nh gy nn khng
lin quan g vi vic thi cc cht nhim c trng c.
Di y, chng ta s cp n vic qun l cc dng cht thi v tc ng ca
hot ng con ngi n cc ti nguyn mi trng. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, rt
nhiu vn ny li c ngun gc su xa t tc ng qua li nguyn thu gia con
ngi, x hi v t nhin. V th, hiu r hn, chng ta s im qua nhng ni
dung ch yu ca kinh t ti nguyn.
II. Ti nguyn
1. Khi nim v ti nguyn
Di tc ng mnh m ca cch mng khoa hc v cng ngh, khi nim ti
nguyn c m rng ra trn nhiu lnh vc hot ng ca con ngi.
Hiu theo ngha rng, ti nguyn bao gm tt c cc ngun nguyn liu, nhin liu
- nng lng, thng tin c trn Tri t v trong khng gian v tr lin quan m
con ngi c th s dng cho mc ch tn ta v pht trin ca mnh.
Vi nhn thc mi nht hin nay, ngi ta nh ngha ti nguyn nh sau:
"Ti nguyn l tt c cc dng vt cht, phi vt cht v tri thc c s dng
to ra ca ci vt cht, hoc to ra gi tr s dng mi cho con ngi"
Nh vy, theo quan nim mi ny ti nguyn l i tng sn xut ca con ngi.
X hi loi ngi cng pht trin, s loi hnh ti nguyn v s lng mi loi ti
nguyn c con ngi khai thc ngy cng tng.
Trong khun kh ca gio trnh, chng ta ch xem xt ti cc ngun ti nguyn
thin nhin.
2. Phn loi ti nguyn thin nhin.
Hin nay Quan im ca cc Nh Kinh t hc mi trng u thng nht cch phn
loi ti nguyn thien nhin nh sau:Theo kh nng ti sinh v khng c kh nng
ti sinh

30
- Ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh l nhng ti nguyn c th t duy tr hoc b
sung mt cch lin tc khi c qun l hp l. Tuy nhin nu s dng, khng hp
l, ti nguyn ny cng c th b cn kit v khng th ti sinh na. V d cc
ging loi thc vt, ng vt b gim st v tuyt chng.
- Ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh l nhng ngun ti nguyn c mt mc
gii hn nht nh trn tri t, chng ta ch c khai thc chng dng nguyn
khai mt ln, i vi loi ti nguyn ny c chia thnh ba nhm:
+ Ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh nhng to tin cho ti sinh, v d
nh t, nc t nhin....
+ Ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh nhng ti to. V d nh kim loi,
thy tinh, cht do...
+ Ti nguyn cn kit. V d nh than , du kh....

n
g

v
t

T
h
c

v
t

V
i

s
i
n
h

v
t

N
c

T
h

n
h
n
g

K
h
n
g

k
h
n
g

l
n
g

m
t

t
r
i

T
i

t
o
:

K
i
m

l
o
i
,

T
h
u

t
i
n
h
.
.

C
n

k
i
t
:

D
u

k
h
,

t
h
a
n

C kh nng
ti sinh
Ti nguyn
thin nhin
Khng c kh
nng ti sinh
To tin ti sinh Khng th ti sinh

Hnh 1.1. S th hin phn loi ngun ti nguyn t nhin
3. Kinh t ti nguyn
Sng trong x hi hin i, i khi chng ta qun mt rng, hot ng kinh t s
dng rt nhiu ti nguyn thin nhin u vo. Nhng ri, thc tin trong nhng
nm gn y nhc chng ta nh n tm quan trng ca cc ngun nng lng
t ho thch nh than , du m v kh thin nhin. Nn cng nghip ho - du
s to dng cng da vo cc ngun ti nguyn ny. Lng vt t rt ln s
dng trong cc nc cng nghip v c trong x hi mang tn l "x hi thng tin"

31
u do nhiu ti nguyn khong sn v ti nguyn rng cung cp. Nc l u vo
thit yu ca nhiu quy trnh sn xut ng thi l ngun ti nguyn c cc h
gia nh trc tip tiu th. Sn xut thc phm ph thuc vo c s ti nguyn thin
nhin, hoc l thu hoch trc tip nh nh bt c, hoc l cung cp nhng u vo
thit yu cho thc vt v ng vt tng trng. Khng kh cng l u vo thit
yu ca hu ht cc quy trnh sn xut.
Nh chng ta ch ra trong cch phn loi ti nguyn, v c bn ti nguyn gm
hai nhm : phc hi c v khng phc hi c. Nhng ti nguyn sinh vt l
nhng ti nguyn c th phc hi c: chng ln ln cng thi gian theo cc qu
trnh sinh hc. Nhng ti nguyn khng phc hi c l nhng ti nguyn mi khi
s dng l ht, khng c cch g hon tr li, khng c quy trnh no lm y li
c. V d nh cc ngun du m v khong sn khng cung cp nng lng.
Mt s ngun ti nguyn nht nh nh nhiu mch nc ngm c tc lm y
thp n mc c coi nh l khng phc hi c.
C mt ngun ti nguyn m ch gn y mi c con ngi tha nhn l a dng
sinh hc. Ngun ti nguyn ny tn ti khng ch trong mt cht, m trong mt
tp hp cc yu t thnh phn. Cc nh sinh hc c lng rng, hin nay trn th
gii c th c n 30 triu ging loi sinh vt, chng i din cho mt ngun rng
ln v quan trng ca thng tin di truyn hu ch i vi s pht trin thuc men,
thuc tr vt hi thin nhin, cc loi thc v ng vt c sc khng cao, v.v
Hot ng ca con ngi lm cho tc tuyt chng ca cc ging loi tng
nhanh. V vy, gi gn mi trng sng v bo tn ging loi tr thnh mt
trong nhng vn mi trng cp bch nht hin nay.
Mt trong nhng c im phn bit hu ht cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin l
chng "ph thuc nhiu vo thi gian", iu ny c ngha l vic s dng chng
ko di qu thi gian thu hoch, cho nn t l s dng trong thi k ny s nh
hng n s c sn v t l s dng trong thi k sau. i vi cc ti nguyn
khng phc hi, iu ny tng i d nhn bit. Chng hn, du c ht ra khi
cc m du nm nay nhiu bao nhiu th s cng kh thu c du hn trong
nhng nm sau ! Mi quan h gia li ch hin ti v li ch tng lai cng xy
ra i vi cc ti nguyn c th phc hi c. Chng hn, nn tnh ton xem c
th nh bt bao nhiu c hin nay khng lm nh hng n sn lng nh
bt trong nhng nm sau, hay l, nn tnh ton xem, khai thc g nm nay hay l
ch mt vi nm na cho cy ln, cao ri mi khai thc.
R rng, y l nhng vn c tm vc "lin thi gian" rng ln, bao gm cc
mi quan h gia hin ti v tng lai. Mt s vn mi trng cng c c trng
tng t nh vy, c bit l khi gii quyt cc cht nhim ang tch t hoc cc
cht nhim cn c thi gian tiu hu. Trn thc t, ci ang b suy gim i

32
y chnh l "kh nng ng ho" ca Tri t, tc l kh nng ca h thng t
nhin c th chp nhn c mt s cht nhim nht nh v lm cho chng tr
nn hu ch hoc v hi.
Mt c im ca th gii hin i l ranh gii gia ti nguyn thin nhin v ti
nguyn mi trng, trong nhiu trng hp, ang b xo nho. Nhiu quy trnh
khai thc ti nguyn nh khai thc g, khai thc m c nhng nh hng trc tip
n cht lng mi trng. Ngc li, cng c nhiu v d v nhim hoc suy
thoi mi trng c tc ng n cc quy trnh khai thc ti nguyn. nhim nc
ca sng cn tr s b sung ngun c hay nhim khng kh lm gim sn lng
nng nghip. Mt th khc, chng hn nh i sng hoang d, c th c coi va
l ti nguyn thin nhin, va l thuc tnh ca mi trng. Mc d kh c th
minh nh rch ri ti nguyn thin nhin v ti nguyn mi trng, nhng cc nh
kinh t cng phn bit gia hai dch v ca th gii t nhin: l nguyn liu v
mi trng.
4. Cn bng vt cht v cht lng mi trng
S 1. 2: Cn bng vt cht v quan h gia kinh t v mi trng

Mi trng thin nhin
Ngi sn xut
Ngi tiu th
Nguyn
Liu
Cht thi (R
P
)
Hng ho
(G)
Cht thi
(R
C
)
Thi b (R
P
d
)
Thi b
(R
C
d
)
ti tun hon (R
r
p
)
ti tun hon (R
r
c)
Mi trng thin nhin

Ngun: Phin bn t Barry C. Field. Environmental Economics:
an introduction. 1994, p.24
Thng qua s 2 cho thy mt biu hin phc tp hn v mi quan h gia kinh

33
t v mi trng thng qua bin i ca dng vt cht. Trong s ny cho ta
thy, nhng yu t bn trong hnh bu dc l cc b phn ca h thng kinh t.
Ton b cc yu t , v c bn, c bao bc bn trong mi trng t nhin.
Kinh t hc c chia ra thnh hai phn on ln: "ngi sn xut" v "ngi tiu
th". "Ngi sn xut" bao gm ton b cc hng, cng ty thu np v chuyn ho
nhng u vo thnh nhng u ra hu ch. Ngoi ra, "ngi sn xut" cn bao
gm nhng n v khc nh cc hng / cng ty cng cng, cc t chc khng li
nhun v cc cng ty sn xut dch v nh vn ti. Tm li, "ngi sn xut" l tt
c cc thc th kinh t trong h thng cho n bn thn "ngi tiu th".
Nhng u vo ch yu ca khu vc sn xut ly t mi trng t nhin l cc vt
t dng t nhin l cc vt t dng nhin liu, khong sn v g, cht lng nh
nc v du m, nhiu loi kh nh kh t nhin v xy. Tt c cc loi hng ho
v dch v u bt ngun t cc vt t nh s dng nng lng a vo. Nh vy,
hng ho v dch v c sn xut ra chnh l hin thn ca mt phn ngun vt
cht v nng lng ny ri sau hng n "ngi tiu th". "Ngi tiu th"
cng c th s dng ngun vt cht v nng lng ly trc tip t t nhin m
khng qua khu trung gian (ngi sn xut). Chng hn, chng ta c th dng nc
ging khi ti nh hoc ly ci un nu. Nhng n gin ho, nhng chc
nng ny khng c tnh n v a vo lc . Trong trng hp , chng ta
c th coi "ngi sn xut" v "ngi tiu th" l mt.
Sn xut v tiu th to nn "cht b" (cht thi), bao gm tt c cc loi cn b vt
cht c th thi vo khng kh hoc nc, hay c hu b trn mt t. Cc cht
thi rt nhiu v danh sch ca chng di n ni khng th tin c: ioxyt lu
hunh, hp cht hu c bay hi, dung mi c hi, phn ng vt, thuc tr su,
cc loi bi l lng, vt liu xy dng thi ra, kim loi nng, vn vn v vn vn.
Nng lng thi ra di dng nhit, ting n v phng x mang c trng ca c
vt cht v nng lng cng l nhng cht thi quan trng ca sn xut. "Ngi
tiu th" cng phi chu trch nhim v vic thi vo mi trng mt lng cht
thi khng l, c bit l cng rnh v kh do t thi ra. Tt c cc vt cht kt
tnh trong hng ho ca ngi tiu th cui cng tt yu phi kt thnh cc th
li, ngay c khi chng c th c ti tun hon. iu ny gii thch ti sao ngy
cng c mt lng ln cht thi rn, cc ho cht c hi v du s dng cn tn
ti.
Trc ht, chng ta hy xem xt vn cht thi ca sn xut v tiu th trn quan
im hon ton vt l. S 2 cho thy vt cht v nng lng c khai thc t
mi trng t nhin v cht thi c thi tr li vo mi trng t nhin. nh
lut th nht ca nhit ng hc - nh lut ni ting v bo ton vt cht - ch cho
chng ta thy rng: trong cuc "chy ua ng di", hai dng ny phi bng nhau,

34
ngha l:
M = R
p
d
+ R
c
d
(theo cc k hiu s 2)
Ti sao chng ta li ni trong cuc "chy ua ng di"? Nu h thng ln ln, th
n c th gi li mt t l no nhng u vo ly t mi trng t nhin theo
hng tng quy m ca h thng (do dn s tng ln, thit b ch yu tp trung v
tch t li, v.v ) Nhng nu v khi h thng khng ln ln na, th iu ny s
khng cn (b hu b). S ti tun hon, r rng, c th lm chm tc tch ly
cht thi. Nhng, ti tun hon khng bao gi c th hon chnh, mi chu k hn s
mt i mt t l no cht c ti tun hon. Do , phng trnh cn bng vn
gi nguyn trong cuc "chy ua ng di". iu ny chng t mt kt lun rt
c bn l: nu chng ta mun gim khi lng cht thi vo mi trng t nhin,
th chng ta phi gim s lng nguyn vt liu a vo h thng.
hiu r hn, by gi chng ta thay th M theo dng:
R
p
d
+ Rc
d
= M = G + Rp - Rp
r
- Rc
r
ngha l s lng nguyn vt liu (M) bng ti sn xut ra (G) cng vi cht thi
sn xut (Rp) tr i tng lng c ti tun hon ca ngi sn xut (Rp
r
) v ca
ngi tiu th (Rc
r
).
C ba cch ch yu gim M (v do gim cht thi vo mi trng t nhin):
a. Gim G: tc l gim cht thi bng cch gim s lng hng ho v dch v do
nn kinh t sn xut ra. y, c nhiu quan im khc nhau. Mt s ngi cho
rng, y l cu tr li tt nht, lu di cho s suy thoi mi trng, gim u ra,
hoc ch t cng l ngn chn c tc tng trng ca n, thc hin c s
thay i tng ng v s lng cht thi. Mt s ngi khc li tm cch t mc
tiu ny thng qua ch trng "dn s khng tng trng". Dn s tng chm hoc
khng tng c th lm cho vic kim sot tc ng mi trng d dng hn, nhng
khng th no kim sot tc ng mi trng bng bt c cch no v hai l do sau
y: mt l, dn s khng thay i c th tng v kinh t v do tng nhu cu v
nguyn vt liu; hai l, tc ng mi trng c th l lu di v ly tch, cho nn
ngay c khi dn s khng tng, mi trng vn c th b suy thoi dn. C mt iu
lun lun ng y l tng dn s s thng lm trm trng thm tc ng mi
trng ca nn kinh t. Trong cc nn kinh t ca nhiu nc cng nghip pht
trin, trong my thp k va qua, nh c cng ngh kim sot kh nhim, nn kh
nhim ca mi xe t pht ra gim ng k, nhng do s lng t chy trn
xa l tng ln rt nhiu, nn lm cho tng lng kh nhim do t pht ra
nhiu vng tng ln.
35
b. Gim Rp: C mt cch khc gim M v do gim c cht thi ra, l
gim Rp. Gi s l cc dng khc khng thay i. iu ny c ngha rng ch yu

l thay i tng lng cht thi sn sinh ra trong qu trnh sn xut vi s lng
thnh phm sn xut cho. V c bn, ch c hai cch thc hin iu ny. Cch
th nht l chng ta nghin cu, ch to v p dng cc cng ngh v thit b mi
vo sn xut nhm to ra lng cht thi t hn trn mt n v thnh phm. C th
gi y l gim "cng cht thi" ca sn xut. Khi bn n vn pht thi kh
CO2 ton cu v kh quyn nng ln chng hn, th chng ta c th thy rng, c
rt nhiu iu c th lm c gim cng CO2 trong qu trnh sn xut
nng lng u vo sn xut ra mt n v sn phm, v.v Cch th hai l thay
i thnh phn bn trong ca sn phm. Sn phm G hin nay bao gm mt s ln
cc hng ho v dch v khc nhau. Gia chng c s khc bit ln v cht thi
sinh ra trong qu trnh sn xut ra chng. Do , mun gim tng lng cht thi
phi thay i thnh phn ca G theo hng t t l cht thi cao n t l cht thi
thp trong khi vn gi nguyn tng s. S chuyn dch t kinh t sn xut ch to
sang kinh t dch v l bc i theo hng ny. Trong hn na th k qua, khu vc
dch v ca cc nc cng nghip pht trin t c tc tng trng tng
i nhanh.
c. Tng (R
p
r
+ R
c
r
): Kh nng th ba l tng ti tun hon. Thay v thi cc cht
thi sn xut v tiu th, chng ta c th ti tun hon, a chng tr li vo quy
trnh sn xut. Nh c ti tun hon m chng ta c th thay th mt phn dng
khi nguyn ca cc nguyn vt liu cha khai thc (M) v do , gim bt lng
cht thi, ng thi vn duy tr c lng hng ho v dch v (G). Trong nn
kinh t hin i, ti tun hon to c hi ln gim dng thi. Tuy nhin, ti tun
hon khng bao gi c th hon chnh c, ngay c khi chng ta dnh cho n rt
nhiu ngun lc, bi v quy trnh sn xut lm thay i cu trc vt l ca nguyn
vt liu u vo nn gy kh khn cho vic ti s dng chng.
Ngun vt cht chuyn ho thnh nng lng th khng th no c th phc hi
c. Thm na, bn thn quy trnh ti tun hon cng c th to nn cht thi. Hy
vng rng, cc nghin cu, tm kim trong lnh vc ny s pht hin ra nhiu
phng php ti tun hon mi, nhiu quy trnh cng ngh khng c hoc c t cht
thi.
III. Bin i mi trng
1. Khi nim chung v bin i mi trng
1.1. Khi nim: cht pht thi ra mi trng, cht lng mi trng vng xung
quanh v tn tht
By gi chng ta hy xem iu g xy ra cui hai mi tn R
p
d
v R
c
d
trong s
1.2. Rt d nhn thy rng l cc cht pht thit ra mi trng.

36
Cht pht thi ra mi trng l cc cht thi sau sn xut hay tiu dng ca hot
ng kinh t c a trc tip vo mi trng, khi vt qu kh nng hp th ca
mi trng chng s lm thay i cht lng mi trng vng xung quanh, gy
ra thit hi cho con ngi v sinh vt trong vng b nh hng . Mi lin h nhn -
qu ny c th hin s 1.3. S 1.3 nu ra hai ngun cht pht thi ra mi
trng 1 v 2 (c th l do doanh nghip t nhn, doanh nghip nh nc hay c
nhn ngi tiu dng). Cc u vo bao gm nhiu loi vt t, hng ho v p dng
nhiu loi cng ngh khc nhau trong sn xut v tiu th. ng nhin, trong quy
trnh chng ta to ra cc cht pht thi. Vic x l cc cht ny c ngha rt quan
trng i vi cc giai on tip theo. Mt s c th c phc hi v ti tun hon;
cn phn nhiu c chuyn sang cc quy trnh x l lm cho chng v hi khi
pht thi ra mi trng. Trong cc quy trnh x l cht thi, mt s mang tnh vt
l thun tu nh b gim thanh xe du lch v xe ti, b lng cc nh my x l
nc thi, b chuyn ha xc tc, v.v; cn mt s khc gm cc loi x l bng
ho cht, chng hn nh k thut x l ngun nc thi gia nh ang p dng
nhiu nc trn th gii.

37
S 3: Cht pht ra, cht lng mi trng vng xung quanh v thit hi

Ngun 1 Ngun 2
u vo sn
phm cng ngh
Sn xut hoc
tiu th
X l cht thi
Cht pht thi ra
(thi gian, loi)
u vo sn
phm cng ngh
Sn xut hoc
tiu th
X l cht thi
Cht pht thi ra
(thi gian, loi)
Cc quy trnh
Vt l
Ho hc
Thu hc
Kh tng
Bin i cht lng mi trng vng
xung quanh:
Phn ng ca con ngi v sinh vt

Thit hi cho con ngi v h sinh
thi
Nc Khng kh t

38
Tt c cc cht pht thi ra mi trng u c a vo mt thnh phn mi
trng c th no : nc, khng kh hay t, cc thnh phn ny c s lin quan
rt cht ch vi nhau.
T s trn ta thy mc d cc dng vt cht pht thi ra t hai ngun khc nhau,
nhng khi pht thi vo thnh phn mi trng chng hp li vi nhau thnh
mt ngun pht thi hn hp . V d: Cht pht thi ra ngun nc t hai nh my
giy cng phn b dc b ca mt con sng th hn hp cht thi trong nc sng
khng th phn nh l ca nh my no. Hay l, khi c mt triu chic m t chy
trong mt thnh ph, th cht thi pht ra ca chng kt hp li thnh mt hn hp
ng nht. Tuy nhin, cng c nhng trng hp chng ta c th phn nh c.
V d, nu c mt nh my nhit in phn b trong thnh ph v nh my khc li
phn b cch thnh ph vi ba chc cy s u gi, th r rng l nh my in
gn hn phi chu trch nhim ln hn trong vic gy nhim khng kh trong
thnh ph.
Hn hp cc cht pht thi ra mi trng l mt vn rt quan trng. Nu ch c
mt ngun pht thi th trch nhim c phn nh mt cch r rng v ci
thin cht lng xung quanh, chng ta c th bit c mt cch chnh xc phi
kim sot nhng cht pht thi no. Nhng vi nhiu ngun pht thi khc nhau,
th vn tr nn phc tp v km r rng hn.
Khi cc cht thi vi s lng v cht lng nht nh c thi vo mt thnh
phn ca mi trng, th cc qu trnh l, ho, sinh, kh ng hc, v.v ca h
thng t nhin s c nhng iu chnh lm cho chng c nh hng khc nhau n
cht lng vng xung quanh. V nhng iu kin kh hu v thi tit thng
xuyn thay i, nn cng mt mc pht thi vo mi trng, c th gy nn
mc nh hng khc nhau i vi mi trng xung quanh ti cc thi im
khc nhau. Ma axt c sinh ra do cc qu trnh pht thi ixyt lu hunh t
hot ng sn xut v hi nc trong khng kh, sau c gi lm long trong
bu kh quyn. Khi bi trong bu kh quyn cng l kt qu ca cc phn ng ho
hc tng hp gia nh sng mt tri v nhiu cht nhim khc. Cc qu trnh
thu ng hc nc ngm c nh hng n s vn chuyn cc vt cht trong h
thng nc ngm di t, v.v Do , mun bit c cc cht pht thi vo mi
trng nh hng n cht lng mi trng vng xung quanh, chng ta cn hiu
r bn thn mi trng hot ng nh th no v mt vt l, ha hc v sinh hc.
y chnh l nhng lnh vc ca cc nh khoa hc t nhin, nghin cu ton b cc
hin tng bin i ca mi trng nhm xc nh nh hng n cht lng mi
trng xung quanh.
Nhng s thay i ca thnh phn mi trng s dn n s bin i ca cc h
sinh thi v nhng bin i khc, thng nhng s bin i gy ra nhng tn

39
tht m con ngi phi gnh chu. V, cui cng, nhng tn tht phi gnh chu li
c lin quan n vic nh gi ca con ngi. Con ngi khng th c nhng quyt
nh v cn c khi gii quyt mi quan h tng tc gia kinh t v mi trng, m
chng ta ch c th a thch nhng quyt nh ny hn so vi la chn khc khi
chng ta nh gi c gi tr tn tht v mt kinh t do bin i mi trng gy
ra.
1.2. Cc loi cht nhim
V mt vt l, nh chng ta thy trong s 1.3, cc cht pht thi ra mi trng
vo ba thnh phn mi trng khc nhau. Tu theo mc nh hng ca cc
nhn t n trng thi kinh t ca cht pht thi, chng ta c th phn chng thnh
cc loi sau y:
a. Cht nhim lu tch v cht nhim khng lu tch
Mt c trng quan trng v n gin ca cht nhim mi trng l chng c
tch lu theo thi gian hay c xu hng tiu tan ngay sau khi c pht ra. V d,
ting n. Khi ngun gy ting n hot ng th ting n pht ra v lan truyn vo
khng gian xung quanh, nhng ngay khi tt ngun th ting n cng mt. u ny
cht nhim c pht ra, th u kia chng ta s c cht nhim mi trng vi
s lng gn nh lc chng pht ra. Nh cht thi phng x chng hn, chng phn
r theo thi gian, nhng vi tc ht sc chm so vi i sng ca con ngi,
cho nn chng s tn ti vnh vin vi chng ta. Chng l loi cht nhim cc k
ly tch. Hay cht do cng vy. Mc d trong nhiu thp k qua, ngi ta tin
hnh nghin cu tm ra cc cht do thoi ho c, nhng cht do vn l mt
cht phn hu rt chm. N cng l cht nhim lu tch. Nhiu loi ho cht l
cht nhim lu tch, mi khi pht ra, v c bn, chng vn tn ti vi chng ta.
40
Xen k gia cht nhim lu tch v khng lu tch l loi cht nhim ly tch
n mt mc nht nh no , ch khng lu tch hon ton. V d: Cht thi
hu c pht ra vo mi trng nc ca cc nh my x l cht thi th. Mi khi
pht ra, cht thi chu tc ng ca qu trnh ho hc t nhin, c xu hng ph v
cu trc ca n, lm cho n tr nn v hi. Ni cch khc, nc c kh nng ng
ho t nhin nn c th tip nhn cc cht hu c v lm cho chng t c hi hn.
Nu nh khng vt qu kh nng ng ho , chng ta c th ct ngun cht thi
i th trong mt thi gian nht nh, nc s tr li bnh thng. ng nhin, t
nhin c mt t kh nng ng ho khng c ngha l chng ta c cc cht nhim
hon ton khng tch lu. Khi cht thi pht ra vt qu kh nng ng ho th
c ngha l chng ta chuyn vo quy trnh ly tch. V d: Kh quyn ca Tri t
c mt kh nng nht nh hp th CO
2
do hot ng ca con ngi pht ra, min
l khng vt qu kh nng . CO
2
l mt cht nhim khng lu tch. Nhng,
nu kh nng ng ho CO
2
ca Tri t b vt qu, th tt yu chng ta s lm

vo tnh th cht pht ra ly tch theo thi gian. y l iu ang xy ra hin nay.
S 1.4: Mi quan h gia cc cht pht thi ph bin v nng nhim xung
quanh
a) Cht nhim khng lu tch

b) Cht nhim lu tch

C
c

n
n
g

p
h

b
i

x
u
n
g

C
c

n
n
g

p
h

b
i

x
u
n
g

Cc cht pht thi ph
Cc cht pht thi ph
Ngun: Sch dn, trang 32

i vi mt cht nhim c lu tch hay khng, th chng ta vn c cng mt vn
c bn. l nu ra nhng tn tht mi trng v chi ph lm gim cht pht
thi. Vi cht nhim ly tch, iu ny kh gii quyt hn nhiu so vi cht
nhim khng lu tch. S 1. 4 biu th (a) cht nhim khng lu tch v (b)
cht nhim lu tch. bn (a), th bt u t gc tc l cc nng ph bin
xung quanh t l vi cc cht pht thi ph bin. R rng l cc nng xung
quanh l mt hm ca cc cht pht thi ph bin. Nu gim c cc cht pht
thi xung s khng th s lm cho cc nng xung quanh l s khng. Tuy
nhin, i vi cht nhim lu tch th mi quan h ny tr nn phc tp hn. V
chng lu tch, nn cc cht thi hin nay b sung vo lng cht nhim c s
gy thit hi khng nhng cho hm nay, m cn cho tng lai, thm ch tng lai
xa hn. iu c ngha l s lng ph bin mi trng xung quanh ca mt
cht nhim lu tch c th ch t c quan h vi cc cht pht thi ph bin. Nhn
vo s 1. 4, ta thy th bn (b) bt u kh xa trn trc tung v thoi hn
th bn (a). Do , vic ct gim cht pht thi ra hm nay ch em li hiu qu kh
khim tn n nng cht pht thi ph bin. V ngay c khi chng ta ct gim
cht pht thi ngy hm nay xung s khng, th cht lng mi trng xung
quanh vn b gim st do hiu ng lu tch ca cc cht pht thi trc y. Trn
thc t, mt cht nhim lu tch theo thi gian trong mi trng gy nn hiu ng
ph v mi quan h trc tip, cht ch gia cht pht thi ph bin v thit hi ph

41
bin. Gii quyt mi quan h nhn - qu phc tp ny i hi nhng nghin cu
su sc v ton din hn tm ra cc gii php c bn, lu di v kh thi.
b) Cht nhim a phng, vng v ton cu
Cc cht pht thi c phm vi nh hng rt khc nhau. Mt s cht pht thi mang
tnh cc b, ch c nh hng trong mt vng nh hp. V d: nhim ting n,
suy thoi cnh quan mi trng mang tnh a phng v thit hi do bt c ngun
no gy ra cng thng c gii hn bi cc nhm dn c nh sinh sng ti mt
vng nht nh. Ngc li, mt s cht pht thi khc li lan truyn nhim trong
c mt vng rng ln, c th nh hng n mi trng ton cu. Chng hn, ma
axt l mt vn mang tnh vng; cc cht pht thi ti mt vng no M
hoc Chu u c nh hng n dn c ca cc vng khc trong nc hay nc
khc. Hiu ng lm suy gim tng zn ca Clo, Fluo, Cc bon pht ra t nhiu
nc pht trin do nhng thay i ho hc tng bnh lu ca Tri t l nh
hng mang tnh ton cu. ng nhin, cc vn mi trng a phng d gii
quyt hn so vi cc vn mi trng vng v quc gia. n lt mnh, cc vn
mi trng vng v quc gia d qun l v gii quyt hn so vi cc vn mi
trng ton cu. Nu ti un bp than th lm nh hng n hng xm v gia ti
v hng xm c th gii quyt c vi nhau hoc nu khng th chng ti nh cc
nh chc trch. Nhng nu ti gy nhim phm vi rng hn th s kh gii
quyt hn. Trong nhng nm gn y, nhn loi ang phi i u vi nhng vn
mi trng ton cu tng ln. Cho n nay, cha tm ra nhng bin php hu
hiu gii quyt chng, mt phn l do cha l gii c mt cch chnh xc bn
thn ca cc tc ng vt l ca chng v phn khc l do cc t chc quc t
chuyn trch ch mi hnh thnh v cha hot ng thc s.
c) Cht nhim c im ngun v khng c im ngun
Cc ngun nhim cng khc nhau v mc d dng nhn bit cc im pht
thi hin ti. Chng hn, cc im m y ixyt lu hunh thot ra khi mt nh
my in rt d nhn bit qua ng khi ca n. Hay l, cc nh my x l cht thi
th thng ch c mt ca ng tho x tt c cc loi nc thi. l cc cht
nhim c im ngun. Nhng ngc li, c nhiu cht nhim khng th xc nh
c r rng im pht thi. V d nh cc ho cht dng trong nng nghip.
Chng thng chy tn mt ra trong t v c th gy nhim sng, sui, ao, h,
hay mch nc ngm. Tuy nhin, kh c th xc nh chng pht ra t u. y l
cht nhim khng c im ngun. S thot nc sau nhng trn ma to cc
vng th cng l mt trng hp nhim khng c im ngun. ng nhin,
chng ta d thy rng, cht nhim c im ngun c th c nghin cu, o
lng, gim st v gii quyt d dng hn so vi cht nhim khng c im
ngun. iu c ngha l pht trin v qun l thng qua vic hoch nh v thc

42
thi cc chnh sch kim sot nhim c im ngun s d dng v thun li hn.
d) Cht pht thi lin tc v khng lin tc
Cc cht pht thi t cc nh my nhit in hay cc nh my x l cht thi th,
nhiu hay t, u mang tnh lin tc, bi v nh my c thit k vn hnh mt
cch lin tc, mc d tc vn hnh c th thay i theo thi gian (ma v). Do
, cht pht thi t cc nh my ny t nhiu l lin tc v vn t ra y
chnh l lm sao qun l c tc cht pht thi thng qua cc chng trnh
qun l hu hiu.
Bn cnh cc cht nhim pht ra lin tc, cn c nhiu cht nhim pht ra
khng lin tc, tng hi. S c du hoc ho cht c trn ra l nhng v d in
hnh. Vn chnh sch mi trng y l thit k v qun l mt h thng sao
cho c th gim c ti a s c mi trng. Cc cht nhim pht ra tng hi,
trong thi gian ngn, kh c th o lng c v chng cha ng nhng him
ho khng khip i vi tnh mng ca con ngi (chng hn cc cht phng x
thot ra khi cc nh my in nguyn t). V vy, xc nh nguy c ca cc
cht nhim pht ra nht thi, chng ta phi thu thp cc s liu v din bin hin
thi qua mt thi gian di hoc c lng chng da trn cc thng tin thit k -
xy dng v hot ng ca nh my. Sau , chng ta phi xc nh mc bo him
mong mun i vi cc cht nhim pht ra khng lin tc, tng hi.
e) Tn tht mi trng khng lin quan n cht thi
trn, chng ta tp trung vo nhng c tnh ca cc loi cht nhim mi
trng khc nhau c lin quan n vic thi cc cht thi vt cht v nng lng.
Tuy nhin, trong thc t c nhiu trng hp lm suy gim nghim trng cht
lng mi trng m khng th theo di c qua cc cht thi ra. Chng hn, vic
ly t trng trt xy dng nh , ng s, trung tm thng mi, v.v lm
gim gi tr mi trng, gi tr mi sinh hay gi tr cnh quan ca t ai. Hay l
cc kiu s dng t khc nh khai thc m, khai thc g cng c nhng tc
ng rt ln n cht lng mi trng. Trong tt c mi trng hp, chng ta u
phi nh gi, phn tch nhng nguyn nhn thc y ngi ta to ra nhng tc
ng v tm cch thay i nhng khuyn khch sao cho ph hp vi mc ch
bo v mi trng. Mc d chng ta khng th gim st, iu khin lng vt cht
pht ra y, song chng ta c th nm bt, m t, c lng nhng hu qu c
th xy ra ra nhng gii php qun l thch hp.
2. Cc dng bin i mi trng
2.1. nhim mi trng
Theo lut bo v mi trng ca Vit Nam, nhim mi trng c nh ngha

43
nh sau:
" nhim mi trng l s lm thay i tnh cht ca mi trng, vi phm tiu
chun mi trng".
Quan nim ca th gii cho rng, nhim mi trng c hiu l vic chuyn cc
cht thi hoc nng lng vo mi trng n mc c kh nng gy hi n sc
kho con ngi, n s pht trin sinh vt hoc lm suy gim cht lng mi
trng. Cc tc nhn nhim, bao gm cc cht thi dng kh (kh thi), lng
(nc thi), rn (cht thi rn) cha ho cht hoc tc nhn vt l, sinh hc v cc
dng nng lng nh nhit , bc x.
Tuy nhin, mi trng ch c coi l b nhim nu trong hm lng, nng
hoc cng cc tc nhn trn t n mc c kh nng tc ng xu n con
ngi, sinh vt v vt liu.
2.2. Suy thoi mi trng
Theo lut bo v mi trng ca Vit Nam, suy thoi mi trng c nh ngha
nh sau:
"Suy thoi mi trng l s lm thay i cht lng v s lng ca thnh phn
mi trng, gy nh hng xu cho i sng ca con ngi v thin nhin"
Trong , thnh phn mi trng c hiu l cc yu t to thnh mi trng bao
gm: khng kh, nc, t, m thanh, nh sng, lng t, ni, rng, sng, h, bin,
sinh vt, cc h sinh thi, cc khu dn c, khu sn xut, khu bo tn thin nhin,
cnh quan thin nhin, danh lam thng cnh, di tch lch s v cc hnh thi vt cht
khc.
2.3. S c mi trng: nh gi ri ro
Theo lut bo v mi trng ca Vit Nam, s c mi trng c nh ngha nh
sau:
"S c mi trng l cc tai bin hoc ri ro xy ra trong qu trnh hot ng
ca con ngi hoc bin i bt thng ca thin nhin gy suy thoi mi trng
nghim trng"
S c mi trng xy ra do:
a. Bo, l, lt, hn hn, nt t, ng t, trt t, st l t, ni la phun, ma
axt, ma , bin ng kh hu v thin tai khc.
b. Ho hon, chy rng, s c k thut gy nguy hi v mi trng ca c s sn
xut, kinh doanh, cng trnh kinh t, khoa hc, k thut, vn ho, an ninh, quc
phng.

44
c. S c trong tm kim, thm d, khai thc v vn chuyn khong sn, du kh; sp
hm l, pht du, trn du, v ng ng dn du, dn kh; m tu, s c ti c s
lc ho du v cc c s cng nghip khc.
d. S c trong l phn ng ht nhn, nh my in nguyn t, nh my sn xut, ti
ch nhin liu ht nhn, kho cha cht phng x.
nh gi ri ro l nh gi v s lng v cht lng ca ri ro nh hng ti sc
kho con ngi v h sinh tha, gy ra do c hi mi trng tim nng hoc thc
t.
3. Tiu chun mi trng
Theo lut bo v mi trng ca Vit Nam ,
"Tiu chun mi trng l nhng chun mc, gii hn cho php, c quy nh
dng lm cn c qun l mi trng"
Thng qua nh ngha cho thy, tiu chun mi trng c quan h mt thit vi s
pht trin bn vng ca mi quc gia. H thng tiu chun mi trng l mt cng
trnh khoa hc lin ngnh, n phn nh trnh khoa hc, cng ngh, t chc qun
l v tim lc kinh t - x hi c tnh n d bo pht trin. C cu ca h thng
tiu chun mi trng bao gm cc nhm chnh sau y.
a. Nhng quy nh chung
b. Tiu chun nc, bao gm nc mt ni a, nc ngm, nc bin v ven bin,
nc thi v.v
c. Tiu chun khng kh, bao gm khi bi, kh thi (cc cht thi) v.v
d. Tiu chun lin quan n bo v t canh tc, s dng phn bn trong sn xut
nng nghip.
e. Tiu chun bo v thc vt, s dng thuc tr su, dit c.
f. Tiu chun lin quan n bo v cc ngun gen, ng thc vt, a dng sinh hc.
g. Tiu chun lin quan n bo v cnh quan thin nhin, cc di tch lch s, vn
ho.
h. Tiu chun lin quan n mi trng do cc hot ng khai thc khong sn
trong lng t, ngoi bin v.v
Hin nay vit nam chng ta c b tiu chun quy nh v cht lng mi
trng do cc o lng tiu chun, b khoa hc cng ngh v mi trng trc y
ban hnh.

45
IV. Pht trin
1.Khi nim v pht trin
-Thut ng "pht trin" c dng trong cc vn kin, trong nghin cu khoa
hc v trong sinh hot hng ngy n mc qu quen thuc. Tuy nhin, cho n nay
cha th ni c rng khi nim "pht trin" c hiu mt cch y v
ng n.
- Pht trin l xu hng t nhin ng thi l quyn ca mi mt c nhn, mi mt
cng ng hay mi mt quc gia.
- Trc ht, cn nhn thc r i tng, mc tiu v ng lc ca s pht trin.
Con ngi va l i tng, va l ng lc ca pht trin. V th, mc tiu ca s
pht trin l khng ngng ci thin cht lng cuc sng vt cht, vn ho, tinh
thn ca con ngi (c nhn hay cng ng). Ni cch khc:
- Pht trin l to iu kin cho con ngi sinh sng bt k ni u trong mt quc
gia hay trn c hnh tinh u c trng th, u c tho mn cc nhu cu
sng, u c mc tiu th hng ho v dch v tt m khng phi lao ng qu cc
nhc, u c trnh hc vn cao, u c hng nhng thnh tu v vn ho v
tinh thn, u c ti nguyn cho mt cuc sng sung tc, u c sng trong
mt mi trng trong lnh, u c hng cc quyn c bn ca con ngi v
c bo m an ninh, an ton, khng c bo lc.
2. Pht trin kinh t v tng trng kinh t
- Pht trin kinh t l yu t c bn, quan trng nht ca s pht trin ni chung.
Nhng pht trin kinh t khng phi l mc ch t thn v cng khng th l v
hn. N phi phc v, thc y t c cc mc tiu chung ca s pht trin.
- thc hin ti sn xut m rng, bt c nn kinh t no cng u phi bo m
tng trng v pht trin. Tuy nhin, trong l lun cng nh trong thc tin kinh t,
i khi c s lm ln gia tng trng kinh t v pht trin kinh t, ngi ta d
ng nht hai khi nim .
Pht trin Kinh t c th hiu l mt qu trnh ln ln (hay tng tin) v mi mt
ca nn kinh t trong mt thi k nht nh. Trong bao gm c s tng thm v
qui m sn lng (tng trng) v s tin b v c cu kinh t x hi
Ngun: Kinh t pht trin, tp I, trang 15. NXBTK.1999
- Tng trng kinh t, theo cch hiu hin i, l vic m rng sn lng quc gia
tim nng ca mt nc, s tng ln khng ngng GNP tim nng thc (GNP thc
- l GNP c iu chnh theo s thay i gi: GNP thc = GNP danh ngha-
Gim pht ca GNP)

46
Vic m rng kh nng kinh t sn xut, ni mt cch khc, l vic chuyn
dch kh nng sn xut ra pha ngoi qua thi gian, l tng sn lng, nng sut,
tin cng v nhng i lng quan trng khc theo chiu hng nht nh.
Tng trng kinh t c o bng tc v quy m
+ Tc tng trng c tnh bng t l phn trm thng qua vic so snh quy m
ca hai thi k. Quy m ca thi k sau so vi thi k trc cng ln th tc
tng trng cng nhanh. Quy m c biu hin bng s lng tuyt i, cn tc
tng trng c biu hin bng s lng tng i. Quy m ca thi k sau so
vi thi k trc cng ln th tc tng trng cng nhanh. Nhng khng phi
tc tng trng cng nhanh th cng tt!
+ Trong nn kinh t, s tng trng chung th hin tc tng GNP v tc
tng GDP, m chng li ph thuc vo tc tng gi tr sn lng, sn lng
thun tu ca cc ngnh kinh t. Nhng tc tng ca cc ngnh li khc nhau
theo nhng quy lut nht nh. V th, trong tng thi k, nu khng bo m c
cc mi quan h c tnh quy lut gia cc ngnh, th s gy ri lon trong nn kinh
t, hn ch s pht trin chung ca nn kinh t.
- Nh vy, ta thy: tng trng kinh t cha phi l pht trin kinh t. Tng trng
kinh t, mc d rt quan trng, nhng ch mi l iu kin cn ca pht trin kinh
t. iu kin ca pht trin kinh t l trong qu trnh tng trng kinh t phi
bo m c tnh cn i, tnh hiu qu, tnh mc tiu v tng trng kinh t
trc mt phi bo m tng trng kinh t trong tng lai.

3.Mi quan h gia mi trng v pht trin.
- "Mi trng hay pht trin": mt cch t vn sau lm.
Trong lch s pht trin ca cc quc gia, c mt thi, nht l sau cuc cch
mng cng nghip, pht trin kinh t c t ln hng u, ln t tt c nhng yu
t khc ca s pht trin: x hi, vn ho, mi trng, quyn con ngi, v.v...
Thm ch, khuynh hng "pht trin vi bt c gi no", pht trin t pht tr
nn thnh hnh, gy ra nhng hu qu ht sc tai hi cho c mi trng ln x hi,
vn ho.
Ngay c trong thi im hin nay, khi m cuc chy ua pht trin gia cc quc
gia, gia cc khu vc kinh t ca th gii ang din ra ngy cng gay gt, khc lit,
th khuynh hng "pht trin vi bt c gi no" vn c tn sng trn thc t,
c bit l cc nc ang phi i u vi ngho i, lc hu, kinh t chm pht
trin. Trong bi cnh , ngi ta d c khuynh hng hi sinh mi trng v cc
yu t khc cho pht trin kinh t. Nhng ngi qu st rut trc tnh trng lc

47
hu, km pht trin ca nc mnh thng lp lun rng "c pht trin kinh t
ri s tnh sau". Kt qu l mi trng b suy thoi lm cho c s ca pht trin b
thu hp; ti nguyn ca mi trng b gim st v s lng v cht lng, trong
iu kin dn s ngy cng tng ln, chnh l nguyn nhn gy nn s ngho kh,
cng cc ca con ngi. Tn thm kch mt s nc chu Phi (nh Xmali,
tiopia, Uganda, Ruana, v.v...) l mt bng chng cho s " nhim do ngho i"
(Pollution of Poverty) cc nc ang pht trin.
- Ngc li vi khuynh hng trn l khuynh hng "tng trng bng khng
hoc m" (Zero or Negative Growth) bo v cc ngun ti nguyn hu hn,
hoc "ch ngha bo v" ch trng khng can thip vo cc ngun ti nguyn sinh
hc bo v chng: hay "ch ngha bo tn" (Conservationism) ch trng khng
ng chm vo thin nhin, nht l ti cc a bn cha c iu tra, nghin cu
y . Tt c nhng khuynh hng, quan im trn u l khng tng, c bit
i vi cc nc ang pht trin, ni m ti nguyn thin nhin l ngun vn c
bn cho mi hot ng pht trin ca con ngi.
L thuyt khng tng v"nh ch pht trin" thng xut hin cc nc pht
trin, bi v trc y v ngay c hin nay phn ln cc ngun ti nguyn ca cc
nc ang pht trin b khai thc lm dng, tiu th qu mc phc v cho cc
li ch ca cc nc cng nghip ho pht trin v chnh ti y li xy ra hin
tng " nhim do giu c" (Pollution of affluence).
Nh vy, tnh trng thiu lng thc, nc ung, nh , thuc men, v sinh, ngho
i, m ch, thin tai cc nc ang pht trin, hay ni cch khc l hin tng
" nhim do ngho i" mt phn bt ngun t " nhim do giu c".
-T nhng iu trnh by trn, ta thy: pht trin v mi trng khng phi l hai
v lun lun i khng v mu thun nhau theo kiu loi tr, c ci ny th khng
c ci kia. Do , khng th chp nhn cch t vn "pht trin hay mi
trng", m phi t vn "pht trin v mi trng", ngha l phi la chn v
coi trng c hai, khng hy sinh ci ny v ci kia.

4. Cc m hnh chin lc pht trin
Tng kt kinh nghim pht trin kinh t ca cc quc gia trn th gii, c th phn
ra ba m hnh chin lc pht trin sau y:
4.1 M hnh tng trng tn c in.
M hnh loi ny hot ng theo c ch th trng k hoch ho da trn c s s
hu t nhn, tch lu vn t trong nc v thu ht vn t nc ngoi.
48
Hin nay, m hnh ny t ra khng c hiu qu do nhng nhc im thng thy

cc nc ang pht trin v c cu v th ch kinh t - x hi nh: thiu mt th
trng nng ng, thiu h tng c s, thiu kin thc v k thut v qun l, nh
hng tiu cc ca cc th lc chnh tr bo th trong v ngoi nc gy ra
nhng tr lc ln cho pht trin.
Tnh trng ny i hi phi c nhng thay i c bn v c cu kinh t, ci cch
trit v kinh t - x hi ti cc nc ang pht trin.
i vi bo v mi trng v khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, c ch
ca m hnh ny c u im l xc nh s hu t nhn r rng, tuy nhin trong
nhiu trng hp n cng th hin tnh km hiu qu, bi l s hu t nhn c
nhng mt hn ch nht nh trong vic qun l nhng ngun ti nguyn s hu
chung, kh nng kim sot ca Nh nc sau khi giao quyn s hu.
4.2 M hnh c cu tn mcx.
M hnh ny da trn c s k hoch ho tp trung, s hu Nh nc v cc t liu
sn xut ch yu, Nh nc thng nht qun l kinh t, tin hnh nhng ci cch v
c cu v c ch x hi ch ngha, b qua ch phong kin v t bn ch ngha,
xy dng x hi XHCN.
Trong m hnh ny cc quc gia cng quan tm nhiu ti bo v mi trng v duy
tr cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, c ch ca n c u th l sc mnh qun l
Nh nc tp trung cao , tuy nhin do tnh cht s hu chung trong iu kin
thiu lut php nn dn n tnh trng cha chung khng ai khc, ti nguyn s
hu chung l nguyn nhn dn n xut hin ngi n khng. Do s hu Nh
nc nng ln ton b hot ng kinh t, nn c ch k hoch ho tp trung
thng mang tnh ch quan duy ch, n cng l nguyn nhn ca con dao hai
li trong iu hnh v kim sot, nu chnh sch ng th c tc dng tt cho bo
v mi trng v duy tr cc ngun tai nguyn thin nhin, nhng nu chnh sch
sai th n l nguyn nhn dn n nhng thit hi cho ti nguyn v mi trng
khng lng trc c. iu ny tng gp phi cc nc XHCN trc y.
4.3 M hnh c cu t bn ch ngha.
M hnh ny hot ng trn c s s hu t nhn v c ch th trng t do, k
hoch ho pht trin kinh t, nhng nhng k hoch do Nh nc ra ch mang
tnh nh hng, c tin hnh mt s ci cch v c cu v th ch kinh t nh ci
cch rung t, tng cng mt s bin php kim tra v qun l ca Nh nc i
vi cng nghip, c xy dng mt s x nghip Nh nc lm ch lc cho nn kinh
t, c ch n phn phi cng bng nhng thnh qu pht trin kinh t trong x
hi.
49
Thc t cho thy hin nay m hnh ny ang c tnh ph bin trn th gii, n l s
k tha tip theo ca hai m hnh trn. i vi bo v mi trng v duy tr, khai

thc, bo tn cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, c ch ca m hnh ny th hin
c nhng tnh u vit ca n, l s kt hp gia phn nh s hu t nhn r
rng v s iu hnh kim sot ca Nh nc thng qua h thng php lut, c ch
ca m hnh ny cho php phn nh thng tin hai chiu, kt hp c ch th trng,
vai tr s hu t nhn v s iu hnh kim sot ca Nh nc. C ch ca m
hnh ny cng c nhng mt tri ca n, gy ra nhng thit hi cho ti nguyn v
mi trng, c bit l vic bung lng qun l, thc thi lut php thiu nghim
minh.
5. M hnh chin lc pht trin ca Vit Nam
5.1. Trc i hi VI ca ng (1986)
Xy dng mt nn kinh t x hi ch ngha da trn s hu XHCN v t liu sn
xut, hot ng theo c ch k hoch ho tp trung.
5.2. Sau i hi VI ca ng.
- Sau i hi VI, c bit l ir hi VII (1991) thng qua Cng lnh xy dng
t nc trong thi k qu ln CNXH v Chin lc n nh v pht trin kinh
t - x hi n nm 2000. Trong , xc nh m hnh chin lc pht trin kinh
t ca nc ta nh sau: Xy dng mt nn kinh t nhiu thnh phn hot ng theo
c ch th trng, nh hng XHCN, c s qun l ca Nh nc
- n i hi ng cng sn vit nam ln th IX (2000), trong chin lc pht trin
Kinh t - x hi 2001-2010, v mc tiu tng qut ca chin lc 10 nm ca Vit
nam l: "a nc ta ra khi tnh trng km pht trin, nng cao r rt i sng
vt cht, vn ha, tinh thn ca nhn dn; to nn tng n nm 2020 nc ta
c bn tr thnh mt nc cng nghip theo hng hin i".
Lin quan n chin lc pht trin Kinh t - x hi 2001-2010, i hi i biu
ton quc ln th IX ca ng cng sn vit nam khng nh " Pht trin
nhanh, bn vng, tng trng kinh t i i vi tin b cng bng x hi v bo v
mi trng" v " Pht trin kinh t - x hi gn cht vi bo v v ci thin mi
trng, bo m s hi ha gia mi trng nhn to vi mi trng thin nhin,
gi gn a dng sinh hc. Ch ng phng trnh v hn ch tc ng xu ca thin
tai, ca s bin ng kh hu bt li v tip tc gii quyt hu qu chin tranh cn
li i vi mi trng. Bo v v ci to mi trng l trch nhim ca ton x
hi, tng cng qun l Nh nc i i vi nng cao thc trch nhim ca mi
ngi dn. Ch ng gn kt yu cu ci thin mi trng trong mi quy hoch, k
hoch, chng trnh v d n pht trin kinh t-x hi, coi yu cu v mi trng
l mt tiu ch quan trng nh gi cc gii php pht trin.
Vit nam c th gii xc nh l quc gia c nn kinh t chuyn i, thc t nh

50
nu trn, t cng lnh i hi ng ln th VI, n i hi ng ln th IX,
tri qua 15 nm i mi v pht trin th hin tnh ng n ca n. Kinh t lin
tc tng trng, x hi n nh, chng ta l mt trong nhng quc gia tham gia tch
cc vo cng tc bo v mi trng, duy tr v bo tn cc ngun ti nguyn thin
nhin, tham gia nhiu cng c quc t trong lnh vc bo v mi trng, duy tr
a dng sinh hc v pht trin bn vng.
Bn cnh nhng thnh tu t c, thc tin thi gian va qua, vi c ch th
trng c s qun l ca Nh nc cng th hin nhng mt tri ca n. lin
quan n bo v mi trng v bo tn, duy tr cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin,
chng hn nh vn ph rng, xm phm ti sn quc gia, vn khai thc v
bun bn ng vt hoang gi, s hn ch gim thiu nhim cc doanh nghip
Nh nc.Nhng l do ny i hi chng ta cn tip tc hon thin c ch qun
l i vi bo v mi trng, song song vi n l tng trng kinh t v n nh x
hi trong chin lc pht trin ca mnh, nhm hng ti pht trin bn vng nh
trong chin lc pht trin ca t nc n nm 2010 c i hi ng ln
th IX khng nh.
V. Pht trin bn vng
1. Khi nim "Pht trin bn vng"
+ y l khi nim hon ton mi m, xut hin trn c s c rt kinh nghim
pht trin ca cc quc gia trn hnh tinh t trc n nay, phn nh xu th ca
thi i v nh hng tng lai ca loi ngi.
+ Theo kinh t hc Herman Daly(
) (lm vic Ngn hng th gii) th mt th

gii bn vng l mt th gii khng s dng cc ngun ti nguyn ti to (nh
nc, th nhng, sinh vt) nhanh hn qu trnh tm ra nhng loi thay th chng
v khng thi ra mi trng cc cht c hi nhanh hn qu trnh Tri t hp th
v v hiu ho chng.
+ Nm 1987, y ban th gii v Mi trng v Pht trin cng b bo co:
tng lai chung ca chng ta. Bo co ny cp v phn tch mi lin kt cht
ch gia mi trng v pht trin. Theo nh li ca ch tch y ban, Gro Harlem
Brudtland: "Mi trng l ni chng ta ang sng; pht trin l nhng g chng ta
lm c gng ci thin tt c mi th bn trong ni chng ta sng, v do vy
hai v ny khng th tch ri nhau". Thng ip chnh ca tuyn ngn ny l nu
chng ta ph hy ni sng ca chng ta th s khng c s pht trin. Trong Bo
co ny cng a ra nh ngha v khi nim pht trin bn vng (Sustainable
51

(
) Theo Conexion s 3, thng 9, 1992

Development). Theo pht trin bn vng l: "s pht trin p ng c cc
nhu cu ca hin ti m khng lm tn hi n kh nng p ng cc nhu cu ca
cc th h tng lai". C th coi y l nh ngha u tin c dng chnh thc
v hin vn c s dng trong cc vn bn ca chng trnh mi trng lin hp
quc (UNEP).
+ Nh vy, c th thy: "Pht trin bn vng l mt s pht trin lnh mnh, trong
s pht trin ca c nhn ny khng lm thit hi n li ch ca c nhn khc,
s pht trin ca c nhn khng lm thit hi n li ch ca cng ng, s pht
trin ca cng ng ngi ny khng lm thit hi n li ch ca cng ng ngi
khc, s pht trin ca th h hm nay khng xm phm n li ch ca cc th h
mai sau v s pht trin ca loi ngi khng e do s sng cn hoc lm suy
gim ni sinh sng ca cc loi khc trn hnh tinh (cc loi cng sinh). Bi v s
sng cn ca con ngi l da trn c s duy tr c sn lng, nng sut t
nhin, kh nng phc hi v s a dng ca sinh quyn.
2.Ni dung pht trin bn vng.
T khi nim pht trin bn vng, thc cht l mt s pht trin c tinh tng hp
cao v c h thng. Tip cn quan im h thng v tng hp cho php hai nh mi
trng hc Canaa l Jacobs v Sadler trnh by mi quan h bin chng gia pht
trin v mi trng trong s di y (H.1.2)

52

B
A
Pht trin bn
vng
C
C B A PTBV
Hnh 1.2 Mi quan h gia pht trin kinh t - x hi v mi trng
M hnh cng c Mohan Munasingle, chuyn gia ca ngn hng th gii
(WB) pht trin vo nm 1993 (H.1.2)


Pht
trin
bn vng
Kinh t
X hi
Tng trng
Hiu qu
n nh
a dng sinh hc
v thch nghi
Bo tn ti nguyn
thin nhin
Ngn chn nhim
Mi trng
- Cng bng gia cc th h
- S tham gia ca qun chng
Gim i ngho
Xy dng th ch
Bo tn di sn
vn ho dn tc
- nh gi tc ng mi trng
- Tin t ho tc ng mi trng
- Cng bng gia cc th h
- Mc tiu tr gip vic lm
Hnh 1.3: Tip cn pht trin bn vng

+ Cc mi trng. Cng ging nh s pht trin ca sinh vt, s pht trin x hi
phi gii p c bi ton do mi trng t ra. Trong bt k phng n quy
hoch pht trin no theo hng bn vng cng u phi tnh ton k mi tc ng
qua li gia con ngi v thin nhin sao cho s pht trin kinh t - x hi khng
lm suy thoi hoc hu dit mi trng, bo tn ti nguyn, ngn chn nhim.
+ Cc kinh t. Theo quan im ca trng phi pht trin bn vng, th sinh lc
kinh t ca mt x hi tu thuc vo kh nng gii quyt vn gi tr thng d
bng cch s dng gi tr thng d trao i v b p nhng thit hi do s pht
trin kinh t n thun gy ra. Gi tr thng d c th c to ra bng cch nng
cao nng sut, i mi cng ngh,... i vi nhng sn phm c ch to t
ngun gc thin nhin, vn ch yu l xt xem ti nguyn thin nhin c kh
nng ti to hay khng. Nu khng th phi tin hnh nghin cu v ch to cc sn
phm c kh nng thay th. Mun vy, phi cng thm vo gi thnh sn phm lm
t ti nguyn khng ti to mt loi chi ph khc nghin cu v pht trin cc
sn phm thay th. Trong cc ny phi m bo s tng trng, hiu qu v n
nh.
+ Cc x hi. S pht trin kinh t phi i i vi pht trin x hi, ngha l nng
cao v ci thin cht lng cuc sng cho tt c mi ngi. cng chnh l s
pht trin t sinh do chnh x hi y ch ng thc hin, ch khng phi l mt s
pht trin ngoi sinh, sng nh hon ton vo ngun lc t bn ngoi, mun vy

53
phi gim i ngho, thng xuyn xy dng th ch tt v bo tn di sn vn ha
dn tc.
- Tng hp li, ta thy: Pht trin bn vng l mt s pht trin cn i gia ba cc
tng trng Kinh t, x hi v mi trng, khng c xem nh cc no.
- Trn quan im ng, xem xt mi quan h kinh t, x hi v mi trng cho
pht trin bn vng c th hin thng qua s sau (H 1.4)

54

KT

sx
a
X
H
M
T
Thi gian
- Vt cht
- Nng
lng
C B A a
Tnh ph thuc
(tp con v tp ln)
Hnh 1.4 Pht trin bn vng trn quan im ng
3. Cc ch s pht trin bn vng
Khi nim cng nh ni dung "Pht trin bn vng" nh trnh by trn, y l
vn rng ln, mang tnh tng hp cao. o lng pht trin bn vng c nhiu
ch tiu khc nhau, c nhng ch tiu nh lng c, nhng cng c nhng ch
tiu kh nh lng m ch dng mc nh tnh, c th dng cc ch s v sinh
thi, ch s pht trin con ngi (Human Developed Index - HDI) do UNDP a ra
(xem UNDP. Human Developing Report 1992).
Lm th no nh gi c s pht trin l bn vng trn mt lnh th? C th
nh lng c khng? Mc chp nhn s nh lng ra sao? y l vn
kh khn nht, phc tp nht m con ngi phi vt qua chp nhn v thc
hin. X hi loi ngi gm cc dn tc rt khc bit v vn ho, lch s, tn
ngng, chnh tr, gio dc v truyn thng, h cng rt khc nhau v mc phn
thnh v cht lng cuc sng v iu kin mi trng m s nhn thc v s khc
bit cng rt khc nhau, hn na s khc bit li thng xuyn vn ng khi
tng ln khi gim i. Bi vy, nh gi th no l pht trin bn vng mang tnh tu
thuc rt ln. iu d thng nht hn c l ngy nay nhu cu c mt cuc sng m
no d chu, iu kin sng ngy mt nng cao, tnh a dng sinh hc v nng sut
sn xut ca t nhin lun gi vng ang l nguyn vng v quyt tm bo v ca
nhn loi. Chnh v vy m qua mt thi gian di tho lun, tranh lun quyt lit,

cc chnh ph v cc nh khoa hc cng thng nht c cc ch tiu nh
gi pht trin bn vng. UNDP a ra mt h thng nhiu ch tiu tp trung
ch tiu pht trin ca con ngi (Human Development Index HDI) v ch tiu v
s t do ca con ngi (Human Free Index HFI). Tuy vy, hin nay ch c 2 nhm
ch tiu ch yu sau y c vn dng nhiu nht.
3.1 Ch s v sinh thi: Ch s ny rt kh lng ho v tu thuc rt nhiu vo
hon cnh t nhin trn tng lnh th. Mt cch tng qut l s pht trin gi l t
ch tiu ny khi s pht trin y va gii quyt c nhim v tng trng trin
kinh t nhng vn bo v c cc h sinh thi c bn trn lnh th xc nh, tc l
bo v c mi trng nn trn mt phm vi rng ca khng gian lnh th. o
lng ch tiu ny trn mt lnh th c th thng ngi ta cn c vo s a dng
sinh hc, mc khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin ti sinh v khng c
kh nng ti sinh.
3.2. Ch s pht trin con ngi (HDI).
T nhng nm u ca thp k 90 ca th k XX, cc t chc quc t c khuyn
ngh s dng ch s pht trin con ngi HDI lm thc o phn loi trnh
pht trin kinh t-x hi ca cc nc. Ngi ta cng khuyn ngh nn s dng ch
tiu ny nh gi v phn loi cc nc giu ngho. Vy ni dung v bn cht
ca HDI l g?
Ch s HDI l thc o tng hp v s pht trin ca con ngi trn phng
din sc khe, tri thc v thu nhp.
K hiu v cch tnh ba ch tiu thnh phn nh sau:
- Trnh gio dc : D
- Tui th : E
- Thu nhp u ngi: I
3.2.1. Ch s pht trin gio dc.
i vi mi vng (Hay mi nc) th k, trnh gio dc D c cu thnh bi
hai thnh t: t l ngi ln bit ch v t l nhp hc cc cp gio dc tiu hc,
trung hc v i hc. Ta c ch tiu tng hp:
DI
k
= a x T l ngi ln bit ch (Di
k
) + b x t l nhp hc cc cp (Di
k
).
Trong , a v b l hai h s dng, ngi ta xc nh c a = 2/3 v b = 1/3.
i vi cc ch tiu thnh phn, ch s pht trin gio dc DI
k
ca vng (hay nc)
th k c tnh theo cng thc:

55

D
k
- Dmin
Di
k
=
Dmax - Dmin
56

Trong :
Di
k
l ch s thnh phn.
D
k
l gi tr thc.
Dmin v Dmax l gi tr ti thiu v ti a.
3.2.2. Ch s tui th bnh qun.
Ch s tui th bnh qun ca mt nc hay mt vng th k c tnh theo cng
thc sau y:
E
k
- Emin
EI
K
=
Emax - Emin
Trong :
EI
k
l ch s tui th trung bnh.
E
K
l tui th bnh qun tnh t khi sinh
Emin v Emax l tui th ti thiu v ti a ca dn c.
3.2.3. Ch s thu nhp u ngi.
Ch s thu nhp c o bng GDP thc t u ngi theo sc mua tng ng
tnh bng la M (PPP USD).
I
k
- Imin
II
k
=
Imax - Imin
Trong :
II
k
l ch s thu nhp u ngi vng (hay nc) th k.
I
k
l gi tr thu nhp u ngi ti a vng (hay nc) th k.
Imin l gi tr thu nhp u ngi ti thiu vng (hay nc) th k.
Ch s pht trin con ngi tng hp HDI ca vng (hay nc) th k c tnh nh

sau:
HDI
k
= DI
k
1/3 + EI
k
1/3 + II
k
1/3
i vi s pht trin ca con ngi ngoi ch s HDI, hin nay ngi ta cn dng
cc ch s khc nh HPI-1; HPI-2 l cc ch s ngho kh con ngi cho cc nc
ang pht trin; Ch s GDI l ch s pht trin gii....
Ngoi ra, cn c nhng ch s c cc nc trn th gii s dng, c bit l
cc nc pht trin nh ch s v s t do con ngi (HFI - Human Free Index):
vic lm, tn trng quyn con ngi, an sinh, khng c bo lc, v.v...
Tm li, so vi pht trin kinh t n thun, pht trin bn vng l mt bi ton ht
sc phc tp, khng phi lc no cng c th gii quyt mt cch ti u c, bi
v trong thc t, ngi ta thng ng trc mt s la chn khng d dng, hoc
ci ny hoc ci kia. Song xut pht t mt cch nhn tng th, mt chin lc pht
trin c tnh ton y tt c cc nhn t, cc kha cnh, t kinh t n phi kinh t
v mt kh nng d bo tng lai c tnh hin thc, th pht trin bn vng vn
c nh gi l mt phng php pht trin lnh mnh v c gi tr nht d c
x hi tha nhn.
4. Nhng nguyn tc ca mt x hi bn vng
S bn vng trong cuc sng ca mt dn tc ph thuc rt ln vo s ho hp ca
dn tc vi cc dn tc khc v vi thin nhin. Con ngi ch khai thc c
nhng g thin nhin mang li ngha l con ngi ch pht trin trong gii hn thin
nhin cho php. Con ngi khng loi b nhng phc li do cch mng k thut
mang li nhng cng phi l nhng k thut tun theo nhng nguyn tc ni trn.
Cuc sng bn vng phi da trn nhng nguyn tc nht nh, nhng nguyn tc
lin kt cng ng con ngi li to nn mt x hi pht trin bn vng. Nhng
nguyn tc a x hi hng ti s pht trin bn vng lin h khng kht vi
nhau, chng hng dn hnh vi con ngi ch khng phi l mnh lnh, n hng
ti tng lai ch khng quay li qu kh, n lin kt cc dn tc vi nhau c
hnh ng chung cn mc vn dng li tu thuc vo tng dn tc.
Nhng nguyn tc l:
Nguyn tc 1: Tn trng v quan tm n cuc sng ca cng ng
Con ngi c trch nhim phi quan tm n ng loi v cc hnh thc tn ti
khc ca s sng trong hin ti v tng lai. Cn phi chia s cng bng nhng
phc li v chi ph trong vic s dng ti nguyn v bo v mi trng gia cc
cng ng vi cc nhm c lin quan gia ngi ngho vi ngi giu, gia th h
hin ti vi nhau v th h hin ti vi th h mai sau.
57
Ton th cc dng sng trn tri t to thnh mt h thng v i l thuc nhau, tc

ng ln nhau v cng ph thuc vo cc yu t ca sinh quyn. Gia cc x hi
loi ngi cng lin quan n nhau v cc th h tng lai chu nh hng ca
nhng hnh ng ca con ngi th h hin ti. Th gii t nhin ngy cng b tc
ng mnh m ca con ngi v vy phi lm sao cho nhng tc ng khng e
do s sng cn ca mun loi khc chng ta cn c c hi da vo sinh
tn v pht trin. V vy nguyn tc ny va th hin trnh nhim va th hin o
c ca con ngi.
Nguyn tc 2: Ci thin cht lng cuc sng con ngi
Mc tiu ca s pht trin kinh t x hi ca con ngi l khng ngng nng cao
cht lng cuc sng, y l c th m con ngi t th h ny sang th h khc
hng ti. Pht trin kinh t l rt quan trng nhng n khng mang ngha t
nhn, cc dn tc c chin lc, sch lc v mc tiu c th khc nhau nhng ci
chung nht c th thng nht c l xy dng mt cuc sng lnh mnh no , c
mt nn gio dc tt, c quyn sng t do v chnh tr c bo m an ton v
khng c bo lc, c ti nguyn cho s pht trin lu di ... Tm li l con ngi
ngy mt y hn, cuc sng tt hn trong s pht trin chn chnh.
Nguyn tc 3: Bo v s sng v tnh a dng ca tri t
Cuc sng m loi ngi hon ton ph thuc vo nhng h thng thin nhin trn
tri t. V vy s pht trin trn c s bo v phi bo v c cu trc, chc nng
v tnh a dng ca nhng h thng y. V th chng ta phi:
- Bo v h thng nui dng s sng, l cc qu trnh sinh thi nui dng v
bo tn s sng, n iu chnh kh hu, iu ho cht lng khng kh, ngun
nc, chu chuyn cc yu t c bn lm cc h sinh thi lun c hi phc.
- Bo v tnh a dng sinh hc khng ch l tt c cc loi ng thc vt cng cc
t chc sng khc m cn bo v ngun gen di truyn c trong mi loi v cc
dng sinh thi khc nhau.
Nguyn tc 4: Bo m chc chn vic s dng cc ngun ti nguyn.
Ngun ti nguyn ti to bao gm t, nc, khng kh, th gii ng thc vt
phi c s dng sao cho chng c th phc hi c. Ngun ti nguyn khng
ti to phi c ko di qu trnh s dng bng cch ti sinh ti nguyn, dng ti
nguyn c th ti to thay th hoc s dng tit kim. Ch c nh vy mi c
ngun ti nguyn cung cp cho hng trm triu ngi tng ln hng nm v cuc
sng con ngi ngy cng tt p.
Nguyn tc 5: Gi vng trong kh nng chu ng ca Tri t
Kh nng chiu ng ca Tri t thc cht l tng hp kh nng chu ng ca tt
c cc h sinh thi c trn Tri t. Cc tc ng ln cc h sinh thi do tc ng
ti sinh quyn sao cho chng khng b bin i theo hng xu i nguy him,

58
chng c th t phc hi, chng "chu ng" c. Kh nng chu ng ny thay
i theo tng vng v r rng rt ph thuc vo mt tc ng tc l ph thuc
vo s lng con ngi v hnh vi s dng ca con ngi. Chnh sch kinh t,
chnh sch dn s v cch sng ca con ngi trn mt a bn v kh nng chu
ng ca thin nhin rng buc cht ch vi nhau v cn qun l cht ch.
Nguyn tc 6: Thay i thi v thi quen sng ca mi ngi
Cuc sng bn vng c xy dng trn nhng c s o c mi do con ngi
phi xem xt li cc gi tr v thay i cch ng x. Cuc sng x hi phi xy
dng, ra cc tiu chun o c v ph phn li sng khng da trn nguyn tc
bn vng. Dng mi hnh thc gio dc chnh thc v khng chnh thc mi
ngi c cch ng x c cc hnh vi cn thit trong vic tc ng ln thin nhin
hng ti thin nhin vng bn.
Nguyn tc 7: Cho php cc cng ng t qun l ly mi trng ca mnh.
Phn ln cc hot ng sng to v c hiu qu ca c nhn v cc nhm u xy
ra trong cng ng, cc cng ng thng to ra nhng iu kin thun li v sn
sng thc hin cc hnh ng c ch cho x hi v cc cng ng hn ai ht bit
quan tm n i sng ca chnh mnh. Nh nm vng tnh hnh mi trng xung
quanh nn khi h c quyn lc h c th t qun l mi trng h sng mt cch
thch hp nht, tit kim v hiu qu nh m cht lng mi trng c nng
cao.
Nguyn tc 8: To ra mt c cu quc gia thng nht cho vic pht trin v bo v.
Mi x hi tin b phi da trn c s ngun thng tin phong ph, kin thc di
do, c cu lut php vng chc, gio dc ton din, mt nn kinh t n nh v
chnh sch x hi ph hp. Tuy vy, cho x hi pht trin bn vng cc quc gia
phi xy dng cht lng pht trin tnh n tt c cc quyn li d kin cng nh
ngn chn cc tr lc c th xy ra do s suy thoi iu kin pht trin l cht
lng mi trng, cc chnh sch iu chnh lin tc hot ng pht trin ph
hp cc nhu cu mi ca x hi cng nh bo v c iu kin mi trng. V
vy, chnh sch quc gia phi gn lin chnh sch kinh t vi kh nng chu ng
ca mi trng, nng cao hiu qu s dng ti nguyn, bo m sao cho nguyn tc
ngi s dng ti nguyn phi tr gi cho vic s dng .
Nguyn tc 9: Kin to mt c cu lin minh ton cu
59
Trong th gii ngy nay khng mt quc gia no tn ti theo phng thc t cp t
tc c v vy s pht trin bn vng ton cu phi l hnh ng ca ton nhn
loi, ton cu phi l mt lin minh vng chc. Do mc pht trin khng ng
u nn cc nc c thu nhp thp phi c s h tr ca cc nc giu c v ca
cng ng quc t ni chung th mi bo v c mi trng ca mnh. Cc ngun

ti nguyn ca hnh tinh nht l khng kh, ngun nc v cc h sinh thi ch c
th bo v bng s qun l chung, mc ch chung v gii php thch hp. Ton th
cc quc gia u c li t s pht trin bn vng v cng b thit hi nu khng
thc hin c iu .

60
Tm tt chng mt.

Chng mt trnh by nhng ni dung c bn ca mi trng v pht trin. lm
r bn cht ca mi quan h gia mi trng v pht trin nhm hng ti mt s
pht trin bn vng, trong chng ny tp trung vo gii quyt nhng vn ch
yu sau.
a ra nhng nh ngha v khi nim c bn v mi trng c chnh thc
tha nhn hin nay trn th gii v Vit nam, phn tch thnh phn, bn cht v
chc nng ca h thng mi trng, trn c s xem xt mi quan h rng buc
gia kinh t v mi trng.
Lin quan n ti nguyn thin nhin, trong phn hai ca chng cng lm r khi
nim, phn loi ti nguyn v xem xt bn cht ca Kinh t ti nguyn l g? c
bit trong phn ny a ra s phn tch v cn bng vt cht trong hot ng
kinh t lin quan n nng cao cht lng mi trng trn c s nhn nhn ca cn
bng ng lc hc.
Phn ba xem xt bin i mi trng, trong phn ny cng lm r nhng khi nim
c bn lin quan n bin i mi trng nh cht pht thit ra mi trng, cht
lng vng xung quanh v tn tht, cc loi cht nhim. Cc khi nim lin quan
n bin i mi trng nh nhim mi trng, suy thoi mi trng, s c mi
trng, nhng vn lin quan n tiu chun mi trng.
Trong phn bn cp n vn pht trin, trong lm r thm khi nim pht
trin, phn bit s khc nhau gia pht trin kinh t v tng trng kinh t, mi
quan h gia mi trng v pht trin. Trnh by cc m hnh chin lc pht trin
c v ang tn ti trn th gii, c ch ca chng lin quan n bo v mi
trng v duy tr khai thc hp l cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, t xem xt
m hnh pht trin ca Vit nam c ng ta khng nh. c bit trong
chng ny i su vo phn tch v lm sng t th no l pht trin bn vng, lin
quan n pht trin bn vng c nhng ch s no, mt trong nhng ch s c
phn tch k v minh ha bng v d thc tin l ch s pht trin con ngi HDI.
Ba ni dung v chn nguyn tc pht trin bn vng hin nay trn th gii v Vit
nam l nhng phn kt thc ca chng I.

61
Cu hi n tp

1. Trnh by cc khi nim: mi trng, mi trng sng v mi trng sng ca
con ngi. Gia cc khi nim c g ging nhau, khc nhau?
2. Trnh by cc thnh phn mi trng? Ti sao ni s phn chia mi trng thnh
cc quyn cng l tng i?
3. Trnh by nhng c trng c bn ca h thng mi trng v cc cch phn loi
mi trng.
4 i vi con ngi v hot ng kinh t, mi trng sng c nhng chc nng c
bn no?
5. Thng qua s minh ha phn tch mi quan h gia kinh t v mi trng.
6. Trnh by khi nim, cch phn loi ti nguyn thin nhin theo quan im ca
cc Nh Kinh t mi trng. S phn loi c ngha g?
7. Bng s phn tch cn bng vt cht trong hot ng Kinh t. nng cao
cht lng mi trng chng ta cn c nhng gii php kh thi c bn no? Chng
minh.
8. Bng s phn tch mi quan h nhn qu gia cht pht thi ra mi trng,
cht lng mi trng vng xung quanh v tn tht. Cho bit c cc loi cht
nhim no? ly v d thc tin chng minh.
9. Trnh by cc khi nim : nhim mi trng, suy thoi mi trng v s c
mi trng. Cho v d trong thc tin chng minh.
10. Tiu chun mi trng l g? C cu ca h thng tiu chun mi trng bao
gm nhng nhm no?
11. Trnh by khi nim: pht trin, pht trin kinh t v tng trng Kinh t. Phn
bit s khc nhau c bn gia pht trin kinh t v tng trng kinh t.
12. Phn tch mi quan h gia mi trng v pht trin.
13. Phn tch nhng u im v nhc im ca cc m hnh pht trin kinh t
tn ti trong lch s. Chng c nh hng nh th no n vic bo v mi
trng?
14. Trnh by m hnh pht trin kinh t ca Vit nam t sau i hi VI ca ng.
n i hi ng cng sn Vit nam ln th IX m hnh c tip tc m rng
v pht trin nh th no?
15. Trnh by khi nim "pht trin bn vng" v cc ch s phn nh s pht trin
bn vng.

62
16. Trnh by ni dung pht trin bn vng. Phn tch bng s 3 cc hp thnh
ca ni dung pht trin bn vng: Kinh t, x hi v mi trng.
17. Trnh by nhng nguyn tc c bn ca mt x hi bn vng.

63
Chng II
Kinh t hc cht lng mi trng

I. t vn
Chng ta ang thi k nhng nm u ca th k XXI, mt trongnhng vn
thch thc ln nht l bo v v bo qun nhng ngun ti nguyn ca tri t
cng nh tip tc pht trin kinh t khng ch trong tng quc gia m c trn qui
m ton cu. Hng trm nm trc y, vi mc ch tham vng tng trng kinh
t nhanh v khuyn khch pht trin cng ngh bng nhng thay i trong cc cuc
cch mng cng nghip lm nh hng rt nghim trng ti mi trng t
nhin. S gia tng khi lng ca giao thng, qu trnh sn xut; vin thng v ho
cht nhn to nh hng su sc ti c hai chiu l nng cao cuc sng vt cht
con ngi cng nh hng th x hi v s ph hu mi trng cng ln hn m
hin nay chng ta ang phi i mt. Chng ta ghi nhn mt iu c ngha l s
nh i gia tng trng kinh t v cht lng mi trng. Nhng chng ta khng
th chuyn ho n cho tng lai.
Gii php cn c xem xt l mi quan h rng buc gia hot ng kinh t v
cht lng mi trng t nhin v s dng thng tin i n nhng quyt nh
ng n hn. D nhin s lun lun c mt tng hp ca s nh i khi lng
chnh xc. Vy cn phi s dng l thuyt kinh t g bao qut c ton b vn
ny. Chng ta khng th mong i c c mt bu khng kh trong lnh hon
ho hoc mt ngun nc tinh khit y , cng nh chng ta khng th tip tc
tng trng kinh t m khng ch ti tng lai. Tuy nhin c mt gii php,
thng qua t c mt s tho hip ca cc nhm. Th nht, chng ta phi
quyt nh vi mc cht lng mi trng nh th no th c th chp nhn
c v th hai cn c nhng iu chnh thch hp g trong vic ng x vi th
trng hng ti pht trin bn vng, m bo v mt cht lng mi trng trong
kh nng pht trin x hi.
Qu trnh ng x khng phi d dng v ph thuc vo thi gian, v xt v mt x
hi con ngi vn ang tm hiu v nghin cu, cha th hiu ht v t nhin, v
cch ng x th trng v v mi quan h lin kt gia t nhin v kinh t. Liu
kinh t hc s ng gp c nhng g trong qu trnh nghin cu ny? nhng
cng c phn tch s gip cho vic gii thch mi tng tc ca th trng v mi
trng nh th no v s lin quan ca mi quan h cng nh nhng c hi tm

64
c nhng gii php hiu qu.
Trong chng ny, chng ta bt u a ra nhng gi nh vi nhng m hnh n
gin nhm minh ho mi quan h gia hot ng kinh t v cht lng mi trng.
Cng vi nhng phn tch c tnh minh ho v nhng quyt nh th trng c tnh
nn tng nh th no nh hng ti mi trng. Chng ta s khm ph, gii thch
nhng mi quan h c bn lin quan n phn tch kinh t ca nhng gii php mi
trng nh nhng vn v hng ho cht lng mi trng; Ngoi ng; Kinh t
hc nhim; Kinh t cht thi. Tip theo l mt cch nhn tng th v pht trin
chnh sch v vai tr ca kinh t hc trong .

II. M hnh th trng v hiu qu kinh t
1. Cung, cu v cn bng th trng
1.1 Th trng l bt k khung cnh no trong tp hp nhng ngi mua v
ngi bn h tc ng qua li ln nhau dn n kh nng trao i, mua bn cc loi
hng ho v dch v. Trong mt s trng hp, ngi mua v ngi bn c th tip
xc trc tip ti cc a im c nh nh cc th trng hng tiu dng: thc
phm, rau qu, qun o Trong nhng trng hp khc, cc cng vic giao dch
c th din ra thng qua v tuyn, in thoi hoc cc phng tin vin thng khc
nh trong th trng chng khon, giao dch ngn hng. im chung nht ca
cc thnh vin tham gia th trng l h u tm cch ti a ho li ch ca mnh.
Ngi bn (sn xut) mun ti a ho li nhun, cn ngi mua (ngi tiu dng)
mun ti a ho s tho mn hay li ch m h nhn c t hng ho hay dch v
m h mua.
V mt nguyn l, s tc ng qua li gia ngi bn v ngi mua xc nh gi
ca tng loi hng ho, dch v c th, ng thi xc nh c chng loi, s lng,
cht lng sn phm cn sn xut v qua s xc nh vic phn b v s dng
cc ngun lc khan him ca x hi. Ni cch khc, gi c l tn hiu c bn phi
hp cc hot ng ca ngi tiu dng, ngi sn xut v nhng ngi s hu cc
ngun lc khan him. y chnh l nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch th trng.
hiu c qu trnh ny mt cch y hn, chng ta cn mt m hnh th
trng in hnh trong tp trung vo cu - hnh vi ca ngi mua, v cung, hnh
vi ca ngi bn.
Cu v cung l tn ca cc mi quan h; cc mi quan h c th c th hin
bng cc bng s liu, biu , th hoc cc phng trnh (cc hm).
1.2 Cu l mi quan h gia gi (P) v lng cu (Q) ca mt loi hng ho hoc

65
dch v. l lng hng ho / dch v m ngi mua c kh nng mua v sn
sng mua ti mc gi cho trong mt thi gian nht nh. Trong nhng iu kin
nh nhau, gi cng thp th lng cu cng ln v ngc li. Nu biu th mi quan
h ny bng th ta s c ng cu. Thng thng, ng cu dc xung t tri
sang phi nh trong hnh di y:

66

P
Q
Q
2
Q
1
P
1
P
2
D
D
0
Hnh 2.1. ng cu th trng.

Ti mc gi P
1
, lng cu l Q
1
Ti mc gi P
2
, lng cu l Q
2
Chng ta cng c th biu th mi quan h gia gi v lng cu bng hm cu.
V d: Q = 450 - 25P
Nu gi P
1
= 4($), lng cu Q
1
= 350
Nu gi P
2
= 6($), lng cu Q
2
= 300
ng cu th trng l tng cng theo chiu ngang ca cc ng cu c nhn.
Cc yu t c bn xc nh cu v hng ho / dch v bao gm:
- Gi ca bn thn hng ho / dch v
- Thu nhp ca ngi tiu dng
- Gi c ca cc loi hng ho lin quan

- S lng ngi tiu dng
- Th hiu ca ngi tiu dng
- Cc k vng v cc yu t trn
1.3 Cung l mi quan h gia gi (P) v lng cung (Q) ca mt loi hng ho /
dch v. l lng hng ho / dch v m ngi bn sn lng v c kh nng
cung ti mc gi xc nh trong mt thi gian nht nh. Trong nhng iu kin
nh nhau, gi cng cao th lng cung cng ln v ngc li. Chng ta c th biu
th mi quan h ny di dng th, l ng cung. Thng thng, ng
cung c dc i ln t tri sang phi nh trong hnh di dy:

67

P
S
S
Q
Q
2 Q
1 0
P
1
P
2
Hnh 2.2. ng cung th trng.

Ti mc gi P
1
, lng cung l Q
1
Ti mc gi P
2
, lng cung l Q
2
Chng ta cng c th biu th mi quan h gia gi v lng cung bng hm cung.
V d Q = -20 + 10P
Nu gi P
0
= 2, lng cung Q
0
= 0
Nu gi P
1
= 4, lng cung Q
1
= 20
Nu gi P
2
= 6, lng cung Q
2
= 40
Cung th trng l tng hp cc mc cung ca tng c nhn li vi nhau.
Cc yu t c bn xc nh cung v hng ho / dch v bao gm:
- Gi ca bn thn hng ho / dch v

- Cng ngh
- Gi ca cc yu t u vo (sn xut)
- Chnh sch thu
- Cc k vng v cc yu t trn
1.4 Cn bng th trng
Khi cu i vi mt hng ho / dch v no xut hin trn th trng, ngi sn
xut s tm cch p ng mc cu . Th trng trng thi cn bng khi vic
cung hng ho / dch v tho mn cu i vi hng ho / dch v trong mt
thi k nht nh. Ti trng thi cn bng ny chng ta c mc gi cn bng (P*) v
sn lng cn bng (Q*).
Trn th, mc cn bng c xc nh bng giao im ca hai ng cung v
cu.

68

P
Q
S
D
E
P*
Q*
0
Hnh 2.3. Cn bng cung cu th trng

c im quan trng ca mc gi cn bng ny l n khng c xc nh bi
tng c nhn ring l m c hnh thnh bi hot ng tp th ca ton b ngi
mua v ngi bn. y chnh l cch nh gi khch quan theo "Bn tay v hnh"
ca c ch th trng
.
Ti nhng mc gi thp hn gi cn bng, s xut hin tnh trng d cu (thiu
cung); tnh trng ny s to ra sc p lm tng gi. Ngc li, ti nhng mc gi

Trong iu kin th trng cnh tranh hon ho, mi doanh nghip u l ngi chp nhn gi; ng cu ca mi
doanh nghip l hon ton co dn ti mc gi th trng hay ni cch khc l cc nh sn xut phi i mt vi
ng cu nm ngang. Rt d nhn thy doanh thu bnh qun (AR) v doanh thu cn bin (MR) ca doanh nghip
trong th trng cnh tranh hon ho u bng gi cn bng th trng.

cao hn gi cn bng, s xut hin tnh trng d cung; tnh trng ny s to ra sc
p lm gim gi. Khi gi thay i, lng cung v lng cu cng iu chnh cho ti
khi t c trng thi cn bng.
M hnh cung - cu c bn c th c dng nghin cu nhiu vn mi
trng v chnh sch.
2. Thng d tiu dng v thng d sn xut
2.1 Li ch v thng d tiu dng
2.1.1 Li ch
Thut ng li ch c hiu nh l s va , s hi lng do vic tiu dng hng
ha/dch v em li.
Li ch ton b (hay tng li ch - TB) l tng th s hi lng do ton b s tiu
dng hng ho/dch v em li.
Li ch cn bin (MB) phn nh mc hi lng do tiu dng mt n v sn phm
em li.

Q
MB = lim
S thay i tng li ch
S thay i lng tiu dng
Li ch cn bin =
TB
= TB
(Q)
Q0

Khi nim tng li ch v li ch cn bin gii thch v sao chng ta li mua mt
hng ho / dch v cng nh v sao chng ta li khng mua chng vo mt thi
im no .
Li ch cn bin ca mt hng ho / dch v no c xu hng gim i khi lng
mt hng c tiu dng nhiu hn mt thi k nht nh. Nh vy, khi ta tiu
dng nhiu hn mt loi hng ho / dch v no , m li ch cn bin vn cn ln
hn 0, tng li ch s tng ln nhng vi tc chm dn i.
Li ch l mt khi nim tru tng dng trong kinh t hc ch cm gic thch
th ch quan, tnh hu ch hoc s tho mn do tiu dng hng ho / dch v m c.
Chng ta khng th o c li ch v li ch cn bin bng cc n v vt l nh
chiu di, cn nng. Tuy vy, chng ta c th dng gi o li ch cn bin ca
vic tiu dng: li ch cn bin ca vic tiu dng hng ho / dch v cng ln th
ngi tiu dng sn sng tr gi cao hn cho n, khi li ch cn bin gim th s
sn lng chi tr cng gim i. Nu vy, ng cu cng chnh l ng th hin li
ch cn bin ca vic tiu dng.
2.1.2 Thng d tiu dng
Thng d tiu dng l khi nim phn nh s chnh lch gia li ch ca ngi tiu

69
dng khi tiu dng mt lng hng ho / dch v so vi chi ph thc t thu c
li ch .
Trong hnh 2.4, ng cu i vi mt hng ho l D, gi th trng ca hng ho
l P*; ngi tiu dng s tiu dng Q
D
n v hng ho
P
B
P*
0
Q
D
Q
D
E CS

Hnh 2.4. Thng d tiu dng
Tng li ch ca vic tiu dng l din tch nm di ng cu t gc to n
sn lng cn bng, tc l din tch OBEQ
D
.
Ngi tiu dng l ngi ti a ho li ch nn s tiu dng hng ho cho n khi
li ch cn bin ca n v hng ho cui cng bng vi gi phi tr cho n v
hng ho . Ngi tiu dng khng mua nhiu hng ho hn Q
D
v li ch cn
bin ca nhng n v hng ho ny (cng ng thi l s sn lng chi tr cho
nhng n v hng ho ny) nh hn mc gi m ngi tiu dng s phi tr nu
tiu dng chng.
i vi nhng n v hng ho nh hn Q
D
, ngi tiu dng, v c hng li ch
cn bin ln hn P* nn cng sn lng chi tr mc gi cao hn P* cho vic tiu
dng hng ho. Nhng thc t, ngi tiu dng ch phi tr gi P*, cho tt c cc
n v hng ho. Thng d tiu dng xut hin do ngi tiu dng c hng
nhiu hn mc h phi tr. Tng thng d tiu dng (k hiu l CS) c th hin
bng din tch tam gic BEP* (phn gch cho) trong hnh
2.2 Chi ph v thng d sn xut
2.2.1. Chi ph
Chi ph i vi mt doanh nghip c hiu l cc khon chi tr m doanh nghip
phi thc hin duy tr vic sn xut mt s lng hng ho / dch v.
Tng chi ph (TC) ca vic sn xut mt lng hng ho bao gm gi th trng

70
ca ton b cc ngun lc c s dng sn xut ra lng hng ho . C th
phn bit hai loi chi ph: c nh v bin i.
Chi ph c nh (FC) l nhng chi ph khng thay i khi sn lng thay i,
chnh l nhng chi ph m doanh nghip phi thanh ton d khng sn xut hoc
sn xut rt t; v d tin thu nh xng, khu hao thit b, bo dng thit b, tin
lng ca b my qun l.
Chi ph bin i (VC) l nhng chi ph tng hoc gim cng vi mc tng hoc
gim ca sn lng, v d nh tin mua nguyn vt liu, nhin liu nng lng, tin
lng cng nhn
Tng chi ph l tng ca chi ph c nh v chi ph bin i. V tng chi ph c nh
khng thay i nn s tng gim ca tng chi ph ph thuc vo cc chi ph bin
i.
Chi ph cn bin (MC) l chi ph phi chi b xung sn xut thm mt n v
sn lng hng ho / dch v:

S thay i tng chi ph
S thay i tng sn lng
Chi ph cn bin =

Nh ni trn, trong ngn hn chi ph c nh khng thay i khi sn lng
thay i, v th khi sn xut thm mt nv sn phm, ch c chi ph bin i tng
ln. V vy, chng ta cng c th ni rng chi ph cn bin l chi ph bin i b
xung sn xut thm mt n v sn phm b xung.
Nhn chung, ng chi ph cn bin c hnh dng ch U, song trong nhiu trng
hp n cng c th c hnh dng khc nh dng bc thang, nm ngang hoc tng
lin tc. ng chi ph cn bin i ln l kt qu trc tip ca quy lut nng sut
cn bin gim dn .
Chi ph cn bin cng cao, ngi sn xut cng i hi mc gi bn sn phm cao
tng ng. Vi mt ng chi ph cn bin xc nh th khi gi thay i, lng
hng ho do doanh nghip sn xut ra s tng hoc gim tng ng. Ngi sn
xut ti a ho hi nhun s sn lng cung cp hng ho / dch v cho th trng
n chng no gi bn n v sn phm cui cng bng ng vi chi ph cn bin
sn xut ra n v sn phm y (P = MC). V th ng chi ph cn bin cng
chnh l ng cung ca doanh nghip.
71

Nng sut cn bin c hiu l mc gia tng ca tng sn lng khi s dng b xung mt n v u vo bin i
nh lao ng chng hn.

Nu chng ta cng theo chiu ngang ton b cc ng cung mt loi hng ha ca
cc doanh nghip th chng ta s thu c ng cung ca th trng.
2.2.2 Thng d sn xut
Thng d sn xut l khi nim phn nh mc chnh lch gia s tin m ngi
sn xut thc s nhn c t vic cung cp mt lng hng ho / dch v so vi
s tin ti thiu m anh ta sn sng chp nhn chi tr.
Trong hnh 2.5 ng cung i vi mt hng ho l S, gi th trng ca hng ho
l P*, ngi sn xut s sn lng cung cp Q
S
n v hng ho.

72

Hnh 2.5 Thng d sn xut
P*
Q
S
Q
P
PS
E
A
0
S
V ng cung phn nh chi ph cn bin ca sn xut; ng thi nu chi ph c hi
ca tt c cc ngun lc ca sn xut c tnh y , th tng chi ph x hi
ca sn xut chnh l din tch nm di ng cung t gc to n sn lng
cn bng, tc l din tch OAEQ
S
.
Trong hnh 2.5, ti bt k im no dc theo on ng cung AE, cc nh sn
xut cng sn sng cung ng mt lng hng ho nht nh vi gi thp hn gi
cn bng th trng P*, nhng thc t h vn bn c sn phm vi mc gi P*.
Thng d xut hin do ngi sn xut nhn c nhiu hn mc chi ph h b
ra. Tng thng d sn xut (k hiu l PS) c th hin bng din tch tam gic
AEP* (phn gch cho) trong hnh .
2.3 Li ch rng x hi
Chng ta va cp n nhng vn lin quan n li ch v chi ph. Tng li
ch x hi (TSB) ca vic tiu dng mt loi hng ho / dch v vi mt lng no
c xc nh l tng li ch ca tt c cc c nhn trong x hi c hng
lin quan n vic tiu dng hng ho / dch v ;
Tng li ch x hi cng c xc nh bng tng cng s sn lng chi tr ca cc
c nhn trong x hi cho vic tiu dng hng ho / dch v. Trn th TSB c

biu th bng din tch nm di ng cu t gc to n sn lng cn bng.
Tng chi ph x hi (TSC) ca vic sn xut mt hng ho / dch v c xc nh
l tng chi ph ca tt c cc ngun lc cn thit (k c chi ph c hi) sn xut
ra hng ho / dch v . Trn th, TSC c biu th bng din tch nm di
ng cung t gc to n sn lng cn bng.
Chng ta c th xc nh li ch rng x hi (NSB) ca vic sn xut v tiu dng
mt hng ho / dch v no bng hiu s gia tng li ch x hi v tng chi ph
x hi.
NSB = TSB - TSC (1)
R rng, li ch rng x hi l tng s ca thng d tiu dng (CS) v thng d sn
xut (PS).
NSB = CS + PS (2)

TSB = din tch OBEQ*
-
TSC = din tch OAEQ*
NSB = din tch ABE
CS = din tch P*BE
PS = din tch P*AE

P*
PS
E
0
Q* Q
SMC
CS
B
P
A
DMB

Hnh 2.6 Li ch rng x hi
Chng ta c th d dng chng minh c rng ti mc sn lng cn bng Q*, li
ch rng x hi l ln nht hay cn gi l phc li x hi ln nht. Nu hot ng

73
kinh t bt c mc sn lng no ln hn hoc nh hn Q* u lm cho li ch
rng x hi nh hn din tch ABE; Phn tn tht phc li x hi c coi l
"phn mt khng" v khng mt ai, k c ngi sn xut v ngi tiu dng, c
hng phn thng d .
Di nhng iu kin cht ch, im cn bng ca th trng cnh tranh l im c
tnh hiu qu Pareto. Nhng v tr nm ngoi im cn bng s khng t c
hiu qu Pareto. Chng ta s ni v hiu qu Pareto trong phn di y.
3. Hiu qu Pareto
Hiu qu Pareto (
) hay cn gi l hiu qu kinh t l mt tiu ch hu dng thng

c dng so snh kt qu ca cc cch phn b ngun lc cho cc hot ng
kinh t khc nhau. S phn b ngun lc hon ton l vic m t v sn xut ci g,
nh th no v cho ai.
Mt s phn b ngun lc l c hiu qu Pareto (hoc t c ti u Pareto) nu
khng c kh nng dch chuyn ti mt s phn b khc c th lm cho bt c
ngi no kh ln m cng khng lm cho t nht l bt c mt ngi no khc
km i. Ni cch khc, ti u Pareto l mt phc li ti a c xc nh nh mt
v tr m t khng th ci thin c phc li ca bt c ai bng cch thay i
sn xut hoc trao i m li khng gy hi n phc l ca mt ngi no khc.
Vi mt mc nht nh ca cc ngun lc v k thut, nn kinh t c th c rt
nhiu im phn b c hiu qu Pareto, cc im ny khc nhau trong vic phn
phi ca ci gia mi ngi. Di nhng iu kin cht ch, im cn bng ca th
trng cnh tranh l im c tnh hiu qu Pareto.
c ti u Pareto, tc l ti a ha phc li kinh t ca cng ng, cn tho mn
ba iu kin.
Th nht, t l thay th cn bin trong tiu dng (t l m mt ngi tiu dng c
th i mt hng ho ly mt hng ho khc m khng b km i hoc tt hn ln)
gia hai hng ho bt k, tc t l li ch cn bin ca chng, phi bng nhau i
vi tt c mi ngi tiu dng. iu kin ny gi l hiu qu trao i.
Th hai, t l thay th cn bin ca k thut (t l m mt yu t sn xut c th
c thay th cho mt yu t khc trong khi vn duy tr cc mc sn lng), tc l
t l sn phm hin vt cn bin, gia bt c hai yu t u vo no ca sn xut
phi bng nhau trong bt c qu trnh sn xut no. iu kin ny gi l hiu qu
sn xut.
Th ba, t l bin i cn bin (t l m nn kinh t, xt ton b, phi b qua vic
sn xut ca bt c mt hng ho no tng sn lng ca mt hng ho khc),
74

Thut ng Pareto mang tn nh ton hc, kinh t hc ngi Italy l Vilfredo Domaso Pareto

tc t l chi ph cn bin gia bt k hai hng ho no cng phi bng t l thay th
cn bin trong tiu dng ca hai hng ho . iu ny hm rng t l gia li
ch cn bin v chi ph cn bin ca cc hng ho phi bng nhau
=
Y
Y
X
X
MC
MB
MC
MB

sao cho gi tr bng tin ca n v hng ho X cui cng phi to ra mc li ch
ng bng gi tr bng tin ca n v hng ho Y cui cng. iu kin ny c
gi l iu kin kt hp hay hiu qu kt hp.
Nu mt cch phn b ngun lc cha t c hiu qu Pareto th vn cn tn ti
t nht mt kh nng thay i lm cho mt ai tt hn ln m khng lm tn hi
n bt k ngi no khc.
V d, nu cha t c hiu qu tiu dng, ngi tiu dng c th ci thin phc
li ca mnh bng cch trao i hng ho cho nhau; Nu cha t c hiu qu
sn xut, x hi c th chuyn i u vo cho mc ch sn xut c hiu qu hn
v nh m rng sn xut ca mt loi hng ho trong khi vn gi nguyn mc
s dng ngun lc; Nu cha t c hiu qu kt hp, x hi s cn c li nu
sn xut thm hng ho em li li ch cn bin cao hn tnh trn mi n v chi
ph cn bin.
Mt s thay i lm cho hon cnh ca t nht mt ngi tt hn ln m khng lm
cho hon cnh ca ngi khc b ti i nh vy c gi l mt hon thin Pareto.
4. Tht bi ca th trng
Phn b c hiu qu cc ngun lc khan him l mt yu cu rt quan trng ca bt
k mt nn kinh t no. Hiu qu Pareto c coi l mt chun mc chung nh
gi vic phn b ngun lc. Mt s phn b c coi l hiu qu Pareto i vi
mt tp hp nht nh cc s thch ca ngi tiu dng, khi m cc ngun lc v
cng ngh nu khng c kh nng dch chuyn ti mt s phn b khc c th lm
cho mt s ngi tt hn ln m khng lm cho mt s ngi khc ngho kh hn.
Trong iu kin tt c cc th trng ca nn kinh t l cnh tranh hon ho th
im cn bng ca nn kinh t s c tnh hiu qu Pareto. Bi l bo m chi
ph cn bin cho vic sn xut mi hng ho / dch v ng bng li ch cn bin
ca n i vi ngi tiu dng. Tuy nhin, nn kinh t th trng khng hon ton
ti u m chnh trong n cng vn c nhng mt tri, nhng tht bi v trc trc
m con ngi khng mong mun. Tht bi ca th trng l thut ng ch cc
tnh hung trong im cn bng ca cc th trng t do cnh tranh khng t
c s phn b ngun lc c hiu qu.
Tht bi ca th trng pht sinh do mt s vn nh:

75
4.1 Tnh trng cnh tranh khng hon ho
Trong th trng cnh tranh hon ho, quyt nh sn xut ca cc doanh nghip
hng ti iu kin cn bng chi ph cn bin v gi c ca hng ho v do vy
cng bng li ch cn bin i vi ngi tiu dng.
Trong cc ngnh cnh tranh khng hon ho, ngi sn xut ti a ho li nhun
khi chi ph cn bin bng doanh thu cn bin; Trong khi ngi tiu dng li cn
bng gi c vi nhng li ch bin thu c t vic tiu dng n v hng ho cui
cng. V vy, trong th trng cnh tranh khng hon ho, li ch cn bin s vt
qu chi ph cn bin, ngi sn xut c xu hng thu hp sn xut v nh gi sn
phm cao. Trng thi cn bng ca th trng khng cn l trng thi hiu qu
Pareto na.
4.2 Tc ng ca cc ngoi ng
Yu t ngoi ng xut hin khi mt quyt nh sn xut hoc tiu dng ca
mt/mt s c nhn tc ng trc tip n vic sn xut hay tiu dng ca nhng
ngi khc m khng thng qua gi c th trng.
Ngoi ng c th to ra tc ng tch cc (em li li ch) hoc tc ng tiu cc
(to ra chi ph) cho nhng ngi khc, dn n s chnh lch gia chi ph hoc li
ch c nhn vi chi ph hoc li ch x hi bi v khng c hot ng th trng
no chi phi c yu t ngoi ng. iu ny dn n kt qu l th trng t do
c th tnh trng sn xut qu nhiu v nh gi qu thp hoc ngc li, tnh
trng sn xut qu t v nh gi qu cao so vi im c hiu qu Pareto.
4.3 Vn cung cp cc hng ho cng cng
Hng ho c gi l hng ho cng cng nu cc n v ca n khng th chia ct
v phn bit r rng. i vi hng ho cng cng, mi ngi u t do hng th
cc li ch do hng ho mang li v s hng th ca ngi ny khng lm mt
i kh nng hng th ca nhng ngi khc. y s xut hin nhng "k n
khng", l nhng ngi c th tiu dng m khng phi thanh ton cho d vic
sn xut ra hng ho l tn km. Nu cc c nhn ring l m nhn vic
cung cp cc hng ho cng cng ni trn s dn n tnh trng cung khng vi
s lng mong mun mc c hiu qu. Hng ho cng cng chnh l mt trng
hp c bit ca ngoi ng m tc ng to ra hon ton l c li.
4.4 S thiu vng ca mt s th trng
Khi thiu vng mt s th trng, s cn bng ca th trng t do s dn n vic
phn b cc ngun lc khng hiu qu. C th gii thch cc th trng thiu vng
bng ba c tnh: thiu cc hng ho tng lai, ri ro v thiu thng tin.
Thiu cc hng ho tng lai:

76
Hu ht cc hng ho trn th trng u khng nh hng y vo tng lai,
v xy ra tnh trng u t qu t cho nhng hng ho c th thch hp trong tng
lai (v d, chng no cn nng lng t cc ngun khc th cn thiu u t vo
nng lng mt tri cho tng lai). Khi thiu vng cc th trng nh hng v
tng lai ny, khng th ch i rng h thng gi c s m bo cho chi ph v li
ch ca cc hng ho tng lai s bng nhau.
Ri ro:
Thc t c nhng c ch th trng nh bo him cho php ri ro chuyn t
ngi ght n sang ngi sn sng gnh chu n vi mt chi ph no . Ph bo
him c th lm cn bng chi ph cn bin v li ch cn bin ca gnh chu ri ro.
Tuy nhin, khng c th trng bo him dnh cho cc hin tng nh s m ln
ca tri t, mc nc bin dng ln v cc ri ro di hn khc.
Thiu thng tin:
Thu thp thng tin l mt vic tn km. Trong thc t, nhiu thng tin c gi b
mt, mt s thng tin khc nh kin thc k thut v mt s hng ho ph hp c
th vn tn ti nhng khng phi ai cng c th tip cn. Bn cnh , cc thng tin
v gi tr ca cc ngun ti nguyn (v d a dng sinh hc) hay thit hi do
nhim nhiu khi cng khng y , r rng; quyt nh sn xut hay tiu dng
khi khng c y thng tin s kh m t c im hiu qu ti u.
III. Ngoi ng
1. Khi nim v phn loi
Khi xem xt v th trng phn trc, chng ta cp vic la chn v tiu
dng v sn xut do ngi tiu dng v cc doanh nghip thc hin nu nh cc
la chn khng c nh hng n ngi th ba.
Tuy nhin, trong thc t, rt nhiu trng hp cc hot ng kinh t li c nhng
tc ng ra bn ngoi, gy thit hi hoc em li li ch mt cch ngu nhin
(khng ch ) cho nhng ngi khng tham gia vo cc qu trnh hot ng kinh t
; v cc thit hi hoc li ch ny u khng c th hin trong gi c th
trng, khng c tnh n trong cc quyt nh sn xut hay tiu dng. Yu t
ngoi ng xut hin khi mt quyt nh sn xut hoc tiu dng ca mt / mt s c
nhn tc ng trc tip n vic sn xut hay tiu dng ca nhng ngi khc m
khng thng qua gi c th trng. Ngoi ng c th xut hin gia nhng ngi
sn xut vi nhau, gia nhng ngi tiu dng vi nhau hoc gia ngi sn xut
vi ngi tiu dng. Vn chnh yu ca ngoi ng l n to ra cc li ch v chi
ph khng c bi hon, khng c s tham gia ca bt k lung ti chnh no.

77
Cc ngoi ng c th l tiu cc hay tch cc.
- Ngoi ng tiu cc ny sinh khi cc doanh nghip hoc c nhn gy ra tn tht,
thit hi cho ngi khc m khng phi thanh ton, bi thng cho nhng tn tht,
thit hi ; Ni cch khc ngoi ng tiu cc l khi hot ng ca mt bn p t
nhng chi ph cho cc bn khc. V d mt doanh nghip sn xut giy v bt giy
thi nc bn xung sng m khng phi chu mt chi ph no c, mc d vic thi
nc ny gy nn nhng tn tht cho cc sinh vt di dng sng, lm gim thu
nhp ca ng dn v gy kh khn cho cc h tiu dng nc sng, gy ra mt s
bnh do s dng nc khng sch Lng cht thi vo sng cng ln th nhng
tn tht gy ra cng nhiu; R rng doanh nghip p t nhng chi ph cho ng
dn v cc h tiu dng nc khi a ra quyt nh sn xut ca mnh, tc l to
ra ngoi ng tiu cc.
- Ngoi ng tch cc ny sinh khi cc doanh nghip hoc c nhn to ra li ch cho
nhng ngi khc m khng nhn c nhng khon th lao tho ng cho vic
. V d mt h gia nh sa sang li ngi nh ca mnh, xy bn trng hoa lm
p cho c khu ph. Cc gia nh trong ph c hng nhng tc ng tt p
ny m khng phi tr mt khon no, cn ch nhn ca ngi nh trn cng khng
tnh n li ch ca xm ging trong quyt nh sa nh, trng hoa ca mnh.
Mt s v d khc v ngoi ng c nu trong bng sau y.
Bng 2.1: V d v ngoi ng
Ngoi ng tch cc Ngoi ng tiu cc
Ngoi ng
trong sn
xut
- Trng rng
- Trng hoa hng cho sn
xut nc hoa
- Sn xut sch hn
- Nui ong v trng nhn
- S dng phn bn, thuc tr
su
- nhim nc thi t nh
my ho cht
- nhim khng kh do nh
my nhit in
Ngoi ng
trong tiu
dng
- Thu gom v chai
- Sn sa nh ca
- Tim vc xin phng bnh
- S dng li ti nilon
- Ting n, bi do xe my
- Ht thuc l trong phng, ni
ng ngi
- S dng CFC trong my iu
ho nhit v t lnh
- Cht ph rng
R rng, i vi mi trng, cc hot ng gy ra nh hng lm suy thoi mi
trng, nhim mi trng, suy gim cht lng ti nguyn v mi trng v.v

78
chnh l cc hot ng to ra ngoi ng tiu cc; Ngc li, cc hot ng gp
phn phc hi, ci thin cht lng mi trng, phc hi ti nguyn thin nhin, s
dng tit kim ti nguyn thin nhin l cc hot ng to ra ngoi ng tch cc.
2. Ngoi ng v tht bi th trng
Chng ta hy nh li nh ngha ng cung v ng cu c nu phn
trc. ng cu m chng ta thu c phn nh "li ch c nhn cn bin" gn
vi vic tiu dng hng ho. Gi tr ca li ch cn bin c phn nh trong
mc gi m cc c nhn ngi tiu dng sn sng v c kh nng tr cho mi n
v hng ho. ng cung m chng ta thu c phn nh "chi ph c nhn cn
bin" gn vi vic sn xut hng ho. Gi tr ca chi ph c nhn cn bin c
phn nh trong mc gi m cc c nhn sn xut cn c sn xut thm mt n
v hng ho .
Chng ta tm hiu v hiu qu Pareto (Li ch rng x hi), chng ta o li ch
x hi nh tng s li ch c nhn cn bin i vi nhng ngi tiu dng; chng
ta cng o chi ph x hi nh l tng s cc chi ph c nhn cn bin tt c cc
ngun lc m cc nh sn xut phi thc hin. Khi nh ngha ch li x hi v chi
ph x hi theo cch , chng ta n gi nh rng mi mt giao dch c nhn ch
nh hng n li ch hoc gy chi ph i vi cc thnh vin kinh t trc tip tham
gia vo giao dch . Khi c cc ngoi ng, gi nh ny khng cn ng na. Cc
ngoi ng to ra cc li ch hoc chi ph cho nhng ngi khc m khng thng
qua th trng, do khng c phn nh qua gi c.
S c mt ca ngoi ng, d l tiu cc hay tch cc, trong bt c giao dch kinh t
no cng lm cho li ch hay chi ph ca c nhn v x hi thay i. V cc ng
cung ca ngi sn xut c xc nh ch bng chi ph c nhn ca h (ci m h
thc s phi tr cho cc u vo), s hin din ca chi ph ngoi ng c ngha l
gi c th trng cha tnh chi ph x hi thc t ca sn xut v tiu dng hng
ho . Tng t nh vy, cc ng cu ca ngi tiu dng c xc nh ch
bng li ch c nhn ca h m khng tnh n li ch ngoi ng, c ngha l gi c
th trng cng cha phn nh ht ton b li ch x hi thc t ca vic tiu dng
hng ho. Hu qu ca s chnh lch v li ch v chi ph nh vy l s chch khi
hiu qu Pareto, tc l xut hin tnh phi hiu qu trong phn b ngun lc. iu
ny c ngha l th trng tht bi trong vic cung cp mc sn lng ti u v
mt x hi vi mc gi hp l.
Chng ta c th minh ho tnh phi hiu qu ca th trng trong c hai trng
hp sau.
2.1 Trng hp ngoi ng tiu cc
79
Trc ht chng ta xem xt li v d ca ngnh cng nghip giy. Gi thit rng

cc doanh nghip ca ngnh giy u phn b dc b sng v cng thi nc gy
nhim dng sng.
Trong hnh 2.7 a, ng D th hin cu th trng v sn phm giy

P
MSC =
S=MPC
D = MPB=MSB
D = MPB=MSB
Sn lng giy
Q
Q
Q
S
Q 0
P
S
P
M
E
A
B
MEC

Hnh 2.7 a: Ngoi ng tiu cc ca mt ngnh cng nghip
Trong trng hp ny, n gin, chng ta gi nh rng li ch ngoi ng bng 0
(tc l khng c ngoi ng tch cc) nn ng cu D cng ng thi va phn nh
li ch c nhn cn bin ca nhng ngi tiu dng giy va phn nh li ch x
hi cn bin (tc l D = MPB = MSB).
ng cung S th hin chi ph c nhn cn bin ca vic sn xut giy cc mc
sn lng khc nhau, l nhng chi ph cho cc yu t u vo m ngi sn xut
phi tr tin (v d lao ng, vn, nguyn liu, cc dch v khc). Tuy nhin,
trong qu trnh sn xut giy, cc doanh nghip s dng dng sng lm ni x
nc thi m khng phi tr tin, v th, chi ph ca vic x thi ny khng c
th hin trong bng cn i ti chnh ca cc doanh nghip v nh vy, cng khng
c phn nh trong ng cung ca ngnh giy. Nhng chng ta bit, vic x thi
nc xung dng sng qu kh nng hp th ca mi trng gy ra nhng chi
ph thit hi cho cc loi thu sinh, ng dn, nng dn Trong hnh 2.12a, chi ph
thit hi c th hin bng ng MEC, ng chi ph ngoi ng cn bin. Chi
ph ny chnh l gi tr bng tin ca thit hi do mt n v nhim ca ngnh
cng nghip giy p t cho x hi ()
80

Cn lu 2 c tnh quan trng ca ng MEC do nhim gy ra.

Th nht, nhng mc sn lng thp hn Q
m
, nhim c th rt nh v dng sng t phn hu cht thi, khng
gy ra chi ph ngoi ng nn MEC = 0. (Cng c nhiu trng hp MEC>0 ngay t n v sn lng u tin tc l
MEC s xut pht t gc to ).
Th hai, ng MEC c coi l c dc dng; c ngha l vi mc hot ng ln hn Q
m
, sn lng cng tng
(c ngha l lng thi cng nhiu) th MEC cng tng vi tc ngy cng ln. S d MEC tng nh vy l do
nhim lm gim kh nng hp th thm cht thi ca mi trng.

Nh cp phn trc, s phn b ngun lc c hiu qu, tc l t c ti
u Pareto i hi s cn bng gia MSC v MSB. Trong hnh 2.12 a, iu kin ny
tho mn ti im E khi mc sn lng l Q
S
v gi sn phm tng ng l Ps.
Nh rng chi ph x hi cn bin l tng s ca chi ph c nhn cn bin v chi ph
ngoi ng cn bin (MSC = MPC + MEC).
Tuy nhin, quyt nh sn xut ca cc doanh nghip ngnh giy li da trn c ch
hot ng ca th trng cnh tranh, tc l mc hot ng ti u ca ngi sn
xut c quyt nh ti im B khi mc sn lng l Q
M
v MPB = MPC
tng ng vi mc gi sn phm P
M
. Nh vy, th trng tht bi trong vic t
c mc sn xut ti u theo quan im x hi. C th hn, th trng c xu
hng sn xut nhiu hn so vi mc hiu qu ti u Pareto.
Vic cc doanh nghip sn xut mc Q
M
thay v sn xut ti Q
S
to ra mt s
tn tht phc li x hi (m ta gi l phn mt khng) bng din tch hnh tam gic
EAB. Chng ta c th d dng xc nh c phn tn tht ny khi so snh s
chnh lch trong mc gia tng ca tng li ch x hi (TSB) v s gia tng ca tng
chi ph x hi (TSC) khi sn xut vt qu im ti u Pareto
=
M
S
Q
Q
dQ MSB MSC NSB ). (

By gi chng ta s xem xt trng hp ca mt doanh nghip bt k no
trong th trng giy ni trn.
Trong hnh 2.7b, ng MC th hin chi ph c nhn ca vic sn xut giy ti
doanh nghip; V doanh nghip l ngi chp nhn gi, nn ng gi P
M
ca th
trng cng chnh l ng cu v ng doanh thu cn bin (MR) ca doanh
nghip. Doanh nghip s ti a ho li nhun ca mnh bng cch sn xut ti mc
sn lng q
1
, ti MC = MR = P
M
. Nhng v hot ng ca doanh nghip cng
gy ra nhng chi ph ngoi ng cn bin cho x hi, th hin bng ng MEC,
nn chi ph x hi cn bin do vic sn xut ca doanh nghip s l:
MSC = MC + MEC
v mc sn xut ti u ca doanh nghip theo quan im x hi l ti q*,
MSC = MR = P
M
.

81

82

Hnh 2.7 b: Ngoi ng tiu cc ca mt doanh nghip
Nh vy, doanh nghip ny cng sn xut qu nhiu sn phm, x ra qu nhiu
nc thi v gy ra tn tht kinh t i vi x hi bng din tch EAB.
P (VN)
P
M

0
Q
( )
q*
q
1
E
B
A
MSC=MC+ME
C
MC
MEC
Tm li, d xt trng hp ca ngnh cng nghip hay mt doanh nghip c th
th kt qu vn l mt hot ng sn xut qu mc, thi qu nhiu cht thi vo mi
trng v gy ra tnh phi hiu qu kinh t. Ngun gc ca tnh phi hiu qu ny
chnh l s nh gi sn phm khng phn nh ht mi chi ph.
Trong hnh 2.7 a ta thy, gi th trng P
P
l qu thp, n ch phn nh chi ph cn
bin c nhn ca nhng ngi sn xut ch khng phn nh chi ph cn bin x
hi.
Phn tch trn c ngha g v kha cnh mi trng? Cu tr li c v rt r
rng: Gi s lng cht thi x xung sng tng t l thun vi lng giy c
sn xut ra, mc sn lng Q
M
s to ra mc nhim cao hn mc nhim
sn lng ti u x hi Q
S
. iu ny c ngha rng th trng cnh tranh c xu
hng lm suy gim cht lng mi trng. Trong di hn, do khng phi chu
trch nhim v nhim, ngi sn xut khng c ng c gim sn lng hoc tm
kim cc gii php lm gim lng cht thi. Li nhun cao do khng phi tr cho
chi ph thit hi do nhim gy ra s khuyn khch nhiu doanh nghip tip tc gia
nhp ngnh sn xut, lm cho sn lng v lng cht thi tip tc gia tng v vn
mi trng ngy cng tr nn trm trng.
2.2 Trng hp ngoi ng tch cc
Ngoi ng tch cc to ra s chnh lch gia li ch c nhn v li ch x hi.
Hnh 2.13 minh ho v d ca vic trng rng. Rng c trng vi mc ch
chnh l kinh doanh g, tuy vy, vic c rng li to ra rt nhiu li ch khc cho x

hi nh ci thin kh hu, hn ch xi mn ra tri t, gim hn hn, l lt, bo v
lu vc sng, bo v a dng sinh hc v.v, nh c th ci thin ma mng,
lm tng thu nhp ca nng dn, n nh i sng ca cc h s dng nc sng
Chng ta gi nh l khng c chi ph ngoi ng nn ng MPC va l chi ph cn
bin c nhn va l chi ph cn bin x hi cho vic trng rng (tc l S = MPC =
MSC). ng cu D th hin li ch cn bin c nhn ca ngi tiu dng, l
nhng li ch m ngi tiu dng nhn c t vic s dng g.
Tuy nhin, nhng li ch khc ca rng to ra cho nhng ngi khc khng c
tnh n trong quyt nh tiu dng (tc l ngi tiu dng g khng sn lng chi
tr cho nhng li ch m mnh khng c hng) nhng li ch gi l li ch
bn ngoi vi gi tr cn bin l MEB.

83

Hnh 2.8: Ngoi ng tch cc
P (VN)
Q (ha rng)
A
E
B
MSB=MB+MEB
D=MB
MEB
P
S
Q
S
Q
P
M
S=MPC=MSC
P
N
Trong hnh 2.8, li ch ngoi ng cn bin c th hin bng ng MEB,
chnh l gi tr bng tin ca nhng li ch do vic trng rng em li cho nhng
ngi khc trong x hi. Nu vy, li ch cn bin x hi s l tng s ca li ch
c nhn cn bin v li ch ngoi ng cn bin (MSB = MB+MEB).
iu kin cn bng gia MSC v MSB t c hiu qu ti u Pareto trong
phn b ngun lc t c ti im E khi mc trng rng l Qs v mc gi tng
ng l Ps. Trong khi , quyt nh ca ngi trng v tiu th sn phm rng da
trn c ch th trng cnh tranh, tc l mc ti u c nhn c quyt nh ti
im B khi mc trng rng l Q
M
v MB = MPC, tng ng vi mc gi P
M
.
Nh vy, th trng tht bi trong vic t c mc hot ng kinh t ti u
theo quan im x hi. C th l th trng c xu hng sn xut t hn so vi mc
hiu qu ti u Pareto.

Din tch tam gic EAB l mc tng thm ca li ch rng x hi (Tng li ch -
Tng chi ph) khi tng mc sn xut v tiu dng t QM ln QS. Ni cch khc,
chnh din tch tam gic ny phn nh li ch tng ln ca x hi, y chnh l
"phn c khng" ca x hi.
Tnh phi hiu qu xut hin bi cc c nhn khng c hng tt c cc li ch
ca vic trng v s dng rng. Do , PS l qu cao khuyn khch hot ng
kinh t mc mong mun ca x hi. Cn c tr cp thay i chi ph - li ch
nhm khuyn khch mc trng rng c hiu qu. Mc tr cp c hiu qu ti im
ti u c tnh bng chnh gi tr ca MEB, chnh l P
S
- P
N
.
IV. Kinh t hc nhim
1. nhim mi trng l ngoi ng
Khi nim nhim mi trng theo quan im kinh t hc ph thuc vo 2 yu t:
tc ng vt l ca cht thi v phn ng ca con ngi i vi tc ng y. Tc
ng vt l ca cht thi c th mang tnh sinh hc nh thay i gen di truyn,
gim a dng sinh hc, nh hng n ma mng hoc sc kho con ngi. Tc
ng cng c th mang tnh ho hc nh nh hng ca ma axt i vi cc cng
trnh, nh ca
Phn ng ca con ngi i vi cc tc ng ni trn c th l s khng hi lng,
bun phin, lo lng v nhng thay i lin quan n li ch. Khi c nhim vt l
khng c ngha l s c nhim v mt kinh t. nhim v mt kinh t ch xut
hin khi con ngi bt u nhn thy cc tc ng vt l ca nhim lm suy gim
li ch ca mnh. Nu mt ngi, b tc ng vt l ca cht thi nhng li hon
ton bng quan vi tc ng , th cng xem nh khng c nhim v kinh t (v
d mt s ngi c th vn ng ngon v khng quan tm n nhng ting n xung
quanh).
Nh vy c th ni nhim mi trng l mt dng ngoi ng m tc ng
c to ra bn trong mt hot ng hoc qu trnh sn xut hay tiu dng no
nhng li gy ra nhng chi ph khng c tnh n cho nhng hot ng hoc qu
trnh khc bn ngoi.
Nu nhng chi ph ngoi ng ny c thanh ton hoc n b bng mt hnh thc
no th c th xem nh ngoi ng nhim c gii quyt v ta gi l
"ni ho cc chi ph ngoi ng".
2. nhim ti u - cc tip cn
nhim mi trng s gy ra nhng tc ng xu n cc thnh phn mi trng,
lm nh hng n sc kho, hot ng sn xut v phc li ca con ngi ni

84
chung. Nhng ngi theo quan im bo tn sinh thi cho rng cn phi chm dt
nhim bng cch no .
Cc nh kinh t th li cho rng chm dt nhim, chng ta c th c hai la
chn: hoc l gim thiu ti a (nu khng phi l ngng li) cc hot ng kinh t,
hoc l phi chi ph rt nhiu cho vic lm gim nhim. C hai cch la chn trn
u khng m bo l s c li nht cho x hi v thc t x hi vn c th c li
nu nhim mt mc nht nh. Vn m cc nh kinh t mi trng nu
ra l: cn phi t c mc nhim ti u. Kinh t hc mi trng ch ra hai
cch tip cn t c mc nhim ti u v mt kinh t ny; hoc l hot ng
sn xut phi t c mc sn lng ti u x hi, hoc l phi thi mc thi ti
u i vi x hi, mc nhim ti u s khng phi l bng khng.
2.1 nhim ti u ti mc cn bng x hi.
Chng ta hy quay tr li vi v d v ngnh cng nghip giy phn tch trn.
Cc doanh nghip ngnh giy x cht thi xung lm nhim dng sng, gim
lng xy ho tan trong nc nn lm c v cc sinh vt thu sinh khc b cht
dn n lm gim thu nhp ca ng dn. Trong v d ny, nhim gn vi vic sn
xut mt loi hng ho no . Nu cn tn ti hot ng sn xut th vic to ra
nhim l khng th trnh khi. Khi mc sn xut tng th nhim cng tng ln
theo. Ti mc hot ng ti u c nhn Q
M
, mc nhim tng ng l W
M
.

MC
MEC
MB
Q
M Q*
Sn lng
0
W*
W
M
nhim
0
MSC=MC+M
Gi P

Hnh 2.9: nhim ti u, trng hp mt ngnh cng nghip
Cc nh kinh t cho rng nhim to ra mt loi chi ph sinh thi ging nh bt c
chi ph kinh t no khc. V th khi tnh chi ph x hi ca sn xut nh l tng ca
chi ph c nhn v chi ph ngoi ng, chng ta t c mc hot ng kinh t ti
u i vi x hi ti im cn bng ca chi ph cn bin x hi v li ch cn bin
x hi. Mc hot ng kinh t t hiu qu Pareto ny cng c cho l s to ra
mc nhim ti u i vi x hi W*. Vi cch tip cn ny, chng ta xem xt
mt s nh i ti u gia hng ho kinh t v hng ho cht lng mi trng;
theo , chng ta cn gim vic sn xut v tiu dng hng ho kinh t c mt

85
cht lng mi trng tt hn.
i vi c nhn cc doanh nghip, iu kin ti u cho vic gy nhim ca doanh
nghip khi tnh n cc chi ph ca nhim ch ra rng: cc doanh nghip ch nn
thi ra mt lng nhim m ti li ch cn bin t hot ng gy nhim (tc
l phn li nhun tng thm cho doanh nghip nh vic sn xut thm mt lng
sn phm ng vi mc tng mt n v nhim) phi bng ng vi chi ph ngoi
ng do n v nhim gy ra, tc l iu kin sau phi c tho mn ti mc
hot ng kinh t ti u Q* v mc nhim ti u W*.
Nh vy trong trng hp hot ng ca doanh nghip trong iu kin th trng
cnh tranh hon ho th: MNPB = MR - MC = P - MC = MEC hay P = MC + MEC
= MSC.
P
A
B
0
MEC
MNPB=P-MC
Sn lng Q
Q*
W*
0
Lng thi

Hnh 2.10: nhim ti u: trng hp mt doanh nghip
iu kin P = MSC cho thy gi c phn nh chi ph x hi ca vic sn xut,
bao gm c chi ph c nhn v chi ph ngoi ng. Mt khc, iu kin MNPB =
MEC ni ln rng ti mc hot ng v nhim ti u, li nhun do hot ng sn
xut em li l ti a theo quan im x hi.
Chng ta c th xy dng ng li ch c nhn rng cn bin MNPB nh sau:
Xut pht t cng thc MNPB = MR-MC, trong iu kin th trng cnh tranh
hon ho th MR = P, v th cng thc ny c th vit li l MNPB = P - MC.
ng doanh thu bin (trng vi ng gi) v ng chi ph cn bin c th
hin nh trong hnh 2.11 a di y.

86
http://www.ebook.edu.vn 87

Hnh 2.11: Xy dng ng MNPB
P
a
0
MR=P
MC
hnh ( a )
P
a
0
hnh ( b ) MNPB=P-MC
Q
P
Sn lng
Q
P
Hiu s MR - MC chnh l MNPB v c th hin trong hnh 2.11. ( b )
Khi cha tnh n chi ph mi trng, ngi sn xut ti a ho li nhun s sn
xut ti a ti Q
P
v MNPB = 0 (MR = MC), tng li nhun l ton b din
tch nm di ng MNPB v c th tnh theo cng thc:

= = =
P P
Q Q
Qp Qp
TC TR dQ MC P dQ MNPB
0 0
) ( ) (
). ( .

Nu tnh c chi ph mi trng, r rng l tng li nhun s gim xung cn
bng din tch OAB trong hnh (hnh s 2.15 v trang trc) v c tnh theo cng
thc

= = =
*
0
*) ( *) ( *) (
*
0
) ( ) (
Q
Q Q Q
Q
TEC TC TR dQ MEC MC P dQ MEC MNPB

2.2 nhim ti u ti mc cc tiu ho chi ph nhim
phn trn chng ta gi nh rng mc nhim c th c iu chnh thng
qua vic iu chnh sn lng. Tuy nhin trong thc t, c th khng nht thit phi
thay i sn lng m ch cn chi ph cho vic kim sot nhim (nh gim thi
do sn xut sch hn, lp t cc thit b x l nhim) cng c th t c
mc nhim ti u. L lun c bn n y l: mt khi xut hin nhim,

chng ta c th khng hoc ch x l mt phn nhim v s chu ng nhng
thit hi do nhim gy ra (chi ph thit hi do nhim); Chng ta c th x l
hon ton nhim trnh cc chi ph thit hi do nhim gy ra, chng ta cng
c th la chn kt hp va chi ph gim mt phn nhim va chu ng mt
phn thit hi do nhim gy ra. Theo quan im ca cc nh kinh t, hiu qu
kinh t s t c ti mt mc nhim m ti tng cc chi ph mi trng bao
gm chi ph kim sot nhim v gi tr thit hi mi trng l thp nht. iu ny
c ngha l chng ta cn xem xt s nh i ti u gia chi ph v li ch ca vic
gim nhim. hiu r hn v cch tip cn ny, trc ht chng ta cn cp
mt s khi nim c lin quan, l chi ph thit hi mi trng v chi ph kim
sot mi trng.
* Chi ph thit hi mi trng: Ni thit hi mi trng l ni n tt c cc tc
ng bt li m nhng ngi s dng mi trng gnh chu do mi trng b
nhim, suy thoi. Nhng tc ng bt li ny c nhiu dng khc nhau v hin
nhin l khc nhau i vi tng hon cnh c th. Trong v d v nhim dng
sng, thit hi l s suy gim thu nhp ca ng dn, l vic khng s dng c
dng sng lm ni vui chi gii tr na hoc nguy c cao hn cho con ngi nhim
phi nhng cn bnh do ngun nc nhim gy ra, v cc h dn c th phi
ng thm tin x l nc trc khi a nc sng vo s dng.
nhim khng kh gy ra thit hi i vi sc kho con ngi (gy ung th, vim
phi mn tnh), hu hoi cc vt liu xy dng v cnh quan.
Ni chung nhim cng nhiu th thit hi gy ra cng ln. Ngi ta thng dng
hm thit hi th hin mi quan h gia mc nhim v mc thit hi. Cc hm
thit hi c th biu din theo nhiu cch nhng trong phn tch ca chng ta s s
dng hm chi ph thit hi cn bin - MDC. Mt hm chi ph thit hi cn bin th
hin mc thay i (hay bin thin) v nhng thit hi khi lng cht thi hoc nng
cht gy nhim trong mi trng thay i mt n v.
dc v hnh dng ca ng chi ph thit hi cn bin ph thuc vo cht gy
nhim v iu kin mi trng c th. Ni chung ng chi ph thit hi cn bin
c dc i ln t tri sang phi th hin s gia tng nhanh ca thit hi khi lng
cht thi ngy cng nhiu.

88

Thit hi
MDC
Thit hi
MDC
Lng thi Lng thi
(a) (b)
0 0
A
W W

Hnh 2.12: Mt s dng ng thit hi cn bin tiu biu
Trn th, nhng din tch nm di ng thit hi cn bin tng ng vi cc
mc tng thit hi; Chng hn nh trong hnh 2.12 a, nu mc thi l W1 th tng
chi ph thit hi s l din tch W
0
AW
1
.
* Chi ph kim sot mi trng hay chi ph gim nhim
Chi ph gim nhim l nhng chi ph lm gim lng cht gy nhim c
thi vo mi trng hoc lm gim nng cc cht gy nhim mi trng
xung quanh.
Chi ph gim nhim khc nhau tu theo loi nhim v nhiu yu t khc. Ngay
c vi nhng ngun to ra cng loi cht thi th chi ph gim thi vn c th khc
nhau do c nhng khc bit v c im cng ngh ca qu trnh vn hnh. Cng
nn lu rng t "gim nhim" c dng vi ngha rng v bao gm tt c
nhng cch kh d lm gim lng cht thi nh thay i v cng ngh sn xut,
thay i nguyn liu u vo, qun l ni vi tt hn, ti ch cc cht thi, x l cc
cht thi, thm ch c cch gim sn lng.
Chng ta c th biu din hm chi ph gim nhim cn bin MAC bng th
nh hnh v
Chi ph
Lng thi
Lng thi Lng thi
(a)
(b) (c)
A
0
W
1
W
m
MAC MAC
MAC

Hnh 2.13: Cc loi ng chi ph gim nhim cn bin tiu biu
Chi ph gim nhim hay gim thi cn bin (MAC) th hin s gia tng trong
tng chi ph gim thi lm gim c mt n v cht thi gy nhim hay ni
cch khc l chi ph gim thi gim c nu lng cht thi tng ln thm

89
mt n v.
Trn trc honh, cc ng chi ph gim thi cn bin xut pht t nhng lng
cht thi khng c kim sot, tc l lng cht thi khi cha c s can thip ca
c quan qun l mi trng. Ni chung cc ng MAC c hng tng ln t phi
qua tri, cho thy chi ph gim thi cn bin tng dn. iu ny ph hp vi thc t
l vic lm sch mi trng ngy cng tr nn kh khn, thm ch khng th x l
c nhng n v cht thi cui cng do cc cng ngh x l cn cha ra i hoc
c nhng rt khan him nn gi rt cao.
Tng chi ph gim nhim c th c tnh bng din tch nm bn di ng
MAC trong nhng khong xc nh khc nhau. Chng hn nh trong hnh 2.18 a,
nu mc thi cui cng l W1 th tng chi ph gim thi s l din tch W
1
AW
m
.
By gi chng ta s xem xt m hnh v s nh i gia li ch v chi ph
ca vic lm gim nhim bng cch th hin c hai ng MAC v MDC
trn cng mt th nh trong hnh 2.14 sau y:

90

Lng th
Chi ph
0
B
A
E
C
D
MDC
MAC
W
1
W*
W
2 W
m
i

Hnh 2.14: nhim ti u
Ti mc thi ln nht W
m
, chi ph gim nhim bng khng v tng chi ph thit
hi l ln nht. Nu chng ta bt u thc hin gim thi, tng chi ph gim thi
tng nh lng cht thi gim v v th tng chi ph thit hi cng gim. Chi ph
thit hi gim i cng ng ngha vi vic li ch ca ngi b nhim tng ln
hay chnh l li ch ca vic gim nhim. Nu chng ta c gng gim thi v
bng khng, chng ta s phi chi ph rt ln cho vic ny v tng li ch ca vic
gim nhim cng l rt ln. Liu rng c phi l kt qu m chng ta mong
i hay khng? Cc nh kinh t ni rng ti mc ny c th chng ta phi b ra
mt chi ph qu ln nhn c mt li ch nh hn rt nhiu so vi chi ph .
Bng th, chng ta c th d dng thy c l ti mc thi W* (ti MAC =
MDC), tng chi ph mi trng l nh nht, bao gm tng chi ph gim thi l din
tch tam gic W
m
EW* v tng chi ph thit hi l din tch tam gic OEW*.
Nu mc thi ti W
1
th so vi W*, thit hi do nhim gim nhng chi ph cho
vic gim nhim li tng thm qu nhiu. Kt qu l ti W
1
, tng chi ph mi
trng ca x hi tng thm bng din tch tam gic EAB.
Ngc li, nu mc thi ti W
2
th so vi W*, chng ta tit kim c chi ph gim
nhim nhng li phi gnh chu nhiu thit hi mi trng hn v v th, tng chi
ph mi trng vn tng thm bng din tch tam gic ECD.
Chng ta cng c th chng minh tnh hiu qu ny v mt ton hc. Ti mi mc
thi chng ta lun c TEC = TAC + TDC
Trong : TEC: tng chi ph mi trng, W l lng thi.
TAC: tng chi ph gim nhim.

91
TDC: tng chi ph thit hi do nhim
d
TEC
d
TAC
d
TDC
Vy TECmin khi: = + = 0 = MAC + MDC
dw dw dw
V TDC v TAC l hai hm nghch bin theo W nn o hm ca chng tri du,
vy ta c MDC- MAC = 0.
R rng, TEC l nh nht khi MAC = MDC. Mc thi W* ng vi v tr m MAC
= MDC c gi l mc thi hay mc nhim ti u.
3. Gii php kinh t th trng cho nhim ti u
3.1 Quyn ti sn (quyn s hu)
a) Trong thc t hot ng ca c ch kinh t th trng, trong mt s trng hp
xy ra nhm hn ch nhim tr nn c hiu qu m khng cn n s can thip
ca Nh nc, khi cc ngoi ng tc ng n t bn (tc ng trc tip n mt
ch th kinh t c th no ) v khi quyn ti sn hay quyn s hu c xc nh
r rng.
Quyn ti sn (hay quyn s hu) l quyn c quy nh bi quy tc php lut
(lut nh) cho mt c nhn hay mt hng s dng, kim sot hoc thu ph i vi
mt ngun lc no , h c php lut bo v khi c s cn tr h s dng
nhng quyn y.
Chng hn c quyn s hu t th c quyn trng trt loi cy thch hp, xy
dng nh ca hoc bn i.
b) Khi s dng khi nim quan trng ny ta thy xut hin mt cch x l cc
ngoi ng bng cch m rng quy m sn xut, mt ngi, mt hng hay tp on
cng ty c quyn ti sn i vi mt s ln cc ngun lc (s hu mt on sng,
mt h, mt khu m du, mt vng cha nhiu ti nguyn ...) th cc ngoi ng
xut hin gia cc ch th kinh t trong c ni ho "ngha l xt cho ton
b tp on y mi chi ph u phi c tnh ht khin cho MSC = MC (cc t
chc Vietsopetro, OPEC, OEDC, ...).
Gii php ny c mu thun ln l to ra s c quyn sn xut lm x cng nn
kinh t khin cho tnh cnh tranh b tiu dit nn khng lm cho th trng hot
ng c hiu qu (gim lng du khai thc ca OPEC trong nhng nm 1970
gi gi du th gii).

92
3.2 M hnh tha thun nhim
a. Xt hai ch th kinh t trc tip m hot ng kinh doanh lin quan mt thit vi
nhau khi bn ny gy ra ngoi ng cho pha kia th nh vn dng quyn ti sn ta
c mt gii php khc.
Gi s c mt doanh nghip m trong qu trnh sn xut to ra mt lng cht thi
c nhiu cht gy nhim, chng hn nc thi ca h i vo ngun nc ca a
phng lm cho c dn quanh vng v b con nng dn gnh chu nhiu thit hi l
s gim nng sut cy trng, lm gim tc pht trin ca vt nui, sc kho ca
ngi dn b nh hng v.v... Nhng thit hi ca ngi dn do tnh trng nhim
ngun nc l mt ngoi ng kinh t do doanh nghip gy ra , doanh nghip p t
mt chi ph cho ngi dn quanh vng, gy ra thit hi cho h, bi l nu ngi
dn mun c c nng sut la v c nh trc khi c doanh nghip, h phi thc
hin mt chi ph x l nhim m l ra chi ph ny doanh nghip phi gnh
chu.
Gi MEC l chi ph bn ngoi cn bin do doanh nghip gy ra trong qu trnh sn
xut, v nguyn tc ngi nng dn phi chu thit hi ln hn do tnh trng
nhim mi trng song n gin ta c th coi MEC cng chnh l chi ph thit
hi cn bin ca nng dn MDC bi v khc phc MEC ngi nng dn phi
thc hin chi ph gim thi cn bin MAC. Vy ta coi doanh nghip gy chi ph bn
ngoi l bn A cn ngi hng chu thit hi mi trng (nng dn quanh vng) l
bn B th ta c MEC
A
= MDC
B
= MAC
B
. Vic x l nc thi do doanh nghip gy
ra cng c th do chnh doanh nghip thc hin, gi MAC
A
l chi ph gim thi
cn bin ca doanh nghip th th biu din cc chi ph gim thi ca A v B
trnh by nh hnh v.
Khi doanh nghip to ra lng thi ln
nht qm th h gy ra cho B thit hi
ln nht

Khi doanh nghip tin hnh x l nc
thi, mi trng nc khng b
nhim th chi ph ca h l

Hinh 2.15: M hnh tha thun nhim
Chi ph gim thi
MDC
B
L
th
ng
i
c m
nhim
A
A
1 MAC
M
A
2
0
q
2
q*
q
1
q
m
B
2
B
1
B
P
2
P
2
q
2
P
m
P
1

= =
qm qm
B B Bm
dQ MDC dQ MAC DC
0 0

Khi doanh nghip gy ra lng thi q* ta c MAC
A
= MDC
B
= MAC
B
ngha l
mc nhim y thit hi m A gy ra ng bng chi ph m B gnh chu, cng
=
qm
A Am
dQ MAC AC
0

93
l chi ph cn bin gii quyt nm l bng nhau cho d A hay B thc hin. q*
l mc thi hay mc nhim, khng ai b thit hi v mt kinh t, chnh l
mc nhim ti u do c ch th trng to lp nn.
- Nu nng dn quanh vng c quyn ti sn th h c quyn khng cho nh my
thi mt n v no, mun vy doanh nghip phi b ra mt chi ph gim thi rt
ln l p
2
. Mt chi ph gim xung n p
2'
nh s thng lng vi nng dn, doanh
nghip c mc gim q
2
' nn chi ph gim thi bt i mt lng ln trong khi
nng dn phi chu mt chi ph l OA
2
q
2
'. Doanh nghip phi chi tr nng dn t
nht mt lng chi ph y c hng phn li ch chnh lch do gim chi ph,
phn li ch nh my thu c c gi tr bng din tch OAA
1
A
2
tnh theo:
=
2
0
) (
q
B A A
dQ MDC MAC NB

94
A B B
dQ MAC MDC NB ) (
- Nu doanh nghip c quyn ti sn, tc l c quyn gy nhim i vi nng
dn quanh vng, khi v mc tiu li nhun, doanh nghip s sn xut vi s
lng ln, do vy lng pht thi mc nhim l ln nht l q
m
. Thit hi do
mt n v nhim gy ra cho nng dn quanh vng tng ng P
m
, gim
lng nhim t q
m
xung q
1
, khi nng dn quanh vng phi n tha thun
vi doanh nghip, h s chp nhn n b cho doanh nghip t nht bng din
tch tam gic q1 B
2
q
m
v h s c hng mt khon li ch thc do gim
nhim bng din tch t gic B
1
Bq
m
B
2
tnh theo:
=
qm

q
1
Nu hai bn tho thun c cc nguyn tc n b nh trn th c hai s dn n
s ng mc x thi ln nht l q* l mc thi c hiu qu x hi, mc chi
ph gim thi l hiu qu nht.
3.3 nh l Coase v nhng hn ch ca n
T s phn tch trn khi quyn ti sn c xc nh r rng, ta c th p dng cho
mi phn tch tnh hung. Vn c bn nht trong s phn tch ny l tnh tu
thuc rt ln trong vic phn phi li nhun ca cc bn trao i ai l ngi c
quyn ti sn cn vic tin n s cn bng chi ph x hi ti u ng vi mc thi
ti u li khng ph thuc vo iu . Xut pht t s pht trin ny, Ronald N
Coase pht biu ni dung sau y trong tp ch Lut php Kinh t di bi vit
nhan "Vn chi ph x hi" xut bn thng 3/1960, gi l nh l Coase rt ni
ting:
Khi cc bn c th mc c m khng phi chi ph g thm v lm cho c hai bn
cng c li, c ch th trng s lm cho hot ng chng nhim tr nn c hiu

qu bt k quyn ti sn c n nh nh th no.
Tnh kh thi ca nh l Coase:
Xt v mt Kinh t, phn tch theo m hnh tng ca nh l Coase l mt
tng tt, n th hin c quy lut c bn ca kinh t th trng l quy lut cung
cu v th hin tnh hiu qu Pareto trong hot ng kinh t. Tuy vy, tnh kh thi
trong thc tin khng cao v 4 l do c bn sau y:
- Vic vn dng m hnh mc c nhim ch ng trong trng hp th trng
cnh tranh, i vi hon cnh th trng khng cnh tranh th khng th thc hin
c.
- Thng thng cc quyn ti sn c n nh khng r rng c bit l i vi
nhng loi ti sn s hu chung.
- Vic mc c thnh cng hay tan v ph thuc rt ln vo vic thng tin c chnh
xc khng, vic gim st c tn km khng. Khi mc c th c hai bn u tin rng
mnh c th v phi c li nhiu hn do mi bn u gi thi cng rn khi
mc c hoc mi bn u c thin ch nhng u khng xc nh c nn cng
rn n mc no hoc l khng xc nh c phn li ca mnh l bao nhiu nn
a cao khi b thit hi v chc rng bn kia phi nhng b. Thi gi l
thi chin lc v l nguyn nhn ca mi s tht bi khi mc c.
- Chi ph giao dch thng rt ln v thng ln vai ngi khng c quyn ti
sn. Trong trng hp mc c tn km nhiu v thi gian v chi ph, c khi phn
tn km cn ln hn phn li ch nhn c th qu trnh mc c t khi xy ra.
Trong trng hp cc ngoi ng l tnh trng nhim nghim trng phi gii quyt
th buc phi nh n vai tr chnh ph.
Gi C l chi ph giao dch ca mc c
Gi B l li ch thu c khi mc c
Gi T l chi ph giao dch ca chnh ph
Ta thy B > C c th giao dch (mc c)
C >B khng th mc c. Lc ny cn c s can thip ca chnh ph. Tuy
vy nh chnh ph khi B > T < C cn mt phn chi ph cho s tham gia x l
ca chnh ph.
4. Gii php theo lut kin i bi thng.
Mt gii php theo php lut khc vi m hnh mc c l i kin c n b
hay bi thng v nhng thit hi. Khi mt bn b mt bn khc gy thit hi th
u c quyn kin i bi thng. Nu thng kin nn nhn nhn c khon tin

95
bi thng bng s thit hi m mnh gnh chu, khon tin ny do hai bn tr cho
nhau qua vai tr phn x ca lut php ch khng phi l ph thi (bt buc tr cho
chnh ph) hoc n b chi ph (tr cho nhau do t gic).
Vic xt x v kin gii quyt ngoi ng c cc hn ch sau:
- Chi ph giao dch ca mi cuc tranh chp u rt ln, c khi cn ln hn c chi
ph iu hnh mc x thi.
- Cc n v gy ngoi ng u bit kin tng tn km nn c xu hng gy ngoi
ng va bn thit hi thy nu c kin i th ch c li t thi.
- Vic xc nh quy m thit hi khng r rng nn kh phn x mc n b.
- Thng thng c nhiu tiu cc khi kin tng lm cho vic khc phc bng php
lut khng cng bng, khng chnh xc .
- Vic kin tng mang li li ch cho rt ng ngi trong khi vic theo kin hoc
chi ph l ca mt hoc mt nhm ngi. iu to ra ngoi ng tch cc ca
cc v kin mi trng: nn xu hng chung l t khi xy ra.

96

97

S c trn du t nm 1989 n nm 1999: 40 v. Trong c 14 v thc hin bi
Minh ho 2.1: n b thit hi v mi trng.
thng vi tng s tin bi thng nhn c l: 5 501 000 USD v
5. Cc gii php ca Nh nc i vi nhim
5.1 S dng cc tiu chun trong chnh sch mi trng.
Cc tiu chun l mt trong nhng gii php c bn ca Nh nc s dng
gim thiu nhim. xc nh cc tiu chun phi tun th thng qua nhiu th
tc kh di dng bao gm cc nghin cu khoa hc v hng lot cc qu trnh nh
gi. V d M xc nh cc tiu chun mi trng c quan bo v mi trng
(EPA) c giao nhim v xem xt li ton b nhng nhim v ny v a ra kin
ngh chnh thc lm th no xc nh c cc nh mc chun, trn c s nh
mc chun c quc hi quy nh thc hin v c EPA theo di v kim
sot.
- Cc loi tiu chun mi trng.
Trong khun kh ca lut bo v mi trng cc nh mc chun c xc nh,
thng chng c qui nh r theo mt trong hai cch, hoc l da trn cc nh
mc chun ca cng ngh hoc da trn c s nh mc chun mc thi (
performance - based standard). Nh hm ca tn gi, cc tiu chun da vo
cng ngh qui nh mt dng kim sot gim thiu p dng cho tt c cc ngun
gy nhim , trn thc t thc hin cng vic ny, c quan bo v mi trng
chu trch nhim trong vic nghin cu cng ngh sn c v nh gi hiu qu ca
chng theo nhng tiu chun nht nh c quy nh r trong lut. Nhng tiu
chun cho php cc c s sn xut gy nhim c c hi la chn cng ngh
tt nht, ng c khuyn khch l rt r rng nhm m bo gii hn c th v pht
thi nhim thng qua vic kim sot mc gii hn y t c bng cch no. V
d gim mc pht thi Sulfudioxinde M, c quan bo v mi trng yu
cu tt c cc nh my nhit in s dng nhin liu t l than phi s dng h
thng kh bi, buc tng nh my phi t c cng mt mc thi cho php theo
cng quy nh ca cng ngh.
Mt loi tiu chun mi trng c th thay th khc l da trn c s chun thi.
Nh vy, chun mc thi l quy nh gii hn mang tnh php l v lng cht thi
ti a mt doanh nghip c php thi vo mi trng. Nu doanh nghip no
thi qu gii hn cho php th tu theo mc vi phm c th b pht hnh
chnh hoc truy cu trch nhim php l.
Tiu chun da trn c s chun thi qui nh r mc pht thi i vi tt c cc
ch th gy nhim nhng khng quy nh cng ngh c s dng t c
mc chun thi . Bng bin php s dng chun thi m bo tnh linh hot hn
so vi tiu chun da trn cng ngh, to ra c ch mm do cc c s gy
nhim c th tu chn bin php gim thiu nhim.
- C s l lun xc nh chun mc thi.

98

Hnh 2.16: Xc nh chun mc thi
P
MAC
0
S=chun mc thi
Mc thi
W*
MDC
Wm
E
Trong hnh 2.16 mc thi c hiu qu S = W*, c chn lm chun mc thi l
mc ti u ni trn. Chun mc thi bo m vic cc doanh nghip s thi
mc cho php nu khng mun vi phm php lut.
W
Khi ch n thun quy nh chun mc thi, chi ph mi trng ca doanh nghip
s chnh l chi ph lm gim lng thi t W
m
v W*, chnh l din tch tam
gic W*EW
m
trong hnh 2.16.
Nh nc c th kt hp s dng cng c chun mc thi vi cc cng c khc nh
pht, ph x thi nh s cp phn sau. Nu vy, chi ph mi trng ca doanh
nghip s thay i.
Trong thc t, nu khng c thng tin v MAC v MDC, chun mc thi quy
nh c th cao hn hay thp hn W*, tc l khng t c mc nhim ti u.
Mt khc v cc doanh nghip c cng ngh sn xut v cch qun l mi trng
khc nhau, li phn b cc khu vc a l c c im mi trng nn rt khc
nhau nn chun mc thi hiu qu cn c quy nh ring r. Vic lm ny s gy
ra chi ph hnh chnh rt tn km, v th Nh nc c th quy nh mt mc chun
thi chung thng nht cho mt s doanh nghip thuc cng mt ngnh, mt khu
vc (ta gi l chun mc thi ng nht - Uniform Standard). Nh nc cng c
th cn c vo mc thi hin ti ca cc doanh nghip ra quy nh mi hng
phi ct gim bao nhiu % lng thi ca mnh.
- ngha Kinh t ca vic s dng cc tiu chun
Trong vic s dng cc tiu chun c hiu lc, trong cha ng hai hm kinh
t quan trng.
Th nht l mc m nhng tiu chun ny c t ra, y l mt vn
ht sc quan trng v nhng tiu chun ny gip xc nh nhng mc tiu ca cht

99
lng mi trng. V d nh tiu chun t ra cho mc pht thi CO
2
xc nh mc
c th chp nhn c i vi nhng cht gy nhim c hi cho x hi . Xt
v kha cnh kinh t, vn cn xem xt y l liu mc chun t ra c t
hiu qu phn b khng. Nu khng t c iu , c ngha l x hi ang mt
dn nhng phc li hu hnh.
Th hai l trn c s cc tiu chun, s c nhng cch ng x nh th no i vi
ngun gy nhim. Nhng chnh sch c th thc thi lin quan n cc cng c
kim sot, c th l gii hn mc nhim hay cc loi thu, ph thi.Vic la
chn khng nhng ch quyt nh liu cc mc tiu t ra c tnh thc tin hay
khng m cn phi xt ti c t c chi ph hiu qu hay khng, nu khng t
c iu c ngha l cc ngun lc kinh t ang b lng ph, ngha l chnh ph
phi gnh chu nhng chi ph khng ng c.
5.2 Thu nhim ti u (thu Pigou)
5.2.1 Thu nhim v mc tiu ti a ho phc li x hi
Theo cch tip cn nhim ti u th nht va nu trn, ngi gy nhim cn
phi gim sn lng v mc ti u x hi. to c mt ng c kinh t cho
ngi gy nhim thay i mc sn lng ca mnh, cn phi buc h chu y
chi ph x hi ca vic sn xut, bao gm c chi ph c nhn (nguyn vt liu, nh
xng, vn, lao ng) v chi ph ngoi ng mi trng.
Pigou a ra tng v vic nh thu i vi nhng ngi gy nhim(
).
Nguyn tc nh thu do Pigou nu ra l: "Mc thu nhim tnh cho mi n v
sn phm gy nhim c gi tr bng chi ph ngoi ng do n v sn phm gy
nhim gy ra ti mc sn lng ti u x hi Q*".
Nu k hiu mc thu l t*, ta c t* = MEC
(Q*)
Loi thu ny nhm mc ch buc nh sn xut phi "ni ho cc ngoi ng" v
iu chnh mc hot ng ca mnh v sn lng ti u x hi, v th ngi ta gi
l "thu nhim ti u". Ngi ta cng gi l thu Pigou k nim ngi c
cng u tin xut ra loi thu ny.
100

Arthur C.Pigou (1877-1959) l gio s kinh t chnh tr ti trng i hc Cambridge t 1908-1944. tng v
thu nhim ca ng c cp ln u nm 1920 trong tc phm "Kinh t hc phc li"


Gi P
A
P*
P
M
B
C
0
E
t*
D
Q* Q
M
Sn lng
D=MPB=MSB
MEC
S=MC
S
t
=MC+t
MSC=MC+ME
C

Hnh: 2.17. Thu Pigou i vi ngoi ng mi trng
Q
Ti sao thu Pigou li l ti u? Liu rng vic p dng thu c t c mc tiu
ti a ho phc li x hi hay khng?
Trong trng hp khng c ngoi ng, chng ta s c
NSB = TB - TC
Trong : NSB: li ch rng x hi (hay phc li x hi)
TB: tng li ch do tiu dng hng ho
TC: tng chi ph c nhn ca vic sn xut
iu kin ti a ho NSB l MB = MC s t c ti sn lng Q
M
. Nh rng
MB th hin bng ng cu v MC l ng cung i vi hng ho. Nu xut
hin yu t ngoi ng, phc li x hi thay i, lc :
NSB = TSB - TSC
V khng c li ch ngoi ng, TSB = TB;
Do c chi ph ngoi ng nn TSC = TC + TEC. Nh vy, mong mun ca chng ta
by gi l
Max NSB = TB - (TC + TEC) (1)
Mc tiu ny s t c nu

0 = =
dQ
dTEC
dQ
dTC
dQ
dTB
dQ
dNSB

101

tc l: MB - MC - MEC = 0
hay MB = MC + MEC (2)
Khi iu kin ny tho mn, chng ta s t c mc sn lng ti u x hi Q*,
v th, c th vit li (2) l:
MB
(Q*)
= MC
(Q*)
+ MEC
(Q*)
= MSC
(Q*)
(3)
Nu ta nh thu t* = MEC
(Q*)
, (3) s tr thnh:
MB
(Q*)
= MC
(Q*)
+ t* (4)
v mc tiu maxNSB vn hon ton t c.
Sau khi nh thu, ng cung s dch chuyn vo trong. iu ny c th hin
trn th l ng cung mi (S
t
= MC + t*) ct ng cu ti E, tng ng vi
mc sn lng Q*.
Sau khi thc hin thu, thng d ngi tiu dng s l din tch tam gic P*AE,
cn thng d ngi sn xut l din tch tam gic CP*E (hay cng chnh bng din
tch OBD = OP*ED - BP*ED)
Vn t ra l liu rng thu c to ra mt gnh nng chi ph mi cho ngi sn
xut hay khng? Cu tr li l khng v nu ta coi chi ph mi trng l mt loi
chi ph u vo nh cc chi ph khc th vic ngi sn xut phi tr tin cho chi
ph y l tt nhin. R rng l, khi cha p dng thu, ngi phi tr chi ph mi
trng l ngi b nhim; cn sau khi p dng thu, ngi gy nhim phi tr
khon chi ph .
5.2.2 Thu nhim v mc tiu ti a ho li nhun ca ngi sn xut
Hy nh li th 2.10 m chng ta cp khi ni v mc nhim ti u.
Chng ta s xem thu Pigou c tc ng nh th no n li nhun v hnh vi ca
doanh nghip.

102

t*
E
0
0
A MNPB=M

t*
Q*
Sn lng Sn l
Q
m
Q
m Q*
W* W
m
nhim
t*
MNPB = M

Chi ph / li ch
Chi ph / li ch
0
B
A
E
MEC
M
t
M
-
(a) (b)
ng
Hnh 2.18: Thu nhim v s thay i li nhun doanh nghip
Khi cha p dng thu, mt doanh nghip vi ng MNPB nh hnh v 2.18 a,
s sn xut ti Q
m
v gy nhim mc W
m
ln nht, li nhun ca doanh nghip
lc ny l din tch OAQ
m
.
Khi p dng thu t* c ngha l vi mi n v sn lng u ra, doanh nghip u
phi tr mt khon thu t* cho Nh nc. Ti mc sn lng Q*, tng s thu m
doanh nghip phi np l din tch Q
o
t*EQ* v li nhun sau thu ch cn l t*AE.
Gi s nu doanh nghip ny sn xut thm mt n v sn lng vt qu Q*, li
nhun cn bin m hng thu c do vic sn xut thm s nh hn mc thu t*
m doanh nghip phi tr cho n v sn phm thm v vic ny s lm cho li
nhun ca doanh nghip gim xung nh hn t*AE. Ngc li, doanh nghip cng
khng c gng gim sn lng xung mc nh hn Q* v ti li nhun cn bin
sau khi tr i thu vn cn dng, tc l doanh nghip vn cn c hi tng tng li
nhun nu gia tng mc sn lng.
Nh vy, bng cch nh thu t* = MEC
(Q*)
doanh nghip s c mt ng c kinh
t sn xut ti mc sn lng Q* l mc ti u i vi x hi v v vy cng to
ra mc nhim ti u W*.
Chng ta cng c th biu din s dch chuyn ca ng M nh trong hnh (b).
ng li nhun c nhn rng cn bin sau thu s l M
t
= M - t*. R rng
ng li nhun mi ny ct trc honh ti Q* v tng li nhun l din tch OBQ*
s bng ng din tch t*AE trong hnh a.
Nu th hin nhng iu trn di dng hm s ton hc, ta c:
- Trc khi c thu, mc tiu ca doanh nghip l ti a ho li nhun

103
max = TR - TC
s t c khi tho mn iu kin
' = MR - MC = 0,
tc l M = 0 hay MR = MC. Mc sn lng Q
m
tho mn iu kin .
- Sau khi p dng thu, doanh nghip vn theo ui mc tiu ti a ho li nhun
max
t
= TR - (TC + T)
Trong : T l tng s thu phi np, bng t*.Q
iu kin cn cho ti a ho hm ny l:
'
t
= MR - MC - t* = 0, tc l MNPB - t* = 0 hay MR = MC + t*
Trong iu kin th trng cnh tranh hon ho th MR = P, do P = MC + t*
5.2.3 Mt s vn lin quan n p dng thu nhim ti u
Trong thc t, vic xc nh ng mc thu t* cn thit l rt kh khn v chng
ta khng c thng tin v MNPB v MEC. Khi , mt mc thu t no c
ban hnh c th ln hn hoc nh hn t* v nh vy vic p dng thu t s khng
t c mc tiu ti u i vi x hi.
Mt vn gy nhiu tranh ci l, mc d thu Pigou gp phn a mc sn
lng v nhim v mc ti u x hi nhng cch nh thu nh vy c v khng
cng bng lm v ngi gy nhim phi tr nhiu hn mc chi ph ngoi ng mi
trng m h gy ra cho x hi.

104

Hnh 2.19: "Tnh cng bng" ca thu Pigou
MNPB MEC
t*
0
b
a
Q*
Q
m
P
Q
Trong hnh 2.19 ny, chi ph ngoi ng mi trng ch l din tch a nhng ngi
gy nhim phi tr tng s thu bng din tch (a + b)
Tuy nhin, nhiu nh kinh t li cho rng lp lun v s "khng cng bng" ch
ng trong trng hp doanh nghip c quyn ti sn v mi trng. Trong trng

hp doanh nghip khng c quyn ti sn v mi trng, khon thu (a + b) s bao
gm c vic chi tr cho chi ph mi trng v chi tr cho quyn s dng cc ngun
lc mi trng vn l khan him, tc l (a + b) bao gm c chi ph thc v chi ph
c hi ca vic s dng mi trng.
Nh cp phn trn, thu nhim nh vo tng n v sn phm c
sn xut ra m khng cn c vo lng cht thi gy nhim thc t c thi ra
mi trng. Hn ch ca cch nh thu ny l n khng to ra c nhng ng
c khuyn khch cc doanh nghip sn xut sch hn gim lng cht thi cng
nh khng khuyn khch doanh nghip tm kim cc gii php tt hn x l hay
hu b cht thi.
5.3 Ph x thi
Ph x thi l mt loi ph nh vo lng cht thi thc t ca ngi sn xut. y
cng l mt dng thu Pigou, chng ta c th gi l ph pigou. xc nh mc ph
tnh trn mi n v cht thi, ngi ta cn cn c vo chi ph cn thit lm gim
n v nhim , tc l MAC ni trn. Khi p dng ph x thi, ngi gy
nhim s c phn ng ph hp nhm ti thiu ho chi ph ca mnh.
Chng ta s xem doanh nghip vi ng MAC = 72 3Q (trong Q l lng
pht thi) nh trong hnh 2.2.5 di y s phn ng nh th no vi mt mc ph
F.

105

Hnh 2.20: Ph x thi v hnh vi ca doanh nghip
P ($)
72
30
0
14 24 Mc thi Q
b
a
F=30
MAC
Khi cha c s can thip ca Nh nc, doanh nghip thi 24 n v cht thi v
khng chi ph mt ng no cho vic gim thi.
Gi s Nh nc yu cu phi gim thi trit 24 n v, cn c vo cng ngh
gim thi v yu cu np ph mc quy nh ca nh nc c tnh ti u vi mt
mc ph l 30$/n v cht thi, doanh nghip c th c nhng la chn khc nhau
nh c tnh ton trong bng 2.4 di y:

Bng 2.2: Cc la chn gim thi v chi ph ca doanh nghip
Tng chi ph gim thi
(TAC)
Tng ph (TF) Tng chi ph mi
trng (TAC + TF)
Phng n 1
Khng chi ph
gim thi
0

30$ x 24 = 720$ 720$
Phng n 2
Gim thi ton b
0 864$
Phng n 3 np
ph 14 n v (ti
mc c MAC =
F). Chi ph gim
thi 10 n v.

30$ x 14 = 420$

570$
$ 864 24 $ 72
2
1
= x x
$ 150 10 $ 30
2
1
= x x
Tt nhin doanh nghip c th c nhiu phng n la chn khc m mc thi
khng phi l 14 n v. Chng ta c th d dng thy c l bt c phng n
la chn no khc vi phng n 3 trn s u c tng chi ph ln hn 570$. Mt
doanh nghip mun ti a ho li ch ca mnh s chn phng n cc tiu ho
tng chi ph.
Trn thc t, vi mi mc thi cao hn 14 n v, chi ph cn bin ca vic gim
thi thp hn mc ph phi np nn vi mt khon chi ph gim thi nh doanh
nghip c th trnh c vic np ph 30$ cho mi n v cht thi.
Nhng vi nhng mc thi nh hn 14 n v, do MAC ln hn mc ph F = 30$
nn doanh nghip s thch np ph thi hn l b tin ra x l cht thi.
Cui cng th doanh nghip s thi 14 n v, np mt tng s ph bng din tch b
v gnh chu mt tng chi ph gim thi bng din tch a nh trong hnh v.
Qua vic phn tch mt v d nh trn, c th thy rng, nu mun t c mt
mc thi xc nh no , th Nh nc cn quy nh mc ph thi bng ng MAC
ca chnh n v cht thi .
Nh vy, theo cch tip cn nhim ti u th hai ni trn, mc ph ti u (hay
mc ph c hiu qu) s c xc nh ti mc thi W*, ti F = MAC = MDC.

106

107

Hnh 2..21: Xc nh mc ph x thi ti u
P ($)
MAC
MDC
F*
0
W* Wm Mc thi
W
Thc t khi p dng cng c ny, cng ging nh chun mc thi, do khng c
thng tin v MAC v MDC nn mc ph quy nh c th cao hn hoc thp hn F*
v v th kt qu l mc thi cui cng s khng trng vi mc ti u W*.
Bn cnh , tit kim chi ph hnh chnh, Nh nc cng c th quy nh mc
ph thi ng nht (Uniform Fee). Nu p dng mc ph thi ng nht, mt gii
php c hiu qu v chi ph (chi ph thp nht) i vi x hi s t c bi l chi
ph cn bin ca vic gim n v thi cui cng ca tt c cc doanh nghip s
bng nhau v bng chnh mc ph, tc l MAC
1
= MAC
2
= F.
Minh ho 2.2: thu ph nc thi.
iu 6: Mc thu ph bo v mi trng i vi nc thi quy nh nh sau.
1. Mc thu ph bo v mi trng i vi nc thi sinh hot c tnh theo t
l phn trm (%) trn gi bn 1 m
3
(mt mt khi) nc sch, nhng ti a
khng qu 10% (mi phn trm) ca gi bn nc sch cha bao gm thu
gi tr gia tng. i vi nc thi sinh hot thi ra t cc t chc, h gia nh
t khai thc nc s dng (tr h gia nh nhng ni cha c h thng
cp nc sch), th mc thu c xc nh theo tng ngi s dng nc,
cn c vo s lng nc s dng bnh qun ca mi ngi trong x,
phng ni khai thc v gi cung cp 1 m3 nc sch trung bnh ti a
phng.
2. Mc thu ph bo v mi trng i vi nc thi cng nghip tnh theo tng
cht gy nhim c quy nh nh sau:


Cht gy nhim Mc thu
(ng/kg cht gy nhim c
trong nc thi)
stt
Tn gi K hiu Ti thiu Ti a
1 Nhu cu xi sinh ho A
BOD
100 300
2 Nhu cu xi ho hc A
COD
100 300
3 Cht rn l lng A
TSS
200 400
4 Thu ngn A
Hg
10.000.000 20.000.000
5 Ch A
pb
300.000 500.000
6 Arsenic A
AS
600.000 1.000.000
7 Cadmium A
cd
6000.000 1.000.000
Ngun:Ngh nh ca chnh ph v ph bo v mi trng i vi nc thi. S
67/2003/N-CP. Ngy 13 thng 6 nm 2003.
5.4 S la chn gia chun mc thi v ph thi trong qun l mi trng
Thc t p dng cc cng c chun mc thi v ph x thi cho thy, mt s quc
gia, trong mt s trng hp cc nh qun l da nhiu hn vo chun mc thi
trong khi mt s quc gia khc li s dng rt thnh cng cc loi ph thi iu
tit mc thi.
Vy, l do kinh t g lm cho ngi ta a thch cch ny hay cch khc. Cc nh
kinh t chng minh rng, trong trng hp thng tin hon ho, ni chung cc
nh qun l a thch dng cng c ph thi hn so vi cng c chun mc thi. Tuy
nhin, khi khng c thng tin, s a thch s cn tu thuc vo vic cn nhc chi
ph - li ch ca tng trng hp c th. Chng ta s xem xt cch la chn ca cc
nh qun l trong c hai trng hp, khi thng tin hon ho v khi thng tin khng
hon ho.
5.4.1 Trng hp thng tin hon ho
Khi thng tin hon ho tc l chng ta hon ton xc nh c MAC v MDC v
mc thi ti u cng nh mc ph cn thit t c mc thi ti u . V d
sau y s cho thy trong trng hp thng tin hon ho, cc nh qun l a thch
s dng cng c ph thi hn.
Gi s c hai doanh nghip gn nhau, qu trnh sn xut cng to ra cht thi nh
nhau v vic x thi ca h gy ra nhng thit hi tng t nhau i vi mi
trng. Tuy nhin do s dng cc cng ngh sn xut khc nhau nn lng thi

108
hin ti v chi ph cn bin gim thi ca 2 doanh nghip ny khng ging nhau.
Trong hnh 2.2.7 di y, MAC
1
v MAC
2
l hai ng chi ph gim thi cn bin
ca hai doanh nghip. Gi s vi thng tin y ngi ta xc inh c hm chi
ph gim thi cn bin ca doanh nghip 1 v doanh nghip 2 nh sau:
MAC
1
= 6500 50 Q
1
MAC
2
= 10000 40 Q
2

P ($)
S=Chun mc thi
Tit kim chi ph gim
thi ca doanh nghip 2
F=Ph thi
Lng thi
Q
6000
4000
1500
MAC
1
MAC
2
0
50 100 130 150
Tng chi ph
gim thi
doanh nghip 1
250
10.000
6500

Hnh 2..22: S a thch ph thi hn chun mc thi
Hin ti doanh nghip 1 thi 130 n v cht thi / nm, doanh nghip 2 thi 250
n v cht thi / nm. Nh vy, nu khng c s can thip ca c quan qun l
mi trng, tng lng thi ca 2 doanh nghip l 380 n v / nm. Gi s Nh
nc mun gim tng lng thi ca 2 doanh nghip xung cn 200 n v / nm
tc l gim tng lng thi 180 nv / nm. t c mc tiu mi trng nh
vy, c quan qun l mi trng c th thc hin mt trong hai gii php; mt l
cho php cc doanh nghip thc hin theo quy nh tiu chun pht thi S = 100
n v / doanh nghip / nm, hai l mt mc ph thi 4000 $ / n v thi. Tuy
nhin cc Nh Qun l cng cho rng mc tiu kinh t phi t c l cng tit
kim chi ph gim thi cho x hi cng tt (chi ph x hi l tng chi ph gim thi
ca 2 doanh nghip cng li).
Chng ta s th hin cc kt qu v mi trng v kinh t ca hai cch la chn
trong bng 2.5 sau y.

109
Bng 2.3: Cc la chn gii php gim thi v chi ph ca x hi
Chun mc thi Ph thi
Tng lng gim thi 30 + 150 = 180 80 + 100 = 180
Chi ph gim thi doanh
nghip 1

110

x 1500 x 30 = 22.500$

x 4000 x 80 = 160.000$

Chi ph gim thi doanh
nghip 2

x 6000 x 150 = 450.000$

x 4000 x 100 = 200.000$
Tng chi ph x hi
gim thi
472.500$ 360.000$
2
1

2
1
2
1

2
1
Nh vy, c 2 cch thc hin chnh sch u t c mc tiu mi trng nh
nhau l gim 180 n v pht thi nhng vic s dng ph thi s tit kim cho x
hi (472.500 - 360.000) = 112.500$/nm.
Nh thc hin ph thi, doanh nghip 2 s tit kim c chi ph gim thi
(450.000 - 200.000) = 250.000$/nm so vi tun th chun thi. Doanh nghip 1
tuy phi tng chi ph gim thi (160.000 - 22.500) = 137.500$/nm nhng nh th
li khng phi np mt khon ph (4.000 x 50) = 200.000$/nm nn vn thch t
chi ph gim thi hn. Li ch rng ca doanh nghip 1 khi thc hin gim thi
thm 50 n v na l (200.000 - 137.500) = 62.800$/nm. n y chng ta
thy r ti sao mt quy nh mc ph thi 4.000$ li c a thch hn quy nh
mt chun mc thi 100 n v / nm. Ni chung trong iu kin thng tin y ,
ph x thi thng c a thch hn cc chun mc thi, bi v:
Th nht, so vi chun mc thi, ph thi t c hiu qu kinh t cao hn (tit
kim chi ph gim thi) trong khi cng t c hiu qu mi trng nh nhau.
Th hai, ph thi khuyn khch cc doanh nghip hng hi p dng cc bin php
gim thi (nh thay i cng ngh, thit b qun l ni vi tt, tit kim nng
lng, nc, x l cht thi) trong chng mc no cc chi ph cho vic ny vn
cn thp hn mc ph v v th c th cn gim c mc thi nhiu hn na.
Th ba, khi p dng trong thc t, nu Nh nc yu cu cc doanh nghip phi
np ph th ph x thi cn em li ngun thu ng k c th s dng cho cc
chng trnh bo v mi trng hoc cc chng trnh x hi khc.
5.4.2 Trng hp thng tin khng hon ho
Thng tin khng hon ho s gy ra tnh trng khng chc chn v cc chi ph gim

thi cn bin v chi ph thit hi cn bin, dn n vic xc nh chun mc thi
v/hoc ph thi thp hn hoc cao hn mc cn thit t nhim ti u. C th
hn, c th ni rng thiu thng tin s dn n vic ban hnh cc quy nh v chun
thi hay ph thi khng hiu qu v gy ra nhng ph tn gia tng cho x hi.
Chng ta gi l s tht bi ca chnh sch.
Cc nh hoch nh chnh sch v cc nh qun l tt nhin khng mun c s tht
bi v chnh sch. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp thiu thng tin, iu ny l kh
trnh khi. Cc nh hoch nh chnh sch mi trng s a thch s dng mt
cng c no nu bit rng vic s dng cng c gy ra ph tn gia tng cho
x hi nh hn so vi khi s dng cng c khc.
Chng ta hy xem xt trng hp khi thiu thng tin v chi ph gim thi. Gi s
ng chi ph thit hi cn bin c dc (gi tr tuyt i) ln hn so vi dc
ca ng chi ph gim thi cn bin. Gi s tip rng MAC thc t c th hin
bng ng MAC
T
trong hnh 2.28 nhng v thiu thng tin nn ta ch c s liu
MAC
E
nh hn MAC
T.
111

P ($)
Hnh 2..23: S la chn gia chun mc thi v ph thi khi khng c thng tin

A
E
C
MDC
MAC
T
MAC
E
B
D
Q
W
F
W*
W
S
0
F
F*
Vi s liu thng tin c c, nh hoch nh chnh sch c th ban hnh mt
chun mc thi ti W
S
nh hn mc ti u W*. S chch khi mc thi ti u W*
s to ra s gia tng trong tng chi ph mi trng i vi ton x hi, th hin
bng din tch EAB trong hnh v trn.
Nu cng vi thng tin nu, vic ban hnh mt mc ph thi s dn n kt qu
l doanh nghip s thi ti W
F
thay v W* v thit hi rng gy ra cho x hi s
bng din tch ECD trong hnh v.

V MDC c dc ln hn dc ca ng MAC nn din tch ECD s ln hn
din tch EAB, hay ni cch khc, thit hi x hi do vic ban hnh mt chun mc
thi khng ti u nh hn thit hi x hi do vic ban hnh mt mc ph thi khng
ti u gy ra. V nh vy th cc nh hoch nh chnh sch s a thch s dng
cng c chun mc thi hn.
Trng hp ngc li, nu dc ca MDC nh hn dc ca MAC th cng c
ph thi li t ra u th hn v c cc nh hoch nh chnh sch a thch hn.
Trong thc t cn c th xy ra rt nhiu trng hp khc lin quan n vn
thiu thng tin.
Khi khng c thng tin hon ho, vic p dng chun mc thi s n nh mc thi
xc nh nhng chng ta khng th xc nh chc chn chi ph ct gim cht thi
v n mc . Trong khi , nu p dng ph thi, chng ta li hon ton khng
chc chn v lng thi thc t s l bao nhiu.
Nh vy, cng c chnh sch no, ph hay chun thi, c a thch hn cn tu
thuc vo bn thn s khng chc chn, vo hnh dng v c dc ca cc ng
chi ph cn bin.
Vn kh khn trong thc t l cc nh hoch nh chnh sch, cc c quan qun
l mi trng c th khng bit v dc tng i ca cc ng MAC v MDC
hoc c th khng c mt nim g v s tng quan (ng bin hay nghch bin)
ca cc ng ny v v th kh nng tht bi v chnh sch s c th xy ra nhiu
hn.
5.5 Giy php x thi c th chuyn nhng
Nm 1968, nh kinh t hc ngi Canaa l Dales ln u tin a ra ngh v
mt c ch trong mt s lng nht nh "quyn gy nhim" (bng vi mc
nhim m x hi mong mun) c th c mua i bn li gia nhng ngi gy
nhim.
"Quyn gy nhim" ca cc doanh nghip s c ghi nhn bng cc "giy php
x thi" do c quan qun l mi trng ban hnh. Gi s c quan qun l mi
trng xc nh tng mc nhim cho php l 100 n v, h s pht hnh 100
giy php, mi giy php tng ng quyn c thi 1 n v nhim. Doanh
nghip ch c php thi trong phm vi s lng giy php mnh c. Nhng v c
th mua bn, trao i giy php nn doanh nghip no mun thi nhiu hn s phi
mua thm giy php t nhng doanh nghip khng c nhu cu s dng. Ngc li
doanh nghip no c kh nng gim thi tt c th tha ra mt s giy php v
c bn s giy php tha .
Ni chung doanh nghip nn bn giy php khi chi ph gim nhim cn bin ca

112
h thp hn gi giy php v ngc li, nn mua giy php nu chi ph ny cao hn
gi giy php. Nh vy ng MAC thc t tr thnh ng cu i vi giy php
gy nhim. ng lc ca th trng giy php chnh l c ngi mua v ngi
bn giy php u c li; ng thi tng chi ph gim thi ca ton x hi s gim
xung.
V d, c hai doanh nghip A v B trong qu trnh sn xut thi ra SO
2
gy
nhim mi trng. Mc thi hin ti ca mi doanh nghip l 60 tn, nh vy tng
lng thi m mi trng phi chu ti l 120 tn, vi mc qu b nhim, mc
nhim ti u ch c th l 60 tn, trc thc t Nh nc quyt nh s phn
phi cho mi doanh nghip 30 giy php, tng ng vi quyn c thi 30 tn
cht thi, nu thi vt qu quy nh cho php th phi c giy php thi chng
minh cho quyn pht thi ca mnh, mt khc sau khi cc doanh nghip c giy
php thi trong tay h c quyn trao i mua bn. Vic mua bn giy php gia
A v B s din ra sau khi 2 doanh nghip ny nhn thy c hi trao i do chi
ph gim thi cn bin ca h c s chnh lch nhau. Giao dch trn th trng c
th dn n quyt nh v mt mc gi giy php l 20$/tn. Doanh nghip B do c
chi ph gim thi cn bin thp hn s gim i 40 tn cht thi thay v ch gim c
30 tn theo s cho php ca s giy php m B c, v th lng thi ca B by gi
l 20 tn v B c th bn i 10 giy php khng cn s dng n na. Ngc li
doanh nghip A c MAC cao hn s quyt nh mua thm 10 giy php ca B
c quyn thi 40 tn cht thi v nh vy A ch cn x l 20 tn cht thi. Tng
chi ph gim thi i vi x hi gim i so vi vic phn phi giy php ban
u, c A v B u c li nh vic mua bn giy php

113

60
30
20
P ($)
P ($)
30 20 30 40 60

Hnh 2..24: Mua bn "quyn c gy nhim"
60
Lng
thi
0
Giy php
phn b lc
Giy php sau
giao dch
15
Doanh nghip B Doanh nghip A
Giy php
phn b lc
Giy php sau
giao dch
0
Lng
thi

S thay i li ch v chi ph do vic mua bn giy php c tnh nh trong bng
2.5 sau:
Bng 2.5: So snh chi ph gim thi trc v sau khi c giy php thi
Doanh nghip A Doanh nghip B
I. Chi ph gim thi lc ban
u

II. Chi ph gim thi sau khi
mua bn giy php

$ 225 30 $ 15
2
1
= T x x $ 450 30 $ 30
2
1
= T x x
114

$ 200 20 $ 20
2
1
= T x x $ 400 40 $ 20
2
1
= T x x
- Tr i khon bn giy php
0 20$ x 10 = 200$
- Cng vi khon mua giy
php
20$ x 10 = 200$ 0
Tng chi ph gim thi v
mua bn giy php
200 + 200 = 400$

400 - 200 = 200$
III. Thu li do mua bn giy
php
450 - 400 = 50$ 225 - 200 = 25$

Nh c mua bn giy php m tng chi ph gim thi i vi x hi gim c
75$, trong A c li 50$ v B c li 25$. Phn c li ca 2 doanh nghip
ny c th hin bng din tch hnh tam gic c gch cho trong hnh ( 2.30)
Cng c giy php x thi c th chuyn nhng kt hp c nhng u im ca
h thng chun mc thi v ph x thi. Vic pht hnh mt s lng nht nh
giy php s c tc dng nh chun mc thi, bo m cho cc doanh nghip
khng thi nhiu hn mc cho php. Mt khc gi giy php trn th trng s c
tc dng nh mt mc ph thng nht, l c s ti thiu ho chi ph x hi ca
vic gim thi do bo m nguyn tc cn bng chi ph cn bin cu vic gim thi.
Quyn c bn giy php vi gi xc nh bi cu trn th trng s to ra ng
c khuyn khch cc doanh nghip gim thi nhiu hn c giy php tha m
bn. Trong mt s trng hp, gim thi c th tr thnh ngnh kinh doanh mi
ca doanh nghip.
5.6 Tr cp
Tr cp thng c s dng trong nhng trng hp v nhng khu vc m
c kh khn ng k v kinh t. Tr cp ca Nh nc c th p dng cho cc hot

ng to ra ngoi ng tch cc nh trng rng, x l nhim Nguyn nhn dn
n vic tr cp l do trong cc hot ng ny li ch c nhn thng thp hn li
ch x hi; do chi ph m cc c nhn chp nhn b ra tin hnh cc hot
ng trn khng t mc cn thit i vi x hi.
Nh nc c th iu chnh mc hot ng c nhn v n mc hiu qu x hi
thng qua mc tr cp c xc nh ng bng chnh lch gia li ch cn bin x
hi v li ch cn bin c nhn (tc l bng li ch ngoi ng cn bin).
Tuy nhin, trong nhiu trng hp thc t, tr cp ca Nh nc khng t c
hiu qu mong mun, nht l i vi cc hot ng m li ch c nhn mu thun
vi li ch x hi, v d nh tr cp cho cc doanh nghip gy nhim nhm
khuyn khch hn ch nhim. Trong cc doanh nghip ny, nu khng c s gim
st cht ch ca c quan chc nng, tr cp s khng c hch ton ton b vo
chi ph gim nhim, m mt phn s c dng h thp chi ph c nhn trong
sn xut nhm tng li nhun. Kt qu l tr cp vn khng lm gim nhim n
mc ti u x hi m li kch thch tng s lng doanh nghip gy nhim v
tng mc nhim c th tng ln.
5.7 H thng t cc - hon tr v vic ti s dng rc thi
Nu ngi tiu dng hoc ngi sn xut khng phi tr chi ph hoc phi tr rt t
cho vic vt b rc thi (chng hn h ch tn thi gian v cht cng sc b rc vo
thng) th h s thi ra qu nhiu rc thi. Chi ph thi rc ca c nhn cc h gia
nh ni chung l khng i hoc tng chm. Ngc li chi ph x hi ca vic
rc bao gm c chi ph thu gom v cc chi ph mi trng do rc vt ba bi (nh
lm mt m quan thnh ph, cc tn thng c th c do mnh thu tinh v cc vt
sc nhn gy ra) c xu hng tng nhanh khi mc thi gia tng.
Chng ta s biu din ng chi ph c nhn v x hi ca vic thi rc trong hnh
2.31di y.
Nu khng phi chi ph cho vic vt rc, cc h gia nh s thi rc mc ti a, v
d nh trong hnh 2.31l 12 n v / tun.
Vic thu gom, phn loi ti ch hoc ti s dng c th c thc hin bi mt
doanh nghip ca Nh nc hoc t nhn. ng chi ph cn bin ca vic ti s
dng rc MCR hnh 2.31 c c t phi sang tri, c ngha l khi lng rc
thi l 12 n v th khng c vic ti s dng v chi ph cn bin ti s dng bng
khng. Khi lng cht thi gim xung tc l lng ti s dng tng v chi ph cn
bin (v tng chi ph) ca vic ti s dng cng tng (
).
115

ng chi ph cn bin ca vic ti s dng MCR c th c gii thch tng t nh ng chi ph gim nhim
cn bin MAC phn tch cc phn trc.

Lng ti s dng hiu qu l 6 n v, ti , chi ph cn bin ca ti s dng rc
MCR bng chi ph cn bin x hi ca vic thi rc MSC (lng thi l 6 n v)
Lng thi hiu qu x hi ny thp hn lng rc s pht sinh t th trng t
nhn (8 n v thi).
116

MC
MC + d
MSC
MCR
Chi ph
Hnh 2..25: Mc thi rc ti u v 1h thng t cc - hon tr
0 6 8 12 Lng rc thi
Mt gii php c s dng thnh cng nhiu nc trn th gii khuyn khch
vic ti s dng l tin t cc c th c hon tr li. Trong h thng t cc -
hon tr, ngi tiu dng phi tr mt khon tin cho ch ca hng khi mua cc sn
phm m sau c th ti ch, ti s dng (nh bia, nc ngt ng trong chai
thu tinh, c quy t, my git c); khon tin ny s c hon li nu sau ,
ngi tiu dng em tr li thu tinh, c quy t cho ca hng hoc mt im
thu gom no ti ch, ti s dng.
Vic phi t cc v c th nhn li tin to ra chi ph c nhn b sung ca vic
vt rc, l chi ph c hi ca vic khng ly li c tin. Mc tin c th c
hon li cho mi n v thi l d lm cho chi ph vt rc tng t MC ln (MC +
d). V nh vy, vi chi ph thi rc cao hn, cc c nhn s gim mc thi v tng
mc ti s dng n mc ti u x hi.
H thng t cc - hon tr, ngoi u im iu tit mc thi rc v ti u x hi
nh nu trn, cn c mt u im khc na, l to ra mt th trng sn
phm ti s dng. nhiu ni, cc doanh nghip nh nc v t nhn cng nh rt
nhiu lao ng trong khu vc kinh t phi chnh thc chuyn mn ho vo hot ng
thu gom, mua bn v vn chuyn vt liu c th ti s dng. Khi th trng ny ln
hn v c hiu qu hn th cu v vt liu ti s dng s tng ln so vi cu v vt
liu nguyn cht, v th s lm tng tc ng tch cc i vi mi trng.

5.8. K qu bo v mi trng.
K qu bo v mi trng l vic c nhn hay t chc trc khi tin hnh hot
ng sn xut hay kinh doanh c xc nh l gy ra nhng thit hi cho mi
trng phi c ngha v gi mt khon tin hoc kim kh qu, qu hoc cc giy
t tr gi c bng tin (gi chung l tin) vo ti khon phong to ti mt t chc
tn dng m bo thc hin ngha v phc hi mi trng do hot ng sn xut
hay kinh doanh gy ra theo quy nh ca php lut.
Nhng lnh vc hot ng sn xut, kinh doanh thng s dng hnh thc k qu
mi trng l khai thc khong sn, khai thc rng hay mt s cc ngun ti
nguyn khc m vic khai thc i hi phi c phc hi li nhng mt mt cu
cc thnh phn mi trng.
Minh ho 2.3: cn c, phng php xc nh mc k qu phc hi mi trng
trong khai thc khong sn.
1.- Cn c xc nh mc tin k qu: Mc tin k qu c xc nh cn c theo
tng d ton chi ph phc hi, thi hn khai thc theo bo co nghin cu kh thi,
thit k m v bo co nh gi tc ng mi trng c c quan Nh nc c
thm quyn thm nh v ph chun; v thi hn c hiu lc khai thc ca giy
php khai thc khong sn.
2. Phng php xc nh mc tin k qu.
a) Trng hp k qu mt ln:
i vi nhng trng hp c thi hn khai thc theo bo co nghin cu kh thi
v khai thc khong sn di 3 (ba) nm phi thc hin k qu mt ln. Mc k
qu bng 100% (mt trm phn trm) tng d ton chi ph phc hi mi trng
theo bo co nghin cu kh thi, thit k m v bo co nh g tc ng mi
trng (khng bao gm khon kinh ph dng cho phng n cng ngh sn xut v
cng ngh x l v mt mi trng c tin hnh ngay trong qu trnh khai thc
ca n v) c cc c quan Nh nc c thm quyn thm nh v ph chun.
b) Trng hp k qu nhiu ln:
b.1. i vi nhng trng hp c thi hn khai thc theo bo co nghin cu kh
thi v khai thc khong sn t 3 (ba nm) tr ln th c php k qu nhiu ln.
b.2. S tin k qu (k hiu l A) c xc nh theo thi hn khai thc theo bo
co nghin cu kh thi, thi hn khai thc theo giy php khai thc khong sn
c cp v tng d ton chi ph phc hi mi trng theo bo co nghin cu kh
thi, thi hn khai thc theo giy php khai thc khong sn c cp v tng d
ton chi ph phc hi mi trng theo bo co nghin cu kh thi, thit k m v
bo co nh gi tc ng mi trng c cc c quan Nh nc c thm

117
quyn thm nh v ph chun, tnh theo cng thc sau:
Tg x Mcp
A = -------------------
Tb
Trong :
A: S tin k qu cho mt i tng c php khai thc khong sn (ng Vit
nam).
Tg: Thi hn khai thc theo giy php khai thc khong sn c cp (nm).
Tb: Thi hn khai thc theo bo co nghin cu kh thi, thit k m v bo co
nh ga tc ng mi trng c cc c quan Nh nc c thm quyn thm
nh v ph chun (Nm).
Mcp: tng d ton chi ph phc hi mi trng theo bo co nghin cu kh thi,
thit k m v bo co nh gi tc ng mi trng (khng bao gm khon kinh
ph dng cho phng n cng ngh sn xut v cng ngh x l v mt mi trng
c tin hnh ngay trong qu trnh khai thc ca n v) c cc c quan Nh
nc c thm quyn thm nh v ph chun (ng Vit Nam).
b.3 S tin k qu ln u (K hiu l B) i vi tng trng hp nh sau:
b. 3. 1. i vi d n c thi hn khai thc theo giy php khai thc khong sn
c cp (Tg) di 10 nm th mc k qu ln u bng 25% (hai mi phn trm)
s tin phi k qu (A) xc nh theo cng thc trn.
c cp (Tg) t 10 nm n di 20 nm th mc k qu ln u bng 20% (hai
mi phn trm) s tin phi k qu (A) xc nh theo cng thc trn.
c cp (Tg) t 20 nm tr ln th mc k qu ln u bng 15% (mi lm phn
trm) s tin phi k qu (A) xc nh theo cng thc trn.
b. 4. S tin k qu nhng ln sau (k hiu C) cn c vo s tin phi k qu cn
li v thi hn khai thc khong sn c cp, tnh theo cng thc sau y:

(A B)
C = ----------------
(Tg 1)
C) Trng hp c gia hn, b sung thi hn khai thc:

118
c.1. Trng hp nu hot ng khai thc theo khong thi hn c gia hn, b
sung m khng gy tc ng xu n mi trng do cng sut khai thc cha v
c c quan qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng ng th khng phi
thc hin k qu na.
c.2. Trng hp nu hot ng khai thc theo khong thi hn c gia hn, b
sung m khng gy tc ng xu n mi trng th phi thc hin k qu mt ln
theo tng d ton chi ph phc hi mi trng do hot ng khai thc c gia hn,
b sung gy ra c c quan Nh nc c thm quyn thm nh v ph chun.
Ngun: Thng t lin tch Hng dn vic k qu phc hi mi trng trong khai thc
khong sn. Lin b ti chnh - cng nghip Khoa hc, cng ngh v mi trng. S:
126/1999/TTLT BTC BCN BKHCNMT. Ban hnh ngy 22 thng 10 nm 1999.
V. Hng ho cht lng mi trng
Hot ng kinh t l mt hot ng khch quan xut pht t yu cu tn ti v pht
trin ca nhn loi. Trong qu trnh con ngi lun lun tm cch c kt hot
ng ca mnh thnh l lun truyn cho i sau v c th tip tc. Do khi xem
xt mt hin tng kinh t - x hi, ta phi xut pht t iu kin lch s c th ca
qu trnh sn xut ca ci vt cht cho x hi ch khng th xut pht t mun
ch quan ca c nhn hay cng ng no. Chnh v vy m t duy kinh t ca con
ngi lun vn ng, pht trin.
Trong qu trnh hot ng sn xut, con ngi phi lun lun ci tin cng c sn
xut nhm lm cho vic s dng ti nguyn c hiu qu nht, ng thi phi bo v
c mi trng sng ca mnh. Trong nn kinh t th trng mi quan h u
c tin t ho, u c coi nh l hng ho. Bi vy ta nhn mnh rng i
tng nghin cu ca mn hc l cht lng mi trng ch khng phi l mi
trng chung chung.
1. Cht lng mi trng l hng ho
1.1 Khi nim cht lng mi trng l hng ho
Hng ho l sn phm ca lao ng c th tho mn c nhu cu no ca con
ngi v n c sn xut ra bn.
- Cht lng mi trng l yu t rt quan trng ca s sng, n p ng nhu cu
c bn ca con ngi (sng), iu khng nh vai tr quan trng ca cht lng
mi trng.
- Qu trnh lao ng sn xut ca con ngi l qu trnh con ngi tc ng vo t
nhin lm cho cc vt th t nhin tr nn ph hp hn vi nhu cu s dng ca

119
con ngi. Hnh ng ca con ngi din ra trong mt khng gian c th v
theo mt thi gian nht nh, nh vy cht lng mi trng l iu kin cn cho
lao ng sn xut.
- Mi qu trnh lao ng sn xut bao gi cng ng thi l qu trnh ti sn xut
nh ti sn xut t liu lao ng, sc lao ng, tch lu vn m rng quy m sn
xut. Trong qu trnh lao ng, cc yu t sn xut u b hao mn i cn phi b
p li qu trnh sn xut tip tc c thc hin. Chnh v vy m mi trng
trong qu trnh lao ng sn xut cng b hao ph (gim st cht lng) nn n
cng cn phi ti sn xut, l mt tt yu khch quan ca sn xut.
* Vic ti sn xut cht lng mi trng xt v hnh thc, phm vi trnh l do
trnh pht trin sn xut quy nh, n gn lin vi lch s pht trin sn xut xt
c v chiu rng v chiu su.
- Trong nn vn minh nng nghip, kinh t t nhin, trnh lc hu, quy m nh
v phn tn, con ngi l thuc nhiu vo thin nhin nn con ngi khai thc t
nhin ch yu theo chiu rng, tn sut nh, vic s dng cc ngun ti nguyn
thin nhin khng nhiu, do vic ti sn xut cht lng mi trng khng cn
t ra v vn trong khun kh t iu chnh ca h thng mi trng. Ni cch
khc, do trnh sn xut ca con ngi thp nn khng nh hng n mi
trng, con ngi khng cn chi ph gii quyt v cht lng mi trng khng
nh hng ti iu kin sn xut.
- Trong nn vn minh cng nghip, vi kinh t hng ho pht trin y tr
thnh kinh t th trng trnh trang b k thut ngy cng hin i, cng ngh
tin tin, lc lng sn xut pht trin trnh cao, quy m ln mang tnh cht x
hi th mc khai thc ti nguyn thin nhin rt mnh m, nhiu v s lng v
chng loi, tc phc hi mi trng khng kp vi s khai thc cc thnh phn
mi trng ca con ngi. ng c thc y sn xut hng ho l li nhun, li
nhun cng cao th cng ng vng trong th trng cnh tranh, iu thi thc
cc nh sn xut h thp chi ph. Chnh sc mnh ca li nhun, s khuyn khch
ca c ch th trng dn dt c ngi sn xut v ngi tiu dng khng quan
tm n cht lng mi trng v mi trng thng xuyn b bin i c tm vi
m v v m.
* b p li s gim st v cht lng mi trng, xt v mt kinh t, mi qu
trnh ti sn xut u phi c u t, phi c chi ph. Chi ph mi trng c tnh
cht x hi, l nhng chi ph rt ln, do hn ch chi ph mi trng cc
quc gia trn th gii tm nhiu bin php hn ch chi ph bng cc gii php
khc nhau nh lut l, thu kho, khuyn khch bng tr cp hoc pht bng tin.
Trong my chc nm gn y, cc nc trn th gii xut hin mnh m

120
ngnh kinh t dch v nhm tho mn nhu cu i sng tinh thn v chm lo sc
khe cho cng ng (ngh ngi, hng th thin nhin v i sng ngh thut...).
Cht lng mi trng tr thnh a bn kinh doanh ca ngnh dch v, ng thi
tn ti vi ngnh cng nghip v nng nghip. Ni khc i, khi ngnh dch v tr
thnh mt ngnh kinh t th cht lng mi trng tr thnh i tng tiu dng v
sn xut, n tr thnh mt loi hng ho v n c th trng tiu th.
- Trong nn kinh t th trng cc yu t sn xut hu hnh c tin t ho, v vy
yu t sn xut l cht lng mi trng cng phi c tin t ho, bi l qu
trnh ti sn xut cht lng mi trng cn rt nhiu lao ng v tin vn.
- Vi t cch l chi ph u vo ca qu trnh sn xut, cht lng mi trng phi
c tnh ng tnh nh cc yu t qu trnh sn xut khc, coi nh l ci gi
phi tr cho vic s dng cht lng mi trng tt.
- Vi t cch l chi ph u ra trong iu kin th trng cnh tranh th gi c ca
hng ho v dch v phi bo m chi ph ti sn xut cht lng mi trng,
ngha l khng ch lm cho cht lng mi trng khng nhng khi phc nh c
m cn tt hn ln.
Tm li:
- Khi sn xut pht trin trnh cao th ti sn xut cht lng mi trng
c t ra nh mt yu t khch quan cho qu trnh sn xut c lin tc,
l iu kin cn (nhu cu con ngi).
- Kinh t hng ho cng pht trin, cc quan h kinh t c tin t ho
th vic thc hin chi ph khc phc cht lng mi trng cng phi c biu th
di hnh thi tin t, tc l phi c s trao i mua bn cht lng mi trng.
y l iu kin .
Lc no, u cha hi 2 yu t th cht lng mi trng cha th tr
thnh hng ho c.
1.2 c im ca hng ho cht lng mi trng
Bt c hng ho g cng c hai thuc tnh l gi tr s dng v gi tr
- Gi tr s dng l cng dng ca sn phm tho mn nhu cu no ca con
ngi, n c quyt nh bi thuc tnh t nhin ca sn phm v th hin
vic s dng hay tiu dng ca sn phm trong i sng x hi, n th hin mt vt
cht ca sn phm bt k sn phm c s dng di th ch chnh tr hay hnh
thc x hi no. Gi tr s dng l mt phm tr vnh vin, n th hin c quan
h gia con ngi v gii t nhin.
- Gi tr l lao ng x hi cn thit ca ngi sn xut hng ho kt tinh trong sn

121
phm. Gi tr c nh lng bng lng gi tr gm thi gian lao ng v trnh
lao ng (gin n hay phc tp). Gi tr l mt phm tr lch s gn lin vi
nn kinh t hng ho. Trong kinh t th trng, ngi sn xut ra sn phm khng
phi ch cho mnh s dng m ch yu trao i mua bn, thng qua s dng
x hi v quan h trao i trn th trng gi tr trao i c xc nh, l gi
bn. Ni khc i, gi tr biu hin gi tr trao i tc l gi bn. Gi tr s c
xc nh chnh xc khi nn kinh t hng ho pht trin cao, c ch th trng vn
hnh nhp nhng, cht ch v th trng cnh tranh hon ho.
Hng ho cht lng mi trng mang y hai thuc tnh v ni r nhng
im khc bit sau y:
* V gi tr s dng
- Hng ho cht lng mi trng nh vo cc thuc tnh vt l, ho hc, sinh hc
vn c ca n (tnh cht vt cht ca t, nc, khng kh ...) tho mn rt nhiu
nhu cu ca con ngi, do vic tiu dng cht lng mi trng l iu khng
th thiu trong i sng x hi.
- Tuy vy v gi tr s dng hng ho cht lng mi trng th hin mt s im
khc bit sau y:
+ Mang tnh cng ng cao, tnh x hi tuyt i
+ Va l u vo (t liu sn xut) va l u ra (t liu tiu dng), va l
nguyn liu va l nhin liu ca mi qu trnh sn xut t gin n n phc tp.
+ Tnh c th rt c bn l hng ho cht lng mi trng trong qu trnh
s dng kh c th phn nh c. V vy xt trn tnh c th ny hng ho cht
lng mi trng l hng ho cng cng.
* V gi tr
- Cht lng mi trng c xc nh bng thi gian lao ng x hi cn thit
sn xut ra n, n kt tinh c lao ng c th v lao ng tru tng: lao ng c
th to ra gi tr s dng cht lng mi trng, phi c hao ph sc lc ca con
ngi mi c cht lng mi trng mong mun. Gi tr hng ho cht lng mi
trng c quyt nh bi lao ng tru tng (cht lng lao ng, hao ph thi
gian, lao ng tr tu). Vy cht gi tr hng ho cht lng mi trng l lao ng
tru tng.
- V lng gi tr hng ho cht lng mi trng c o bng lng thi gian
lao ng x hi cn thit v n c lng ho theo quy tc: n t l thun vi s
lng lao ng v t l nghch vi nng sut lao ng.
Nu con ngi tm cng nhiu phng php lm sch mi trng, cng c nhiu

122
phng tin lm sch mi trng th cht lng mi trng cng cao nn gi tr
mi trng tt gim i, khi v con ngi khng cn phi mua hoc mua vi gi
r mt do lng gi tr cht lng mi trng gim i, vic kinh doanh x l
cht thi s khng cn l nhu cu bc bch na.
- S khc bit v lng gi tr hng ho cht lng mi trng l so vi hng ho
thng thng gi c c xu hng gim xung do nng sut lao ng x hi tng
nhanh, cn hng ho cht lng mi trng c xu hng tng gi mnh m.
Nguyn nhn th nht l nng sut lao ng x hi tng nhanh, ti sn xut phi m
nhng ti sn xut cht lng mi trng chm hn khng tng xng v th hai
l nhu cu x hi v mt cht lng mi trng trong lnh ngy cng tng c v
lng v cht. Mt khc, trong iu kin sn xut x hi pht trin mnh m hin
nay cng c nhiu sn phm vt cht vi v s chng loi trong tiu dng x hi th
chi ph lm tng cht lng mi trng cng cao: thun li gim i, kh khn tng
ln , chi ph lao ng v vt cht cho cht lng mi trng tr nn rt ln tc l
chi ph ti sn xut cht lng mi trng cao hn nhiu so vi chi ph ti sn xut
vt cht dn ti lng gi tr cht lng mi trng tng nhanh.
1.3 nh gi hng ho cht lng mi trng
t vn :
Xem xt trn hnh 2.7 ta thy, khi
t gi mt ti nguyn mi trng
hoc hng ho no nu mc
E'(Q,P) v mc E (Q*,P*) th s
khc bit v quyn quyt nh
"sn xut bao nhiu" lm cho
cung cp hng ho l v hiu qu.

Hnh 2..26. S khc bit v mc sn xut.
MSB
MPC
MSC
0
Q Q*
E'
E
P
P*
Trong nhiu trng hp, mt ti nguyn mi trng c th cung cp cc loi dch
v tri ngc nhau. Chng hn, mt vng t hoang d c th c s dng vo
nhng mc ch gii tr m khng h b xm phm, hoc khai thc cho mc ch
thng mi thng qua vic khai thc g. Mu thun trong vic s dng t tr
nn ngy cng nghim trng trong hn hai thp k qua. nhiu nc, c bit l
nhng nc ang pht trin, chng ta thy mu thun gia li ch ca s pht trin
v li ch ca s bo tn mi trng tr nn nghim trng. S la chn l khng
th trnh khi lin quan n cc ti nguyn mi trng nn chng ta cn phi c
mt tiu ch lm tiu chun cho vic chn la. Tiu ch chng ta s dng y
l phi cn bng gia li ch v chi ph kinh t bin Q*: MSB = MSC hoc W*:

123
MAC= MDC.
Tiu ch ny bt buc chng ta phi nh ra gi tr tin mt ca cc loi hnh dch
v m cc ti nguyn mi trng em li. Chng ta phi nh ra c mc li
ch v cc chi ph trong vic s dng cc ti nguyn mi trng nh ra mc
s dng ti u.
Chng ta s i su vo phng thc nh gi li ch thu c t cc ti nguyn mi
trng. S nh gi li ch ny l rt kh. Ni chung vic tnh ton cc chi ph th
d hn.
1.3.1. Cc li ch th trng v li ch phi th trng
(i) Cc hng ho t nhn
Mi lin h gia li ch v bng lng chi tr l mi quan h rng buc t l thun
vi nhau. S bng lng chi tr ca mi c nhn (i vi mt mt hng) cho thy gi
tr tin t m ngi nh ra cho mt hng . V ngc li, gi tr tin t cng
cho thy sc ht ca mt hng vi mi c nhn.
Chng ta thy tng s sn sng chi tr ca mi c nhn hoc tng li ch t vic
tiu th hng ho nh sau:
Tng WTP = gi th trng x s lng cu + thng d tiu th
Vng bn tri pha di ng cu biu th cch o TWTP hoc tng li ch thu
c t vic tiu th mt loi hng ho. Nu chng ta mun c lng TWTP ca
c nhn i vi mt loi hng ho th c lng tt nht ban u v li ch phi l
c lng v sc tiu th (ca khch hng) i vi mt hng . Sc tiu th ny
cho thy nh gi cht lng ban u ca ngi tiu dng i vi mt hng. Chng
ta gi li ch ny l li ch th trng bi v gi tr c nh ra trn th trng.
(ii) Hng ho mi trng
Vic nh gi li ch thu c t cc loi hng ho v dch v t mi trng hin
nhin l kh hn nhiu so vi vic nh gi li ch thu c t cc loi hng ho c
nhn.
(a) Li ch th trng: vic kim sot c mc nhim mi trng s nng cao
cht lng ca mi trng. iu ny c th dc gi l li ch th trng. V d,
vic no vt mt con sng s lm tng sn lng c, to ra sc ht ln i vi cc
loi hnh du lch; chi ph cho y t v s ngy ngh vic do mc bnh t nc ca
ngi lao ng s c gim xung.
Tt c cc li ch ny c th tnh c ra thnh tin bi v cc loi hng ho v dch
v ny u c nh gi.
(b) Li ch phi th trng: cc hot ng vui chi gii tr trn sng v d nh bi

124
thuyn, bi li, cu c s tng ln; chng loi cc loi sinh vt sng s a dng
hn rt nhiu v s ngi cht sm do mc cc bnh v ngun nc bn s gim
xung.
ng tic l cc loi hng ho trn khng c a ra kinh doanh trong bt c
th trng no, do chng khng h c nh gi, l cc loi hng ho phi th
trng. nh gi li ch phi th trng chng ta phi c lng hay suy on s
tin m mi ngi sn sng chi tr (hay sn sng chp nhn) cho nhng li ch ny.
V vy, chng ta phi xc nh cch mi ngi nh gi v cc li ch th trng v
phi th trng thu c t cc ti nguyn mi trng.
1.3.2. Nhng kh khn trong vic nh gi li ch
(1) Cc ti nguyn mi trng l loi hng ho phi th trng, khng c mt th
trng no m ngi ta trao i hay mua bn cht lng ca mi trng,
cho nn chng ta khng c gi c sn c trn th trng lm thc o
tng i cho vic nh gi gi tr hay li ch.
(2) Cc ti nguyn mi trng em li c li ch th trng ln li ch phi th
trng.
(3) Nhu cu ca c nhn i vi cc ti nguyn mi trng nhn chung l khng
th kim sot c bi v l hng ho phi th trng.
1.3.3. Gi tr ca cc hng ho mi trng: Tng gi tr kinh t
Gi tr, xt v gc kinh t, l mt khi nim nhn tm, ngha l gi tr c xc
nh bi con ngi trong x hi ch khng phi do chnh quyn hay quy lut ca t
nhin quy nh.
Cch tip cn vic nh gi gi tr gm c tip cn sinh tm v hc thuyt nng
lng ca gi tr. Tip cn sinh tm khng nh gi gi tr da trn s tho mn
nhu cu ca con ngi. Gi tr phi da trn vai tr sinh thi hay quan im su sc
v sinh thi, ngha l vic s dng cc ti nguyn mi trng nhm tho mn bt k
nhu cu no ca con ngi, ngoi tr cc nhu cu cn cho s sng ca con ngi,
u l phi o c. Bi v tt c cc thnh phn ca h sinh thi, bao gm h sinh
thi, u c gi tr thc cht ca n v c quyn c tn ti di dng bt bin.
Thuyt nng lng ca gi tr coi nng lng nh l mt n v tin t trao
i v gi tr ca bt c thnh phn no ca h sinh thi cng c tnh bng nng
lng th hin trong chnh n. Vn then cht trong hc thuyt nng lng ny
l ch n khng coi trng tnh khan him ca mi thnh phn. V d nh mt con
ngng nh c th c coi l c gi tr hn mt con su l mt trong nhng loi b
e do.
Mc d nh ngha ca cc nh kinh t v gi tr vn cha c hon ton chp

125
nhn, n vn l mt ng gp to ln khi n em n cho chng ta mt cch nhn
su sc gip cho chng ta c nhng quyt nh ng n.
Cc nh kinh t pht trin mt nguyn tc phn loi cc gi tr kinh t khi lin h
vi mi trng t nhin. C 3 phng php khc nhau nh gi gi tr: gi tr s
dng, gi tr la chn v gi tr tn ti.
(i) Gi tr s dng: cc nh kinh t phi tnh gi tr s dng, l loi gi tr c rt
ra t hiu qu s dng thc ca mi trng. Ngi cu c, th sn, ngi i do
tt c u s dng mi trng v thu c li ch m khng phi tr tin thc tip.
(ii)Gi tr la chn: mi c nhn c th t nh gi cch la chn s dng mi
trng hay ti nguyn mi trng trong tng lai. Gi tr la chn l gi tr ca mi
trng nh l li ch tim tng trong tng lai khi n tr thnh gi tr thc s dng
trong hin ti. Mi c nhn c th biu l s sn sng chi tr cho vic bo v mi
trng chng li nhng kh nng s dng ca mt ngi no trong tng lai.
Gi tr la chn cn c th bao gm c gi tr s dng ca nhng ngi khc (ngha
l li ch gin tip m bn thu c t gi tr s dng ca nhng ngi khc. Bn
cm thy hi lng khi thy nhng ngi khc cng thu c nhng li ch nn bn
sn sng chi tr cho vic bo v mi trng em li li ch cho ngi khc) v
gi tr s dng bi cc th h tng lai (gi tr truyn li l s sn lng chi tr
bo v mi trng em li li ch cho con chu ca chng ta).
Gi tr la chn = gi tr s dng c nhn + gi tr s dng bi nhng ngi khc +
gi tr s dng bi cc th h tng lai
Tng gi tr ngi s dng thu c = gi tr thc s dng + gi tr la chn
(iii) Gi tr tn ti: cc ti nguyn mi trng u c gi tr thc ni ti ca chnh
bn thn chng. Gi tr ny khng lin quan n vic s dng nn c gi l gi
tr phi s dng. Gi tr s dng l nhng vn o c nh s xung cp ca mi
trng, s cm thng i vi cc loi sinh vt. V d nh mi c nhn u cm
thy hi lng vi vic bo v cc c th cn li ca mt s loi nh loi c m hay
loi c voi xanh lng g. Hu nh tt c mi ngi u coi trng s tn ti ca cc
loi ny hn l ch n gin thch th ngm nhn chng. H nh gi cao s tn ti
ca chnh cc loi vt ny.
Tng gi tr ca cc ti nguyn mi trng c tnh bng tng ca c 3 thnh
phn ni trn:
Tng gi tr kinh t = gi tr thc s dng + gi tr la chn + gi tr tn ti
= gi tr s dng + gi tr khng s dng

126
1.3.4 Cc phng php nh gi gi tr
nh gi gi tr ca hng ho mi trng, ngi ta xem xt cc mt sau:
(i) Tng gi tr kinh t ca ti nguyn mi trng. L tng nht l chng ta c th
s dng mt phng php m nh gi c c gi tr s dng ln gi tr khng s
dng.
(ii) Li ch thu c t s thay i (tng ln hay gim i) ca cht lng mi
trng
Ngi ta thng s dng 2 phng php sau nh gi nhng li ch thu c t
vic ci to cht lng mi trng:
(1) nh gi trc tip thng qua s gim xung ca nhng thit hi v mi
trng. Vi phng php ny ta c th tnh c hm s thit hi cn bin.
(2) nh gi cc loi li ch (chnh sch, WTA, WTP) gin tip (gi tr ca sc
kho con ngi c nh gi thng qua cc chi ph b qua; gi tr cuc
sng ca con ngi c tnh bng t l dng; gi tr ca cht lng mi
trng c tnh bng gi nh hay cn gi l nh gi kh quan; s trong
lnh ca mi trng c nh gi thng qua chi ph i li) hoc trc tip
(nh gi ngu nhin). Vi phng php ny, ta tnh c hm s cu.
Phng php nh gi gin tip, cn gi l phng php tnh da trn s la chn
ca c nhn, xem xt quyt nh ca c nhn da trn tnh hu dng hay trong
lnh ca mi trng bi v quyt nh ny cho ta thy gi tr ca trong lnh.
Nhc im chnh ca phng php tnh gin tip ny l ch nh gi c gi tr
s dng ch khng nh gi c gi tr khng s dng.
Phng php nh gi trc tip cho ta bit cc gi tr bng cch phng vn trc
tip cc c nhn. u im ln ca phng php ny l ngi ta c th o c c
gi tr s dng ln gi tr khng s dng.
1.3.5. Hm s tng quan ca MD v WTP
V phng din l thuyt, mt hm s thit hi cn bin biu th chnh xc nhng
thng tin v cu hoc l hm s WTP v cht lng mi trng.
Tuy nhin, trong thc t, nhng hm s ny s trng nhau khi v ch khi chng ta
c lng chnh xc ton b nhng thit hi m con ngi hoc h sinh thi phi
gnh chu cng nh ton b nhng li ch tch lu c ca con ngi hoc h sinh
thi.
Sau y l nhng vn gp phi khi nh gi thc t. nh gi c chnh xc
nhng thit hi hay nhng li ch chng ta phi tnh c nhng gi tr th
trng v phi th trng. Nhn chung, nh gi nhng thit hi phi th trng kh

127
hn nh gi nhng li ch phi th trng.
V d: nhng nh gi nhng li ch thu c t vic gim lng ch trong nc
ung.
Khi lng ch trong nc ung c gim i th s tt cho sc kho con ngi. V
d nh t l mc phi bnh huyt p cao v bnh tim ngi ln cng nh gim tr
thng minh tr em s c gim xung. xc nh c nhng li ch
chng ta cn phi:
(i) nh gi nhng thit hi v sc kho trc tip thng qua vic tnh ton s
tng tc gia lng ch c trong nc v t l mc bnh.
(ii) p dng cc phng php gin tip xc nh s lng tin cc c nhn
thc s chi tr trnh hay ngn nga lng ch .
(iii) S dng phng php trc tip suy ra WTP/WTA ca mi c nhn
lm gim nhng nguy hi cho sc kho do lng ch trong nc gy ra.
(i) nh gi thit hi:
tnh c hm s thit hi mi trng chng ta cn:
1. o lng pht thi
2. Xc nh kt qu cht lng mi trng Cc nh vt l hc
3. c tnh tnh trng ca con ngi
4. nh gi nhng tc ng n sc kho, thm m, gii tr cc nh sinh vt
hc, cc nh dch t hc
S lin h gia 3 v 4 c gi l hm s tng tc. Hm s ny cho ta bit mi
quan h tng tc gia sc khe con ngi vi cc cp tnh trng khc nhau vi
tc nhn gy nhim mi trng.
5. c lng gi tr ca nhng tc ng ny Cc nh kinh t
V d: nh gi nhng thit hi v sc kho
Chng ta c th nh gi c nhng thit hi v sc kho do nhim khng kh
gy ra (v d nh cc bnh vim ph qun, trn kh, ung th phi c ngun gc mt
phn do s lu cu cc cht thi l tc nhn gy nhim mi trng nh kh SO
2

v cc cht kh khc) bng cch c tnh mi quan h tng tc gia sc kho con
ngi vi cc cht thi l tc nhn gy nhim mi trng.
ng tic l sc kho con ngi cn b nh hng bi nhng yu t khc nh li
sng, ch n ung, nhng yu t di truyn. Chng ta cn nhng s liu chun v
nhn t sc kho phn loi nhng tc ng ca mi trng. Nghin cu vn
ny cho thy cc kt qu m ta thu c l tng i khp vi cc s liu ta s

128
dng nhng li cha tnh thuyt phc. Chng ta cn phi tm ra cc phng
php nh gi khc thuyt phc hn v hon chnh hn. Chng ta cng c th kim
tra chi ph tr cho dc phm v s liu hiu sut mt i o nhng thit hi sc
kho. Vn ch y l nhng tiu chun nh gi m qua chng ta o c
gi tr hng ho trn th trng v nhng dch v ch khng nh gi c nhng
gi tr phi th trng ca sc kho.
Nh cp trn, hm s thit hi cn bin khi yu t pht thi tng ln cha
ng nhng thng tin nh mt hm cu / hm s WTP cho cc yu t pht trin
gim xung. Vn ni ln trong vic nh gi nhng thit hi trc tip l chng ta
ch c th c lng nhng gi tr th trng hoc gi tr s dng, iu ny s cho
chng ta mt tiu chun nh gi hon chnh. Tuy nhin chng ta cng s mt i
nhng gi tr phi th trng nh gi tr la chn v nhng gi tr tn ti. iu kh
khn khi nh gi nhng thit hi thc m li khng ng nh khi nim ca chnh
n.
(ii) nh gi nhu cu hay WTP
c lng chnh xc c gi tr, chng ta phi nh gi c c nhng gi tr
li ch th trng hoc phi th trng. Nhn chung, vic nh gi li ch phi th
trng bng vic xc nh s tin c nhn s chi ra cho vic ci thin mi trng l
kh d dng.
V d: Gi s kt qu ca mt cuc iu tra vo ma h i vi vic tiu dng mt
khu cnh quan thin nhin biu din bng cc bng sau:
Bng 2.4. Nhm ngi thu nhp trung bnh. (1)
WTP (10.000) 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
A 3,3 2,6 2 1,3 0,7 S ngi (100)
chp nhn
B 6 5,2 4,3 3,5 2,5
Bng 2.2. Nhm ngi thu nhp cao. (2)
WTP (10.000) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A 6,8 5,4 4 2,8 1,4 0 S ngi (100)
chp nhn
B 8,6 8 7,2 6,3 5,2 4,8 4 3,2
T bng 2.1 ta v ng cu tng nhm v dng quy tc cng theo chiu dc ta c
cu th trng ca nhm (1) suy ra D
1
= f
1
(Q).
T bng 2.2 ta v ng th trng ca nhm (2) suy ra D
2
= f
2
(Q).

129

D
B
D
1
D
A
(1)
6
3,2
2,5
0,7
0,5 2,5 1 2 3 4
D
2
(2)
D
B
D
A
6,6
5,2
1,4
15,4
8,6
Hnh 2.27 ng cu vi cc nhm thu nhp khc nhau
(1). Nhm thu nhp trung bnh.
(2). Nhm thu nhp cao.
T hai ng D
1
v D
2
dng quy tc cng theo chiu dc ta tm c ng D
S
l
cu th trng ca vic tiu dng khu bo tn m din tch di ng cu l tng
li ch ca x hi khi s dng khu bo tn, cng l gi tr hng ho mi trng
ca khu bo tn tnh thnh tin.
Vy chnh ph nn cung vi gi bao nhiu cho vic tiu dng? Trn th ta thy:
- Nu chnh ph c MC = 20.000 th nhm A tiu dng min ph.
- Nu chnh ph c MC = 60.000 th nhm A khng c c hi tiu dng.
- Vy chnh ph c th t mc 60.000 > MC = P>20.000.
p dng phng php ny ta c th nh gi cht lng mi trng khi tiu dng
n trong rt nhiu trng hp chng hn:
- Vic nh gi thu gom rc thi trn ng ph nhm to ra mi trng khng kh
trong lnh.

130
- Vic nh gi tiu dng nc sch ca cng ty nc sch.
Vn cn xem xt l: nhng hm cu ca hng ho mi trng khng th kim
sot c mt cch trc tip. Chng ta khng th thy c gi tr th trng trc
tip ca nhng hng ho ny cho nn chng ta cn dng bin php ni suy hoc
c lng nhng hm cu.
Cng vic u tin khi nh gi nhng li ch l phi vt qua nhng vn thin
v pht gic, sau quay li kim tra nhng thng s k thut m cc nh kinh t
d kin, qua tm ra nhng gi tr o nhng li ch ca mi trng.
1.3.6. Phng php nh gi gi tr li ch trc tip v gin tip
a. Phng php gin tip:
Phng php nh gi gi tr gin tip c da trn s la chn ca c nhn. S
liu sn c cha ng nhng thng tin v s la chn ca cc c nhn da vo tm
quan trng ca mi trng.
Phng php nh gi gin tip i vi gi tr ca hng ho mi trng c tm ra
t nhng gi tr ca cc th trng lin quan nh th trng bt ng sn, chi ph
cho hot ng gii tr hay mc n b tho ng cc c nhn sn sng chp nhn
mo him. S u i hay WTP ca mt c nhn i vi hng ho mi trng c
th hin qua WTP ca h i vi cc loi hng ho lin quan gin tip n mi
trng. Phng php nh gi gin tip p dng cho tng c nhn v c lng
tng s WTP v WTA s dng gi tr gin tip.
Mt s gi tr thng thng s dng nhng phng php nh gi gin tip l:
- Gi nh gn nh my, khu cng nghip thp hn gi nh xa cc khu v
nhim khng kh, ngun nc.
- Nhng ngi sng gn cc khu cng nghip thng c chi ph v sinh, y t cao
hn cc vng khc, l gi mi trng m h mua.
- Chnh lch gi gia gi nc c cung cp v gi nc phi t kim thay th
cho ngun nc b nhim l mt chi ph do mi trng nhim.
- Xy dng h thng thot nc hoc xy dng iu gim l lt bo v t
to ra cm gic an ton trong cuc sng, l nhng li ch mang li rt to ln.
Vy nh gi nhng li ch bng cch no? Nhng li ch ny c th c xem
xt thng qua nhng kha cnh c bn nh: Gim chi ph cu tr, chi ph t thin
khi c l lt. Gim chi ph chng lt, di dn, ngng sn xut ngoi vng l lt
gy thit hi kinh t cho cng ng dn c ln hn. Cng ng dn c nng
nghip c ngh ph th thu nhp t ngh ph ca ngi sng trong vng c l lt
thp hn ngoi vng v h phi chi ph thi gian v tin bc cho chng l lt.

131
- Khi c vic bo v t qua chng l lt th nng sut tng ln do ph sa h lu
sng hoc lng in c pht tng ln do t khng lng ng h cha nc,
tng tui th ca cc my pht in, l phn nh gi li ch ca vic chng l
bo v t.
b. Phng php trc tip:
Cc phng php trc tip c ra nhm tnh gi tr cc ngun ti nguyn mi
trng bng cch nghin cu thi ca ngi dn s nh th no khi cht lng
mi trng thay i (la chn thnh ph, nh trong thnh ph, ngh nghip, hot
ng gii tr).
Cc phng php nh gi gi tr bng cch s dng phng php trc tip nn
da trn vic t ra cc cu hi mang tnh gi thit cho tng c nhn hn l xem xt
s la chn thc s ca bn thn h.
nh gi trc tip cn c th da trn c s nhng chi ph b ra cho khc phc mi
trng c th nhn thy c.
V d: Cc thng k cho thy khi phc mt khu rng do b ph khai thc
khong sn bao gm cc chi ph.

Tr li tng a giao (cht liu t trn b mt) 3,1%
t lp t tht (tng canh tc) 2,6%
Ri lp t mu v cht hu c 86%
Ph thm c xanh b mt 6,5%
Trng cy con to lp che ph nh c 1,8%
Chi ph khi phc li mi trng t l ch yu trong chi ph khi phc v l chi
ph c bn cy c th pht trin. Kinh nghim Australia cho thy chi ph khi
phc ny l 232854$/ha.
y ch l chi ph ti thiu v trong ta cha tnh n chi ph chm bn sao
cho mt s nm ti thiu, vng t khai thc s c ph xanh; cha tnh n chi
ph v s xo trn iu kin mi trng ca ng vt hoang d, s gim st nghim
trng ng vt rng; cha tnh n chi ph do s nhim, cn kit ngun nc m
hot ng khai thc trc y gy ra...
2. Ti nguyn s hu chung
2.1. Ti nguyn mi trng v quyn ti sn c nhn
Trong nn kinh t th trng, khi khng c tht bi th trng, bn tay v hnh ca

132
vic cnh tranh s hng cc ngun ti nguyn vo vic s dng hu hiu nht-v
cc c nhn theo ui li ch s nh v cc ngun ti nguyn d v mt x hi. Ni
cch khc, nn kinh t t nhn mang li hiu qu v mt x hi.
Song chng ta khng sng trong mt th gii hon ho. Cc tht bi trong nghin
cu v th trng lun tn ti quanh chng ta. Ta thy xut hin nhng cuc cnh
tranh khng hon ho, nhng thng tin sai lch; v iu ct yu ca vn ny l
cc mi quan h ngoi ng tn ti nhng ni hot ng ca hng ny c th nh
hng trc tip n cc hng khc trong nn kinh t.
Lun c bn tay v hnh phn chia th gii vi nhng mi quan h ngoi ng. V
sao? Cc hng theo ui li ch khng tha nhn cc chi ph hay li ch m hot
ng ca h mang li cho cc hng khc. Rt cc, gi tr c nhn tch ri khi gi
tr x hi v tnh cn bng ca th trng t nhn khng cn hiu qu v mt x
hi.
Chng ta hy xem xt li. Bn tay v hnh hot ng khi no?
Bn tay v hnh hot ng khi quyn s hu c nhn c xc nh r rng.
Quyn s hu cho php mt c nhn c s dng ti sn khi h thy ti sn
thch hp vi mnh; ng thi h c quyn bn li ti sn . Quyn s hu khuyn
khch cc c nhn s dng ti sn di s kim sot ca chnh h mt cch hu
hi; ngi s hu s quyt nh vic s dng c li nht ca ngun ti nguyn v
anh ta c th gi li hay trch li mt phn li nhun kim c t ngun ti
nguyn . V vy, ng c kim c li nhun kt hp vi quyn t hu s
khuyn khch cc c nhn s dng ngun ti nguyn mt cch hiu qu.
Nu mt ngun ti nguyn khng thuc s hu c nhn th khi bn tay v hnh
khng cn tc dng. Ti sao? Th trng cnh tranh khng h khuyn khch vic s
dng hay qun l nhng ngun ti nguyn mt cch hiu qu - vic thiu i
quyn s hu lm gim ng c mun kim li nhun v khng mt c nhn s
dng no c th qun l c ngun ti nguyn ti a ho v trch li li
nhun t ngun ti nguyn . V d r rng nht chng minh nhng hu qu tiu
cc do thiu s s hu c nhn chnh l vic s dng sai mc ch v lm dng mi
trng, ci m khng c c nhn no s hu.
Mt trong nhng gii thch r rng nht i vi nhng vn mi trng chnh l
thiu s xc nh r rng v lut bn quyn i vi mi trng. Chnh l do
dn n thiu s bo h hay qun l mt cch c hiu qu i vi ngun ti nguyn
mi trng.
133
Chng ta khng cn phi khng nh rng quyn s hu s gii quyt mi vn
v mi trng. Trong nhng phn sau, khi chng ta nghin cu cc gii php cho
th trng t nhn, chng ta s kim nghim xem liu vic k kt lut bn quyn c

th gii quyt cc vn mi trng hay khng. Chng ta s bit c nhiu ti
nguyn mi trng khng ph hp vi quyn s hu c nhn v iu c th dn
n s tht bi ca nhng cuc m phn c nhn v vic s dng ngun ti
nguyn.
Mt trong nhng l do khin ngun ti nguyn mi trng khng ph hp vi s
hu c nhn l v n th hin l mt ti sn khng th loi tr: vic loi b con
ngi ta khi ngun ti nguyn mi trng hay khi ngn chn con ngi khng
c tn dng ngun ti nguyn mi trng, l iu khng th c khi xt v mt
vt cht, ng thi cng l khng hin thc khi xt v mt kinh t.
Mt iu tt nhin l rt nhiu ngi c th s dng ngun ti nguyn mi trng -
chnh l ti nguyn s hu chung.
nh ngha: Ti nguyn s hu chung l ngun ti nguyn khng phi do n l
c nhn hay cng ty no kim sot. Nu vic s dng nhng ti nguyn ny khng
b hn ch s dn n vic chng b khai thc qu mc bi nhng ngi n trc
chim dng.
Ngun ti nguyn s hu chung l mt v d c in v vic tnh khng th loi tr
ca ti nguyn mi trng c th c tc dng nh th no trong vic to ra chi ph
ngoi ng. Kh khn ca vic s dng chung to nn vic mi ngi s dng c
th can thip vo ngi khc, lm gim kh nng phc v ca ngun ti nguyn i
vi mi ngi s dng. Chng ta cn phi l gii ti sao con ngi li c t ng c
x s theo cch c x hi mong mun i vi ngun ti nguyn s hu chung.
Nhng v d v ti nguyn s hu chung bao gm y bin y c ca i dng;
nhng kho du hay ngun nc di lng t, vic s dng khng kh v ngun
nc lm ch thi cc sn phm, nhng cnh rng nhit i nhiu ma cc nc
ang pht trin, nhng con chim di c, nhng ng vt hoang d, v.v
Chng ta s xem xt nhng vn lin quan n ngun ti nguyn mi trng
thuc s hu chung.
2.2. Ngh nh bt c i dng:
C c l khng phi l ngh u tin v ngun ti nguyn mi trng ny sinh khi
chng ta ngh n nhng vn ng lu ca mi trng. Tuy nhin, c l mt
ngun ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh, nhng chng cng c th b cn kit v thay
i mi trng do vic khai thc thiu kim sot hin nay ang e do ngun c
ca th gii.
Hu nh mi mt ca sng v mi vnh trn th gii u b e do bi nhng ngoi
ng t hot ng kinh t ca con ngi. Cc con sng mang nhim ra cc ca
sng, s loang du v ho cht lm nh hng n sinh thi, vic dng nc trn

134
thng ngun lm nh hng ti h lu v i dng v.v Nhng s e do ln
nht i vi ngun c chnh l vic nh bt ba bi v khai thc trn lan ca hot
ng kinh t.
Cng ngh nh bt c hin i, i km vi nhu cu ngy cng gia tng ca con
ngi, thm vo vic t do nh bt dn n nhiu ngun c gim xung
mc thp. Mt s loi c c nguy c tuyt chng. V d: loi c mi di v to
Vng Vnh, c mi kim, c ng gim mt cch ng k trong vi thp k tr li
y. Vin Ti nguyn hc Th gii thng bo mt cng trnh nghin cu vo
nm 1993, ch ra rng 30% loi c hin nay ang b gim (c ngha l t l nh bt
cao hn nhiu so vi t l ti sinh t nhin ca nhng loi ny).
S d ngun c c vai tr quan trng vi chng ta bi nhng l do c bn:
- C l ngun cung cp m ch yu cho mt t l ln dn c trn th gii;
- C cng l mt phn quan trng ca ngun thc n trong bn thn h sinh thi (v
d trong bi Globe v Mail loi c Pecca mu da cam b e do l ngun thc n
chnh ca nhng loi mc khng l v nhng loi c nh tng). Vic nh bt c v
mc ch thng mi l ngun gc ch yu cung cp vic lm cng nh thu nhp.
Cn vic cu c c tnh cht tiu khin, gii tr l ngun li trc tip ca ngnh dch
v du lch v gii tr.
2.3. Phn tch kinh t v ngun ti sn chung:
hiu r hn bn cht kinh t ca ngun ti nguyn s hu chung, chng ta s
nghin cu mt m hnh kinh t trong vic ti to li ngun ti nguyn, s dng v
d ngh nh bt c i dng l v d gip chng ta hiu r bn cht ca vn
nh bt t do, dn n vic khai thc trn lan ngun ti nguyn ny.
Gi s chng ta xem xt mt bi nh bt c vi din tch 200 dm xa b l mt ti
nguyn s hu chung. Cc quc gia c quyn t do khai thc a phn nh
bt ny. Vy iu g s xy ra i vi ngun c ny? Ti sao? V phn ng ca cc
chnh ph trn th gii s nh th no i vi vn ny?
Chng ta hy xem xt m hnh kinh t ca mt khu vc c c tm ra li gii
thch cho vic khai thc vt qu mc cho php.
Gi s rng chng ta ang c mt s lng c nht nh. Gi Q l s cc tu nh
c hin ang c mt khu vc ny. S lng c (tnh bng tn) ca s c nh
c, ta gi l y, l hm ca s cc con tu nh c y: y = f(Q), vi f(Q) l hm
sn xut.
R rng vic nh c yu cu cc u vo khc nh lao ng v thit b nh bt.
n gin, chung ta s cho tt c cc bin u vo thnh mt bin v coi l
nhng chic tu nh bt

135
nh bt
Q
f(Q) =
f(Q) =
HP
AP
Q
Q f
=
) ( '
0

Hnh 2.28: Mi quan h gia s tu tng ln v lng c nh bt
Hm sn xut th hin quy lut li tc gim dn (do din tch ng trng c nh)-
v khi lng tu tng ln th tng s lng c nh bt tng, nhng t l c ca mi
tu th li gim, l do nh hng ca s tu tng ln. V kt qu l khi s lng
tu tng ln, lng c nh bt trung bnh trong mt t hay cn gi l sn lng
ca mi tu (f(Q)/Q) s gim, ging nh cc m hay sn phm cn bin, f(Q). Lu
rng sn lng cn bin gim xung mt t l nhanh hn sn lng bnh qun.
Chng ta hy lu rng m c trung bnh ca mt ng dn khng ch ph thuc
vo s lng tu nh bt m mt ng dn tng ln m cn ph thuc vo s tu
ca nhng ng dn khc. Khi s lng tu nh bt cng ln cao, s c bnh qun
mt m ca mi ng dn li t dn i. Thc t, khu vc nh bt s ng n mc
mi m c bnh qun ca mi ng dn s cn rt nh.
Gi nh rng chi ph cn bin ca lng c trn s tu, k hiu l MC, l c nh
v bng c v gi nh gi mt tn c l p.
Chng ta c th minh ho bng th gi tr kinh t ca (tng thu nhp thu c) t
vic nh bt c l hm s lng tu nh bt trong vng bng cch nhn s c
nh bt c vi gi trn th trng: TR(Q) = py = pf(Q). Cng thm tng chi ph
nh bt, ta c TC(Q) = cq. th ng thu nhp cn bin k hiu l MR(Q), v
chi ph cn bin MC c biu th bng cch phn bit tt c cc ng cong vi
th ca thu nhp bnh qun AR(Q) tng t ng biu th pf(Q)/Q.

136

Hnh 2.29: Gi tr kinh t ca vic nh bt c
3 6
5
4
2 1 0 7 8 9
Q
20
80
40
60
100
0
S
TC
TR
Ti a
h
Ti a ho
Q
Qp
Q* 0
MC
MCc
MR
150
225
S
Thu
AR
ng th MR biu th thu nhp ph thm mt thuyn nh c trong khu vc.
ng th AR biu th gi tr trung bnh ca m c nh bt trn mi tu: AR =
pf(Q)/Q = AP. Mt ln na ta phi ch rng AR vt ra ngoi MR.
2.4. S hu c nhn
Nu nh trng hp ng trng do mt c nhn n l s hu, th c nhn c
th gi li li sut thu c t ng trng . Ch s hu c khuyn khch ti
a ho li nhun (li ch kinh t rng) t ng trng. Li nhun c tnh bng s
chnh lch gia tng doanh thu v tng chi ph:
(Q) = py cQ = pf(Q) cQ

137
Vy ch s hu s quyt nh cho bao nhiu tu vo nh bt ti ng trng? Hay
ni cch khc, quy lut quyt nh c nhn mang tnh hiu qu ca ngi ch s
hu ng trng l g?
Ch s hu s chn ra mt s tu a vo ng trng lm sao ti a ho c
li ch kinh t rng hay cn gi l li nhun. t c mc ch ny, ch s hu
phi chn ra nhng con tu lm sao li ch cn bin ca vic a con tu cui
cng ra cn bng vi chi ph cn bin.
Vy li ch ca vic a thm mt con tu na l g? n gin ch l doanh thu
cn bin hay ph thu ly c con tu cui cng.
V th ngi ta s ch a vo ng trng thm tu nh bt khi ga tr thu thm
c ca mt tu i vi ton b s tu nh bt (MR) cn bng vi chi ph c hi
ca vic a ra thm con tu (MC). Ta c:
Q*: MR = MC
V mt hnh thc, quy lut quyt nh ca ch s hu c hiu l cch phn bit
hm li nhun v t iu khon t hng ban u bng 0.
max (n) = TR TC = p*f(Q) cQ
n
iu khon t hng ban u hay quy lut quyt nh i vi ch s hu l
Q*:p*f(Q) c = 0
m n gin l:
Q*:MR=MC
Hy gi nh rng:
MC = c = $150
p = $1
TP = f(Q) = 300Q 25Q
2
V th,
MP = f(Q) = 300 50Q
AP = f(Q)/Q = 300 25Q
Cc sn lng thay th,
1 * (300 50Q) = 150
50Q = 150
Q* = 3

138
Q* c biu din trn th
2.5. Thu khan him
Li ch rng thu c t vic a Q* s tu nh c ra khi l g? Li ch rng l:
NB(Q*) = TB(Q*) TC(Q*)
Tng li ch l phn nm di ng gi tr trung bnh (gi tr nh bt trung bnh)
pha tri ca ng th. Tng chi ph l phn nm di ng chi ph cn
bin, cng pha bn tri ca th. Phn chnh lch gia hai phn ny chnh l
li ch rng (phn gch cho)
Q Q*=3 0
MC
MR
150
AR(3) = 225
S
a
b c
d
AR

Hnh 2.30: Li ch rng ti mc nh bt ti u
Thut ng k thut dng cho li ch rng thu c t mt ngun ti nguyn no
c gi l khan him hay thu mn ti nguyn.
Thu mn khan him c tnh bng:
Thu mn khan him = (Q) = Q*[AR(Q) MC(Q)]
Lu rng ch c ti im Q*, ta mi c th xc nh thu mn khan him l:
Thu mn khan him = (Q) = Q*[AR(Q*) MC(Q*)]
v MR(Q*) = MC(Q*)
2.6. Ti nguyn S hu chung Quyn t do khai thc
Gi nh rng nu ng trng l ti sn chung, th khi quyn s hu khng c
phn nh r rng. Nu quyn s hu khng c phn nh, th ng trng thuc

139
v tt c mi ngi v bt k ai cng c th vo trong a phn ny nh bt c.
Vy, mt ng dn n l s quyt nh a bao nhiu tu nh bt c vo ng
trng?
Mt ng dn n l s tip tc a thm cc tu vo ng trng cho n khi anh ta
c th trang tri c ht chi ph, c ngha l n im ho vn. V vy, ng dn
ny s cn a thm tu nh bt c ca mnh ra min l li nhun bnh qun ca
mt tu, (Q)/Q = (Q) khng m, ngha l:
(Q)/Q = (Q) 0
Mi ngi s tip tc vo ng trng chng no c th kim c li nhun.
Ngc li, vic tham gia nh bt s gim khi nh bt c khng cn mang li li
nhun cho h.
Nh th, ta s quyt nh cho bao nhiu tu vo ng trng khi ng trng l ti
sn s hu chung? Vic tham gia nh bt s cn tip tc cho ti khi li nhun thu
c t nh bt bng 0:
Q
p
: (Q) = 0
(Q) = p*f(Q) cQ = 0
pf(Q)/Q= C
Hoc
Q
p
:AR = MC
Thay phng trnh ta c:
300 25Q
p
= 150
Qp = 6
Q
p
c biu din trn biu hnh 2.2
2.7. Nhng kt lun ng ch
1. Khi mt ngun ti nguyn c qun l ti a ho li ch kinh t th thu
khan him hay cn c gi l thu ti nguyn ca ngun ti nguyn s tng.
2. Khi mt ngun ti nguyn khng c qun l, th quyn s dng t do s dn
ti vic khai thc qu mc ngun ti nguyn . Qu nhiu tu nh bt trn cng
mt a phn ng trng s hu chung s dn n gi tr Q
p
> Q*.
3. Vic khc thc qu mc ti nguyn s hu chung s dn ti vic tiu hao thu
khan him. Vic gia nhp vo ng trng s cn tip din cho n khi li nhun
gim ti mc bng 0, v vy thu khan him s khng cn.

140
3. Hng ho cng cng
Nh chng ta thy tc hi ca vic thiu quyn s hu c th dn n khai thc
cn kit ngun ti nguyn mi trng trong nn kinh t th trng. Nguyn nhn
tip theo cn xem xt ti sao cc th trng t nhn khng phn b hiu qu ngun
ti nguyn mi trng, nguyn nhn c bn l ngun ti nguyn mi trng c c
tnh khng loi tr.
Cc nh kinh t hc xy dng l thuyt v hng ho cng cng v h qu ca n
phn tch cc vn c lin quan n vic phn b cc ngun lc trong nn kinh
t m n to ra li ch v/hoc chi ph bn ngoi v th hin tnh cht khng loi
tr.
hiu r bn cht ca vn , chng ta cn phn bit s khc nhau gia hng ho
c nhn v hng ho cng cng.
3.1. Hng ho c nhn khc vi hng ho cng cng.
Lm th no chng ta c th phn bit hng ho cng cng v hng ho c nhn?
- Hng ho c nhn (bnh m) c 2 tnh cht sau:
+ Chuyn hu (ring bit): th hng ho s l ca ring bn nu mt khi bn
mua n v sau th khng ai ngoi bn c quyn tiu dng n.
+ Knh ch (cnh tranh): Th hng ho b cnh tranh trong tiu dng, v d c
mt ai mua 1 bnh m v tiu dng n v th l bn b y ra khi phm vi
c th tiu dng cng chnh bnh m y. Hng ho cnh tranh l loi hng ho b
suy kit. H qu k thut ca tnh cht cnh tranh hay tnh suy kit c th hin
ch c tiu dng thm mt s hng ho cnh tranh s phi tn mt s chi ph sn
xut cn bin.
- Tri li, hng ho cng cng (kh quyn, quc phng, i dng) th hin 2
tnh cht sau:
+ Phi chuyn hu (khng ring bit): hng ho c coi l khng ring bit nu
khng c ai b loi ra khi phm vi hng li ca th hng ho , hay tiu dng
th hng ho mt khi n c sn xut ra. Tnh cht khng ring bit c
th hin ch n c th s dng hng ho m khng phi tr tin trc tip.
+ Phi knh ch (khng cnh tranh): S tiu dng hng ho ca 1 ngi khng lm
gim bt s lng hay cht lng hng ho c sn i vi nhng ngi khc. Hng
ho phi cnh tranh c gi l hng ho khng suy kit.
V d v tn hiu i mt khi i pht thanh pht i tn hiu, bt k ai c my thu
u c th bt c. Bt k c nhn no cng c th nghe c chng trnh pht
thanh m khng lm gim i s sn c ca n i vi nhng ngi khc nghe

141
chng trnh pht thanh . Hay ni cch khc, thm mt ngi nghe chng trnh
pht thanh khng cn s dng thm mt ngun chi ph no v cng khng lm
gim mc tiu dng chng trnh pht thanh ca nhng ngi khc. Cc phn tch
k thut ch ra rng chi ph x hi cn bin sn xut thm mt ngi nghe
chng trnh pht thanh l bng 0.
Bi vy, chng ta c nh ngha sau:
Hng ho phi knh ch nu bt k mc sn xut no a ra, chi ph cn bin ca
vic cung cp n cho thm mt n v ngi tiu dng bng 0 (MC = 0).
Tt c hng ho cng cng u c tnh cht phi chuyn hu nhng khng c ngha
l u c tnh cht phi knh ch.
Hng ho cng cng c tnh phi knh ch c gi l hng ho cng cng thun
tu, v d a dng sinh hc.
Hng ho cng cng c tnh cht phi knh ch c gi l hng ho cng cng
khng thun tu, v d: nh c, chiu cu qua li
Phn tch kinh t v qun l thc tin hng ho cng cng ph thuc vo vn th
hng ho cng cng l thun tu hay khng thun tu.
Hng ho cng cng
Thun tu Khng thun tu
- Phi chuyn hu - Phi chuyn hu
- Phi knh ch: nhng ngi s dng
khng can thip ln nhau m cng
khng lm tng hiu qu s dng hng
ho i vi mi ngi
- Knh ch: Nhng ngi s dng gy
nh hng n hiu qu s dng hng
ho ca nhau
- Vn t do khai thc - S can thip ln nhau ca nhng
ngi s dng l v d ca nhng
ngoi ng tiu cc
- Cc v d v ngm phong cnh v
tng -zn
- Vn t do tip cn
- Cc v d v li xe trn ng cao tc
v nh c ngoi bin
3.2. Xy dng tp hp ng cu cho hng ho cng cng v t nhn:
3.2.1. Hng ho t nhn:
Hng ho t nhn khc vi hng ho cng cng ch n c tnh cnh tranh cao v
tnh loi tr ngi khc ra khi vic tiu dng th hng ho .

142
ng cu ca mt c nhn cho hng ho t nhn tr li cho cu hi sau:
mt mc gi cho trc cc c nhn (ngi tiu dng) sn sng mua bao nhiu?

Q
Q
D
D
P
P

0
Hnh 2.31: ng cu ca mt c nhn
xy dng tp hp ng cu hay hm li ch cn bin cho hng ho t nhn,
chng ta phi tm ra tng hng ho m ngi tiu dng c nhu cu cc mc gi
khc nhau. lm c iu , chng ta tp hp hay tng hp s lng hng ho
m mi c nhn c nhu cu mc gi cho trc.
Bi vy tp hp ng cu ca hng ho t nhn c hnh thnh t tng cc
ng nm ngang ca cc ng cu c nhn.
V d, mc gi 50$/1n v sn phm, c nhn A c nhu cu l 100 n v sn
phm hng ho trong khi c nhn B c nhu cu l 150 n v sn phm, bi vy
tng cu hay tng li ch x hi cn bin o c mc gi 50$/1 n v sn phm
s l 100+150=250 n v sn phm.
50
100 150
250
D
A
D
B
D=D
A
+ D
B
$

Hnh 2.32: ng cu tng hp ca hai c nhn.

143
Chng ta c th tip tc bi tp ny v tm ra tng sn phm c nhu cu mi mc
gi khc nhau. Tp hp ng cu ca hng ho t nhn l qu tch ca cc cp gi
- s lng ny.
3.2.2 Hng ho cng cng:
Hng ho cng cng khc hng ho t nhn ch cc c nhn (ngi tiu dng)
khng th b loi tr ra khi phm vi tiu dng hng ho v n c th khng
cnh tranh.
Cu ca c nhn hay ng cu li ch cn bin c nhn ca hng ho cng cng
tr li cu hi rt khc: Vi mc gi no th cc c nhn sn sng tr cho mt s
lng hng ho nht nh?

$
0
Q
Q
M

Hnh 2.33: Cu ca mt c nhn i vi hng ho cng cng
Ti sao cu hi ny li rt khc bit? Bi l hng ho cng cng c tnh cht khng
loi tr ch c mt s lng hng ho nht nh c sn v khng ai c th b loi tr
ra khi phm vi tiu dng n. Nh vy, chng ta mun o gi tr ca s lng hng
ho i vi nn kinh t x hi v mi c nhn th tp hp cu hay ng cong
li ch x hi cn bin ca hng ho cng cng c th hin bng mt ng
thng ng ca tng cc ng cu c nhn. Ti sao? Bi v ng tng thng
ng th hin tnh khng ring bit mi ngi u c th ng thi tiu th chnh
s hng ho cng cng . Nh vy, chng ta cng thm s bng lng chi tr ca
cc c nhn cho cc mc gi khc nhau ca hng ho cng cng.
V d, A v B phi tiu dng cng mt khi lng hng ho cng cng. Gi s c
100 n v sn phm sn c. A sn sng tr 50$/1 n v sn phm trong khi B
sn sng tr 70$/1 n v. Do , gi tr thu c ca 1 n v sn phm ca 100 l
120$. V tng gi tr ca n l 120$*100=12.000$.

144

0
100 = Q
P
A
= 50
P
B
= 70
P = 120
MB
S
= MB
A
+
MB
MB
MB
B

Hnh 2.34: Cu x hi trong trng hp c hai c nhn i vi hng
ho cng cng
Tp hp ng cu ca hng ho cng cng o c li ch x hi cn bin, MBs,
c to thnh t tiu dng hng ho. Chng ta c th biu din ng li ch x
hi cn bin nh sau:
MBs=MBa + MBb
3.3. Phn tch kinh t hng ho cng cng v h qu ca n
Chng ta xem xt 2 v d: a dng sinh hc (bo qun mi trng sng) c coi l
hng ho cng cng trong sch v nhim c coi l h qu ca hng ho cng
cng.
V d: a dng sinh hc c coi l hng ho cng cng trong sch.
a dng sinh hc bao gm mt s bin i di truyn hc gia cc c th trong mt
loi n v mt s loi trong cng ng sinh vt.
Ti sao a dng sinh hc li quan trng?
- a dng sinh hc lm thc y s bn vng sinh thi - a dng hn trong h
thng, kh nng chu ng nhng c sc v cng thng cao hn. S loi trong a
dng sinh hc v cng quan trng nhng loi ng gp vo s cn bng v n
nh i vi cc cng ng sinh hc ca chng bng cch cung cp ngun thc
phm hay kim ch gia tng s lng ca cc loi. a dng sinh hc khng ch
thc y pht trin h sinh thi, m cn thc y tt c cc dch v khc bt ngun
t h sinh thi: sn xut xy, ht cc bon i xt, ti to cht dinh dng, cung cp

145
mi trng sng v.v
- a dng sinh hc l mt ngun hng ho kinh t rt quan trng. S phong ph a
dng ca cc loi cung cp ngun thc n mi, nng lng, cc cht ho hc
cng nghip, nguyn liu th v thuc men. Cc loi cy c v ng vt c th
cung cp hng ho trc tip (hoa qu, c, ht v.v) Mt s cc phng php cha
bnh ung th ha hn nht c lin quan n cc cht ho hc c tm thy trong
thc vt; mt th thuc rt quan trng cha bnh bch cu cho tr em c tm
thy trong loi cy da cn mu hng c trong rng ma nhit i ca Madagascar,
trong khi cy thy tng c tm thy rng gi vng Ty Bc Thi Bnh
Dng ca M c cha cht ho hc tng c s dng lm tiu khi u. Cc loi
ng vt cng c th cung cp ngun cha bnh tim nng, tuy nhin n c s
dng t hn so vi thc vt; v d, cht enzim trong da con ch chu Phi c th
cung cp cht cha bng.
- a dng sinh hc cn l mt ngun a dng thng tin v ngun zen c th s
dng trong vic ci to ma mng v to ra cc loi vt nui mi n to ra cc c
hi lai ging v pht trin cc ging cao hn. V d, cc c im mi nh sng
gi hay s khng c li bnh tt c th c chuyn giao t thc vt hoang d vo
thc vt trng trong vn nh bng cch lai ging (chuyn giao ging) hay thng
qua lai to gien.
- Bn thn a dng sinh hc cng c vai tr quan trng trong tnh phong ph ca
n, con ngi s dng c rt nhiu th t h sinh thi a dng hn l t mt h
sinh thi km a dng.
C mt thc t ng c xem xt l a dng sinh hc ngy cng gim. Ngi ta
c tnh rng trong s 5-10 triu loi hin ang tn ti, c khong t nht 12% loi
chim v 15% loi thc vt s b tuyt chng.
Nguyn nhn no dn n s gim st a dng sinh hc? C rt nhiu nguyn nhn
nhng c bn l do thin nhin v con ngi. Tuyt chng t nhin xy ra khi mi
trng bin i, v cc loi ang tn ti b t vo trong mi trng khng thun
li v c thay th bi cc loi ang tn ti c kh nng thch nghi vi iu kin
mi hn. S tuyt chng t nhin thng xuyn xy ra, thng mc tng i
chm. Nhng con s thng k sau y gip chng ta c c t l tuyt chng
nhanh hin nay v nhng nguyn nhn c bn chng ta c mt bc tranh ton
cnh.
Bng 2.5: D on tc tuyt chng ca loi ng vt c v
Khong thi gian Tuyt chng mi
th k
Phn trm loi
vt nui hin nay
b mt
Nguyn nhn c
bn

146
Pleitoxen
(3.5 triu nm)
0.01 Tuyt chng t
nhin
Late pleistocene
(100,000 nm)
0.08 0.002 Thay i kh hu,
sn bn thi k
mi
1600-1980 AD 17 0.4 S m rng chu
u, sn bn v
thng mi
1980-2000 145 3.5 S ph v mi
trng sng
Nguyn nhn do con ngi bao gm s khai thc cc loi qu mc, lm mt i
mi trng sng, v s cnh tranh t cc loi nhp c. Tt c nhng nguyn
nhn ny xut pht t tht bi th trng, ni con ngi c nhng quyt nh
kinh t khng tnh n cc chi ph hay li ch x hi vi cc hnh ng ca h.
Chng ta ni n vn khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn t nhin c th phc
hi. Tuy nhin vn ph v mi trng sinh sng ca chng l mt vn ht
sc bc xc hin nay. C rt nhiu loi c tm thy ch mt s mi
trng sng nht nh v nu mi trng sng ny b ph v do s chuyn bin
thnh vic s dng t cho mc ch khc, hay b nhim th cc loi s b tuyt
chng. y l mt vn ht sc quan tng c lin quan n s ph rng t
cc rng nhit i, rng nhit i chim n 3/4 trong tng s cc loi sng trn
tri t. Mt vn khc cng ht sc quan trng c lin quan n vic lm mt
i mi trng sng l s mt dn rng n i, ph v ngm san h, lm mt
i nhng khu vc m ly v nhim mt s mi trng sng ca cc loi sng
mi trng nc.
Chng ta c th s dng nhng cng c phn tch kinh t tr li cc cu hi
sau:
- Mc li ch x hi ca a dng sinh hc l g? (gn gi mi trng sng)?
(Mc a dng lm ti a hiu qu x hi thu c t s a dng ).
- Liu li ch x hi ca hng ho cng cng s c cung cp trong kinh t t
nhn nh th no?
- u l c ch c th coi l thch hp? Thu, ph hay tr cp?
3.3.1. Phn b hiu qu x hi
Gi s chng ta c hai c nhn, c nhn A v c nhn B, vi cc ng gi tr
cn bin c nhn sau cho nhu cu a dng sinh hc

147

148

Hnh 2.35: ng cu ca hai c nhn i vi a dng sinh hc
a
MB
S
=MB
A
+MB
B
C
0
Q
Q
b M
MB
MB
R rng l c nhn B c nhu cu a dng sinh hc cao hn c nhn A.
Chng ta gi s rng chi ph cn bin ca a dng sinh hc l khng i (v d:
chi ph mua mt ha rng nhit i)
c th xc nh phn b li ch x hi ca a dng sinh hc chng ta phi ti
a ho li ch x hi rng c c t a dng sinh hc. Chng ta bit rng quy
tc: Q*: MB
S
= MC s mang li s phn b hiu qu x hi.
Nhim v ca chng ta trc tin l xy dng hm li ch x hi cn bin.
Chng ta c th xy dng ng li ch x hi cn bin t cc ng li ch cn
bin c nhn. Minh ho Q* trn th.
u l li ch thc x hi cn bin, NB (Q*) = TB-TC? Chng ta c th nhn
thy rng khu vc nm di ng li ch x hi cn bin n pha bn tri s
o c t a dng sinh hc khu vc OabQ*. Tng t, khu vc nm di
ng chi ph cn bin tnh n pha tri s l tng chi ph cho x hi khu vc
OcbQ*. Li nhun rng s l OabQ* - OcbQ* = abc.
V d v s phn b hiu qu a dng sinh hc:
MB
A
= 80 Q l hm li ch cn bin c nhn ca c nhn A thu c t a
dng sinh hc.
MB
B
= 100 Q l hm li ch cn bin ca c nhn B

MC = 70 l chi ph cn bin sn xut ra mt n v sn phm a dng sinh
hc (mua mt mu rng nhit i Brazil)
Bc 1: Xy dng hm li ch x hi cn bin t cc hm li ch cn bin c
nhn.
MB
S
= MBa + MBb
MBb = 80 Q + 100 Q = 180 2Q
Bc 2: Tm phn b hiu qu x hi bng cch cn bng MB
S
v MC.
Q*: MB
S
=MC
180 2Q=70
2Q = 110
Q* = 55.
ng gp tnh nguyn v ngi n khng (free rider)
Liu trong kinh t t nhn mc hiu qu x hi c tn ti bi cung cp a
dng sinh hc hay khng?
Gi s rng trong vic xem xt a dng sinh hc mt nhm chng ta quyt nh
thu thp cung cp mt s phng tin nhm ngn nga mt s loi nguy
him (v d, mua mt s mu rng nhit i ca Chnh ph Brazil bo v).
Da trn gi tr thu thp a dng sinh hc; n v Q* a dng sinh hc c th s
c ngn nga c th ti a ho li ch x hi c c.
Cu hi ca chng ta t ra nh sau: Liu mt c nhn c doanh thu t cc li
ch c tr cho mc hiu qu x hi ca a dng sinh hc hay khng?
Chng ta hy bt u vi c nhn A. A nhn vo hp thu nhp v nhn thy ci
hp trng rng.
A s chn mc ng gp sao cho ti a ho li ch c nhn rng thu c t a
dng sinh hc.
Vy th A s sn sng ng gp hay tr l bao nhiu? ng li ch c nhn cn
bin ca A cho chng ta bit s sn sng ng gp ca anh ta cho cc mc
a dng sinh hc khc nhau. Mc ng gp ti u ca c nhn A s l s tin
mua s n v Qa a dng sinh hc. Ni cch khc, c nhn A s mua:

149
Q
A
= MB
A
= MC
Q
M
c b
Q* Q
B
Q
A
0
MB
MB
a
MB
S
d

Hnh 2.36: Kh nng c th ng gp ca A v B i vi a dng sinh hc
Chng ta nhn thy rng c nhn A khng cn nhn thy rng c nhn B s cng
c hng li t nhng ng gp ca mnh, c nhn A ch xem xt li ch c
nhn ca anh ta/ch ta v khng cn xem xt li ch bn ngoi c c cho
nhng ngi khc t nhng ng gp ca anh ta ban cho.
Vy th A s ng gp l bao nhiu? Nu A ng gp gi tr c nhn ng bng
hng ho cng cng th s ng gp ca A s bng khu vc nm di MC cho
n pha bn tri ca Qa: t gic 0abQ
A
.
Sau y chng ta xt n c nhn B. Liu B s ng gp l bao nhiu? B cng
s ng gp chng no m li ch c nhn rng ca anh ta l ti a. Mt ln na
chng ta thy s thin ch tr tin ca B tnh c bng cch tnh tng tng li
ch cn bin ca B vi chi ph cn bin ca a dng sinh hc.
Q
B
: MB
B
= MC
ti a ho li ch rng c nhn B nn c thin ch tr bng din tch 0acQ
B
.
Thm vo na ta thy B khng tip nhn ngoi ng tch cc do s ng gp ca

150
B mang li cho c nhn A.
Nhng liu B c thc s ng phn 0acQ
B
khng? Khi B nhn vo thu nhp v
anh ta nhn thy A ng phn 0abQ
A
tr cho vic mua nhng n v A a
dng sinh hc ri. Nn nh rng B khng th khng c hng li thu c t
vic mua ca A. Liu B s ng bao nhiu? Anh ta s ng l 0acQ
B
0abQ
A
=
Q
A
bcQ
B
Nhng ci g xy ra nu A phng on rng B s mun ng gp mt qu
m bo rng Q
B
s c cung cp. Nu A thy trc c rng B rt mun c
s n v Q
B
a dng sinh hc th A s khng c thin ch ng gp phn 0abQ
A

cho lm. Qu tht l nu A khng ng gp mt t no th B s ng gp 0acQ
B

v A s hon ton c th n khng trn phn ng gp ca B bi v anh ta hay
c ta khng th khng c hng li t s ng gp ca B.
Lm th no c th dng c ng ny? Cc c nhn s chn mc ng
gp ti u nht, c ngha l h s chn mc ng gp sao cho ti a ho li ch
rng c nhn ca h, cho rng nhng ngi khc cng s hnh ng nh cch
thc h lm.
C nhn A s cung cp: C nhn B s cung cp
Q
A
: MBa = MC Q
B
: MBb = MC
80 (Q
A
+ Q
B
) = 70 100 - (Q
A
+ Q
B
) = 70
Q
A
(Q
B
) = 10-Q
B
Q
B
(Q
A
) = 10-Q
A
Th hin bng th
10
10
30
30
Q
B
(Q
Q
A
(Q
Q
B

Hnh 2.37: Th hin bng th s ng gp ca A v B
y Q
A
(Q
B
) l mc c nhn A t nguyn ng gp, c ngha l mc tt
nht i vi A hay ni cch khc l s ng gp lm ti a ho li ch rng c

151
nhn i vi s ng gp ca c nhn B. S cn bng ng gp mt cch t
nguyn (s cn bng lm ti a ho li ch rng ca mi c nhn) c ch ra
ch ct nhau ca 2 c nhn: c nhn A s tr 0 n v v c nhn B s tr s n
v Q
B
= 30 n v a dng sinh hc. Nh vy, c nhn B s ng gp 0acQ
B
hay
30 x70$ = $2100 v c nhn A s ng gp 0.
Vy iu g s xy ra y? c th mua Q
*
, mc a dng sinh hc c kh
nng lm ti a ho phc li x hi, th 0adQ
*
= 55
*
$70 = $3850 cn phi c
thu thp t mi c nhn trong x hi. Nhng s ng gp ca mi c nhn ch
c $2100 khng s tin c th mua Q
*
. Bi vy, s tin thu c t mi c
nhn l khng cung cp mt mc a dng sinh hc c hiu qu cho x hi.
Vn ngi n khng.
S khng c hiu qu tt yu xy ra bi v cc c nhn khng chu tip nhn
nhng ngoi ng tch cc, s ng gp ca h cn c bn cho ngi khc
na khi h c nhng quyt nh c nhn v bi v cc c nhn khc c th n
khng i vi s cung cp mt hng ho cng cng Cc c nhn ch cn nhc
li ch rng ca h, b qua nhng li ch bn ngoi m nhng ngi khc c
c t nhng ng gp ca h nhng li ch bn ngoi khng c nhc n
trong nhng quyt nh c nhn. Thm vo , nh ch ra trong v d, cc
nhn A cn c th t do khai thc trn nhng ng gp ca c nhn B. T do
hnh ng xy ra l nh tnh khng chuyn hu v phi cnh tranh ca hng ho
cng cng.
C nhn A c th thu c tt c li ch t vic a dng ca B. Bi v c nhn A
khng th b loi tr ra khi qu trnh hng th nhng li ch t nhng ng
gp ca B, v s khch l anh ta/c ta ng gp b gim bt. Cc c nhn hnh
ng nh l nhng ngi li xe t do, bo co khng ng s tht v gi tr
hng ho sao cho h c th hng li m khng phi tr tin cho n. V kt qu
l s ng gp ca x hi s khng cung cp hng ho cng cng theo
mun n s l di mc cung.
S hin din ca n khng khng th c trong nn kinh t t nhn cung cp
hng ho cng cng mt cch hiu qu. S cn bng c nhn l s khng hiu
qu v mt x hi bi v nh gi c nhn i vi hng ho cng cng khc vi
nh gi ca x hi.
Nhng kt qu chnh:
1. Kh nng cung cp hng ho cng cng ca t nhn rt thp: Q
p
<Q
*

2. Vic cung cp hng ho cng cng khng trong nn kinh t t nhn
dn n s thit hi cho x hi

152
3. Chng no m li ch cn nm bn ngoi, kinh t t nhn khng th
mang li mt cht khuyn khch no cho mi c nhn tip thu nhng li
ch cho nhng ngi khc vn t do khai thc.
3.3.3. C ch ng n: S nh thu Lindahl
Lindahl, l tn gi ca Nh kinh t hc ngi Na uy Erik Lindahl, ng a
ra nguyn l cn bng, gi l nguyn l cn bng Lindahl. Nguyn l ny cho rng
nu mi ngi tr theo thin c nhn mun tr ca h, th khng nhng lng
va hng ho hu ch cng cng c cung cp m ngn qu cng s c cn
bng, ngha l lng thu v s cn bng vi lng cn thit phi cung cp.
S nh thu Lindahl c th c s dng ti tr cho mc s dng hiu qu
cc hng ho cng cng ca x hi. Trong c cu nh thu Lindahl mi c nhn s
b nh thu sn phm ca WTP thc s ca h cho vic tiu dng mt mc
hng ho cng cng tu ca x hi:
Thu Lindahl = MBi (Q
*
) x Q
*
Chng ta tnh c thu Lindahl cho mi c nhn A nh sau:
Thu Lindahl = MB
A
(Q
*
)xQ
*
= P
A
x Q
*
y P
A
l im m c nhn A thc s bng lng chi tr hay l gi tr ca Q
*

n v a dng sinh hc.

153

Hnh 2.38: Xc nh thu Lindahl ti mc hiu qu
Q
M
MB
MB
a
b
MB
S
P
B
P
A
Q
*
$
Trong nn kinh t m mi c nhn c s nh gi hng ho cng cng khc nhau,

s nh thu Lindahl s dn n cc mc thu khc nhau cho mi c nhn. R rng
l thu Lindahl m c nhn B phi tr l P
B
x Q
*
.
Vn chnh: cc nh lp k hoch x hi phi suy lun ra c s Bng lng chi
tr thc t mi c nhn mi c khuyn khch bo co ng s tht gi tr thc
bi v h c th c hng li t vic tr tin ca nhng ngi kh. Vn cn
xem xt l khm ph trung thc s thch ca mi c nhn cng nh vn n
khng.
Mt s vn khc c lin quan n thu Lindahl l s cng bng v s cng bc
chng ta c nn bt mi c nhn trong x hi phi tr cc mc khc nhau cho
cng mt loi hng ho khng? Chng ta c th bt buc c loi hnh thu ny
hay khng, y l vn rt phc tp ph thuc vo hon cnh c th a ra
quyt nh.
V d 2: nhim c coi nh l h qu ca hng ho cng cng.
C phi l cc phn tch v hng ho cng cng u tng t nh nhau khng?
hiu r vn ny chng ta hy xem xt dng nc to nn cc nhnh sng lm
ni cha cht thi c th c coi nh l mt th hng ho cng cng. Tip theo,
chng ta c th ngh n nhnh sng b cha y cht thi vo nh l h qu ca
hng ho cng cng: nhnh sng l phi cnh tranh v v th nn khng ai b loi tr
ra khi vic s dng dng nc .
S khc bit rt quan trng gia cc v d v nhim v a dng sinh hc l s
nhim do hot ng sn xut to ra nhng ngoi ng tiu cc i vi nhng
ngi s dng nc dng sng .
Chi ph cn bin ngoi ng phi chi ra cho nh ngh khch sn c coi nh l kt
qu ca vic sn xut gy ra thit hi cho kinh doanh khch sn MC
e
h

Q
P S
P
*
P
P
0
Q
*
Q
P
MB
S
= Qd(P)
MC
S
= MC
P
+MC
e
h
+ MC
e
f
MC
P
= Q
S
(P)
MC
e
f
MC
e
h

154
Hnh 2.39: Chi ph cn bin ngoi ng ca nhiu c nhn
Mt khc, gi s rng c mt ng dn nh c cui dng sng. Nhnh sng s lm
gim mc xi b phn hu trn sng, do vy lm gim mc c nh bt. Bi
vy, vic sn xut to ra nhng ngoi ng tiu cc ln vic nh c.
Chi ph cn bin ngoi ng gy ra cho vic nh bt c c ch ra l MC
e
f
.
Cu hi t ra l phn b hiu qu x hi l g?
Trc tin, chng ta phi dng ng tng cung nm dc (tp hp cc chi ph sn
xut c nhn cn bin) v cc ng chi ph cn bin ngoi ng c c ng
chi ph x hi cn bin.
MC
S
= MC
P
+ MC
e
h
+ MC
e
f
Nn nh rng chng ta tng hp li c ng li ch c nhn cn bin hay ng
cung chi ph mt ai chun b tiu dng hay b nh hng bi mt mc nh
th ca hng ho cng cng hay h qu ca n. ng tng thng ng l cn thit
bi v khng mt ai trong s nhng ngi s dng con sng c th b loi tr ra
khi qu trnh nhim ca con sng do nh my sn xut gy ra. xc nh c
mc thit hi hay chi ph phi b ra cho tt c nhng ai s dng dng sng b nh
hng bi nhim ca con sng, chng ta phi tnh c ng chi ph x hi cn
bin bng chi ph c nhn ca vic sn xut v cc chi ph ngoi ng m vic sn
xut to ra cho mi ngi s dng sng.
S cung cp hiu qu cho x hi l h qu ca hng ho cng cng, nhim, c th
c xc nh bng cch la chn mc sn xut nh nhau.
Q
*
: MB
S
= MC
S
Liu kinh t t nhn c th cung cp hng ho cng cng mc hiu qu hay
khng? D nhin l khng. S khng phi l qu nhiu hay, qu thng thng, m
s l s cung cp qu mc cn thit, l h qu ca hng ho cng cng ca nn
kinh t t nhn.
Ti sao? Cc nh gy nhim mi trng s chn mc sn phm u ra hay ni
cch khc i to ra nhim mc sao cho ti a ho li ch c nhn rng hay li
nhun. Gi sn phm bn trn th trng s l mc gi m ti cung v cu gp
nhau.
P
P
: Qd(P
P
) = Q
S
(P
P
)
Q
P
: Qd(P
P
)
R rng rng bt c mt nh my sn xut no (v bi vy nn ngnh cng nghip)
ch xem xt n chi ph sn xut c nhn cu h khi a ra nhng quyt nh sn
xut m khng tnh n nhng chi ph ngoi ng do hot ng ca h gy ra cho

155
nhng ngi khc.
S phn b khng hiu qu s tt yu xy ra bi v c s khc nhau gia s nh
gi cc chi ph c nhn v x hi ca hng ho cng cng. Bi vy, kinh t t nhn
s khng th a ra mt phn b nhim cho x hi mt cch hiu qu.
VI. Kinh t cht thi
1. Nguyn l kinh t cht thi
1.1 Khi nim v kinh t cht thi
Kinh t cht thi bao gm tt c cc kha cnh ca hot ng kinh t lin quan n
pht sinh, thu gom, phn loi, ti ch, ti s dng, vn chuyn, thiu t hoc chn
lp cht thi.
1.2 Phn loi cht thi
Vic phn loi cht thi hin nay cha c nhng quy nh thng nht, tuy nhin
bng nhng nhn nhn thc tin ca hot ng kinh t v ngha ca nghin cu
qun l i vi cht thi, c th chia ra cc cch phn loi sau y:
- Phn loi cht thi theo ngun gc pht sinh:
+ Cht thi t cc h gia nh hay cn gi l rc thi hoc cht thi sinh hot c
pht sinh t cc h gia nh.
+ Cht thi t cc hot ng sn xut, kinh doanh, thng mi: L nhng cht thi
c ngun gc pht sinh t cc ngnh kinh t nh cng nghip, nng nghip v dch
v.
- Phn loi cht thi theo thuc tnh vt l: gm c cht thi rn; cht thi lng v
cht thi kh.
- Phn loi cht thi theo tnh cht ho hc: theo cch phn loi ny ngi ta chia ra
cht thi dng hu c v v c hoc theo c tnh ca vt cht nh cht thi dng
kim loi, cht do, thu tinh, giy ba v.v
- Phn loi cht thi theo mc nguy hoi i vi con ngi v sinh vt nh cht
thi c hi, cht thi c bit.
Mi cch phn loi c mt mc ch nht nh nhm phc v cho vic nghin cu,
s dng, ti ch hay kim sot v qun l cht thi c hiu qu.
1.3 Cht thi rn th
Cht thi rn th (MSW - Municipal Solid Waste) l mt loi cht thi rn tng
hp khu vc th, bao gm c cht thi sinh hot ca cc h gia nh thi ra,
cht thi rn ca hot ng thng mi v dch v, cht thi rn ca hot ng cng

156
nghip, cht thi rn t hot ng xy dng, cht thi rn bnh vin, v.v, chng
c mt c th ring v ang tr thnh vn quan tm c bit ca nhiu quc gia
trn th gii trong vic thu gom, vn chuyn, ti ch, ti s dng, thiu hu v chn
lp.
Cng vi qu trnh th ho, MSW gia tng khng ngng. Vit Nam, ch tnh
ring lng cht thi sinh hot th, theo s liu thng k t nm 1996 n nm
1999, lng cht thi sinh hot bnh qun khong 0,6 - 0,8 kg/ngi/ngy. Mt s
th nh, lng cht thi sinh hot pht sinh dao ng t 0,3 - 0,5 kg/ngi/ngy.
Vic thu gom v qun l cn rt hn ch, theo s liu nm 1999 thu gom MSW
cc th trong c nc mi ch t khong 40 - 70% (H Ni: 65%; Hi Phng:
64%; H Long: 50%; Vinh: 60%; Vit Tr: 30%; Hu: 60%; Nng: 66%; Bin
Ho: 30%; Vng Tu: 70%; Thnh ph H Ch Minh: 70-75%). Nhiu th x, t l
thu gom cht thi rn trung bnh ch t t 20-40%, thm ch c mt s th x v
nhiu th trn cha c t chc thu gom cht thi rn, cha c bi t chc thu gom
cht thi rn v cha c bi rc chung ca th. cc th ln, cht thi t
cc ng ph chur yu c cng ty mi trng th, dch v cng cng hoc
cng ty v sinh thu gom v vn chuyn ti cc bi rc hoc x nghip ch bin
rc.
1.4 M hnh th trng cho dch v qun l cht thi rn th
Trong th trng cho dch v MSW, cc hng ho c lin quan thc s l kt hp
ca mt vi hot ng c trng ring bit - bao gm thu gom, vn chuyn v phn
hu rc thi th. Da vo c s xc nh u ra ny, chng ta xy dng mt m
hnh th trng cc dch v MSW theo hnh 2.32, trong s dng ng cu gi
thuyt (D) hoc ng li ch c nhn cn bin (MPB) v ng cung (S) hoc
ng cung chi ph c nhn cn bin (MPC). Hai ng ny xc nh gi cn bng
cnh tranh hoc chi ph cho dch v MSW, P
c
v lng cn bng Q
c.
157

P
P
c
'
P
c
Q
c
' Q
c
Lng ca dch v MSW
D=MPB
S=MPC
S'=MPC'

Hnh 2.40: M hnh th trng cho dch v rc thi th.
- ng cung cc dch v MSW.
ng cung ca th trng dch v MSW l ng i din cc quyt nh v sn
xut ca cc cng ty theo hp ng k vi cc thnh ph v th trn hoc chnh
quyn cc khu th ni cung cp cc dch v ny trc tip cho cng ng. Trong
th trng ny, cc chi ph cho sn xut phn nh bao gm chi ph thu gom rc, vn
hnh i xe ch rc, qun l bi rc hoc cc thiu hu rc thi v tt c nhn cng
trong lnh vc ny. Theo gi nh thng thng v sn xut v hon tr gim dn,
ng MPC c dng dc ln. Trong cc yu t phi gi c nh hng ti ng
cung trong th trng ny c c din tch t v quy nh ca Chnh ph.
V d: Do din tch t chn lp rc th hn ch, buc thnh ph phi ct gim
cc bi chn lp rc v phi vn chuyn i xa, do vy gi c cho vic chn lp rc
s buc phi tng ln, hnh 2.32 cho thy kt qu th hin trn m hnh l vic dch
chuyn ln trn ca ng MPC, v lm tng mc gi ln im Pc' v gim
lng cn bng xung Qc'.
- ng cu cc dch v MSW
ng cu ca th trng dch v MSW i din cc quyt nh tr gi ca cc c
s to ra rc thi MSW. Trong bi cnh ny, lng cu phn nh cc thay i v
gi c s c mt ngha quan trng cho thy rc thi c qun l nh th no.
hiu c iu ny, chng ta cng xem xt li vic gim lng cu t Q
c
n Q
c
'
do vic tng gi gy ra bi quy nh ca chnh quyn thnh ph nh nu ra
trn. Vy lm th no cc c s to ra rc thi c kh nng thay i hnh vi ca
h t c vic gim lng rc thi v mc ny? Mt kh nng c th xy ra l
h vn to ra mt lng rc thi nh vy nhng cn t cc dch v hn bi v h s
ti ch rc thi. Cui cng, h cng c th duy tr c mc sn sinh rc thi
nh c cng nh cng mt mc ti ch, nhng li c th tin hnh tiu hu rc
thi khng ng theo quy nh ca lut php nhm trnh phi chi tr gi cao hn
cho dch v MSW, hin tng ny tng xy ra mt s doanh nghip ca Vit
Nam l vic t rc trong bc tng ro ca doanh nghip sn xut. Vy gii php
no c chn ph thuc vo tnh sn c ca n i vi c s sn xut sinh ra rc
thi v cc mc gi ca cc gii php tng ng hay ngang bng vi mc gi
cc dch v MSW. Nhn ra c phn ng th trng t nhin ca cc c s c nhu
cu i vi cc dch v MSW gi cao hn, chnh quyn a phng c th khuyn
khch ti ch bng cch a ra mt chng trnh chi ph hiu qu cho dn c khu
vc . Nu thiu mt chng trnh nh vy, mt s c s sn sinh ra rc thi c
th c ng c tiu hu rc thi ca h mt cch bt hp php.
ng cu hay MPB, ca cc dch v rc thi th cng c phn ng vi s thay
i phi gi c nht nh. V d, nhng c nhn giu c th c xu hng sn

158
sinh ra mt lng rc thi ln hn, v h mua nhiu sn phm hng ho hn v thay
i chng thng xuyn hn. Nh vy, cu v dch v MSW c th s dch chuyn
sang bn phi khi thu nhp ca cng ng tng ln, vi iu kin cc yu t khc
gi nguyn. Mt nhn t phi gi c khc ca nhu cu l s thch v th hiu. Khi
cc c s sn sinh, rc thi c trch nhim hn vi mi trng, chng ta c th hy
vng nhu cu ca h v cc dch v ny s gim, v h iu chnh mua bn nhng
sn phm t cn bao gi hn. Ni tm li, cc c s sn sinh rc thi mi cng
ng c th s c mt ng cu vi hnh dng ca ring mnh theo nhng thay i
v gi v phi gi c.
Nu cc th trng MSW thc s hnh ng theo m hnh ny v nu khng c
ngoi ng, chng ta c th kt lun rng th trng MSW s t c gii php
hiu qu ti im m MPC = MPB.
Tuy nhin, phi chng trong th trng MSW nhng iu kin ny hon ton b vi
phm. Kt qu s phn b sai cc ngun lc do n gy ra l mt vn quan trng
i hi cn phi c thm cc cuc iu tra.
2. Kinh t cht thi i vi hot ng doanh nghip
Mc tiu hot ng ca bt c mt doanh nghip no trong nn kinh t th trng
hng ti l ti a ha li nhun, mt trong nhng nhn t quan trng nh hng
ti li nhun ca doanh nghip l gii quyt cht thi do qu trnh sn xut to ra.
Nhng la chn Kinh t t mc tiu qun l mi trng m cc doanh nghip c
th tin hnh gim thiu cht thi, tng hiu qu sn xut bao gm:
2.1. Gim t ngun.
t c mc tiu gim thiu cht thi t ngun, nhng phng thc m cc
doanh nghip c th tin hnh nh : Thay i cc nguyn liu th cho u vo sn
xut; thay th hoc ci tin sn phm; thay i cng ngh sn xut; ci thin dy
chuyn sn xut nhm gim hoc loi b s sinh ra cht thi trong mt qu trnh
no . Trong thc tin thc hin c nhng ni dung ny v mt k thut
ngi ta phi tin hnh nh gi vng i sn phm (LCA), tc l phn tch ton b
vng i ca sn phm, bao gm vic nhn dng v nh lng nng lng v
nguyn liu s dng, cht thi ra mi trng, nh gi tc ng ti mi trng v
c hi ci thin mi trng theo quy trnh bn bc, bt u t b sung-khi u,
kim k, tc ng v ci thin.
Hnh thc ny hng ti mc tiu sn phm u ra khng i, thm ch cn tng
ln, nhng s gim nguyn liu u vo v gim cht thi. Hiu qu kinh t ca
doanh nghip s tng ln v ci thin cht lng mi trng.

159
2.2. Ti ch, ti s dng cht thi.
- Ti ch cht thi: thc cht l ngi ta ly li nhng phn vt cht ca sn phm
hng ha c v s dng cc nguyn liu ny ch to ra sn phm mi. Cc
nguyn liu phi c gia cng li v cc cng on ca quy trnh cng ngh s
c b sung. Bn cnh nhng li ch do ti ch a li nh gim tiu dng ti
nguyn, gim nhu cu nng lng, gim s dng nc, gim s pht thi ra khng
kh, t, nc, gim cht thi cho x l v thi b. cc quc gia c trnh cng
ngh thp nhng cng ngh lc hu ny s phn no tng thm mc tc ng ti
mi trng do ti ch gy ra. V d in hnh nh nhng lng ngh truyn thng ti
ch st thp a hi; ti ch giy Dng (Bc ninh); ti ch nha v ti ni lng ti
x Minh Khai, Nh Qunh, huyn Vn Lm (Hng Yn) v.v...
- Ti s dng cht thi: Thc cht c nhng sn phm hoc nguyn liu c qung
i hu dng ko di, ngi ta c th s dng c nhiu ln m khng b thay i
hnh dng vt l, tnh cht ha hc. V d nh cc v chai hon li, nhiu dng
bng vt liu g, my tre an v.v...
Trong ti s dng thng thng nhng sn phm hoc nguyn liu khi a vo s
dng c cng mc ch hoc c mc ch tng t nh nhau.
Do cht thi c th ti ch hay ti s dng m donh nghip c th tng doanh thu
ca mnh thng qua vic bn hoc s dng li cht thi, ngha l gin tip lm gim
chi ph trong hot ng sn xut.
2.3. X l cht thi.
X l cht thi hay ngi ta cn gi l "X l cui ng ng". Nhng hnh thc
x l ny ca cc doanh nghip thng l:
- X l ni vi, hay cn gi l x l ti ch trong hng ro ca doanh nghip,
chi ph cho vic x l ti ch bao gm: Xy dng l thiu t, bi chn lp, x l
vt l, ha hc, x l nc thi, ti ch, ti lc cc cht thi du m.
- X l ngoi vi hay cn gi l x l bn ngoi hng ro ca doanh nghip:
Nhng chi ph cho x l ngoi vi bao gm l thiu, ti ch, phc hi, ti s dng,
bi chn lp v cc nh my x l cht thi thnh ph. i vi cc doanh nghip
thng phi chi tr mt khon ph cht thi cho cc dch v lm nhim v thu gom
v x l cht thi.
Ngoi hai hnh thc x l c bn trn vi x l cht thi cn din ra di nhng
hnh thc nh xut khu cht thi sang cc nc khc; ct gi ni vi hoc ngoi vi;
trao i cht thi.
Kinh nghim thc tin cho thy vic x l cht thi cui ng ng thng chi ph
tn km, phn no t hiu qu mi trng nhng tng chi ph cho doanh nghip.

160
Minh ho 2.4: nh gi rc thi, trng hp ca Lng sn.
T thng 6 nm 1993 tr v trc, dch v thu gom rc th x Lng sn (nay l
thnh ph Lng sn) do cng ty mi trng th Lng sn thc hin. y l mt
doanh nghip ca Nh nc. Dch v thu gom rc c tnh min ph, bi l doanh
nghip ny do Nh nc tr cp ton b v ch c ngun thu c phn b t ngn
sch Nh nc. Nhn chung, ngun thu thng khng lm tt cc dch v, v
th cht lng dch v thng km.
gii quyt vn ny, thng 6 nm 1993 U ban nhn dn tnh Lng sn
giao cho Cng ty mi trng th Huy Hong nhim v thu gom rc thi trn a
bn th x v bn th trn v tinh quanh th x (Quyt nh N-487/QD/UB-KT, ngy
1 thng 7 nm 1993).
Cng ty Huy hong l mt cng ty trch nhim hu hn, do trang tri chi ph
hot ng ly thu b chi, cng ty phi xin php c quyn thu ph t cc h gia
nh, cc doanh nghip (ph rc thi).
Trong bng di y th hin biu ph c tnh t 8.000 50.000 ng, tu thuc
vo khi lng rc thi ca mi h gia nh v ca tng doanh nghip. Cng ty
thng tho hp ng c nhn vi cc i tng pht thi vi khi lng ln.
i tng thu ph Ph hng thng
H gia nh 8.000
H gia nh c ca hng 12.000
Doanh nghip nh (VD: nh hng n) 30.000 50.000
Nh my, khch sn ln Theo hp ng tho thun
Ph c giao cho 130 nhn vin ca Cng ty thu hng thng. Mi nhn vin
chu trch nhim thu ph cc h gia nh, cc x nghip hay nh my trn a bn
c phn cng. khuyn khch vic thu ph, mi nhn vin c hng 7%
tng ph nu thu , ng thi hn. Nu ngi khng thu c ph, Cng ty s
khu tr khon khng thu c vo lng hng thng ca h. Cho ti nay t l thu
ph t mc cao.
Cn c Ngh nh v Ph v L ph ca Chnh ph ban hnh, mi khon ph phi
c np vo Ngn sch Nh nc. Tuy nhin cc khon ph thu c sau s
c chuyn t Ngn sch Nh nc cho cng ty thanh ton cc dch v. Ph thu
gom hin chim khong 30% tng ngun thu ca cng ty; 70% ngun thu cn li
cng ty c ngn sch Nh nc tr cp. y l bc tin ng k, v trc nm
1993 Nh nc phi tr cp cho doanh nghip thu gom rc thi (l DNNN) 100%
tng chi ph. Bng di y cho thy khon ph do cng ty Huy hong thu c
tng u t nm 1993.

161

Ph c thu
(triu ng)
Tr cp NS Nh
nc (t ng)
Nm Khi lng rc
thi c thu gom
(m
3
)
1993 13.305 163 0,417
1994 26.864 246 1,8
1995 25.349 391 1,4
1996 23.915 412 1,2
1997 23.800 399 1,4
1998 23.839 394 1,4
1999 25.295 400 1,6
2000 25.986 450 1,6
Cc h gia nh Lng sn t ra sn sng chi tr ph rc thi. B li l h c
hng dch v thu gom rc tt hn v hiu qu hn. Gim c cng ty Huy hong
cng cho bit nu cng ty c php tng ph, cc h gia nh, cc doanh nghip
vn s sn sng chi tr v do s khng cn n tr cp Nh nc. Tt c cc bn
lin quan u tha nhn tnh Lng sn c tin b r rt trong cng tc thu gom
rc thi.
Ngun: : S tay hng dn s dng cc cng c kinh t cho cc mc tiu mi trng trong k
hoch ho pht trin. Thng 5 nm 2001. D n VIE/ 97/007. B k hoch v u t

162
Tm tt chng II

Chng II bn v nhng vn c bn ca kinh t hc cht lng mi trng
nhm gii quyt t c s l lun n thc tin bn cht kinh t ca nhng vn
mi trng, chnh v vy phng thc tip cn mi vn ca chng ny i t
ngun gc l lun ca kinh t, c bit l Kinh t vi m. Nu ngi hc chng
ny cha c trang b nhng kin thc c bn ca Kinh t vi m s gp nhiu kh
khn trong qu trnh hc tp. Mt khc v c bn mi cch tip cn gii quyt ni
dung kinh t ca cht lng mi trng c xem xt v nhn nhn trong hon
cnh cu trc ca nn kinh t th trng. T gc m hnh th trng v hiu qu
kinh t xc nh thng d ca nh sn xut v thng d tiu th, lin quan n
ni dung ny cn phi xt ti hiu qu Pareto cng nh nhng nguyn nhn dn ti
tht bi th trng.
Nguyn nhn dn n s v hiu qu trong hot ng kinh t, hay ngi ta thng
gi l tht bi th trng c lin quan cht ch vi hng ho cng cng v ngoi
ng. l gii nhng vn , trong ni dung ca chng, bc u a ra
nhng m hnh n gin c tnh gi nh lm c s gii thch, bnh lun ngun
gc khoa hc ca vn xut pht t nhn nhn kinh t.
Mt vn c tnh bao trm rng ln hin nay lin quan n hot ng kinh t
l nhim mi trng. Xem xt v gim thiu nhim di gc Kinh t l
ni dung ca Kinh t hc nhim. Gii quyt hi ho gia kinh t v nhim
gy ra bi hot ng kinh t chnh l nhim ti u. Thng qua quan im tip cn
nhim ti u c nhng gii php hp l nhm gim thiu nhim trong bi
cnh ca kinh t th trng c s iu hnh v kim sot ca Nh nc. Mt l gii
php th trng, quan im ny c tip cn trn c s nhn nhn v mt l thuyt
ca tc gi c tn l Ronald N Coase. Th hai l gii php ca chnh ph cho vn
nhim nh thu nhim ti u (thu Pigou); ph thi; chun thi; giy php
thi c th chuyn nhng, tr cp, t cc hon tr v k qu mi trng. c bit
trong ni dung ca phn ny cn bn thm rt k lng l nn s dng hnh thc
chun thi hay ph thi, iu ng lu y l d hnh thc no th mc tiu mi
trng nh nhau nhng hiu qu kinh t phng n c la chn phi tt hn.
t trong bi cnh xem xt cht lng mi trng l mt loi hng ho c nh
gi trn th trng, thng qua vic xem xt bn cht v gi tr s dng v gi tr ca
loi hng ho ny xc nh tng gi tr kinh t ca hng ho mi trng, t
tip cn nhng quan im v phng php nh gi trc tip v gin tip l nhng
vn c phn tch trong ni dung ca chng.
Trong nhng ni dung lin quan n ti nguyn s hu chung, s phn tch cp
ti nhng vn nh ti nguyn mi trng v quyn ti sn c nhn, thng qua v
d v ngh nh bt c i dng c c s l lun cho phn tch kinh t v

163
ngun ti sn chung, s hu c nhn cng nh nhng vn lin quan n thu
khan him v quyn t do khai thc.
Trn gc kinh t hc mi trng xem xt nhng vn lin quan n hng
ho cng cng, trong ni dung ca phn ny tp trung vo nhng vn chnh
nh phn bit s khc nhau gia hng ho c nhn v hng ho cng cng, xy
dng tp hp ng cu cho hng ho cng cng v hng ho c nhn, c bit tp
trung vo phn tch kinh t hng ho cng cng v h qu ca n l ni dung ct li
c cp nhiu.
Gii quyt vn nhim cn c quan im tip cn hin nay ang c bn lun
nhiu trn th gii l phng thc tip cn gii quyt cui ng ng hay cn
gi l Kinh t cht thi; Phng thc tip cn ny khc vi quan im ly phng
nga l chnh.
Trong ni dung ca chng, minh ho cho phn c s l lun, c nhng v d
in hnh c t trong khung cui mi phn. Nhng v d ny v c bn c
ly t thc tin ca Vit nam.

164
Cu hi n tp.
Trnh by cc khi nim: cung, cu, cn bng th trng, thng d sn xut, thng
d tiu dng? Gii thch khi no th mt s phn b ngun lc c gi l t
hiu qu Pareto?
Tht bi ca th trng l g? Phn tch cc nguyn nhn lm pht sinh tht bi ca
th trng?
3. Trong trng hp no th xy ra ngoi ng? Nhng i tng no c th to ra
ngoi ng?
4 .Phn tch tc ng ca ngoi ng tch cc n s tht bi ca th trng? Lm
th no khc phc nhng tht bi ?
5. Phn tch tc ng ca ngoi ng tiu cc n s tht bi ca th trng? Lm
th no khc phc tht bi ?
6. Nu ni rng ngoi ng tiu cc l nguyn nhn dn n s suy thoi v xung
cp mi trng th c ng hay khng? Phn tch v chng minh?
7. Gii thch v hnh dng ca ng chi ph ngoi ng cn bin? Ti sao trong
nhiu trng hp, ng chi ph ngoi ng cn bin li khng xut pht t gc to
?
8. Trnh by khi nim v ng chi ph gim thi cn bin MAC v ng chi ph
thit hi mi trng cn bin MDC? Chng minh rng mc nhim ti u l mt
mc thi m ti MAC=MDC?
9. Quyn ti sn mi trng l g? Dng th phn tch m hnh mc c
nhim trong nn kinh t th trng? Nhng hn ch ca nh l Coase khin cho
m hnh mc c nhim kh xy ra trong thc t.
10. Ti sao ni kin i bi thng l gii php ca c ch th trng nhng mang
mu sc php lut nhiu hn?
11. Trnh by gii php thu mi trng ca Pigou? Ti sao ni thu Pigou to ra
mt ng c kinh t lm cho cc doanh nghip khng ch c xu hng hot ng
ti mc sn lng ti u i vi x hi m cn c nhng tc ng tt i vi mi
trng?
12. Chun mc thi l g? Da trn nhng cn c no xc nh mc chun thi
c hiu qu? Cc doanh nghip c ng MAC khc nhau s ng x nh th no
khi phi tun th mt mc chun thi thng nht? S dng th phn tch.
13. Ph x thi l g? Da trn nhng cn c no xc nh mc ph thi c hiu
qu? Cc doanh nghip c ng MAC khc nhau s ng x nh th no khi phi
tun th mt mc ph thi thng nht? S dng th phn tch.
14. Trnh by nhng u im v hn ch ca ph x thi so vi chun mc thi?
Dng th gii thch: trong trng hp no cc Nh qun l x hi a thch s

165
dng ph thi hn chun thi v ngc li?
15. Th no l giy php thi c th chuyn nhng? Th trng giy php thi l
g? ng c no khin cc doanh nghip mun mua/ hoc bn giy php?
16. Ti sao ni giy php x thi c th chuyn nhng l s kt hp cc u im
ca chun mc thi v ph x thi? Ly v d gi nh gii thch.
17. Hy phn tch bn cht ca cc vn : Tr cp; t cc hon tr; k qu cho
bo v mi trng? Ly v d thc tin phn tch v chng minh.
18. Khi no cht lng mi trng tr thnh hng ho? Cc li ch th trng v li
ch phi th trng ca hng ho mi trng l g? Th no l tng gi tr ca cc
hng ho mi trng? Hy nu cc phng php nh gi gi tr i vi hng ho
mi trng?
19. Th no l ti nguyn s hu chung? Chng c phi l hng ho cng cng hay
khng? Phn tch tnh phi hiu qu ca chng.
20. Bng m hnh gi nh hy phn tch kinh t i vi ngun ti nguyn s hu
chung. Xc lp thu khan him, phn tch quyn t do khai thc
21. Hng ho t nhn khc hng ho cng cng nhng im no? Ti sao ni
cht lng mi trng l hng ho cng cng? Loi hng ho ny c nhng tnh
cht g v ti sao n li gy ra s tht bi ca th trng? Ly v d thc tin
minh ho.
Bng m hnh gi nh hy phn tch s phn b hiu qu x hi ca hng ho cng
cng, vn ng gp tnh nguyn v ngi n khng lin quan n kinh t t
nhn.
Phn tch bn cht ca vic s dng nguyn l nh thu Lindahl
24. Kinh t cht thi l g? Phn tch m hnh th trng cho dch v qun l cht
thi rn th. i vi hot ng sn xut ca doanh nghip c nhng phng thc
gim thiu cht thi nh th no?

Bi tp.
1. Gi s c mt ch nui ong cnh mt ch trng nhn. Ch trng nhn c li
bi l mt t ong th phn c cho khong mt ha nhn. Ch trng nhn khng
phi chi tr g cho ch nui ong v ong c th t do. Tuy nhin theo tnh ton
gia s lng ong v din tch vn nhn hin c th s t ong qu t khng th
phn cho ton b vn nhn, do vy ch vn nhn phi hon tt vic th phn
bng nhn to, khon chi ph ny c tnh khong 10$ cho mt ha nhn. Cn i
vi ch nui ong ngi ta xc nh c hm chi ph cn bin l MC=10 + 2Q (Q
l s t ong). Mi t ong to ra mt lng mt l 10 kg, gi th trng l 2$ cho
mt cn mt ong.

166
a. Hy cho bit ngi nui ong nui bao nhiu t?
b. c phi l t ong hiu qu khng? V sao?
c. c hiu qu v mt x hi hy cho bit ngi nui ong nn nui
bao nhiu t?
d. Th hin cc kt qu tnh ton ln th.

2. Gi s hot ng sn xut xi mng trn th trng c hm chi ph cn bin MC =
16 + 0,04Q, hm li ch cn bin MB = 40 - 0,08Q v hm chi ph ngoi ng cn
bin MEC = 8 + 0,04Q.
(Q l sn phm tnh bng tn, P l gi mt sn phm tnh bng USD)
a. Xc nh mc sn xut hiu qu c nhn v mc gi sn phm tng ng.
b. Xc nh mc sn xut hiu qu x hi v gi tng ng.
c. So snh phc li x hi ti mc hot ng ti u c nhn v x hi thy c
thit hi do hot ng sn xut ny gy ra cho x hi?
d. iu chnh hot ng v mc ti u x hi, cn p dng mc thu l bao
nhiu? Tnh tng doanh thu thu?
e. Th hin kt qu trn th.

3. Gi s hot ng khai thc than trn th trng, c hm li ch cn bin l MB =
20 - Q, hm chi ph cn bin l MC = 14 + Q v hm chi ph cn bin ngoi ng l
Q (Q l sn lng tnh bng nghn tn, P l mc gi sn phm tnh bng triu
ng).
a. Tnh mc khai thc than hiu qu c nhn? mc gi sn phm l bao nhiu?
b. Tnh mc khai thc than hiu qu x hi? mc gi sn phm l bao nhiu?
c. Tnh phn thit hi m hot ng khai thc gy ra cho x hi?
d. a hot ng khai thc than v mc hiu qu x hi, cn p dng mc thu
mi trng (thu Pigou ti u) l bao nhiu?
f. So snh tng s thu m hot ng khai thc than phi np vi tng chi ph
ngoi ng do hot ng gy ra khi khai thc mc hiu qu x hi? (Ch r
trn th).

4. Gi s c hai hng sn xut ho cht c cht thi xung mt dng sng gy
nhim ngun nc dng sng . gim mc nhim, cc hng lp t
thit b x l nc. Cho bit chi ph gim thi cn bin ca cc hng nh sau:
MAC
1
= 800 - Q
MAC
2
= 600 - 0,5Q
(Trong , Q l lng nc thi (m
3
), chi ph gim thi tnh bng USD)
a. Nu c quan qun l mi trng mun tng mc thi hai hng ch cn 1000 m
3

bng bin php thu mt mc ph thi nh nhau cho mi m
3
nc thi. Hy xc nh
mc ph thi v lng nc m mi hng s thi ra sng?

167
b. Xc nh tng chi ph gim thi ca 2 hng trn?
c. Nu c quan qun l vn mun t mc tiu mi trng nh trc nhng ch quy
nh chun mc thi ng u cho hai hng th chi ph gim thi mi hng s l
baonhiu?
d. Th hin cc kt qu trn th?

5. Ga s c hai doanh nghip dt cng a nc thi sn xut vo mt h nc t
nhin v gy ra nhim h nc . Bit rng cc hm chi ph gim thi cn bin
mi doanh nghip nh sau:
MAC
1
= 900 - Q
MAC
2
= 400 - 0,5Q
(Trong Q l lng nc thi (m
3
); Chi ph gim thi l USD).
a. Nu khng c s qun l ca Nh nc, tng lng thi ca 2 doanh nghip
l bao nhiu?
b. Doanh nghip no c kh nng gim thi km hn. Ti sao?
c. bo v h nc, c quan qun l mi trng mun tng mc thi hai
doanh nghip ch cn 800m
3
bng bin php thu mt mc ph thi nh nhau
cho mi m
3
nc thi. Hy xc nh mc ph thi , v lng nc thi m
mi hng s x vo h.
d. Xc nh tng chi ph gim thi ca 2 doanh nghip trn.
e. Th hin cc kt qu trn th.

6. Cho bng s liu v chi ph cn bin c nhn v x hi ca vic sn xut mi
ngy ca mt loi ho cht c hi nh sau:

Sn lng (tn) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8
Chi ph c nhn cn
bin
($/tn)
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
Chi ph x hi cn bin
($/tn)
6 18 30 42 54 66 78 30
Gi bn loi ho cht ny trn th trng l 30$/tn
a. Xc nh v so snh mc sn lng ti a ho li nhun ca c nhn vi mc sn
lng ti u ca x hi?
b. C quan qun l c th p dng gii php no buc ngi sn xut phi sn
xut mc sn lng ti u i vi x hi? Gii thch c th v gii php ?
c. Li nhun ca ngi sn xut b nh hng nh th no bi gii php ca c
quan qun l?
d. Th hin cc kt qu trn bng th?

168

169
Chng III
nh gi tc ng mi trng v phn tch kinh
t ca nhng tc ng mi trng

I. nh gi tc ng mi trng (TM)
1. Khi nim v nh gi tc ng mi trng.
Cho n nay c nhiu nh ngha v TM; nhng nh ngha v ni dung c
bn thng nht vi nhau, trong nhiu cch din t khc nhau l do s ch nhn
mnh ca tng tc gi ti mt kha cnh no trong TM.
Trn c s xem xt nhng nh ngha c nhiu nh nghin cu xut, v
cn c vo s pht trin v l lun v thc tin ca TM trong thi gian qua, c
th a ra mt nh ngha y v TM nh sau:
"TM ca mt hot ng pht trin kinh t - x hi l xc nh, phn tch v d
bo nhng tc ng li v hi, trc mt v lu di m vic thc hin hot ng
c th gy ra cho ti nguyn thin nhin v cht lng mi trng sng ca con
ngi ti ni c lin quan n hot ng, trn c s xut cc bin php
phng, trnh, khc phc cc tc ng tiu cc".
Lut bo v mi trng c Quc hi nc Vit Nam thng qua vo thng 12
nm 1993 c a ra khi nim TM nh sau:
"nh gi tc ng mi trng l qu trnh phn tch, nh gi, d bo nh hng
n mi trng ca cc d n, quy hoch pht trin kinh t - x hi ca cc c s
sn xut kinh doanh, cng trnh kinh t khoa hc, k thut, y t, vn ho, x hi, an
ninh quc phng v cc cng trnh khc, xut cc gii php thch hp v bo v
mi trng".
Tc ng mi trng l vn ct li ca nhng s quan tm ti pht trin bn
vng. nh gi tc ng mi trng l mt cng c gip cho s phng nga v
ngn chn nhng nh hng ti mi trng trong chnh sch mi trng v y l
cng c lng ghp trong qu trnh k hoch ho v mi trng. Mc ch ca TM
l xem xt bao qut ton din v nh gi nhng nh hng mi trng tim nng
ca nhng d n cng cng hay c nhn c xut trong la chn u tin
thc hin. Mt TM cn phi c xem xt tt c nhng nh hng mong i i
vi sc kho con ngi, h sinh thi (bao gm thc vt v ng vt), kh hu v kh

170
quyn. Mt TM cn phi m bo rng tt c nhng hu qu cn phi c xem
xt trong sut qu trnh thit k, thc hin v vn hnh ca d n.
Tng t, mt TM bao gm nhng s quan tm ca cc ng phi v t chc
(c ngha l cng ng a phng, cc nh chnh tr, cc nh u t) v lng ghp
nhng nh hng x hi lin quan n nhng gii php v gii hoc lin quan ti
cc nhm x hi c bit trong cc d n (c ngha l ti nh c ca ngi dn bn
a v s thay i cnh quan hoc mi trng, v tr kho c hc, i tng nim)
Mt TM i hi phi u tin cho nhng d n l nguyn nhn ca nhng thay i
ng k i vi ngun ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh, s thay i c ngha i
vi hot ng thc tin ca ngh nh c v ngh nng v xem xt ti khai thc ti
nguyn thu in. Cc d n h tng, hot ng cng nghip, cc d n b v
qun l cht thi cng cn mt TM.
Tt c nhng hu qu c hi ti mi trng cn phi c tnh ton bng bin php
gim nh, bin php bo v mi trng hoc thay th. Nhng bin php gim nh
ny thng c trnh by bng mt k hoch qun l mi trng. Mt kt lun
ca TM cn phi c xem xt li, sau cc nh lm k hoch d n c th thit
k xut d n vi mc tiu ti thiu ho tc ng ti mi trng
2.Lch s ca TM.
TM c bit n nh l mt s p li lin quan n nhng biu hin ca qun
l mi trng trong nhng nm ca thp k 60. Trong nhng nm nhng s vn
ng biu hin quan tm v nh hng nghim trng ca hot ng con ngi, c
bit l nhim cng nghip, vi s tn ti cc bin php kim sot nhim v k
hoch ho nhng quy nh khng p ng y yu cu thc tin.
Vo nm 1969 ln u tin TM c gii thiu M, sau TM tr thnh
ph bin thc s tt c cc nc cng nghip trn th gii. Hin nay TM tr
thnh cng c chnh cho thc hin qun l mi trng v cho s thnh cng trong
vic t ti mc tiu pht trin bn vng.
Vit nam TM bt u thc hin vo nhng nm thp k 80. T n nay
TM c coi nh l mt cng c ra quyt nh cng nh gim st cc hot ng
pht trin. Mc d c mt khun kh tt c xy dng v mt s TM
c iu chnh, vn cn mt s cc lnh vc cn phi c tip tc quan tm
(Chng hn nh s tham gia v ng h cng cng ca cc vin c lp thc hin
TM) v nhng vn cn gii quyt nh o to i ng chuyn mn qun l v
thc hin TM.
3. i tng ca TM
171
Nh nh ngha nu th i tng ca TM l cc hot ng pht trin kinh t -

x hi. C hot ng mang tnh v m, tc ng n ton b nn kinh t x hi ca
quc gia, ca mt a phng ln, hoc mt ngnh kinh t, vn ho - x hi quan
trng. V d nhng lut l, chnh sch quc gia, nhng ch trng, chin lc,
nhng chng trnh quc gia v pht trin kinh t - x hi, nhng k hoch quc
gia di hn, nhng s phn b lc lng sn xut trn a bn ln. C nhng
hot ng mang tnh vi m nh, nhng n cng trnh xy dng c bn,d n
pht trin kinh t c th, cc d n x hi khu cng nghip, khu ch xut, cc c s
sn xut, cc cng trnh ang c vn hnh. Vi cc ni dung ny c th khi qut
nhng i tng cn nh gi tc ng mi trng l rt rng t quy m d n n
quy m ngnh v cao hn l mc tng hp quy m vng.
Vit nam hin nay theo ngh nh 175/CP quy nh ti iu 9, cc i tng sau
y phi thc hin nh gi tc ng mi trng:
1. Cc quy hoch tng th pht trin vng, quy hoch, k hoch pht trin ngnh,
tnh, thnh ph trc thuc trung ng, cc quy hoch th, khu dn c.
2. Cc d n Kinh t, khoa hc, y t, vn ho, x hi, an ninh, quc phng;
3.Cc d n do t chc hoc c nhn nc ngoi, t chc quc t u t, vin tr,
cho vay hoc lin doanh thc hin trn lnh th Vit nam
4.Cc d n ni ti khon 1, 2 v 3 ca iu ny c duyt trc ngy 10/04/1994
nhng cha tin hnh nh ga tc ng mi trng theo ng yu cu.
5.Cc c s kinh t, khoa hc, y t, vn ho, x hi, an ninh, quc phng hot
ng t trc ngy 10/01/1994.
4. Cc phng php TM
nh gi tc ng mi trng l vic ht sc phc tp, i hi nhiu cn b chuyn
mn ca nhiu khoa hc khc nhau, v phi s dng nhiu phng php khc nhau
mi thc hin c. Cc phng php c s dng trong TM c gi l cc
phng php TM. Cc phng php mang tnh k thut, cc phng php
nh gi tc ng mi trng thng qua cc thng s mi trng c la chn,
bao gm cc phng php:
Phng php lit k s liu v thng s mi trng
Phng php danh mc cc iu kin mi trng
Phng php ma trn mi trng
Phng php chp bn mi trng
Phng php s mng li
Phng php m hnh

172
Do yu cu mn hc kinh t mi trng trong trng i hc Kinh t cho nn ni
dung cc phng php trn y khng c trnh by.
Trong nh gi tc ng mi trng cn s dng phng php kinh t, phng
php ny s dng gi tr ng tin nh thc o nh gi mc tc ng n
mi trng ca mt hot ng pht trin. Phng php ny c gi l phng
php phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng (CBA - Cost Benefit Analysis). Phng
php ny s c cp gio trnh ny.
5. Ni dung bo co TM
Ni dung ca TM c th tu thuc vo: ni dung v tnh cht ca hot ng pht
trin, tnh cht v thnh phn ca mi trng chu tc ng ca hot ng pht
trin, yu cu v kh nng thc hin nh gi.
Khng th c mt khun mu c nh v TM chung cho mi nc trn th gii,
cng nh chung cho mi hot ng pht trin ti mt nc.
Nhng kt qu ca TM ca mt hot ng pht trin c th hin trn mt vn
bn c gi l bo co TM. Ni dung ca bo co TM bao gm 9 ni dung
sau:
M t i bn ni s tin hnh hot ng pht trin, c trng kinh t, k thut
ca h thng pht trin.
Xc nh iu kin bin, hoc ni cch khc l phm vi nh gi.
M t hin trng mi trng ti a bn nh gi.
D bo nhng thay i v mi trng c th xy ra trong v sau khi thc hin
hot ng pht trin.
D bo nhng tc ng xy ra i vi ti nguyn v mi trng, cc kh nng
hon nguyn hin trng hoc tnh trng khng th hon nguyn.
Cc bin php phng trnh, iu chnh.
Phn tch li ch - chi ph m rng.
So snh cc phng n hot ng khc nhau
Kt lun v kin ngh
nh gi tc ng mi trng gm c nhiu bc, v vy ni dung bo co TM
c th cc bc c thc hin theo mu hngdn ca c quan qun l mi
trng. (Ngh nh 175 CP ban hnh 18 - 10 - 1994 - Ph lc 11,12)

173
S dng ca mt TM c th hin nh sau.

Pht hin s cn thit
M t xut
Sng lc
Yu cu TM Kim tra mi trng ban u Khng cn TM
Phm vi
Lin quan cng cng*
nh gi
pht hin tc ng
phn tch tc ng
d bo nhng tc ng c
Gim nh
Thit k li
K hoch cho qun l tc
Bo co
Xem xt li
Cht lng ti liu
u vo cc bn lin quan
xut chp nhn
Quyt nh thc hin
Khng chp nhn
Thit k li
trnh li
Lin quan cng cng
* Lin quan cng cng c th xut
hin ti nhng im ny. N cng c
th xut hin mt vi bc khc ca
qu trnh TM
** Thng tin t qu trnh ng
gp ny ti TM c hiu qu
trong tng lai
Chp nhn
Gim st
Qun l tc ng
Kim ton TM v nh gi
**

174

Ngun: UNEP EIA Training Resource Manual

II. Phn tch chi ph - l ch cho tc ng ti mi trng
1. Kht qut v phn tch chi ph - l ch v phn tch chi ph li ch m
rng
1.1. Phn tch chi ph - l ch
Phn tch chi ph - li ch (CP - LI) l mt k thut gip cho cc nh ra quyt nh
a ra nhng chnh sch hp l v s dng bn vng cc ngun ti nguyn khan
him, lm gim hoc loi b nhng tc ng tiu cc pht sinh trong cc chng
trnh, k hoch pht trin kinh t - x hi.
Phn tch chi ph - li ch l mt cng c chnh sch cho php cc nh hoch nh
chnh sch quyn c la chn gia cc gii php thay th c tnh cnh tranh vi
nhau. Chng hn nh khi cn nhc vn c tnh chnh sch: c nn cp giy php
khai thc g cc khu rng nguyn sinh vng Ty Nguyn lm g x cho mt
d n sn xut g c u t vo vng ven bin Nam Trung B hay khng?
Cu hi ny c xem nh l mt vn la chn gia mt s gii php thay th.
Sau y l mt vi trong s cc gii php :
Cp giy php khai thc g cc rng nguyn sinh vng Ty Nguyn..
Khng cp giy php, nhng cho php khai thc v vn chuyn g t mt khu
rng nhn to pha Nam thuc vng ng Nam B.
Khng cp giy php, nhng cho php khai thc v vn chuyn g t mt khu
rng nhn to pha Bc, thuc vng ven Bin Bc Trung B.
Khng cp giy php, nhng cho php khai thc v vn chuyn g t cc khu
rng nhn to nhiu a phng khc nhau thuc cc vng ni trn.
Cm khai thc g ti bt c mt khu rng no v ngng cc hot ng lm g
x vng ven bin Nam Trung B. y chng ta cn nhn thc c s khc
nhau gia rng nguyn sinh v rng nhn to. Rng nguyn sinh l rng t
nhin cha b con ngi lm xo trn, cn rng nhn to l do con ngi mi
trng li v pht trin theo mun ca con ngi. Khi Chnh ph phi i mt
vi vn mang tnh cht chnh sch nh cp trn th mt lot cc gii
php la chn nh lit k cn phi c phn nh r rng, v li ch thc m
mi gii php mang li cho x hi cng cn phi c tnh ton t m. Vic
lm s gip chng ta sp xp c cc gii php theo th t u tin. Nu nh
chng ta ch chn ra mt gii php th chng ta cn phi bit r gii php no s

175
mang li cho x hi li ch thc cao nht. T cc gii php ny s l cc m
hnh cho cc k hoch qun l hoc phn b ngun lc v gia chng s c s
cnh tranh vi nhau.
Nh vy phn tch chi ph - li ch c p dng vo vic nh gi cc h thng t
nhin v nh gi cht lng mi trng, l mt b phn hu c ca qu trnh ra
quyt nh mi cp: a phng, vng, quc gia, quc t.
1.2. Phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng
Phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng l mt phng php phn tch kinh t, so snh
nhng li ch thu c do thc hin cc hot ng pht trin em li vi nhng chi
ph v tn tht do vic thc hin cc hot ng gy ra. nhn mnh chi ph v
li ch mi trng thng ngi ta tch phn mi trng ra gi l Et, cng thc
ho nh sau:
- Ct )/(1+r)
Bt ( Et
t
Chi ph v li ch y c hiu theo ngha rng, bao gm c chi ph v li ch v
ti nguyn, mi trng v cc thnh vin khc trong x hi cho nn c th gi phn
tch CP - LI l phn tch CP - LI m rng.
Mc d phng php ny c v nh kh n gin, nhng kh khn th vn c ny
sinh bi v li ch v chi ph x hi cn phi c tnh ton. iu c ngha l
phng php phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng c tnh phm vi ton x hi. Chng
hn, nu nh chng ta c yu cu cc nh u t g x nh gi vn c tnh
chnh sch nh nu trn, th vic m h a ra nh gi u tin s l liu rng
u t ca h c mang li li nhun hay khng. iu ny thc s l mt s phn
hi rt c l v mt phn tnh ton ca nh u t. Vic nh gi nh th gi l
phn tch ti chnh, bi v n ch lin quan n chi ph v li ch nh hng trc
tip n cc nh u t. Vic phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng c lin quan n
phm vi x hi. iu ny c ngha l chng ta cn phi xc nh xem u l chi
ph v li ch nh hng n mi thnh vin trong x hi. Vic thc hin thng
xuyn phng php phn tch rng ri ton x hi ny l mt iu kh c th thc
hin c. Tuy nhin, cc nh kinh t u c gng m rng phm vi ca phng
php ny theo kh nng c th. V d, i vi mt trong cc gii php nu
trn, ngoi vic p ng c li nhun ca cc nh u t, mt lot cc cu tr li
cho cc cu hi di y cng cn phi c xem xt trong phn tch chi ph - li
ch m rng.
Liu hot ng kinh doanh g x c khuyn khch hot ng kinh t ca vng
ven bin Nam Trung B hay khng.
176
Liu rng s khuyn khch hot ng kinh t ny c lan rng ra cc vng khc
ngoi vng ven bin Nam Trung B hay khng.

Chi ph mi trng b p cho s nhim do hot ng kinh doanh g x
gy ra l bao nhiu?
Sau khi c c mi s gii p, hy quy gi tr ca chng ran thnh tin, v
khng phi l mt nhim v d dng. V d: phm vi nh hng ca hot ng kinh
doanh g x c th s lan rng ra tn cc vng xa nh Ty Bc, ng Bc Bc B
ca Vit Nam. Vic tnh gi tr cc chi ph mi trng, c bit l nhng chi ph
lin quan n vic bo tn cc loi ng - thc vt qu him l rt kh khn. iu
l tng nht l chng ta nn xem xt tt c cc chi ph c th tnh c ca mi
mt phng php vo vic c tnh li ch thc, iu ny trong thc t khng phi
lc no cng c th lm mt cch d dng. Chng ta c th tm tt v bn cht v
phm vi p dng ca phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng nh sau:
Phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng l mt phng php m qua c nhiu cc gii
php thay th khc nhau cnh tranh vi nhau, c lin quan n mt quyt nh c
tnh chnh sch c thm nh trn phng din li ch thc mang li cho x hi.
Tm li trong ni dung ca cun sch ny, chng ta s dng thut ng phn tch
chi ph li ch vi ngha c bit m cc nh kinh t thng dng m ch
vic nh gi cc d n v mt x hi.
2. Trnh t tin hnh phn tch chi ph - li ch
Cc bc chnh c thc hin trong phn tch chi ph - li ch c tm tt thng
qua s 3.1 nh sau:

177

Xc nh cc gii php thay th
Phn nh chi ph v li ch
nh gi chi ph v li ch
Tnh ton gi tr cc ch tiu lin quan (gi tr hin ti
rng, t l li ch - chi ph v h s hon vn ni ti)
Sp xp th t cc gii php thay th
I
II
III
IV
V

S 3.1: Cc bc dng trong phn tch chi ph - li ch
2.1. Xc nh cc gii php thay th
Nh chng ta trnh by phn trn, bc u tiu l xc nh cc gii php khc

nhau cho mt quyt nh chnh sch. Vi nhng quyt nh c nhng tc ng mi
trng nghim trng th bo v mi trng lun lun l mt gii php ring bit. V
d nh vi vic tn trng quyt nh v khai thc g khu vc xung quanh vng
ven bin Nam Trung B, bo v rng c ngha l gi nguyn vn, khng khai thc
chng l mt gii php r rng.
2.2. Phn nh chi ph v li ch
Vic phn nh rch ri ton b cc chi ph v li ch tc ng n mi thnh vin
trong x hi l vic lm tip theo ca bc th nht. Trong bc ny chng ta cn
phi lp mt danh mc y v cc khon chi ph c th pht sinh trong qu trnh
thc hin cc hnh ng ca mt gii php thay th. V d, khi chng ta cn nhc
gii php u tin trong nm gia php lit k trn lin quan n vic khai thc
g sn xut g x. Danh mc cc li ch cng cn c k ra, bao gm:
Mt ln tng thu nhp nh bn g x, v
S tng ln thu nhp ngoi ngnh cng nghip g x. Nh vy, trong vic xem
xt nhng li ch, khng ch xt ring trong ngnh g x m cn xem xt nh
hng tng ln trong cc hot ng kinh t khc ngoi ngnh g x.
Danh mc lit k i vi cc khon chi ph bao gm:
Vn u t
Tin lng v nguyn liu th, v
Nhng chi ph mi trng nh chi ph bo tn cc loi ng thc vt qu him,
chi ph chng xi mn t.
Cc chi ph bo tn i vi cc loi ng thc vt qu him c th xem l nhng
chi ph ngi s dng. Chng ta bit rng l ngun ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh.
Bi vy, iu cc k quan trng l chng ta phi tin hnh kim nghim xem
phng php khai thc g c th m bo c s phc hi ca rng trong kh
nng chu ng ca chng hay khng, hay chng ta c th duy tr mt tiu chun
rng bn vng.
Trong bi cnh chng ta ang xem xt cn phi ch rng mt s khon tin m c
th thng xuyn c xem nh l mt khon chi ph hay li ch c th s khng
c coi l c ngha x hi. V d nh, mt nh u t ca Vit Nam ng thu
cho Nh nc, r rng i vi nh u t ny l mt khon chi ph. Tuy nhin, xt
v mt x hi, s thu phi tr ny n gin ch l s chuyn nhng thu nhp t
ngi Vit Nam ny (nh u t) sang cho ngi dn Vit Nam khc m thi.
Nhng i vi mt nh u t nc ngoi cc th thu m h phi ng gp cho
chnh ph Vit Nam th l mt khon thu nhp c tnh x hi, s d nh vy l v
cc nh u t nc ngoi h s chuyn s tin li trong u t v nc h v vic

178
chia li nhun u t cho Vit Nam l khon thu m h phi tr. T phn tch v
d ny cho ta thy vic xc nh li ch thc phi da trn c s phn nh r rng
li ch v chi ph.
2.3. nh gi chi ph v li ch
Trong bc ny, mi khon chi ph v li ch ca cc gii php c xc nh
bc trc cn phi c nh gi bng tin. i vi nhng mt hng c trao
i trn th trng, gi tr ca n c th c tnh n gin bng cch nhn s
lng ca mt hng vi gi th trng ca n. Tuy nhin do tnh qui lut s
lng ln gi c tnh gi th trng khng ng do th trng thng xuyn
khng hon ho. Ch khi th trng i vi mt mt hng c tnh cnh tranh th gi
th trng ca mt hng mi c xem l mt ch s tt i vi gi tr x hi.
Chnh v vy, theo kh nng c th, chng ta nn s dng gi th trng th gii i
vi cc mt hng c trao i trn th trng th gii. Bi v th trng th gii c
tnh cnh tranh mnh hn nhiu so vi th trng trong nc, cho nn gi th gii
l nhng ch s tt hn v mt gi tr. Hn na, do tnh lm pht hin thi cho nn
vic nh gi thng c d tnh trn c s gi thc hoc gi c nh. iu c
ngha l gi c phi c th hin trn c s nguyn tc chung v c iu chnh
bng mt ch s gi. i vi nhng yu t nh hng khng c gi th trng,
nh gi chng thng ngi ta phi s dng gi tham kho.
2.4. Tnh ton gi tr cc ch tiu lin quan
Trn c s nh gi cc gi tr lin quan bc ba, cn c vo cc ch tiu chng
ta s tnh ton cc gi tr phc v cho xem xt so snh gia cc gii php v nu
ra bc mt.
Thng nhng ch tiu thng dng nht c s dng trong vic phn tch chi ph -
li ch l gi tr hin ti rng (NPV); t sut li ch - chi ph (BCR) v h s hon
vn ni b (IRR).
2.5. Sp xp th t cc gii php thay th.
Trn c s cc ch tiu tnh ton bc bn, chng ta s sp xp th t u tin
ca cc gii php ra bc mt. S sp xp ny cn c vo:
i vi ch tiu NPV, thng thng chng ta thch dng gii php mang li gi
tr dng v sp xp cc gii php no c NPV cao nht ln u.
i vi ch tieu BCR, thng chng ta dng gii php no c t sut ln hn 1
v sp xp gii php no c BCR cao nht ln u.
i vi ch tiu IRR, sp xp u tin ln u i vi nhng h s hon vn ni
b ln hn t l chit khu, bi l chng ta t u tin chuyn li ch cho th h
tng lai.

179
3. Chit khu v bin thi gian
Do tnh cht c bit quan trng ca vic xc nh trc thi gian v h s chit
khu trong phn tch d n, cho nn di y s cp n mt cch tng i k
cc cng thc tnh ton chun v mt s biu bng quan trng tr gip cho vic
tnh ton.
3.1. Chn bin thi gian thch hp
V mt l thuyt, phn tch kinh t cc d n phi c ko di trong khong thi
gian va c th bao hm ht mi li ch v chi ph ca d n. Trong vic la
chn bin thi gian thch hp, cn lu n hai nhn t quan trng sau y:
- Thi gian tn ti (sng) hu ch d kin (Expected Useful Life) ca d n to
ra cc sn phm u ra v cc li ch kinh t c s m da vo d n c
thit k.
- T l chit khu c s dng trong phn tch kinh t ca d n.
i vi nhn t th nht, khi li ch u ra tr nn rt nh, th thi gian sng hu
ch d kin ca d n (Effective Project Life) c th xem nh kt thc.
i vi h s chit khu (Discount Rate), nu gi tr chn la ngoi ng ny cng
ln, th thi gian sng hu ch d kin s cng ngn, bi v n lm gim i gi tr
ti li ch ca d n theo thi gian trong tng lai. V vy, i vi mt d n c
thi gian sng hu ch di, cn c vo li ch ca n (v d: 100 nm), nhng vi
mt h s chit khu cao (v d: 10%), th bin thi gian s ngn hn rt nhiu so
vi thi gian sng hu ch d kin, bi v li nhun rng trong nhng nm sau s
nh hng khng ng k n gi tr hin ti rng. Do , quy lut chung l bin
i thi gian thch hp cho mt d n s "ngn hn" so vi thi gian hu ch d
kin ca d n hoc so vi thi gian hiu dng kinh t ca d n khi tnh n chit
khu.
Bng 5.1 cho thy mi quan h gia h s chit khu vi vic la chn bin thi
gian thch hp, qua ta thy vic la chn h s chit khu l ht sc quan trng.
3.2. Chit khu
so snh cc li ch v chi ph xut hin cc thi gian khc nhau bng cch gn
chng vi mt trng s quy i v cc gi tr hin ti tng ng. Mi trng s
l mt hm s ca t l chit khu v thi gian xy ra ca kt qu
T l chit khu l ca li sut lu tch (cn gi l li kp tnh theo t l phn
trm) dng iu chnh a cc li ch v chi ph trong tng lai v gi tr hin
ti tng ng. Qu trnh iu chnh ny gi l Chit khu.
Nh vy chit khu l mt c ch m nh n ta c th so snh li ch v chi ph

180
cc thi im khc nhau trn trc thi gian. y l mt khi nim thng d b lm
ln nht trong phn tch kinh t.
Chit khu c mt vai tr ht sc quan trng, bi l mt s thay i nh ca t l
chit khu s lun lun lm thay i gi tr hin ti rng, v nh vy s dng t l
chit khu sai s cho gi tr sai. Quan trng hn na l s thay i v t l chit
khu s c th lm thay i li ch x hi rng ca mt phng n cho bit t
dng sang m (hay ngc li), hoc lm thay i th t ca nhiu phng n la
chn.
Trong vic s dng chit khu, cn bo m hai iu kin tin quyt:
- Mt bin s a vo tnh ton chit khu (v d: chi ph ti nguyn, li ch u
ra, v.v...) phi c quy v cng mt h n v. thun tin, trong tnh ton
ngi ta thng dng la lm n v tin t. Cng c th s dng cc ng
tin chuyn i khc nh Yn, Mc, Phrng, v.v...
- Phi tha nhn gi nh cho rng: gi tr mt n v chi ph hoc li ch hin ti
l ln hn mt n v chi ph hoc li ch trong tng lai.
Bng 3.1. Mi quan h gia t l chit khu v thi gian la chn.
T l chit khu (%) nm Thi gian, nm
2 5 8 10 15
0 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00
10 82,03 61,39 46,32 38,55 24,71
20 67,30 37,69 21,45 14,86 7,56
25 60,95 39,53 14,60 9,23 7,05
40 45,29 14,20 4,6 2,21 0,57
60 30,48 5,35 0,99 0,33 0,04
100 13,80 0,76 0,05 0,01 -
Khi a cc nhn t mi trng vo qu trnh phn tch, hai iu kin tin quyt
ny s c kh khn. Trong thc t, c rt nhiu yu t cht lng mi trng khng
th nh lng cng nh khng th n nh gi tr bng tin, do , khng th a
vo vic phn tch v xt duyt d n mt cch r rng, chng hn nh gi tr ca
ti nguyn gen ca mt khu rng nhit i hay ca vic duy tr nng CO
2
trong
bu kh quyn ton cu. V iu kin tin quyt th hai, nhiu ngi tin rng cc
dch v v hng ho to ra trong cc h thng t nhin s tng ln theo thi gian do
nhu cu v mc khan him tng ln. i vi a s hng ho v dch v th iu
ny l hon ton ng, do vn ny c th c x l khi phn tch kinh t

181
bng cch thay i gi tng i (Relative Prices) ca dch v hay hng ho.
Nh ni trn, vic phn tch kinh t ca cc d n, thng s dng gi tr
khng thay i ca ng la, ch khng phi gi tr b thay i do lm pht.
Bi v chit khu khng phi l cng c iu chnh gi lm pht, v vy, ch c
th s dng gi tr tng i do s thay i ny. V d, nh d n d kin sn xut
g x nhit i. Do s tng ln ca nhu cu trn th gii v loi g ny, nn gi ca
n s tng ln nhanh hn mc gi chung. V vy, trong phn tch kinh t ca d n,
c th a vo nhn t hiu chnh s tng gi thc s ca g c sn xut ra (v
d 2% nm) trong khi tt c cc cc gi khc (li nhun cng nh chi ph) vn gi
mc khng i, gi ca g s tng ln khong 50% trong hai mi nm, do
cng lm tng mc hp dn ca d n.
3.3. T l chit khu thch hp
Th no l mt t l chit khu thch hp c s dng trong phn tch kinh t ?
y l mt vn khng n gin. Cn ch n mt s iu kin sau y:
- Trong mt php phn tch kinh t, ch c s dng mt t l chit khu, mc
d khi phn tch c th thc hin lp i lp li nhiu gi tr khc nhau ca t l
chit khu (php phn tch nhy).
- T l chit khu khng phn nh lm pht, mi gi c s dng trong phn tch l
thc hoc gi la la khng i.
T l chit khu thc = T l chit khu danh ngha T l lm pht
- V l thuyt, t l chit khu c th l dong, 0 hoc m. Trong phn tch
kinh t, li sut (Interest Rate) c s dng phn nh mt t l th trng
i vi u t v ng tin hot ng v, v vy, n nhy cm vi t l lm pht
hin ti hay d kin cho tng lai. T l chit khu s dng trong phn tch kinh
t thng khng th quan st c trong mt nn kinh t. Cc nh kinh t hc
pht trin nhiu phng php, xut pht t cc quan nim kinh t v x hi,
xc nh v iu chnh t l chit khu. l:
+ Chi ph c hi ca ng tin: phng php tip cn ny da trn vic on nhn
mt qu trnh sn xut l kt qu ca vic u t vo mt d n ny m khng phi
l d n khc hoc l u t ca Nh nc vo mt d n c th no .
Phng php ny c Ngn hng th gii p dng khi cho mt d n no vay
tin, khi d n tho thun mt t l hon tr hng nm ti thiu bng mt t l
no c xc nh da trn chi ph c hi ca ng tin.
+ Chi ph ca vic vay mn tin: Chnh ph thng phi vay tin hoc t cc
ngun trong nc hoc nc ngoi u t cho cc d n pht trin.

182
+ H thng x hi v u tin theo thi gian (Time Preference): da trn quan im
cho rng, kh nng ca x hi phn ng chnh xc hn th trng t nhn trong cn
nhc sc tiu th gia hin ti v tng lai. Xt theo quan im x hi, mi c nhn
s tiu th qu mc trong hin ti hn l tit kim cho u t hay l sn xut sau
ny. H s x hi v u tin theo thi gian s dn ti vic a ra mt t l chit
khu thp hn so vi s la chn ca cc c nhn trong th trng t nhn (thi
gian sng mi cc nhn ngn hn rt nhiu so vi trc thi gian ca x hi).
Tm li, t l thc c s dng trong phn tch kinh t s l c trng cho mi
quc gia v c th c xc lp trn c s cc chnh sch ca chnh ph. Nhn t
quan trng i vi vic la chn t l chit khu l chi ph c hi ca t bn, yu
cu ca t chc ti tr, chi ph cho tin t ca Chnh ph, v quan im hin thi
ca Chnh ph i vi s tiu th v u t ca t nhn trong mi quan tm n
cc th h tng lai.
Nhng ngi phn tch d n cn thit tm s hng dn ca c quan ra quyt nh
ca Nh nc i vi t l chit khu ang c s dng. Trong trng hp khng
c cc hng dn c th, khi thc hin cc phn tch d n c th s dng cc t l
chit khu v ang c s dng trong nc i vi cc d n u t ca t
nhn hay cng cng.
4. Cc ch tiu s dng khi nh gi mt d n
Mt khi mc thi gian thch hp v h s chit khu c la chn, nhng tnh
ton thc t c th cn c vo nhiu dng cng thc khc nhau. Trong phn ny, s
trnh by mt s cng thc thng dng.
- Gi tr hin ti (Present Value - PV)
i vi a s cc d n, vic phn tch, kim tra c thc hin bng cch so snh
dng li ch v chi ph theo thi gian (xem hnh 3.2)

183

Li ch
Chi ph
Thi gian
C
t
NB
t
= B
t

B
t

Hnh 3.2: S thay i chi ph, li ch ca mt n theo thi gian
(theo Hufschimidt et al. 1983)
Mt vi gi thit c bn v dng tin t nh sau: (1) Nm khi u ca mt d n
c th c gn cho ci tn nm 0 hay nm 1 (th nht); (2) Tt c dng tin t
(chi ph hay li ch) xy ra vo cui mi nm, c ngha l, bt k chi ph hay li ch
xut hin trong nm s c chit khu cho thi gian ton nm. V d, mt chi ph
no xy ra vo bt c thi gian no nm th 5 s c chit khu theo thi
gian 5 nm. Gi thit ny s dn ti mt sai s nh, bi v chi ph thc t hoc
doanh thu phi c chit khu t khi n xut hin; (3) Mi chi ph v li ch cng
c x l tng t nh dng tin t (Cash Flow).
Mt s cc k hiu thng c s dng trong cc cng thc tnh ton:
r T l chit khu
n - s nm trn trc thi gian,
t - thi gian tng ng, thng l 1, 2, ..., n,
B
t
- li ch ti nm t,
C
t
- chi ph ti nm t (vn, chi ph vn hnh, bo dng, thay th thit
b),
- tng trong khong thi gian t nm th nht n nm th n.
- Gia tr hin ti rng (NPV)
Cng thc hay s dng nht trong phn tch kinh t l gi tr hin ti rng (Net
Present Value) ca mt d n. i lng ny xc nh gi tr li nhun rng hin
thi khi chit khu dng li ch v chi ph tr v vi nm c s bt u (nm th
nht). Hai cng thc c s dng:

hoc

Bng 3.2: V d v tnh gi tr hin ti rng vi r = 10%
Nm
0 1 2 3 4

= =
+
+
=
n
t
n
t
t
t
t
t
r
C
r
B
NPV
0 0
) 1 ( ) 1 (

=
+
=
n
t
t
t t
r
C B
NPV
0
) 1 (

184
Chi ph ($) 1000 100 100 100 100
Li nhun 0 600 700 800 700
Nhn t chit
khu (1+r)
1,0 1,1 1,21 1,331 1,46
NPV -1000 455 496 526 410
Gi tr hin ti rng = -1000 + 455 + 496 + 526 + 410 = 867$
- T sut li ch - chi ph (BCR)
T sut li ch - chi ph l t l ca tng gi tr hin ti ca li ch so vi tng gi
tr hin ti ca chi ph
=
=
+
=
n
t
t
t
n
t
t
t
r
C
r
B
BCR
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (

T sut ny so snh li ch v chi ph c chit khu. Trong trng hp ny,
li ch c xem l li ch th bao gm c li ch mi trng, cn chi ph bao gm
vn cng vi cc chi ph vn hnh, bo dng v thay th cng nh nhng chi ph
mi trng.
- H s hon vn ni b (IRR)
H s hon vn ni b k (Internal Rate of Return - IRR) c nh ngha nh l h
s m qua gi tr hin thi ca li ch v chi ph l bng nhau. H s k tng
ng vi t l chit khu (r), c th xc nh bng cch suy din khi tho mn
biu thc sau:
0
) 1 (
0
=
=
n
t
t
t t
k
C B

Hoc

= =
+
=
+
n
t
t
t
n
t
t
t
r
C
k
B
0 0
) 1 ( ) 1 (

IRR c cc t chc ti chnh s dng rng ri.
Gi tr IRR sau khi tnh ton s c so snh vi li sut v ti chnh hoc t l
chit khu xem xt mc hp dn v ti chnh hoc kinh t ca d n.
xc nh IRR, ngi ta phi gii phng trnh trn. Nhng vic gii n nhiu
khi rt phc tp, nn ngi ta thng dng phng php ni suy tnh IRR. Cch
tnh nh sau:

=
+
n
t
t
t t
x
C B
0
) 1 (

185
gi f(x) =

ta bit rng khi f(x) = 0 th x = IRR;
Chn x
1
sao cho f(x
1
) >0 v gn bng 0;
v chn x
2
sao cho f(x
2
) <0 v gn bng 0.
R rng, trong khong gia x
1
v x
2
s c 1 im f(x) = 0. V f(x
1
) >0 v f(x
2
) < 0
v hm f(x) l hm lin tc.
Mc khc, f(x
1
) 0, f(x
2
) 0, tc l khong cch t f(x
1
) n f(x
2
) rt ngn. Nh
vy, trong khong x
1
v x
2
, hm s f(x) c th coi l tuyn tnh phng trnh f(x) =
ax + b c th l ng thng.
Ta c:
f(x
1
) = ax
1
+ b
f(x
2
) = ax
2
+ b
Suy ra:
2 1
2 1
) ( ) (
x x
x f x f
a
=

186

Ta bit rng, khi th ct trc honh th f(x) = 0 v x = IRR hay f(x) = a.IRR + b
= 0 IRR = -
b
a

1
2 1
2 1
1
) ( ) (
) ( x
x x
x f x f
x f b
=
Thay a v b vo v rt gn ta c:

) (
) ( ) (
) (
2 1
2 1
1
1
x x
x f x f
x f
x IRR
=
hoc

) (
) ( ) (
) (
1 2
2 1
1
1
x x
x f x f
x f
x IRR
+ =

T l hon vn ni b (IRR) c mt vai tr rt quan trng trong vic xc nh t l
chit khu (r) ph hp cho mt d n hoc chng trnh. i vi nhng d n hoc
chng trnh mi trng c tnh di hn, n li cng c ngha c bit quan trng.
Trong nhiu trng hp, thng qua vic xc nh (IRR), ngi ta c th suy on
cc ch tiu khc ca d n hoc chng trnh nh gi tr hin ti rng (NPV), t
sut li ch v chi ph (B/C). Mi lin h ca 3 i lng ny c th hin nh
sau:
NPV T sut B/C IRR

Nu > 0 th > 1 v > r
Nu < 0 th < 1 v < r
Nu = 0 th = 1 v = r
Nu ch xt mi quan h gia gi tr hin ti rng (NPV) v t l chit khu, cng
nh h s hon vn ni ti IRR, ta c th xem th hnh 3.3.

187

NPV
IRR = r
T l chit khu (r)
0

Hnh 3.3: Mi quan h gia NPV v t l chit khu (r) i vi li nhun rng
dng v m.
Ba i lng trnh by trn u cn c vo gi tr hin ti (Present Value) ca dng
li ch v chi ph. Gia chng c mi lin h khng kht vi nhau.
C v nh s khng c vn g khi s dng ba i lng trn trong vic hnh
thnh v chn la cc d n pht trin, bi v chng u s dng n cng cc gi
tr li ch v chi ph c chit khu. Tuy nhin, Gittinger (1982), khi thc hin
vic phn tch so snh i vi 3 loi d n:
(1) Cc d n c lp, khng b gii hn v chi ph
(2) Cc d n c lp b gii hn chung v chi ph
(3) Cc d n c kh nng loi tr ln nhau (v d, hai ba d n s dng chung mt
khu vc), cho kt qu trnh by trong bng 3.2.
Bng 3.2 Bng so snh cc i lng ca gi tr hin ti.
Quy tc chn hoc
xp hng
NPV IRR B/C
Cc d n c lp
- Chi ph khng
hn nh
Chn mi d n
vi NPV >0,
khng cn xp
hng.
Chn mi d n
vi IRR>r
Chn mi d n
vi B/C >1 khng
cn xp hng

188
- Chi ph hn nh Khng thch hp
cho xp hng d
n
Xp hng d n
IRR c th dn
ti s xp hng
khng ng
Xp hn d n theo
B/C khi C l chi
ph hn nh lun
lun cho kt qu
ng
Cc d n loi tr.
(Chi ph khng hn
nh).
Chn la phng
n vi NPV ln
nht
Chn la phng
n vi IRR ln c
th dn ti kt
qu khng ng.
Chn la phng
n vi B/C cao
nht c th cho kt
qu khng ng
H s chit khu Phi s dng h
s chit khu
thch hp
Khng cn h s
chit khu
Phi s dng h s
chit khu thch
hp.

III. Mt s k thut s dng gi th trng v khng s dng
gi th trng phn tch chi ph li ch tc ng ti mi
trng.
Khi s dng phng php CBA mt vn kh khn c t ra l phi c lng
bng tin cc tc ng tch cc v tiu cc n mi trng ca d n xem xt, bi
v khng phi tt c cc tc ng n mi trng u c th xc nh c gi tr
bng tin.
Tuy vy, c mt s k thut s dng gi th trng v khng s dng gi th trng
nh gi tc ng mi trng c p dng. Cn ch rng vic la chn
phng php thch hp do nhiu yu t chi phi, mc sn c ca s liu, kh
nng ti chnh v qu thi gian.
1. nh gi vi gi th trng.
Trong vic s dng gi th trng thng thng ngi ta cp ti hai loi th
trng l th trng cnh tranh v th trng khng cnh tranh.
Th nht, i vi th trng cnh tranh, ta c th s dng trc tip gi c trn th
trng nh gi li ch v chi ph
Th trng cnh tranh v c bn c xc nh trn c s cu trc ca n. Mt th
trng cnh tranh c c im l cc thnh vin trong th trng c nh hng nh
n th trng, xut v nhp khu d huy ng, c hi phn ng khng b hn ch,
hng ho ng nht v mi ngi c s hiu bit y v th trng. Tuy nhin
mt th trng vn c th hot ng cnh tranh tng i ngay c khi cu trc ca
n khng p ng c cc c im trn. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta cn

189
phi c s nh gi v th trng hot ng c cnh tranh hay khng cnh tranh, t
chng ta s bit c gi th trng c s dng c khng hay phi thay bng
gi n.
i vi th trng cnh tranh, vic s dng gi c th trng thng cn c vo hai
tiu ch c bn sau y:
- nh gi s thay i cn bin v lng.
V l th trng cnh tranh nn mt s thay i nh v lng khng lm nh hng
ln v gi, do vy vic xc nh li ch hay chi ph chng ta vn s dng gi hin
hnh tnh ton. Gi l gi th trng.
- nh gi s thay i khng cn bin v lng
Trong trng hp c s thay i v gi v lng khng phi l cn bin (S thay
i ng k), vic xc nh chi ph v li ch khng th c nh gi bng cng
thc n gin l gi c nhn vi thay i v lng. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c th
nh gi c trn c s cc ng cung v ng cu, mc d chng ta cn c
mt cch tnh chi tit hn cho trng hp ny.
Th hai, i vi th trng khng cnh tranh l th trng c nhng c im
ngc vi th trng cnh tranh, chng ta khng th s dng gi c th trng,
thng thng ngi ta s dng gi n.
Gi n ca mt hng ho hay dch v l gi sn lng tr thc s ca x hi cho
hng ho hay dch v . Gi n ca mt lng hng ho no l chi ph c hi
thc ca x hi cho vic sn xut ra lng hng ho
i vi th trng khng cnh tranh, vic s dng gi n thng cn c vo ba iu
chnh c bn sau y:
- iu chnh can thip ca chnh ph (thu, thu quan v tr gi).
Khi chnh ph can thip thng qua cng c thu, thu quan v tr cp s lm cho
th trng khng t ti cn bng thc. Trong trng hp ny, gi c v s lng
s di chuyn chch khi cc mc cn bng v gi c th trng l thc o b bin
dng ca li ch v chi ph, chnh v vy chng ta phi xc nh gi n.
- iu chnh i vi trng hp s dng ngun lc khan him hay d tha.
Tuy theo tng loi ngun lc, chng hn nh t ai, lao ng hay vn m do tnh
cht khan him hay d tha kgc nhau, gi c khng phn nh ng gi th trng
cnh tranh chng ta c cch iu chnh ph hp vi mc gi n. V d i vi
gi n lao ng ngi ta xc nh trn c s chi ph c hi nh l chi ph x hi
thc ca lao ng. S dng khi nim chi ph c hi v gi tr ca lao ng tht
nghip l gi tr ca s ngh ngi ta c gi n nh sau

190
Gi n (Trung bnh cho = (T l c vic lm x tin cng th trng)
mt cng nhn) + (t l tht nghip x gi tr ca ngh ngi)
- iu chnh i vi trng hp s hu nc ngoi
Thng thng trong phn tch chi ph li ch ngi ta quy c tt c chi ph v li
ch xy ra bn trong bin gii quc gia nhng li khng tnh ti nhng g xy ra
bn ngoi bin gii quc gia, do vy cc kt qu quc t thng b b qua. Chnh v
vy cn c nhng iu chnh i vi trng hp s hu nc ngoi.
Chng hn mt cng ty thuc s hu nc ngoi, thng d sn xut s chuyn ra
nc ngoi nhng thu v thu ti nguyn phi tr cho nc s ti. Chnh v vy
trong trng hp ny cn c s phn bit rch ri v chi ph li ch lin quan n
s hu c s iu chnh ph hp. Chng ta mun xc nh doanh thu rng ca
cng ty ny, cn c trn c s cng thc sau:
Doanh thu rng = Doanh thu gp Lng Chi ph hot ng thu ti nguyn
Gi th gii nh l gi n: th trng th gii ca mt loi hng ho hay nhp khu
thng ln hn v cnh tranh mnh hn th trng ni a. Do th trng th
gii l th trng thch hp t suy ra gi m ca nhng loi hng ho hay
nhp khu c trao i gia cc nc. Gi tr ca mt hng ho xut khu hay
nhp khu c th c suy ra t gi th gii.
2.nh gi trong iu kin khng c gi th trng.
Trong thc t chng ta thng gp phi cc trng hp l phn ln cc d n to ra
cc li ch hay chi ph khng c em trao i trn th trng. Nhng kt qu ny
khng c gi c th trng, chnh v vy chng ta gi chng l cc li ch v chi ph
khng c gi (hay khng c nh gi). V d d n xy dng mt h cha nc
cng cng c th cung cp thm c hi gii tr hoc phng chng l lt. Nhng c
hi ny thng n vi ngi hng th m khng h thu mt mc ph no, bi l
chng khng c nh gi v thc t vic phng chng l lt khng c mua hay
bn trn th trng. Ting n, nhim khng kh, v nn tc nghn giao thng gy
ra nhng thit hi cho mi ngi v cho x hi r rng chng bao gi c em ra
trao i mua bn trn th trng.
Chnh v nhng li ch v chi ph khng c nh gi trn th trng cho nn cn
phi c a vo phn tch v thc t chng lm thay i li ch x hi rng.
Vic nh gi v a vo tnh ton thng da vo m hnh li ch rng x hi.
Li ch x hi rng = Gi sn lng chi tr - Chi ph c hi
Nh vy, vn t ra l chng ta phi s dng cc phng php k thut khc
nhau xc nh gi sn lng chi tr, chi ph c hi lm c s cho vic xc nh li

191
ch x hi rng.
Nhng phng php c lng gi tr trong iu kin khng c gi c trn th
trng c dng kh ph bin trong kinh t mi trng nh:
- Phng php chi ph du lch.
- Phng php nh gi hng th
- Phng php nh gi ngu nhin
- Phng php chi tiu cho bo v
- Phng php thay i chi ph
- Phng php thay i sn lng
- Phng php chi ph thay th
Tt c cc phng php ny v mt k thut, mi phng php c mt cch tin
hnh khc nhau tu thuc vo yu cu v c im ca tc ng ti mi trng ca
mi loi d n hay loi hnh hot ng. Mi phng php c nhng th mnh v
hn ch nht nh
Minh ho 3.1: Gi tr hin ti ca du tm v c ph b mt do xi mn t
huyn Bo Lc, tnh Lm ng.
o lng bng tin mc sn lng gim i do xi mn t, tr s ny c nhn
vi gi th trng ca sn phm. Vi cc gi th trng ca c ph v l du c
cung cp t phng Nng - Lm - Thu li Bo lc (1998), c th c tnh c chi
ph s sn lng b mt do xi mn t. V d, gi c ph nm 1991 l 13.000
ng/kg, th chi ph trc tip ca xi mn t trn mt hecta trong nm l
286.000 ng (13.000 ng/kg x 22kg). Nh vy, gi tr tng ca phn chi ph xi
mn t hng nm i vi tng loi cy trng c tnh ton bng cch ly gi th
trng ca sn phm trong nm nhn vi phn sn lng b mt i do xi mn.
c th thy c gi tr thc t ca phn thu nhp b mt i trong mt khong
thi gian di, ngi ta p dng cch quy chng v gi tr hin ti (nm 2000), nh
c trnh by trong bng 1 v bng 2 sau y:
Bng 1. Gi tr hin ti ca sn lng du b mt i do xi mn t
Nm t b mt
do xi mn
(kg/ha)
Sn lng
mt i
(kg/ha
Gi th
trng.
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
r = 10% r = 10% r = 5%
1995 140 -26 900 -37.686 -47.066 -29.865
1996 210 -41 1.200 -72.034 -86.051 -59.803

192
1997 360 -74 1.400 -137.892 -157.563 -119.930
1998 470 -98 1.500 -177.870 -194.408 -162.068
1999 610 -128 1.500 -211.200 -220.800 -201.600
2000 740 -156 2.000 -312.000 -312.000 -312.000
2001 870 -184 2.000 -334.545 -320.000 -350.476
2002 1.000 -212 2.000 -350.413 -320.605 -384.580
Gi tr hin ti rng, r = 10% (ng/ha) -1.633.640
Bng 2. Gi tr hin ti ca sn lng c ph b mt i do xi mn t
Nm Tch lu t
xi mn
(kg/ha)
Sn lng
mt i
(kg/ha
Gi th
trng.
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
Gi tr
hin ti
(ng/kg)
r = 10% r = 10% r = 5%
1995 60 -3 18.000 -86.968 -108.613 -68.919
1996 90 -6 22.000 -193.261 -230.869 -160.447
1997 150 -12 22.000 -351.384 -401.511 -305.613
1998 190 -16 18.000 -348.480 -380.880 -317.520
1999 250 -22 13.000 -314.600 -328.900 -300.300
2000 300 -27 8.000 -216.000 -216.000 -216.000
2001 350 -32 10.000 -290.909 -278.261 -304.762
2002 400 -37 10.000 -305.785 -279.773 -335.601
T kt qa tnh ton cc bng trn cho thy, gi tr hin ti ca phn sn lng l
du b mt i vo khong 1,6 triu ng/ha v ca c ph l 2,1 tr /ha.
Ngun: Bo co k thut s 5, ti liu tham kho: Phn tch chi ph - li ch v cc vn mi
trng trong k hoch ha pht trin, nghin cu tnh hung xi mn t Bo lc, Lm ng.
MPI, UNDP, SDC. Nhng vn mi trng trong lp k hoch u t. Thng 7 nm 2001.

193

194
iV. Cc bi tp mu
1. Bi tp tnh NPV
Mt d n khai thc khong sn d nh tin hnh trong mt thi gian no m
s liu v chi ph - li ch trong 7 nm u c cho bng bng sau:
Li ch
hoc chi
ph
Nm 0 Nm 1 Nm 2 Nm 3 Nm 4 Nm 5 Nm 6 Nm 7
Chi ph
xy dng
v khai
thc
1700 500 600 700 800 900 100 1100
Chi ph
mi
trng
200 350 300 400 400 500 500 300
Li ch
do bn
sn phm
0 100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1600
Coi rng hot ng kinh doanh trong th trng n nh, t l chit khu th trng
l 08%. Tnh NPV sau thi gian trn xt 2 trng hp (v a ra nhn xt).
a) Khng tnh n chi ph mi trng
b) C tnh n chi ph mi trng
Bi gii:
Nm th Khi khng tnh n EC Khi c tnh n EC
B
t
/(1+r)
t
C
t
/(1+r)
t
PV
1
B
t
/(1+r)
t
C
t
/(1+r)
t
PV
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
1018,52
1028,80
1031,98
1029,04
1020,87
1008,27
933,58
1700
462,76
514,40
555,68
588,02
612,52
630,17
641,83
-1700
555,56
514,40
476,30
441,02
408,35
378,10
291,75
0
1018,52
1028,80
1031,98
1029,04
1020,87
1008,27
933,58
1900
787,03
771,60
873,21
882,03
952,81
945,25
816,88
-1900
231,49
257,20
158,77
147,21
68,06
63,02
116,70
Sau 7
nm
NPV
1
=
1365,48
NPV
2
=
-857,55
195
Kt qu trn cho thy khi tnh y mi chi ph th hot ng khai khong ny
khng hiu qu sau 7 nm hot ng. Trong thc t khong sn l u vo ca mi
qu trnh sn xut. V vy, vi cc doanh nghip hot ng trong lnh vc khai thc
ti nguyn h thng c tr gip ca chnh ph nh gim thu ti nguyn,

khng buc phi tnh n mt s chi ph mi trng, c bn sn phm khai thc
vi gi cao, ...
2. Tnh h s hon vn ni b IRR
H s hon vn ni b IRR l ch tiu c dng kh ph bin, l mc li sut
m nu dng n lm t l chit khu chuyn cc khon chi ph - li ch ca u
t v gi tr hin ti th tng thu s bng vi tng chi tc l
196

Hay
= +
=
= +
T
t
t
r
Ct
T
t
t
IRR
Bt
1 ) 1 ( 1 ) 1 (

= =
=
+
+
T
t
t
T
t
t
r
Ct
IRR
Bt
1 1
0
) 1 ( ) 1 (

IRR tm c cn phi ln hn t l li sut vay. t l li sut vay c th l t l li
sut tin vay gii hn (li sut trn) hoc l li sut vay vn thc t, cng c th l
mc chi ph c hi. V th IRR ca d n l t l li sut phi tr cho cc khon
vay trong thi gian hot ng ca d n d n khng b l.
C nhiu cch tnh IRR, c th nu 3 phng php sau:
a) Dng bng tnh sn cc h s chit khu theo cc t l chit khu r th dn
vo cng thc trn. Tr s no ca r lm cho cng thc trn tho mn th l
IRR cn tm.
b) Dng phng php th: lp h to 2 chiu m trc honh biu din cc gi
tr ca t l chit khu, trc tung biu din cc gi tr NPV hin ti. Cc cp to
(r, NPV) cho ta ng cong m giao im ca n vi trc honh l gi tr
IRR cn tm.

NPV
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4 r
5
r
6
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
r
A

A
B
IRR

c) Dng phng php ni suy ta c th suy ra cng thc tnh IRR v coi nh l
cng thc s dng trc tip.

) (
1 2
2 1
1
1
r r
NPV NPV
NPV
r IRR
+ =
Trong gi tr r
1
c xc nh sao cho gi tr tng ng NPV
1
>0 v ln cn
im 0
Gi tr r
2
c xc nh sao cho NPV
2
<0 v ln cn im 0
Nh vy r
2
>IRR>r
1
V d: Mt d n u t ci to mi trng c s vn 500 triu ng. Cc li ch
thu c k c li ch mi trng t d n l 100 triu ng mi nm. Ngi ta d
kin sau 10 nm hot ng th phi u t mi v lc ti sn thanh l d tnh
theo gi hin ti khong 100 triu ng. Tm IRR ca d n. Nu li sut ngn hng
l 10% th c nn u t khng. Coi rng th trng l n nh v t l chit khu
giao ng trong khong t 8% n 12%.
Bi gii:
Theo bi ta t r
1
= 8% v r
2
= 12%. Ta cn tnh NPV ng vi tng t l r theo:

197

vi T
s
l ti sn thanh l (100 triu ng) do n gin ta c -C
0
+T
s
= 400
triu
s
t
t
T C
r
B
NPV +
+
=
0
) 1 (

- Vi h s chit khu r = 8% ta c:
400
08 , 1
100
10
1
1
=
= t
t
NPV

Dng cch tnh tng cc s hng u dy s nhn ta c:
vi:
926 , 0
08 , 1
1
= = q

59 , 92
08 , 1
100
1
= = A


65 , 670
074 , 0
536 , 0
59 , 92
926 , 0 1
926 , 0 1
59 , 92
08 , 1
100
10 10
1
= =
= t
t

NPV
1
= 670,65 - 400 = 270,65

- Vi t l chit khu r = 12% ta c:

400
12 , 1
100
10
1
2
=
= t
t
NPV

Tng t nh cch tnh trn c:

892 , 0
12 , 1
1
= = q

28 , 89
12 , 1
100
1
= A

04 , 563
892 , 0 1
892 , 0 1
28 , 89
12 , 1
100
10 10
1
=
= t
t

NPV
2
= 563,04 400 = 163,04
- p dng cng thc tnh IRR ta s tnh c:
) 04 , 0 (
61 , 107
65 , 270
12 , 0 + = IRR
IRR = 0,22 = 22%
So vi li sut vay ngn hng l 10% th d n ny rt c hiu qu v IRR gp i
gi tr li sut vay, ha hn thu ht nhiu nh u t.
3. Biu th kt qu tnh ton bng th
Biu th trc quan kt qu phn tch chi ph - li ch ca d n ngi ta dng th
biu din: Trn mt h to vung gc trc honh biu din cc khong thi
gian u nhau (thng, qu hoc nm) cn phn dng ca trc tung biu din cc
gi tr li ch thu c, phn m ca trc tung biu din cc gi tr chi ph phi thc
hin. Cc gi tr ny u a v gi tr hin ti.
- Ni cc im biu din li ch cc thi im khc nhau ta c th ca B
t

- Ni cc im biu din chi ph cc thi im tng ng ta c th ca C
t

- Qu tch tt c cc im biu th B
t
- C
t
ti tng thi im l li ch thc NBt
ca d n .

198

Li ch
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Chi ph
Thi gian
B
t
NBt
Ct

199
Tm tt chng III

nh gi tc ng mi trng l mt ni dung c bn trong khoa hc mi trng.
Khoa hc ny i hi nhng k thut nh gi rt t m v chun xc, trn c s
ca nhng kt qu nh gi lng ho kinh t hoc hoch nh chnh sch.
Vi yu cu ni dung trang b kin thc cho sinh vin kinh t v qun tr kinh
doanh trnh kin thc c s, trong ni dung ca chng ch dng li mc
khi qut v khi nim TM, i tng, cc phng php v ni dung ca
TM.
Ni dung chnh ca chng tp trung ch yu vo phn tch chi ph - Li ch l mt
phng php c bn phn tch kinh t tc ng ti mi trng, trong ni dung
ny phn tch v lm sng t khi nim CBA m rng hay cn gi l phn tch
kinh t, quan dim s dng l quan im x hi ; khi tin hnh CBA cn tin hnh
trnh t theo nm bc; ngi hc cng s c nm bt tt hn v chit khu v
bin thi gian. Tng hp ton b kt qu ca CBA c s nh gi, la chn cc
chong trnh, d n hay phng n chnh l cc ch tiu s dng khi tin hnh nh
gi mt d n, trong tp trung vo phn tch ba ch tiu c bn l gi tr hin ti
rng (NPV); t sut li ch - chi ph (B/C) v h s hon vn ni b (IRR).
tin hnh phn tch chi ph li ch tc ng ti mi trng, v mt kinh t th k
thut s dng gi th trng v khng s dng gi th trng l nhng vn ct
li, gi th trng c xem xt v cn nhc trn cc kha cnh nh gi th trng
cnh tranh v th trng khng cnh tranh. Trong iu kin khng c gi th trng
nguyn l tip cn l li ch rng x hi trn c s gi sn lng chi tr v chi ph c
hi, by phng php k thut s dng nh gi cng c gii thiu.
Nhm mc ch rn luyn k nng trong phn tch CBA v s dng cc ch tiu cho
tnh ton, trong ni dung ca chng a ra ba dng bi tp mu v cch gii v
phng php tnh NPV, tnh h s hon vn ni b IRR v phng php th hin
kt qu bng th.
Hin nay nhng phn tch kinh t tc ng ti mi trng s dng phng php
CBA cha nhiu, tuy nhin cng c nhng nghin cu th im ng lu ,
nhm mc ch lm sng t tnh thc tin cho ni dung ny, trong hp minh ho
gii thiu trng hp nghin cu ca d n VIE/ 97/ 007 do b k hoch v u t
(MPI) ch tr v xi mn t v thit hi ti c ph v du tm huyn Bo lc,
tnh Lm ng.

Cu hi n tp

200

1. nh gi tc ng mi trng (TM) l g? V sao phi tin hnh nh gi tc
ng mi trng?
2.Bo co nh gi tc ng mi trng l g? Hy nu cc ni dung ca bo co
nh gi tc ng mi trng?
3.Nhng i tng no ca hot ng pht trin cn phi TM. Quy nh ca Vit
nam nh th no?
4.Th no l phn tch chi ph - li ch m rng (CBA)? Phn tch chi ph li ch
m rng l phn tch kinh t hay phn tch ti chnh? Gi thch v sao? Ly v d
minh ho.
5. Trnh by cc bc tin hnh CBA? Gi thch ni dung thc hin tng bc.
6. Trnh by cc ch tiu thng s dng trong CBA: cng thc xc nh, ngha
v mi quan h gia cc ch tiu trong vic la chn d n?
7.Hy nu v phn tch cc k thut s dng gi tr th trng v khng s dng gi
th trng phn tch chi ph li ch tc ng ti mi trng?

Bi tp.
1. Mt d n khai thc khong sn d nh tin hnh trong vng 5 nm. Nhng s
liu v li ch v chi ph c cho trong bng di y (n v tnh: Triu ng).
Li ch hay chi ph Nm 0 Nm 1 Nm 2 Nm 3 Nm 4 Nm 5
1. Chi ph xy dng
v khai thc
1700 500 600 700 800 900
2. Chi ph mi trng
ngoi ng
200 100 100 100 100 100
3. Li ch do bn
khong sn
0 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Cho t l chit khu l 12%
a. Vit cng thc tnh NPV cho nh gi d n?
b. Da vo vic tnh ch tiu NPV, hy gii thch: ch d n c thc hin d n
ny khng?
c. Cc nh qun l c mong mun thc hin d n ny khng?
d. Nu cn cho php thc hin d n, c quan qunl phi c chnh sch nh
th no i vi ngi khai thc khong sn?

201
e. Th hin cc kt qu tnh ton trn th.
2. Mt d n sn xut ch phm vi sinh t rc thi d tnh thc hin trong vng 5
nm. Nhng s liu v li ch v chi ph c cho trong bng di y (n v
tnh: triu ng)
Li ch hay chi ph Nm 0 Nm 1 Nm 2 Nm 3 Nm 4 Nm 5
1. Chi ph xy dng v
sn xut
1500 400 450 500 550 600
2. Li ch do bn sn
phm
0 600 650 700 750 800
3. Li ch mi trng 0 200 200 200 200 200
Da vo vic tnh ton ch tiu NPV, hy gii thch:
a. D n c hiu qu hay khng nu b qua vic chit khu cc gi tr li ch v chi
ph (t l chit khu bng 0).
b. Hiu qu ca d n thay i nh th no nu s dng mt t l chit khu l
12% cho cc gi tr li ch v chi ph?
c. Th hin cc kt qu tnh ton trn bng th bin trnh t nm 0 n ht nm
th 5
3. Mt d n nui tm vng ven bin c nhng s liu c bn nh sau:
n v tnh: triu ng
Thi gian (nm)
Li ch/chi ph
0 1 2 3 4 5
202
Doanh thu t sn phm 0 290 280 270 260 250
Chi ph u t v sn xut 450 120 130 140 150 160
Chi ph mi trng
(ngi nui tm khng phi
tr)
0 10 20 30 40 50
Ngi nui tm c vay tin t ngn hng vi li sut 8%/nm; Cc nh kinh t
li tnh rng chi ph c hi ca tin trong giai on ny l 10%
a. Ngi nui tm s tnh NPV cho d n ny nh th no? C nn thc hin d n
ny khng?
b. Cc nh qun l kinh t v mi trng s nh gi nh th no v hiu qu ca
d n?
c. Nu d n ny thc hin, cc nh qun l nn c chnh sch nh th no i
vi ngi nui tm?


Chng IV
Khan him ti nguyn, dn s, kinh t v mi
trng

I. khan him ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh.
1. Gii thiu chung.
- c tnh ring bit ca nhng ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh l c
mt tng tr lng c nh do thin nhin to ra, do vy hin ti cng s dng
nhiu th trong tng lai tnh khan him li cng cao, khi nim v sn lng bn
vng s khng ph hp i vi ngun ti nguyn ny, thay vo iu chng ta
cn quan tm trong qun l ngun ti nguyn khng ti sinh l tc cn kit dn
va s lng nn khai thc l bao nhiu cho nn kinh t.Lin quan n vn
ny,chng ta cn xem xt ti nhng nguyn tc kinh t trong khi nim khan him
ti nguyn thin nhin v cch o s khan him .
- Kh nng sn c v s khan him ti nguyn .
+ Thut ng kinh t n gin,s khan him s c phn nh bng chi ph
v gi c. Thc t cho thy vic o lng v d on kh nng sn c v s khan
him ca ti nguyn thin nhin hin nay v tng lai l rt phc tp.Vic i
hi phi c mt s kt hp hi ho ca cc ngnh khoa hc nh vt l, khoa hc
k thut nguyn vt liu v d liu, cc phng php v k thut phn tch kinh
t.em i chiu tr lng tim nng ca cc ngun ti nguyn khng ti sinh vi
tc s dng ti nguyn trong tng lai (gn vi s gia tng dn s, tin b ca
khoa hc k thut v cng ngh, kh nng p ng v yu cu ca nn kinh t
quc dn vv...) r rng y l mt vic lm khng chc chn. Cho nn nhng s
tranh lun v khan him s l mt phn ca vn thc h mi trng.
+ Quan im gii hn v s tngtrng(LTG- Limits to growth) ng
ngha vi gii hn kh nng c sn ti nguyn i vi s tng trng bao hm
hai gi hn thch hp c th i vi s tng trng kinh t l :
. Kh nng hn ch ca mi trng thin nhin tip nhn cht thi do cc h
thng kinh t thi ra
. Tnh cht gii hn ca ngun ti nguyn thin nhin khng ti to .

203
Chng gn lin vi nhng nhn nhn trin vng ca Malthus ( theo tn ca
Malthus, ngi c bi vit ni ting v s khan him c xut bn nm 1798).
T trin vng ny,s khan him vt cht tuyt i
- S cn kit ht ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, c tin on s l hu qu c th
xy ra nht trong tng lai gn v trung hn. Mt lun im khc lin h hc
thuyt tn Manthus nhn mnh s quan trng ca cc gii hn mi trng i vi
cc hot ng khai thc ti nguyn. Lp lun ny ch yu cho rng tip tc khai
thc cc ti nguyn c cht lng ngy cng thp hn s phi i hi mt khi
lng rt ln nng lng,do s to ra mt mc nhim khng th chp
nhn c v lm tn hi n cnh quan v nhng tin nghi p ng cho con
ngi
Sau khi tc phm ca Ricardo c xut bn vo nm 1817, vi quan im
i lp li ca Ricardo, mt bc tranh lc quan hn nhiu v s khan him ti
nguyn c ni ln cho rng, cc nh hng ca s cn kit ti nguyn s t
biu hin vic tng chi ph v gi nguyn vt liu qua thi gian khi cc cng ty
khai thc cc m ti nguyn phm cht thp. Tuy nhin nhng nh hng ny s
c b tr bi nhng yu t khc.Cc cng ty khai thc s t nhiu n lc hn
vo vic thm d v khm ph nhng m mi, ng thi nhng tin b cng ngh
s cho php s dng cc m thay th, chng hn cc phng php khoan v thm
d cho php khai thc c hiu qu hn v cc phng php ch bin mi s nng
cao cht lng ca ngun ti nguyn. Ngoi ra th trng s phn ng li i vi
cc tn hiu tng chi ph hoc gi c bng cch cho s thay th nguyn liu mi
hoc cch thc mi v s dng nguyn vt liu, kh nng tng cc hot ng ti
s dng ph liu s l xu hng c cc doanh nghip la chn v a thch hn .
2. M hnh khai thc v kh nng cn kit i vi ngun ti nguyn khng
c kh nng ti sinh.
2.1. Nhn nhn thc tin v s khan him ti nguyn; cc ch tiu khan him vt
l
Nhng s o lng vt l v s khan him c th tnh ton bng cch kt hp s
liu a l v tr lng khong sn hoc nng lng vi mt s cc d on v
nhu cu cho cc ngun ti nguyn ny. Tuy nhin i vi cc s liu c tnh quy
m tr lng ti nguyn khng ti sinh c iu chnh thng xuyn.Theo nh
cch nhn nhn ca c quan iu tra a cht Hoa k, a ra cc c tnh theo
quc gia v ton c v tr lng v tr lng tim nng ca cc m khong sn.,
h thng phn loi nm 1972 ca c quan ny da trn s s phn chia ca
Mckelveys chp nhn rng ri nht v phn bit r rng gia tr lng v
ngun ti nguyn.Loi tr lng bao gm tt c cc khong sn xc nh v mt

204
a cht cho khai thc kinh t v phn thnh nhm tr lng c xc nh, tr
lng c kh nng v tr lng c th da trn c s xc nh v mt a cht.Tt
c cc m khc c gi l ngun ti nguyn v l do cha c khm ph hoc
v s khai thc khng c tnh kh thi (c th do kh khn v cc vn kinh t v
k thut lm cn tr s khai thc). Loi ti nguyn ny oc chia ra thnh 2 nhm
thuc phng din cn bin v di cn bin. Xc nh nhm cn bin l nhng
ti nguyn c th khai thc vi gi cao gp 1,5 ln mc gi hin hnh v nhm
di v nhm di cn bin l nhng ti nguyn khng th khai thc ngay c
mc gi cao hn gi ny. Bng phn loa ca Mckelvey c a ra xut bn nm
1976, chng ta c th xem xt bng ny s IV.1

c xc nh Cha c khm ph

c chng minh

Gi nh
(cc vng bit)

Suy on
(cc vng cha c
khm ph)
c o
lng
c ch
bo
c
suy ra

Lng d tr kinh t

Di kinh
t

Ngun ti nguyn

205
Tng mc
tnh kh thi
v kinh t
(gi c,chiph
cngngh )
Tng mc chc chn m bo v mt
a cht
(thnh phn ho hc, tp trung,nh

Ngun: Bn tin iu tra a cht Hoa K
S 4.1:loi biu dng hp ca Mckelvey:Ti nguyn v tr lng
Thng qua s trn, nhng cm t cn c hiu nh sau
+ Ti nguyn ban u : l s lng ca ti nguyn trc khi a vo sn
xut
+ Ti nguyn xc nh : L nhng ti nguyn m a im phn cp, cht
lng v s lng ca chng,c bit hoc c c tnh t nhng xc nh a
cht c th. Loi ny bao gm cc thnh phn : Kinh t v di kinh t v c th
c chia nh da vo cc l do chc chn v mt a cht thnh cc nhm o
lng (c chng t), c ch bo (c kh nng cao) c suy ra (c th c)
+ Ti nguyn c chng minh, c o lng cng vi c ch

bo .
+ c o lng- quy m, hnh dng, su v hm lng khong sn cc
ngun ti nguyn c xc lp r rng
+ c ch bo tc l s liu a cht khng y nh s liu ca ti
nguyn c o lng nhng vn c th tt c tnh quy m, hnh dng
v.v... cc c tnh ca khong sn .
+ c suy ra : Tc l tnh lin tc c gi thit cho s liu, cc c tnh
khng c h tr nh vo cc mu v o c .
+ C s tr lng: l b phn ca ngun ti nguyn c xc nh
tho mn cc tiu chun ti thiu v mt vt l v ho hc c nh trc lin
quan n vic khai thc m hin nay v thc tin ca sn xut, bao gm cc tiu
chun v phm cp, cht lng, dy v chiu su.C s tr lng ny l ngun
ti nguyn c chng minh a im, tr lng c c tnh t ngun ti
nguyn c chng minh. Cn c vo tr lng xc nh nhng ngun ti
nguyn thuc v tr lng kinh t hin ti, kinh t cn bin v mt s hin ti
nhng di cn bin.
+ Tr lng - l phn tr lng c th khai thc hoc sn xut kinh t
thi im xc nh
+ Ti nguyn khng c khm ph - S tn ti ca ti nguyn ny ch
c gi nh l c tht bao gm cc khong sn tch bit khi ti nguyn
c xc nh r.
+ Ti nguyn gi nh: l ti nguyn cha c khm ph tng t nh
cc khi lng khong sn nhn bit v c th c kh nng tn ti hp l trong
cng mt khu vc ang sn xut hoc trong vng c nhng iu kin a cht
tng t .
+ Ti nguyn suy on, l nhng ti nguyn cha c khm ph, c th
d on xy ra cc loa m c nhn bit trong cc lp a cht thun li, ni
y khong sn cha c khm ph, hoc nhng loi khong sn cho ti nay
cha c nhn bit v tim nng kinh t.
Mc ch c bn ca h thng Mckelvey l tr gip cho vic hoch nh
chnh sch c tnh di hn trong vic khai thc v s dng ti nguyn thin nhin,
bng cch kt hp cc thng tin v kh nng c th khm ph cc khong sn mi,
v s pht trin quy trnh khai thc kinh t cho cc khong sn khng th khai thc
hin nay cng nh cc khong sn c sn bit c th c khai thc ngay. Nh
vy cc ngun ti nguyn s lin tc c nh gi li trn c s nhng kin thc
a cht mi, tin b ca khoa hc k thut v s thay i cc iu kin kinh t v

206
chnh tr. V th cho nn ngun ti nguyn c bit, c phn loi da trn
c s ca hai dng thng tin : cc tnh cht v a cht hoc vt l. ho hc (bao
gm phm cp cht lng, trng ti, dy v su ca nguyn vt liu a
im m) v kh nng sinh li v mt ti chnh da trn chi ph khai thc v tip
th mt thi im nht nh .
2.2. Cc ch tiu khan him da trn c s chi ph hay gi c
Trong o lng kinh t ba ch tiu khan him c s dng v truyn b rng ri
l
- Chi ph thc tin ca sn xut ( tc l nhng chi ph cn thit ca cc nhn
t u vo khai thc v ch bin mt n v sn phm u ra ) .
- Gi thc (c ngha l gi tng i c lin quan )
- Gi tham kho (gi bng- tc l cc i din nh chi ph ca vic sn xut
thm mt n v ca tr lng c xc nh) cho chi ph ngi s dng khng
th quan st c ca ti nguyn (gi tr b mt do vic s dng mt ti nguyn
hin nay hn l trong tng lai).
2.3. Mt s nguyn tc kinh t c bn i vi khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn
khng ti sinh.
i vi vic khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn khng ti sinh chng hn nh khai
thc khong sn, cc cng ty khai thc phi tri qua mt tin trnh gm 3 giai on
c quan h ln nhau v rt phc tp l thm d pht trin v khai thc. Cc giai
on ny c th hin bng s sau :

c tnh quy m v Phc ho thm Chuyn tr lng
c im a vt l v cc m t t ra

Thm
d
Pht
trin
Khai
thac

Xc nh m Chun b a im Chun b cho
Ti nguyn khai thc phn phi v bn

207
S 4.2 :M hnh kinh t n gin ca khai thc ti nguyn

Mt c im ca cng nghip khai thc khong sn l khng ging hu ht cc
khu vc sn xut khc, sn xut trong thi k bt k no khng c lp vi sn
xut trong thi k bt k no khc.Tc hin nay ca vic khai thc mt khong
sn s nh hng ti lng c th khai thc ca khong sn trong thi k tng
lai.Do o ph tn ca vic khai thc mt khong sn hm nay ph thuc khng ch
vo mc s dng hin ti cc u vo sn xut cn thit (lao ng, nng lng
v.v...) v gi c ca chng m cn vo mc s dng u vo trong qu kh v
s nh hng ca vic khai thc hin nay vo kh nng sinh li tng lai ca m
khong sn .
- Hot ng khai thc hin nay c th nh hng ti mc tr lng c sn dng
trong tng lai bng 2 cch ngc nhau. Mt s tng t l khai thc giai on
hin nay c th lm gim mc tr lng ca mt m c th. Ngc li, mt t
l khai thc nh th c th tng cc hot ng d tm v pht trin s dn n s
tng mc tr lng tng lai.
Cng nghip khai thc khong sn cng chu s can thip ng k ca Chnh ph.
S can thip ny do cc mc tiu chnh sch nh s kch thch tng trng kinh t,
s cn thit m bo t tc quc gia i vi cc nguyn vt liu chin lc, tng
cng tnh cht ch trong bo v ti nguyn thin nhin mi trng.
i vi ti nguyn ti sinh v khng ti sinh t l chit khu c vai tr quan trng
trong vic xc nh tc s dng cc ngun ti nguyn . C th l :
+ i vi ti nguyn ti sinh :
T l chit khu = tc tng trng sinh hc + tng trng gi tr vn
+ i vi ti nguyn khng ti sinh
V khng c chc nng tng trng v c mt quy m c nh, cho nn cng thc
tr thnh :
T l chit khu = tng trng gi tr vn
Ngha l ti nguyn khng ti sinh s phi b cn dn theo phng thc tc
tng gi ca cc ta nguyn c khai thc phi bng t l chit khu.Cng thc
ny c bit n nh cng thc ca Hotelling n gin (sau bi phn tch ca
Hotelling c xut bn nm1931), v n ch ng dng cho trng hp n gin
nht.Chng hn nh cc hng hay cng ty c chi ph ca vic khai thc bng
khng .
Kinh t hc ti nguyn thin nhin coi ti nguyn trong lng t nh vn t bn.
Bng cch gi nguyn ti nguyn trong lng t (bo tn chung), ngi ch ti

208
nguyn c th ch i thu nhp t bn v gi ti nguyn tng theo thi gian. Ngi
ta s khng quan tm gia vic gi ti nguyn mt t v khai thc n nu t l
sinh li thu nhp ca vn bng t l li sut cc ti sn thay th khc, bi v
ngi ch c th khai thc by gi v bn u t doanh thu bt k ni no
khc trong nn kinh t ( mt li sut dng ) .
Nh chng ta gi nh khng c tnh thc t v s khai thc khng c chi ph,
gi c ti nguyn trong lng t ging nh gi c ca ti nguyn c khai thc
(c hiu bit nh gi ngun). Tuy khi chng ta b gi thit ny(v by gi
chng ta c cc chi ph khai thc dng), chng ta c hai gi khc nhau. Ga trong
lng t (c hiu mt cch khc nhau nh tin thu, m hoc tin t ) by gi l
nh hn gi ngun ( s khc nhau l chi ph khai thc).Cho rng mt s lng
c nh ca khong sn cho khai thc, chi ph ton b ca vic khai thc s bao
gm mt yu t b sung (chng ta gi l chi ph ngi s dng). Chi ph ngi s
dng phn nh chi ph c hi ca vic khai thc hin nay vo li nhun tng lai
bi v mt n v u ra c khai thc hin nay khng cn c khai thc
tng lai (v c ly li nhun vi gi ph bin trong tng lai). Li nhun
tng lai b mt ny do vic gim s lng khong sn c sn tht s l mt chi
ph cho ngi khai thc m, ging nh mt chi ph u vo hin nay, v vy :
Chi ph khai thc = chi ph ngi s dng +chi ph hot ng hin nay
v Gi ti u = chi ph khai thc + chi ph ngi s dng
Xem m hnh n gin hnh 4.1 ta thy r kt qu va phn tch c lin quan
n chi ph ngi s dng :

209

MCt+ UC
MCt
Pt
Chi ph v gi
O Y* Yt S lng khai thc
Hnh 4.1 : S ph thuc s lng khai thc vo chi ph v gi c .
Thng qua hnh IV.1, vic phn tch ca chng ta bt u trong thi gian t, thi
gian hin ti .Gi s cng ty khai thc ng u vi cc chi ph hot ng cho
mi n v u ra (khai thc) c xc nh bng ng cong MCt (chi ph cn
bin thi gian t ) . Mc tng vi u ra mt khong thch hp. ng cong chi
ph cao nht l MCt+UC bao gm c thnh phn chi ph ca ngi s dng .
Nu chng ta gi nh rng cng ty khng c nh hng vo gi c (c ngha l

cc iu kin th trng cnh tranh), nh vy c ngha l thi im t, gi c l Pt
c biu din bng mt ng nm ngang. By gi cng ty s tng tc khai
thc ca mnh v phi tnh thm chi ph ngi s dng Uc. Nu gi Pt khng i
th r rng buc cng ty phi gim mc sn lng khai thc c tnh ti u l Yt* .
Thng thng ngi ch ti nguyn s c gng ti a ho tng li nhun (doanh
thu-chi ph) theo trc thi gian nm ngang v s la chn t l khai thc hp l, v
ton b lng khong sn ni chung khng b khai thc ht, iu c nghi l
tng mc khai thc c ti a ho gi tr hin ti ca dng li nhun chit
khu. Do vy mt ngi ch c th thc hin ti a ho li nhun bng cch tr
hon s khai thc nu h d on c rng gi c ca khong sn s tng ng
k trong tng lai.(tc l s tng chi ph ngi s dng trong khai thc hin hnh)
hoc nu chi ph khai thc c xem nh l gim trong tng lai v c mt s t
ph k thut v cng ngh trong cc phng php khai thc hoc ch bin qung .
Mt khc, nu li sut hin nay i vi u t ti chnh tng th mc tng ny s
lm tng tc khai thc khong sn hin ti cc m bit n. Mt ngi ch
ti nguyn s c phng n la chn khai thc m n mc ti a hin nay v
u t li nhun ca mnh c c li sut cao, v trn thc t li nhun hin
ny to ra gi tr ln hn so vi li nhun tng lai (theo thut ng kinh t, ngi
ch s chit khu li nhun tng lai cao hn ).
Vic thay i li sut cng c th nh hng n mc cc cng ty khai thc s
n lc thm d v pht trin a im mi nhm khai thc trong tng lai, s thay
i li sut cng nh hng ti vic u t vo cc thit b c bn mi cc m
ang hot ng ln cc m mi .
2.4. Kt lun
i vi m hnh kinh t n gin, chng ta c th hiu rng cc cng ty khai thc
s i ph vi hai quyt nh lin c quan c bn l :
-Tc khai thc ti nguyn v
- Khong thi gian khai thc (hoc tng d tr khai thc )
Tc khai thc kinh t c xc nh bng cch cn bng gi mong mun
c chit khu, ta cn lu rng cc chi ph khai thc bao gm khng ch nh
hng ca khai thc hin nay vo chi ph hin ti m cn nh hng ca khai thc
hin nay vo chi ph v li nhun tng lai (chi ph ngi s dng)
Tng s ca mt tr lng khai thc kinh t ph thuc vo gi tng lai ca ti
nguyn c ni n v s nh hng ca vic khai thc hin nay n chi ph khai
thc tng lai .
Nhn chung mc d s o lng khan him ti nguyn l mt cng vic khng

210
n gin v kt qu nghin cu s khan him kinh t khc nhau c tranh
lun v xut bn ph bin c nhiu im khng nht qun, tuy nhin iu
khng c ngha th gii s t ngt thiu ht hn cc khong sn v nhin liu m
th gii cn cho pht trin trong tng lai .
II. khan him ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh
1. Gii thiu chung.
Ta nguyn c th ti sinh nh c,cy ci l loi ti nguyn s ti to bn thn
chng trong mt ch qun l thch hp,iu ny c ngha l ti nguyn c th
ti sinh ,cng vn c kh nng b cn kit nu chng khng c qun l theo kiu
bn vng .
Phn ny chng ta s xem xt v cc ti nguyn c th ti sinh v t ra vn
xem nhng ti nguyn ang c qun l nh th no v chng cn phi c
qun l ra sao,thng qua chng ta hiu c v sao cc ti nguyn c th ti
sinh thng b lm dng ,thm ch b hu dit .
2. M hnh khai thc v kh nng cn kit i vi ngun ti nguyn c kh
nng ti sinh.
2.1. Mi quan h gia sn lng khai thc v tr lng sn c ca ti nguyn
-Sn lng khai thc l s lng ti nguyn c chng ta ly ra t ngun ti
nguyn thin nhin ti sinh phc v cho mc ch kinh t .
-Tr lng sn c ca ti nguyn ngha l vn ti nguyn t nhin c c trong
mi trng .
-Nh vy i vi ti nguyn ti sinh, gia sn lng khai thc v tr lng vn c
c mi quan h rng buc rt cht ch.Nu chng ta khai thc sn lng vt qu
mc ti sinh do tr lng vn c to ra th nguy c cn kit tr lng l tt yu.
Ngc li, nu chng ta khai thc sn lng nh hn mc ti sinh do tr lng
vn c to ra th tr lng ta nguyn tip tc gia tng.Phng n ti u nht l
khai thc sn lng ng bng mc ti sinh do tr lng vn c ca ti nguyn
trong mi trng to ra .
V d :Chng ta hy tng c 1.000 con c v mi nm tr lng ny ti sinh
10%, tc l 100 con, vy ba kh nng sn lng nh bt xy ra.Th nht, cui
nm chng ta nh bt 11% tr lng sn c ca ti nguyn thin nhin, ngha
l nh bt 110 con, nh vy so vi ti sinh chng ta nh bt vo tr lng sn
c l 10 con, nguy c tr lng c s cn kit dn.Th hai cui nm chng ta
ch nh bt mc sn lng l 9%, ngha l n c c nh bt l 90 con, so vi
mc ti sinh cn d li 10 con .Tr lng n c c xu hng sinh si ny n

211
.Th ba l chng ta nh bt mc sn lng ng bng 10% ngha l nh bt
100 con, ng bng mc ti sinh do tr lng sn c to ra, nh vy chng ta vn
bo tn c tr lng sn c nhng ng thi khai thc ti u mc sn lng ti
sinh to ra.Trng hp ny c th gi 100 con c nh bt hng nm l sn lng
c tnh bn vng .
Trong thc tin nghin cu v ti nguyn c th ti sinh, cc nh khoa hc v kinh
t sinh thi pht hin ra rng c th ti sinh th tr lng c th ca ti
nguyn phi c mt mc gii hn no rt thp th kh nng ti sinh ca ti
nguyn cng s b mt, ngi ta gi l ti nguyn b tuyt chng.Trong v d
nu trn, thay v 1000 con c, chng ta bt u vi 500 con, chng ta khng th
gi thit rng sn lng nh bt l 10% tc l 50 con .V rng 500 con c liu
chng ta xc nh l mc tr lng gii hn ti thiu cho ti sinh hay cha.V
c m bo rng 500 con c ti sinh 10% mi nm tng ln 50 con hay khng.
Mt khc, i vi cc ng vt, chng sinh tn v ti sinh cn lin quan cht
ch ti ni c tr t nhin, tc l khi mt vng qun c ca mt s loi no b
gim xung di mt kch thc no th n s khng nui sng c cc loi
hoang d. iu ny xy ra vi n voi rng ni Ty nguyn ca nc ta.
Khi din tch rng b thu hp chng khng cn ni sinh sng v dn n hu qu
l quay tr v bn lng ph phch, nguy c b suy gim v tr lng
Trong qun l kinh t i vi cc ngun ti nguyn ti sinh, vn lin quan cht
ch vi nhau l sn lng ti sinh, tr lng sn c v n lc khai thc, i vi n
lc khai thc s lin quan cht ch vi mc thu nhp em li so vi mc chi ph
b ra. Nh vy m hnh ho nhng vn ny l mc tiu chnh qun l kinh
t nhm khai thc c hiu qu cc ngun ti nguyn c th ti sinh .
Nhm mc ch minh ho cho vn l lun nu trn, thng qua cc m hnh gi
nh sau chng ta phn tch bn cht kinh t ca khai thc ti nguyn c th ti
sinh, t a ra quan im qun l bn vng i vi loi ti nguyn ny trong
thc tin khai thc nh th no .
Gi s thng qua th hnh VI.2(a,b,c) biu hin mc tr lng v sn lng ti
sinh cng nh n lc nh bt c mt vng bin hay mt h t nhin hoc mt
on sng no .

212

S
C
E
MS
MS
MS
Tr

Sn
0
S
0
S
MS
S
CC

Tr
N lc
N lc

Sn
E
0
E
MS
E
MA
N lc
Tr
E
0

S
0

213

Hnh IV.4: (a) Mi quan h gia sn lng v tr lng
E
OA
E
PR
(c)

Thu
nhp chi
ph
E
0
E
MS
E
MA
Thu
nhp ti
a
N lc
Tng chi ph
Ngy lm vic x lng mi
ngy
(b) Mi quan h gia sn lng v n lc nh bt
(c) Mi quan h gia doanh thu, chi ph v n lc nh bt

Thng qua hnh 4 .2 (a,b,c) ta ch ti c mt mc sn lng ti a bn vng
(MSY.Maiximum sustainable Yield) sau sn lng gim xung.N s tip tc
gim cho n khi sn lng bng khng. iu ny trong thc t cho thy tr
lng c tip tc tng nhng ch tng n mc c th chu c ca mi trng
xung quanh. Mi s gia tng hn tr lng s dn n mt s c th cht do thiu
ngun thc n.Tr lng c tng quan n kh nng c th gnh chu ca mi
trng gi l tr lng cn bng t nhin: chnh l sn lng c s tn ti nu
nh chng hon ton khng b nh bt.Trong s cn bng t nhin s lng c
cht i s cn i bng s lng sinh ra, nu v mt vi l do no , s lng
cht tng ln th ngun c c th xung di mc kh nng chu ng ca mi
trng v quy nh pht trin s tng nhanh hn t li mc c th chu ng.
Nu s lng c vt qu mc ny th tc cht s tng nhanh hn s c sinh ra
v ngun c s tr li mc cn bng .
Hnh 4.2 (a) minh ha sn lng v tr lng c mi lin h ln nhau nh th
no.Ta thy rng khi tr lng nh th sn lng ca c s cao. Khi cnh tranh
ngun thc n xy ra, tc gia tng ca sn lng ( dc ca ng cong) bt
u nh dn v sn lng t cc i ta S
MSY
.Tc tng trng ca sn lng
sau s bt u m (tc l ng cong bt u nghing dc xung) cho n
im Scc, ni m sn lng bng khng , ngha l tc sinh v tc t vong
hon ton bng nhau (chng ta lu rng : sn lng l khong cch tung gia
trc honh v ng cong tng trng.Tc tng trng ca sn lng chnh l
dc ca ng cong tng trng ).
Hnh 4.2 (b) th hin n lc nh bt v sn lng, y chng ta cn lu rng
n lc nh bt v quy m ca tr lng c quan h nghch o. Khi n lc nh
bt tng ln th tr lng gim xung, v ngc li . Do vy ng th tng
trng ca hnh (a) ,trong hnh(b) c th quay ngc tr li ph hp vi mi
quan h gia sn lng v n lc nh bt .Ngha l n lc nh bt tng th giai
on u sn lng tng, n mc ti u E
MSY
no th n lc nh bt cn
bng vi sn lng, sau l qu trnh n lc nh bt tng th sn lng gim,
sn lng gim ti 0 khi n lc nh bt l E
MAX
Hnh 4.2(c) th hin mi quan h doanh thu chi ph v n lc ca s nh bt.
m hnh ho m phng ng cong tng trng, lin quan n mc sn lng
nh bt vi doanh thu, chi ph ngi ta gi thit mi tn c thu hoch bn cng
mt gi v sn lng c nh bt lun bng sn lng. Do vy ng cong sn
lng c th c din t li nh l ng cong doanh thu, bi v doanh thu
=(lng nh bt )x(gi). By gi chng ta bt u gii thch th khai thc c
nh mt th kinh t hc. tnh c chi ph v t xc nh ng cong chi
ph, hay ng cong ca s n lc nh bt ngi ta cn c vo s nga lm vic

214
v mi ngy chu mt khon chi ph trung bnh nh nhau cho tt c thi gian nh
bt. Nh vy n lc nh bt cng ln th chi ph cng cao, ng cong chi ph c
xu hng dc ln pha trn, iu ny cng rt ph hp vi thc tin .
Nh vy trong hnh 4.2(c) chng ta xc nh c ng tng thu nhp v tng
chi ph, lm c nhim v chuyn i t th sinh hc thun tu sang
th kinh t.Tuy nhin cn lu , trong thut ng chuyn mn ca ngnh kinh t th
th ny l tnh v n khng cho php a vo yu t thi gian .Vic a yu t
thi gian vo cn phc tp hn nhiu.Tuy nhin th tnh vn mang li nhng
hu ch rt quan trng cho cc nh kinh t v qun tr kinh doanh: Th nht, n
cho thy rng im c v nh mt im hp l hng ti l sn lng ti a
bn vng MSY li khng phi l im li ch ti a theo cch nhn ca ngnh
nh bt c, v MSY khng cp g n yu t chi ph, do cng khng c g
ngc nhin khi n khng phi l mt im hiu qu . Thc cht trong hnh
4.2(c) vic khai thc c c li nht l ti im E
PROF,
cn lu rng l im c
mc n lc thp hn so vi mc cn thit MSY .S thu ht ca ngnh nh c i
vi nhng ngi nh c mi tip tc u t nh bt cng ch m rng n mt
chng mc no .Gii hn ca n l ti im EOA, ni li nhun thu v bng
khng, EOA gi l im cn bng t do tip cn hay cn gi l im cn bng
khai thc t do cho vn qun l nh c. Nu n lc nh bt ti a tip cn ti
(E
MAX
) s dn ti nguy c ca vic khai thc qu mc , th 4.2(c) cho thy
khng phi l s ti a ho li nhun hoc s khai thc t do dn ti nguy c
.Tuy nhin nu ng tng chi ph t dc hn th im cn bng khai thc t do
s tin gn n vng nguy c hn .
Tm li qua hnh 4.2(c) im EOA l gii php t do tip cn ,hay khai thc t do
cho vn qun l nh c. Nu c s cnh tranh t do th vn l vic s dng
ngun c, s cnh tranh t do c khuynh hng xut hin khi ngun ti nguyn
khng c quyn s hu hoc khi quyn s hu c xc nh khng r rng, c
ngha l khng c ngi no lm ch ngh c hoc nu c th hn ch tham gia v
t ngun c di mt s hu duy nht, c th l mt cng ty hoc mt tp on.
Nh vy im E
PROF
l im thch hp
Chng ta a ra mt v d phn tch v ti nguyn c th ti sinh tiu biu
nh c t nhin. Trong thc tin, tt c cc loi ti nguyn c th ti sinh nh
ng vt hoang d, rng t nhin u c ngha c trng chung nh vy.Trong
vic qun l chng vai tr ca mi quan h gia doanh thu, chi ph v n lc khai
thc gi vai tr ch o .
2.2. Nhng nguy c e do i vi cc ti nguyn ti sinh thuc s hu chung
trong hot ng kinh t .
Nhng s phn tch trn dn n vic nhiu nh bnh lun cho rng khng

215
nn cho php tham gia t do vo khai thc cc ti nguyn c th ti sinh nh c,
khng ch khng c hiu qu m cn to ra nguy c dn ti cn kit ngun ti
nguyn.
Ta c th chng minh iu va phn tch trn da vo hnh 4.2(c) ti im E
OA
l
im cn bng gn nht i vi n lc ti a E
MAX
. So snh vi th hnh 4.2.(a)
v 4.2.(b) ta thy im n lc ti a trng vi mc tr lng ti thiu. Do vy nu
chng ta c mt tr lng ti thiu ti hn th c mt nguy c thc s l n lc
nh bt ti a s lm cho ti nguyn b tuyt chng. Khi t ra mt gii php khai
thc t do, tc l chng ta tin gn ti E
MAX
nht, ngha l khai thc t do s
dn n nguy c tuyt chng ln nht. Mt khc trong hnh 4.2.(c) ta thy ng
tng chi ph cng thp bao nhiu th E
OA
cng tin gn v E
MAX
by nhiu, do vy
nguy c tuyt chng cng cao. Mt khc trong thc tin cng cho thy tng chi
ph thp tc l nh bt tng i d dng. iu ny l gii ti sao ngi ta li
nh bt c gn b m khng u t cho vic nh bt c ngoi khi xa .
- hn ch nguy c suy gim v tuyt chng cc ngun ti nguyn c th ti
sinh, r rng nh cch minh ho hnh 4.2(c) chng ta phi tm cch nng tng
chi ph ca n lc nh bt, cng c ngha l nng cao gi tr ca ti nguyn.
Chng hn trong thc tin i vi ng vt qu him cn bo tn trn rng nh
h, c nhn no sn bn ngi ta s c nhng quy nh pht tin nng, truy cu
hnh s pht t hoc t hnh, iu cng c ngha l nng cao ng tng chi ph
lm cho im E
OA
cch xa im E
MAX

2.3. Thi gian v chit khu
- Nh chng ta phn tch trn thng qua m hnh 4.2(a.b.c) mi ch l phn
tch cc yu t tnh trong hot ng kinh t, v mt qun l ngi ta cn ch ti
yu t ng, l gi tr ca ng tin bin i theo thi gian, lin quan ti vn
ny chnh l thi gian v chit khu
Trong thc tin hin nhin ca hot ng kinh t c bn ngi ta ch quan tm ti
li ch v chi ph. iu r rng l ngi ta thch c c li ch ngay lc ny hn
l sau v thch tr chi ph sau hn l tr ngay lc ny .c im ny c gi l
thc u tin v thi gian.
T l chit khu c vai tr ht sc quan trng trong vic xc nh t l m theo
cc ti nguyn c th ti sinh (v cn kit ) c s dng .Khng i su vo chi
tit, chng ta c th trnh by theo quy tc c bn nh sau :

T l chit khu = Tc tng trng sinh hc + Tc tng gi tr vn
216
Chng hn i vi c :Tc tng trng sinh hc l tc tng trng ca c,
tc l s tng trng lng ca tr lng c.Tc tng trng trong gi tr t bn

l kh nng thu c li ch do vic khng thu hoch c. Ci li ny s xy ra nu
gi c tng ln theo thi gian, cho nn vic c li di bin lm cho gi tr ca
n tng thm .
-Theo quy tc trn, ngi ta mun bit c mt khi lng c trong bin
xc nh cn phi c thu hoch nh th no m bo ng quy tc . Gi
s minh ho cho quy tc nu ra, chng ta hy a ra mt vi con s c tnh
gi nh nh sau:
Ta bit c t l chit khu l 10% , tc tng trng sinh hc l 3% v
tc tng gi l 5%. Chng ta nn la chn gia thu hoch 100 tn c hin ti
vi gi 100. 000 ng cho mt tn hoc ch i. Nhng tnh ton tng ng cho
chng ta kt qu nh sau :

Thu hoch c
hin ti
Ch i
(thu hoch sau)
Doanh thu
Gi tr chit khu
10.000. 000
10.000 000
10.815 000
9.832 000
Qua bng phn tch trn ta thy :
+ Th nht : i vi thu hoch c hin ti, khng phi tr chit khu, cho
nn tng gi tr c c ca ng tin l 10.000 000 (v 100 tn x 100000
=10.000000 )
+ Th hai ch thu hoch
Sau mt nm gi c tng 5% c ngha mt tn c l 105000, tc tng trng
sinh hc l 3% vy tr lng c s l 103 tn. Nh vy sau 1 nm chng ta c
doanh thu l :103 tn x105000 =10.815000 . Nhng ta bit rng t l chit
khu l 10%. Do vy thc cht v gi tr tin t l :
10.815000 = 9.832 000
1,1
Ta i n kt lun l trong trng hp ny, vic thu hoch phi c tin hnh
ngay, nu sut chit khu cao hn tng cng ca phn t tng ca sn lng v
tng t bn cng li, ti nguyn s c khai thc sm hn l mun .
Gi s t l chit khu l 6%, bi ton c tnh li v c kt qu nh sau :
Thu hoch c
Hin ti
Ch i
(Thu hoch sau )

217
Doanh thu
Gi tr chit khu
10.000000
10.000000
10.815000
10.203 000

Nh vy trng hp t l chit khu 6% thp hn tng gi tr tng sinh hc v
tng t bn cng la, phng n qun l tt nht l ch nm sau khai thc .
Cui cng nu tc chit khu va bng tng mc tng trng sinh hc. Khi
gi tr khai thc ca nm sau l :10.013000 gn xp x vi gi tr khai thc ca
nm u. Nh vy t l chit khu l 8% ta c th khai thc hin ti hoc nm sau
u c .
Qua thc tin phn tch mt v d n gin trn cho ta thy vai tr quan trng ca
t l chit khu i vi vic qun l khai thc ngun ti nguyn c th ti sinh.
Nu t l chit khu ca ngi s dng ti nguyn rt cao, hoc ch n gin l
cao hn so vi tc tng trng sinh hc ca tr lng th ngi ta c khuynh
hng khai thc ngay hn l ch i. Hn na t l chit khu cao s dn ti vic
khai thc qu mc v iu to ra nguy c cn kit ngun ti nguyn ti sinh.
Qua nhn nh ny chng ta c th thy rng nhng chng loi b sn bt n
cn kit hoc gn cn kit ,kh nng tng trng sinh hc chm, chng hn voi v
c voi l nhng v d tiu biu, tc tng trng sinh hc ca chng c kh nng
thp hn t l chit khu v do vy chng c nguy c b khai thc qu mc .
III. Chnh sch kim sot dn s: L thuyt v thc tin.
Cng vi qu trnh gia tng dn s, nhiu vn thch thc ny sinh. Nhiu nh
kinh t bn n mi quan h gia dn s vi pht trin kinh t - x hi, s dng
ti nguyn v mi trng trong cc hc thuyt v dn s.
1. Cc l thuyt v dn s.
1.1 Hc thuyt Malthus
Ni dung c bn ca hc thuyt ca Thomas R. Malthus c trnh by trong cun
sch "Nhng hiu bit v quy lut dn s v tc ng ca n n nng cao i sng
x hi" (1798). Theo Malthus, dn s th gii c 25 nm li tng gp i v tng
ln nh vy t thi k ny sang thi k khc, theo cp s nhn: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
64, 128, 256. Trong khi , da vo quy lut " mu m ca t ai gim dn"
ng cho rng ca ci vt cht ch tng theo cp s cng: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
V th nu mt quc gia c 50 triu dn v hin c lng thc cho 50 triu dn
ny, sau 25 nm na s c 100 triu dn v vn c th lng thc cho 100 triu
dn. Nhng sau 50 nm na, dn s s l 200 triu ngi v sn xut lng thc

218
ch c th tng cung cp cho 150 triu ngi m thi. Sau hai th k, dn s s
ln hn gn 30 ln kh nng cung cp lng thc thc phm; sau ba th k, mi
tng quan ny l 315 ln v sau hai ngn nm, s chnh lch ny l v cng ln,
khng th tnh c. Theo cch tnh ton v lp lun ca Malthus nh vy, nn
tha nhn khu, i ngho, dch bnh v chin tranh l cc hu qu tt yu s xy
ra. M hnh ca hc thuyt Malthus rt n gin v phn nh c im lch s ca
quy lut dn s, nhng s suy lun ca ng cha ng vi thc t. Hc thuyt ny
cha tnh n kh nng pht trin ca khoa hc k thut v quan nim v gia nh
hin i. Malthus cho rng dn s c tng ln mi theo kh nng sinh sn t
nhin m khng quan tm n mt thc t l mc sinh chu tc ng mnh m ca
nn kinh t ng thi, ca nhng quan im x hi v nhu cu c nhn ca tng
kiu gia nh. Malthus ct ngha khng chnh xc cc hu qu x hi ca bin
ng dn s v ra phng php gii quyt khng ng. Thc t, cc yu t kinh
t - x hi hon ton c kh nng tc ng vo hin tng ti sn xut dn s (mc
sinh, mc cht) to ra s tng dn s hp l.
Mc d hc thuyt Malthus khng c s ng h hi th k 19, nhng trong
nhng nm gn y ngi ta li quan tm tr li hc thuyt ny do s tng trng
dn s nhanh cc nc ang pht trin, s lng ph ti nguyn thin nhin, xung
cp mi trng v mi quan tm n ngun cung cp lng thc.
1.2 Hc thuyt v qu dn s
Hc thuyt qu dn s xem xt mi quan h gia tng trng v pht trin kinh
t - x hi vi mc tng dn s.
Thc t cc nc pht trin cho thy cc nc ny tri qua cc giai on din
bin dn s nh sau:
Giai on 1: Thi k trc cch mng cng nghip. Trong thi k ny t sut sinh
v t sut cht ca dn s u kh cao (khong 50 phn nghn) vi mc sinh cao
hn cht t so vi mc cht, v vy dn s tng rt chm, thm ch n nh.
Giai on 2: Thi k cch mng cng nghip. Cng vi nhng tin b trong cng
nghip, mc sng vt cht, tinh thn, chm sc sc kho ban u v phng php y
t cng ng c nng cao, nh t l t vong gim r rt, tui th trung
bnh tng dn t 40 ln 60 tui. Trong khi , t l sinh li khng thay i ng k
so vi thi k trc. Kt qu l dn s trong giai on ny tng ln mt cch nhanh
chng v i khi c gi l "bng n dn s".
Giai on 3: Tc ng ca cng nghip ho ti cc iu kin kinh t - x hi dn
n nhng thay i lm tng tui th trung bnh ca con ngi ng thi li lm
cho mc sinh gim dn. n cui giai on ny, mc sinh v mc cht u thp v
cn bng mc khong 10 phn nghn, dn s n nh. Nguyn nhn ch yu l

219
lc ny i sng cao, chm sc y t tt, ph n tham gia lao ng sn xut v cc
cng tc x hi khc nn s ch em ly chng mun chim t l cao; bn thn cc
gia nh cng c thc sinh t con b m t phi u t thi gian v tng dn
u t vt cht, tinh thn cho con (chuyn t nhu cu "s lng" sang "cht lng"
i vi con ci)
Nh vy dn s cc nc pht trin i t trng thi cn bng lng ph (sinh
nhiu, cht nhiu) sang trng thi cn bng tit kim hn (sinh t, cht t). Gia hai
trng thi ny l mt thi k ko di khong 150 nm Chu u. Thuyt qu
dn s rt hu ch trong nghin cu i vi cc nc ang pht trin; mc d tun
theo s tng qut ca qu dn s nhng thc t cho thy bin i mc sinh
v mc cht cc nc ngho din ra nhanh hn, qu dn s rt ngn li, ng
lc v cc hu qu ca qu dn s cng c nhiu im khc vi qu dn s
Chu u. Cu hi t ra l liu cc quc gia ngho c t ng chuyn i sang giai
on 3 khi m mc sng ca cc quc gia ny tng ln v liu qu trnh cng
nghip ho, hin i ho c phi l gii php kh thi cho vn dn s khng i
hi nhng nghin cu su hn v nguyn nhn ca nhng thay i trong thi k
ny.

Giai
on 1
Giai
on 3 n 2
Thi gian
o
Giai
T sut sinh
T sut cht
T sut sinh v
cht hng nm
()

Hnh 4.3: Qu dn s
1.3 Hc thuyt kinh t vi m v mc sinh
Trong cc phn tch mc sinh da vo l thuyt kinh t vi m, tr em c nhn
nhn nh nhng hng ho mang li tho dng cho ngi tiu dng trong mt
thi gian di. Theo l thuyt hnh vi ngi tiu dng, cc c nhn (trong trng
hp ny l cc ng b, b m) vi mc thu nhp nht nh s c gng ti a ho
mc tho dng ca mnh thng qua vic la chn tiu dng cc hng ho hng
ngy, cc hnh thc dch v, ngh ngi, d lch v la chn vic cn sinh bao
nhiu con c th bo m iu kin thu nhp, lao ng cng nh cc nhu cu

220
hc hnh, chm sc sc khe, chm lo i sng tinh thn cho con ci. S la chn
ca h chu nh hng ca thu nhp v gi c ca cc loi hng ho. Gi c ca con
ci chnh l cc chi ph kinh t cho tr em, bao gm chi ph ti chnh (thc n, qun
o, nh , hc hnh, thuc men) v chi ph c hi (chi ph hay thu nhp m cha
m mt i nh ngh vic hoc t b c hi tham gia cc hot ng x hi khc
nui con).
cc nc pht trin, chi ph kinh t cho tr em kh cao; c bit, s gia tng mc
tham gia ca ph n vo lao ng v tin lng cao hn trn th trng lm
tng thm chi ph c hi ca tr em (
). Mt khc, khi thu nhp tng, cc ng b b

m mun con ci h c chm sc, hc hnh tt hn, tc l h thch mt "cht
lng" hn l "s lng".
S la chn s con mong mun, mt khc, cn ph thuc vo nhng li ch kinh t
m cha m hy vng nhn c t con ci trong tng lai. Trong x hi pht trin,
con ci t c thi gian chm sc v tr gip b m hn, ng thi cc khon
lng hu v tr cp x hi c m bo khin cho cha m gi khng b l thuc
vo s phng dng ca con ci na. Nh vy, vi cc nc pht trin, tr em
khng phi l mt lnh vc u t tt v chi ph th cao m li ch kinh t li thp.
Ngc li, cc nc ang pht trin, chi ph cho tr em thp hn nhiu, c bit
l vng nng thn v nhng ni tr em khng i hc, ph n t tham gia lao ng
x hi. nhng ni ny, li ch t con ci li tng i ln v ngay t lc cn t
tui, tr em c th lao ng ng gp vo thu nhp ca gia nh; khi cha m
gi, con ci c th tr gip v kinh t v chm sc lc m au. Do , khi kinh t -
x hi cha pht trin, th mc sinh cao, hin tng "con n chu ng" l iu d
thy.
S phn tch hnh vi sinh c th hin trong m hnh cung - cu c bn nh
sau:
221

M, tng chi ph kinh t cho a con th nht, n 18 tui ca mt gia nh c mc sng trung bnh c tnh
khong 100.000 la M (1977) cn auxtralia, chi ph c hi ca mt b m c 2 con l 400.000 la c (1986).

D
1
=
D
2
=
MC
MC
0 q
2
q
1
S con
Chi ph cho

Hnh 4.4: Cu v s con trong gia nh
MC
1
: Chi ph cn bin ca con ci khi kinh t - x hi cha pht trin
MC
2
: Chi ph cn bin ca con ci khi kinh t - x hi pht trin
D
1
= MB
1
: Cu = Li ch cn bin ca con ci khi kinh t - x hi cha pht trin
D
2
= MB
2
: Cu = Li ch cn bin ca con ci khi kinh t - x hi pht trin
Tm li, mi quan h gia pht trin v hnh vi sinh con l quan h hai chiu. T l
sinh gim xung l do cc yu t c bn:
- Ph n c trnh ngy mt cao, c vic lm v thu nhp n nh, c v tr x hi
- Thu nhp ca cc gia nh tng, nhu cu nui dng v chm sc con ci cao hn
- H thng chm sc sc kho v dch v x hi tt, c quan h x hi to cuc
sng tinh thn thoi mi.
2. Pht trin kinh t, dn s v mi trng
2.1 Tc ng ca gia tng dn s n vic s dng ti nguyn v cht lng mi
trng
Dn s c mi quan h trc tip n mi trng thng qua vic s dng ti nguyn
thin nhin, pht trin kinh t v pht thi vo mi trng. Tc ng n ti nguyn
v mi trng (gi tt l tc ng mi trng) ca dn s c Paul Ehrlich v
John Holdren cp nm 1971 di dng mt ng nht thc nh sau:
I = P x F (1)
Trong :
I: Tc ng mi trng ca dn s v cc yu t lin quan n dn s
P: Quy m dn s

222
F: Mc tc ng mi trng tnh bnh qun theo u ngi
Mc tc ng mi trng bnh qun u ngi li l mt hm s c xc nh
bi mt lot bin s.
F = f[P, c, t, g(t)] (2)
Trong :
c: mc tiu dng bnh qun u ngi
t: tc ng mi trng ca cng ngh tnh trn mt n v ti nguyn c
s dng
g: lng ti nguyn c s dng
ng nht thc (1) cng c th c biu din di mt dng khc l:
I = P x A x T (3)
trong :
A: Mc s dng ti nguyn bnh qun u ngi
T: Tc ng mi trng ca vic s dng ti nguyn (hay l tc ng ca
cng ngh)
R rng, tng tc ng ca dn s n mi trng ph thuc vo tng s dn P v
cc bin s lin quan n mc tc ng bnh qun u ngi. M hnh ny cho thy
khng th c s tip tc gia tng dn s m li khng gy ra nhng nh hng
nghim trng n hnh tinh ca chng ta, bi l xu hng t nhin ca con ngi
l lun mun c hng th nhiu hn, tc l tiu th bnh qun u ngi s
tng v v th tc ng ca cng ngh thng qua vic khai thc v ch bin ti
nguyn thin nhin cng khng th gim ng k. Nh Ehrlich pht biu sau
vo nm 1994:
Khng th c s pht trin bn vng nu khng c nhng hn ch i vi tc
gia tng dn s Thm ch ngay c khi nui ngi n gin nh sn xut g
hng lot th cng vn cn mt ngun nng lng v vt cht ti thiu cho mi
ngi (A) v nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc cng ch r mc gii hn ca
hiu sut s dng (T) i vi cc ngun nng lng v vt cht . Cc tc ng
tiu cc ca tnh trng gia tng dn s hin nay trn th gii biu hin cc kha
cnh:
- Sc p ln ti ti nguyn thin nhin v mi trng tri t do khai thc qu mc
cc ngun ti nguyn phc v cho cc nhu cu nh , sn xut lng thc, thc
phm, sn xut cng nghip
- To ra cc ngun thi tp trung vt qu kh nng t phn hu ca mi trng t

223
nhin trong cc khu vc th, khu sn xut nng nghip, cng nghip.
- S chnh lch ngy cng ln gia tng v tc pht trin dn s gia cc nc
cng nghip ho v cc nc ang pht trin, dn n tnh trng nhim do ngho
i cc nc ang pht trin v nhim do tiu ph d tha cc nc cng
nghip ho. S chnh lch ngy cng tng gia th v nng thn, gia cc nc
pht trin v ang pht trin l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn ca s di dn di
mi hnh thc.
- S gia tng dn s th, hnh thnh cc thnh ph ln - siu th gy ra tnh
trng qu ti, lm cho mi trng nhiu khu vc th c nguy c b suy thoi
nghim trng.
Ngun cung cp nc sch, nh , cy xanh khng p ng kp cho s gia tng dn
s; nhim mi trng khng kh, nc, cht thi rn tng ln; Cc t nn x hi
gia tng v vn qun l x hi trong th ngy cng kh khn.

Sc p dn s
Ti nguyn Mi trng
Cht lng cuc sng
Thu
hp
khng
gian c
tr

nhim
v suy
thoi
mi
trng
Khai
thc
qu
mc ti
nguyn
thin
Cung
cp
lng
thc
thc
phm
Pht
trin
vn
ho,
y t,
gio
dc
Thu
nhp
bnh
qun
u
ngi
Pht trin kinh t
B tr
c cu
kinh
t
ngnh
v
lnh
th
Tc

tng
trng
kinh
t
Tng
sn
phm
quc
dn
T gia th k 20 n nay, dn s th gii tng nhanh, c bit l cc nc ang
pht trin. Nu nm 1930, dn s th gii ch c 2 t ngi th n nay t mc
trn 6 t ngi v c th t 10 t ngi vo nm 2050. Do dn s tng nhanh,
duy tr s sng v pht trin sn xut, con ngi khai thc mt cch khng
thng tic ngun ti nguyn thin nhin v cng a dng v tr thnh th phm
ca s tn ph v lm nhim mi trng, ph v cn bng sinh thi.

224
Theo tnh ton ca cc nh khoa hc, nu dn s tng 1% th thu nhp quc dn
phi tng 3 - 4% bo m n nh mc sng, m nu tng 5% thu nhp quc dn
hng nm th trong vng 10 - 15 nm lng s dng ti nguyn thin nhin s tng
gp i. Trong vng mt th k qua, con ngi khai thc t lng t 130 t tn
kh t, tn ph hng lot cnh rng - nhng "l phi xanh ca hnh tinh"
Vic khai thc, ch bin cc nguyn nhin liu thi ra nhiu khi, bi, kh SO
2
,
NO
x
gy ma axit hi ma mng, gy ra cc bin i mi trng v bnh tt cho
con ngi. Tng lng cc cht gy nhim trong nm 1970 l 19 t tn th n
nay tng ln hn 40 t tn. Ti nguyn rng ca th gii cng b suy gim
nghim trng do nhu cu v g, ci, cc loi c sn, dc liu tng ln, ng
thi nhiu din tch rng cn b tn ph ly t trng trt v chn th gia sc;
nn chy rng cng tr nn trm trng nhiu ni trn th gii. Suy gim din tch
rng li dn n nhng sc p ln i vi t: xi mn, ra tri, bc mu, nhim
mn t; hn hn, l lt cng gia tng; cc loi ng thc vt hoang d mt ni c
tr nn suy gim c v chng loi v s lng Lng nc thi do sinh hot v
sn xut nng, cng nghip cng gia tng cng vi qu trnh tng dn s v gy ra
hu qu l gn 50% dn s th gii khng c p ng cc nhu cu v nc sch.
Mc d lp lun ca Ehrlich ch yu tp trung vo s cn thit hn ch mc tng
dn s, ng nht thc I = PAT cng c s dng gii thch cho s cn thit
hn ch tiu dng v tc ng ca cng ngh. Thc t cho thy cc nc ngho vi
tc tng dn s nhanh c th gy ra t nh hng xu n mi trng hn so vi
cc nc giu c mc tiu dng cao hn v cng ngh hu dit hn. Nh vy, mt
trong nhng gi tr c bn ca m hnh I = PAT l n ch r dn s khng phi
l yu t duy nht sn sinh ra tc ng mi trng; Sn xut v tiu dng cng l 2
yu t chng km phn quan trng. iu ny khin ta nh li trong cun Cu ly
Tri t ca IUCN (1991) c vit:
"Tri t c gii hn ca n. sng trong s gii hn , cn thc hin hai vic:
chm dt vic gia tng dn s v cc nc giu phi n nh vic tiu dng ti
nguyn ca h".
2.2 Ngho i v mi trng
Mc d cc quc gia khc nhau trn th gii c nhng quan nim rt khc nhau v
chun mc i ngho, nhng c th ni i ngho trc ht l thiu thn cc nhu
cu c bn ca con ngi nh n, mc, , hc hnh. Hin tng i - ngho ca th
gii ch yu l do s phn phi thiu cng bng lm cho mt s ng dn khng
t mc sng cn thit ti thiu, lm cho th lc, tr lc ca ngi lao ng b hn
ch, tnh sng to ca ngi lao ng khng c t pht trin.
c nhiu bng chng thuyt phc cho thy nhng tc ng tiu cc n mi

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trng c lin quan n tng trng dn s khi mt b phn ngi dn phi i mt
vi ngho i.
Do phi i mt vi s sng cn trc mt, nhng ngi ngho va l nguyn
nhn gy ra cc vn mi trng, va l nn nhn ca chnh s tn ph mi
trng y. chnh l mt "vng trn lun qun" ca ngho i. Do thiu vn,
thiu kin thc v phng tin sn xut, ngi ngho khai thc ti nguyn thin
nhin mt cch ba bi, lng ph, gy ra s cn kit ti nguyn, gy nhim v suy
thoi mi trng, lm cho nng sut cy trng v vt nui gim, cc iu kin v
sinh mi trng xu i. iu ny khin cho con ngi ngy cng ngho i hn v
mc nhiu bnh tt hn.
Chnh nhng b phn dn c ngho nht li thng sng nhng vng nhy cm
nht, d b tn thng nht v mi trng. Trong nhng vng nh vy, cc vn
mi trng thng c pha trn vi nhng n lc tho mn cc nhu cu thit yu
ca ngi ngho nh lng thc, thc phm, cht t, nh , y t v gio dc.
S gia tng v tc v quy m khai thc ti nguyn bin ni chung v hi sn ni
ring mt cch qu mc cng nhng phng tin k thut ngho nn v phng
thc nh bt lc hu, mang tnh hu dit nh dng mn, thuc n, li qut
hu hoi mi trng bin trn quy m ln. Ti nguyn bin, ngun sng ch yu
ca dn ngho ven b, ngy cng cn kit khin cho cuc sng ca h cng kh
khn hn, ngho i hn.
Do yu cu thm canh, tng v nn khi lng s dng ngy cng tng thuc tr
su v phn ho hc cng lm tn hi khng nh n mi trng. t trng la c
lng cht c ngy cng tng, lm cht c - tm - cc ng thc vt thu sinh,
ngun sng quan trng cung cp protein, lm nh hng khng nh n sc kho
con ngi. Do thiu kin thc, nhiu vng lnh th ni c tr ca ngi ngho, vn
cn tn ti mt s thi quen, tp qun sinh hot mt v sinh, gy nh hng tiu
cc n mi trng nh phng u ba bi, dng phn ti bn rung, vt x rc v
xc ng vt cht ra ng, ao h, sng sui; th rng ln, tru, b
Thiu cc cng trnh v sinh bo m, phn ln dn ngho phi phng u ngay trn
cc khu t trng hoc sng, sui, h, ao gy nhim ngun nc, t hoc l s
dng cc nh v sinh chung khng bo m yu cu v sinh.
Thiu nc sch, phi s dng nc ao, h, sng, sui hoc cc ging nng khng
bo m an ton v v sinh l nguyn nhn gy ra v lan truyn cc bnh truyn
nhim v nhim trng nh bnh ng rut, au mt, tiu chy, cc dch st
Ngi ngho nng thn, do mc thu nhp rt thp nn c gng tn dng cc
ngun cht t r tin v d kim nh rm r, l cy, phn gia sc v.v., cn
ngi ngho thnh ph cng dng cc loi cht t r tin nh ci, than y

226
chnh l nhng nguyn nhn ca tnh trng " nhim trong nh", gy nhim rt
c hi v nh hng rt tiu cc n sc kho con ngi, c bit l ph n v tr
em
Tnh trng ngho i, lc hu, km pht trin cng l l do khin t l gia tng dn
s cc khu vc ngho i cao. Ngi ngho thiu hoc khng c tip cn ti
cc kin thc, cc bin php v dch v k hoch ho gia nh; Chi ph kinh t cho
con ci thp so vi li ch ca con ci khin ngi ngho mun c nhiu con hn.
Ni mt cch ngn gn, gia ngho i v mi trng c mi quan h tc ng ch
yu bao gm:
- Ngho i lm cho cc cng ng ngho vn ph thuc vo cc ngun ti nguyn
mng manh ca a phng tr nn d b tn thng do cc bin ng ca t nhin
v x hi.
- Ngho i dn n thiu vn u t cho sn xut, cho kt cu h tng, vn ho,
gio dc v cc d n ci to mi trng.
- Ngho i lm gia tng tc khai thc ti nguyn theo hng qu mc hay hu
dit.
- Ngho i l mnh t l tng cho m hnh pht trin ch th tp trung vo tng
trng kinh t v xy dng mt x hi tiu th.
- Ngho i gp phn vo bng n dn s
3. Cc chnh sch nhm bo m cn i gia gia tng dn s, pht trin
kinh t v bo v mi trng.
Dn s - Pht trin v Mi trng ngy cng c nhn nhn nh l mt th hu c
trong chin lc pht trin ca mi quc gia cng nh ca ton cu. Mc tiu c
mt cuc sng tt hn, vi mc sng, iu kin hc hnh, chm sc sc kho v c
hi kinh t cao hn khng ch c t ra cho cc th h hin ti m cn cho c cc
th h trong tng lai. Mc tiu pht trin bn vng y cn c thc hin thng
qua s kt hp ca cc chnh sch.
3.1 Chnh sch nhm t c t l gia tng dn s hp l.
Trc tnh hnh gia tng dn s hin nay, con ngi ang b e do bi 3 nn i:
i n, i hc v i vic lm. Dn s tng nhanh lm cho khong cch chnh lch
gia ngi giu v ngi ngho ngy cng ln. Nm 1991, ch c 20% s ngi
giu nht nhng chim ti 85% thu nhp ca ton th gii trong khi ngc li, 20%
s ngi ngho nht ch t c 1,4% tng thu nhp ca ton th gii. Hin tng
ngho i kh ph bin cc nc ang pht trin cng vi tc tng dn s
nhanh cc nc ny l nguyn nhn dn n tc khai thc ti nguyn thin

227
nhin cao (nht l cc ti nguyn h nui dng), lm cho ti nguyn b cn kit,
suy thoi, gim a dng sinh hc.
Bn cnh , cc nc ang bc vo giai on cng nghip ho s dng mt khi
lng ln ti nguyn tho mn nhu cu i sng cho s dn ng li pht thi
vo mi trng mt lng cht thi ln hn bao gi ht.
Hng i ti ca th k 21 l phi gim t l tng dn s c th thc hin mi
quan h: c tng 1% dn s, cn tng 3-4% thu nhp quc dn nhm bo m n
nh v nng cao mc sng ca cng ng x hi ng thi bo m s pht trin
khng vt qu gii hn chu ng ca cc h sinh thi.
Tuy nhin, t l tng dn s ph hp cn c xc nh c th cn c vo kh nng
pht trin lc lng sn xut, tc pht trin kinh t - x hi ca mi nc, mi
khu vc. Vi nhng nc cng nghip pht trin, trnh lc lng sn xut cao,
s lng my mc s dng trong sn xut chim t l ln v ngy mt hin i,
nng sut lao ng cao nn nhu cu lao ng hng nm tng khng ng k, thm
ch n nh. Vi nhng nc ny, ch cn tng dn s 0,3 - 0,5% l tho mn
ngun lao ng.
Nhng cc nc ang pht trin, s dng lao ng ca con ngi (bao gm c
lao ng chn tay) chim t l ln, nng sut lao ng thp nn nhu cu v s
lng lao ng cao. Ngoi ra, trong thi gian ti, nhu cu pht trin cc ngnh dch
v, du lch, y t, gio dc, giao thng s i hi gia tng lc lng lao ng c
v s lng v cht lng. Trong mt vi thp k ti, cc nc ang pht trin cn
t l tng dn s mc trn di 1%, thm ch 1,5%/nm. Tuy nhin, do t l gia
tng dn s cc nc ang pht trin hin nay ni chung kh cao nn vic t
c mc tiu tng dn s mc 1 - 1,5% i hi cc nc ny phi c chin lc
v chnh sch thch hp kim sot dn s.
C th s dng chnh sch c cc bin php tc ng trc tip ti bin s dn s, v
d nh chnh sch sinh 1 con Trung Quc, cung cp cc bin php v dch v y
cho k hoch ho gia nh
Hng tip cn kinh t trong vic kim sot dn s l cc bin php chnh sch
nhm gin tip lm gim mc sinh, gim quy m gia nh. N c thc hin
thng qua vic xc lp cc nhn t c th tc ng n quy m ca gia nh, tin
hnh thay i cc nhn t . c th s dng hng tip cn ny, chng ta phi
bit c quyt nh v mc sinh b tc ng nh th no bi hon cnh kinh t ca
cc gia nh. Pht trin kinh t - x hi, nng cao mc sng v cc c hi hc hnh,
vic lm, chm sc sc kho ca con ngi, c bit l to iu kin pht trin cho
ph n c coi l nhng bin php chnh sch dn s gin tip.

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3.2 Chnh sch phn b li dn c v s dng hp l lao ng
V nhng l do lch s, tnh hnh chung ca nhiu quc gia trn th gii l dn c
phn b khng u, khng hp l. Phn ln dn c th gii tp trung mt s vng
ng bng, ven bin. Cc ng bng ln trn th gii nh Hong H, Dng T,
Cu Long, Hng H, Nile u l nhng vng tp trung ng dn c ca cc
nc.
Ngy nay, nhiu nc trn th gii sang giai on cng nghip ho nn vic
hnh thnh cc khu cng nghip, cc vng kinh t mi khai thc ti nguyn
khong sn, nhin liu v cc ti nguyn khc ngoi t v nc tr thnh nhu
cu mi ca nhiu nc. iu i hi phi c chnh sch di dn p ng nhu
cu pht trin kinh t - x hi.
to c sc ht i vi vic iu dn t vng ng dn n vng t dn, cn
phi t chc tt sn xut v c chnh sch gi dn nhng vng tip nhn nhp c.
Kh nng gi dn tt nht l t chc xy dng h thng kt cu h tng y ,
thun li, p ng tt nhu cu sn xut v i sng cho ngi dn, lm cho ngi
nhp c sm thy ho mnh vo cng ng mi. Vic di dn cng cn c bit
quan tm n mi quan h gia s dn tng c hc v kh nng v ti nguyn, mi
trng ca vng tip nhn, cn chun b "sc cha" cho vng tip nhn nhp c
mt cch ton din.
Do cn c mt h thng chnh sch ph hp nh quy nh v s dng ti
nguyn, v xy dng nh , hnh thnh khu dn c mi, xy dng hoc b xung
trng hc, bnh vin, cc h thng dch v khc nh in, nc, ngn hng, giao
thng vn ti v thng tin.
Hin tng di dn t nng thn ra thnh th cng cn c quan tm ng mc v
c nhng chnh sch lm gim p lc cho qu trnh th ho. H thng th
ca cc nc ang pht trin hin nay u b sc p ca 3 vn c bn l nh ,
giao thng v thu gom, x l cht thi. mt s nc, gii quyt sc p ny,
ngi ta xy dng cc thnh ph v tinh, cc khu cng nghip ngoi , m
rng th, dng chnh sch dn dn vng trung tm th v hn ch nhp c
vo thnh ph vi nhng tiu chun cao.
i i vi chnh sch phn b li dn c cn c mt h thng chnh sch s
dng ngun lao ng mt cch hp l, t hiu qu cao nh cc chnh sch v gio
dc, o to, u i ngnh ngh, pht trin vic lm
3.3 Lng ghp cc yu t dn s vo chin lc v k hoch pht trin ca quc
gia cng nh ca cc a phng.
229
Lng ghp cc yu t dn s vo chin lc v k hoch pht trin l mt gii php
rt quan trng nhm t c mc tiu gim mc sinh, gim quy m gia nh, nng

cao cht lng dn s; pht trin ngun nhn lc cht lng cao p ng cho nhu
cu pht trin kinh t - x hi nhanh v bn vng.
Thc t ca nhiu nc trn th gii v ca Vit Nam cho thy, gii quyt vn
dn s s gp nhiu kh khn v tn km c v thi gian, cng sc nu khng
c lin kt vi cc vn mi trng v pht trin, gim ngho i v to c hi
cho pht trin, nng cao trnh dn tr, tng cng vai tr gia nh v thc hin
bnh ng gii trong gio dc v o to, dy ngh v phn cng lao ng, ci thin
v th ca ph n trong gia nh v x hi, u t hp l cho cc vng kh khn,
vng su, vng xa
Vic thc hin cc chng trnh lng ghp c coi l cch thc tt nht t
c cc hiu qu tng hp v hn ch t l gia tng dn s, lm cho vn dn s
hi ho vi pht trin bn vng trn c s bo v mi trng.

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Tm tt chng IV.

Gia ti nguyn, dn s, Kinh t v mi trng c mi quan h vi nhau. S gia
tng dn s nhanh l sc p i vi ngun ti nguyn thin nhin v bo v mi
trng. Ngc li khng c mt lng dn s nht nh s gy ra nhng kh
khn cho pht trin Kinh t. Vn thch thc t ra l lm th no gii quyt
mi quan h hi ho gia cc yu t ni trn. l gii nhng vn c bn
trong ni dung ca chng IV ch yu tp trung vo ba vn .
Th nht bn v vn khan him ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh, t
c s l lun, bng nhng s v m hnh khi qut ho, ngi c c th hiu
c ti sao li xy ra khan him ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh.
Nhng ch tiu no c coi l khan him, trn c s xy dng nguyn tc kinh
t c bn g cho khai thc cc ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh.
Th hai bn v s khan him i vi ngun ti nguyn c kh nng ti sinh. Khc
vi ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh, ngun ti nguyn ny phng
thc tip cn Kinh t v sinh thi c phi hp cht ch vi nhau, s gn kt
c th hin thng qua vn t l chit khu, nguyn tc xc nh nh sau:
T l chit khu = Tc tng trng sinh hc + Tc tng gi tr vn.
Th ba khi qut ho chnh sch dn s, nhng vn l thuyt v thc tin, y l
nhng ni dung mi c a vo lng ghp nghin cu trong Kinh t mi trng
khng ch Vit nam m c trn th gii. Trong ni dung ny c tp trung bn
lun ch yu ba vn ln: i). Cc l thuyt c bn v dn s, bao gm 3 hc
thuyt c bn l hc thuyt Malthus, hc thuyt qu dn s v hc thuyt kinh t
vi m v mc sinh; ii). Pht trin kinh t, dn s v mi trng, trong ni dung ny
tp trung gii quyt 2 vn c bn l xem xt m hnh tc ng ti mi trng
ca s gia tng dn s v vn lin quan gia nho i v mi trng; iii). Cc
chnh sch nhm bo m cn i gia gia tng dn s, pht trin kinh t v bo v
mi trng. Trong ni dung ny bn v 3 nhm chnh sch c bn gm c Chnh
sch nhm t c t l gia tng dn s hp l; Chnh sch phn b li dn c v
s dng hp l lao ng v chnh sch Lng ghp cc yu t dn s vo chin lc
v k hoch pht trin ca quc gia cng nh ca cc a phng.

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Cu hi n tp.

1. Phn tch biu dng hp v ti nguyn v tr lng ca Mckelvey i vi
ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh.
2. i vi ngun ti nguyn khng c kh nng ti sinh, trong o lng kinh t
nhng ch tiu khan him no thng c s dng?
3.Trnh by nguyn tc kinh t i vi vic khai thc ngun ti nguyn khng ti
sinh.
4.Phn tch bng th m hnh khai thc v kh nng cn kit i vi ngun ti
nguyn c kh nng ti sinh.
5. Tnh by mi quan h gia chit khu, tc tng trng v tc tng gi tr
vn c s dng trong phn tch kinh t la chn khai thc ti nguyn c kh
nng ti sinh theo thi gian. Ly v d minh ho.
6. Trnh by ba hc thuyt c bn v dn s.
7.Mi quan h gia pht trin kinh t, dn s v mi trng
8.Phn tch mi quan h gia ngho i v mi trng. Ly v d thc tin
chng minh.
9.Trnh by nhng chnh sch c bn cn thc hin nhm m bo cn i gia gia
tng dn s, pht trin kinh t v bo v mi trng.

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Chng V: Qun l Mi trng

I. Qun l mi trng v vai tr ca Nh nc trong qun l
mi trng.
1.Khi nim qun l mi trng.
Qun l mi trng l tng hp cc bin php, lut php, chnh sch Kinh t, k
thut, x hi thch hp nhm bo v cht lng mi trng sng v pht trin bn
vng kinh t - x hi quc gia.
Vi ni dung trn qun l mi trng cn phi hng ti nhng mc tiu c bn
sau y:
- Th nht l phi khc phc v phng chng suy thoi, nhim mi trng pht
sinh trong hot ng sng ca con ngi.
- Th hai l Pht trin bn vng Kinh t v x hi quc gia theo 9 nguyn tc ca
mt x hi bn vng do hi ngh Rio-92 xut v c tuyn b
Johannesburg, Nam phi v pht trin bn vng 26/8-4/9/2002 ti khng nh.
Trong vi ni dung c bn cn phi t c l pht trin Kinh t - x hi
gn cht vi bo v v ci thin mi trng, bo m s hi ho gia mi
trng nhn to vi mi trng thin nhin, gi gn a dng sinh hc.
- Th ba l Xy dng cc cng c c hiu lc qun l mi trng quc gia v cc
vng lnh th. Cc cng c trn phi thch hp cho tng ngnh, tng a
phng v cng ng dn c.
2. C s Qun l mi trng.
Khi xem xt c s cho qun l mi trng ngi ta da vo bn yu t c bn
sau y.
2.1. C s trit hc ca qun l mi trng.
Trong trit hc ngi ta bn nhiu v nguyn l thng nht ca th gii vt cht,
trong s gn b cht ch gia t nhin, con ngi v x hi thnh mt h
thng thng nht, yu t con ngi gi vai tr quan trng. S thng nht ca h
thng c thc hin trong cc chu trnh Sinh a Ho ca 5 thnh phn c bn:
- Sinh vt sn xut (to v cy xanh) c chc nng tng hp cht hu c t
cc cht v c di tc ng ca qu trnh quang hp.

233
- Sinh vt tiu th l ton b ng vt s dng cht hu c c sn, to ra cc
cht thi.
- Sinh vt phn hu (vi khun, nm) c chc nng phn hu cc cht thi,
chuyn chng thnh cc cht v c n gin.
- Con ngi v x hi loi ngi.
- Cc cht v c v hu c cn thit cho s sng ca sinh vt v con ngi vi
s lng ngy mt tng.
Tnh thng nht ca h thng T nhin Con ngi X hi i hi vic gii
quyt vn mi trng v thc hin cng tc qun l mi trng phi mang tnh
ton din v h thng. Con ngi cn phi nm bt ci ngun ca s thng nht ,
phi a ra c nhng phng sch thch hp gii quyt cc mu thun ny
sinh trong h thng. Bi l con ngi gp phn quan trng vo vic ph v tt
yu khch quan l s thng nht bin chng gia t nhin con ngi X hi.
Chnh v vy khoa hc v qun l mi trng, hay sinh thi nhn vn chnh l s
tm kim ca con ngi nhm nm bt v gii quyt cc mu thun, tnh thng nht
ca h thng T nhin con ngi X hi.
2.2. C s khoa hc k thut cng ngh ca qun l mi trng.
Khoa hc v mi trng l mt lnh vc khoa hc mi, thc s n xut hin v
c pht trin mnh t nhng nm 1960 tr li y, lm c s cho nghin cu,
c rt kinh nghim, pht hin nhng nguyn l, quy lut mi trng gip cho vic
thc hin qun l mi trng.
Nh nhng k thut v cng ngh mi trng, cc vn nhim do hot ng
sn xut ca con ngi ang c nghin cu, x l hoc phng trnh, ngn nga.
Cc k thut phn tch, o c, gim st cht lng mi trng nh k thut vin
thm, tin hc c pht trin nhiu quc gia trn th gii gip cho vic Qun l
mi trng hiu qu hn.
2.3. C s kinh t ca qun l mi trng.
Hin nay Qun l mi trng c hnh thnh trong bi cnh ca nn Kinh t th
trng v thc hin iu tit x hi thng qua cc cng c kinh t.
Trong nn Kinh t th trng mi nguyn l hot ng c da trn c s cung v
cu ca th trng, thng qua cnh tranh, hot ng pht trin v sn xut ca ci
vt cht din ra di sc p ca s trao i hng ho theo ga tr. Loi hng ho c
cht lng tt v gi thnh r s c tiu th nhanh, ngc li nhng hng ho
km cht lng v gi thnh cao th s khng c ch ng. Trn c s nhng
nguyn l ca kinh t th trng, ngi ta a ra cc chnh sch hp l v cc
cng c kinh t iu chnh v nh hng hot ng pht trin sn xut c li

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cho cng tc bo v mi trng.
2.4. C s lut php cho Qun l mi trng.
C s lut php cho qun l mi trng thc cht l cc vn bn v lut quc t v
lut quc gia v lnh vc mi trng.
Lut quc t v mi trng thc cht l tng th cc nguyn tc, quy phm quc t
iu chnh mi quan h gia cc quc gia, gia quc gia v t chc quc t trong
vic ngn chn, loi tr thit hi gy ra cho mi trng ca tng quc gia v mi
trng ngoi phm vi tn ph quc gia. Cc vn bn lut quc t v mi trng
c hnh thnh mt cch chnh thc t th k XIX v u th k XX, gia cc
quc gia chu u, chu M, chu Phi. T hi ngh quc t v Mi trng v con
ngi t chc nm 1972 ti Stockholm, Thu in v sau hi ngh thng nh
Rio 1992, Brazin c rt nhiu vn bn lut quc t c son tho v k kt.
Cho n nay c hng ngn cc vn bn lut quc t v mi trng, trong s
c nhiu vn bn c chnh ph Vit nam k kt.
Trong phm vi quc gia, chng ta cng c nhiu vn bn php l lin quan n
bo v v qun l mi trng. Vn bn quan trng nht l Lut bo v mi trng
c quc hi thng qua ngy 27/12/1993.
Cc vn bn php lut Quc t v Quc gia l c s quan trng thc hin cng
tc qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng.
3. Qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
3.1. Khi nim Qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
Qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng xc nh r ch th l Nh nc, bng
chc trch, nhim v v quyn hn ca mnh a ra cc bin php, lut php, chnh
sch Kinh t, k thut, x hi thch hp nhm bo v cht lng mi trng sng
v pht trin bn vng kinh t - x hi quc gia.
Nh vy chng ta c th nhn thy rng Qun l Nh nc v mi trng xt v
bn cht khc vi nhng hnh thc qun l khc nh Qun l mi trng do cc t
chc phi chnh ph (NGO: None Goverment) m nhim; Qun l mi trng da
trn c s cng ng; qun l mi trng c tnh t nguyn., Hnh thc qun l
Nh nc v mi trng ch yu l iu hnh v kim sot (CAC: Comment And
Control).
3.2. Tnh tt yu khch quan ca Qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
a). Vn ngoi ng v hng ho cng cng.
Nh chng ta nghin cu chng II, ngoi ng v hng ho cng cng l
nhng nguyn nhn gy ra tht bi th trng, ngha l tht bi v mt chnh sch

235
trong qun l mi trng, hu qu l gy ra nhng thit hi cho mi trng, e do
nghim trng ti s pht trin bn vng ca quc gia. Vy khc phc tnh trng
nay i hi phi c s Qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
b). S hu Nh nc v ti nguyn v mi trng.
Xem xt v s hu ti nguyn v thnh phn mi trng, chng ta u tha nhn
cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin v thnh phn mi trng thuc s hu Nh
nc, nh vy Nh nc khng th giao cho i tng no khc chu trch nhim
chnh v qun l mi trng, trch nhim phi thuc v Nh nc.
c). Nhng bi hc ca cc quc gia trn th gii.
Nhng bi hc Kinh nghim ca cc quc gia trn th gii cho thy rng cn phi
c s Qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng. i vi cc nc pht trin, v d
nh Nht bn l quc gia tin phong i u trong nhm cc nc pht trin, hin
nay ang truyn b kinh nghim cho cc quc gia pht trin sau l cng v s pht
trin Kinh t x hi phi c s qun l Nh nc v mi trng, bi l nh h
trc y do khng quan tm ti vn mi trng m ch ch trng ti pht trin
kinh t nn phi tr gi qu t cho s pht trin ca mnh. T kinh nghim ca cc
quc gia pht trin sau nh Singapo, rt ra t bi hc ca cc nc pht trin
trc, ngay trong chin lc pht trin Kinh t x hi ca mnh, Nh nc rt
ch trng ti Qun l mi trng, chnh v vy m thnh tu t c ca h hin
nay c th gii tha nhn l c tnh bn vng.
d). Thc trng v nhng thch thci vi mi trng ton cu v Vit nam.
- i vi nhng vn mi trng ton cu.
Sau hn 30 nm k t Hi ngh u tin v mi trng ca th gii (Stockholm
1972) n nay, cng ng th gii c nhiu n lc a vn mi trng
vo cc chng trnh ngh s cp quc t v quc gia. Tuy vy hin trng mi
trng ton cu c ci thin khng ng k. Mi trng cha c lng ghp
vi k hoch pht trin kinh t x hi. Dn s ton cu tng nhanh, s ngho
i, s khai thc, tiu th qu mc cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, s pht
thi qu mc kh nh knh v.v l nhng vn bc xc c tnh ph bin
trn ton cu.
Trong tuyn b Johannesburg v pht trin bn vng nm 2002 ca lin hp
quc khng nh v nhng thch thc m nhn loi ang v s phi i mt
c nguy c ton cu l:
Mi trng ton cu tip tc tr nn ti t. Suy gim a dng sinh hc tip
din, tr lng c tip tc gim st, sa mc ho cp i ngy cng nhiu t ai
mu m, tc ng tiu cc ca bin i kh hu hin hin r rng. Thin tai

236
ngy cng nhiu v ngy cng khc lit. Cc nc ang pht trin tr nn d b
tn hi hn. nhim khng kh, nc v bin tip tc ly i cuc sng thanh
bnh ca hng triu ngi.
- i vi nhng vn mi trng ca vit nam.
+ Thc trng v nhng vn mi trng ca Vit nam.
. S bin i kh hu.
T thc t v din bin ca thi tit kh hu nc ta trong nhng nm va qua
cho thy tnh cht bin i rt phc tp, tht thng. Din bin nhit ang c
xu th tng ln vi c im l gi tr phn ho mnh theo c khng gian v thi
gian. So snh vi bin i kh hu ton cu cho thy trong khi nhit trung
bnh ton cu tng khong 0,7% sau gn 150 nm (1854-2000) th nhit trung
bnh nm ca H ni tng khong 0,75% sau 42 nm (1960 2001). Lng
ma phn b khng u, nhiu vng lng ma tp trung kh ln dn n l lt.
Mt s ni nh vng Ty nguyn, vng Bc trung b thiu ma nghim trng
dn n hn hn. Nhn chung, trong 30 nm gn y lng ma min Bc c
xu hng gim nh, ngc li lng ma min Trung v min Nam c xu
hng tng. Bo, l, lt din bin phc tp, thng xut hin sm vi cng
mnh.
T nhng nh gi trn cho thy xu hng bin i kh hu Vit nam theo
chiu hng xu.
. Mi trng khng kh.
Khng kh chu tc ng mnh m ca qu trnh cng nghip ho v th ho,
thc t cho thy cht lng khng kh th v cc khu cng nghip Vit
nam trong nhng nm gn y c s thay khng ng k. iu ng ch
nht i vi mi trng khng kh l nhim bi c tnh in hnh v ph bin
khp mi ni. Hu ht cc th nc ta u b nhim bi, nhiu ni b
nhim bi trm trng ti mc bo ng. Nng bi trung bnh hu ht cc
th u vt TCCP t 2-3 ln, c bit c ni vt TCCP ti 5-7 ln. Nguyn
nhn chnh gy nn tnh trng nhim bi l do thi cng xy dng mi v sa
cha nh ca, ng s, cng rnh, h tng k thut th xy ra thng xuyn
v khng qun l tt.
Nhn chung, mi trng khng kh Vit nam cha b nhim bi cc kh c
hi nh SO
2
, NO
2
, CO. Tuy nhin mt s nt giao thng ln, nng ch v
kh CO xp x hoc vt tr s TCCP. K t sau khi trin khai s dng xng
khng pha ch, s liu quan trc 6 thng u nm 2002 cho thy hm lng ch
trong khng kh gim 40-50% so vi cng k nm trc.

237
Cht lng khng kh vng nng thn, min ni, vng su, vng xa nhn
chung cn rt tt, nhiu ni mi trng trong lnh, ph hp vi mc ch an
dng, du lch v ngh ngi.
. Mi trng t.
Thoi ho t l xu th ph bin t ng bng n trung du v min ni. Thc t
cho thy cc loi t b thoi ho chim hn 50% din tch t nhin ca c nc.
Cc loi hnh thoi ho t ch yu l xi mn, ra tri, t c ph nhiu thp
v mt cn bng dinh dng, thoi ho hu c, kh hn v sa mc ho, ngp
ng, ngp l, t trt, st l t, mn ho, phn ho, t mt kh nng sn xut.
t c dc ln v t trng i ni trc, c bit l vng Ty nguyn v
vng Ty Bc, t d b xi mn khi c ma ln. Nhim phn v nhim mn
xy ra nghim trng vng ng bng sng Cu long.
S thoi ho t l nguyn nhn dn n nng sut cy trng gim. Nhiu vng
c nguy c hoang mc ho, t cn ci khng th canh tc c v s dn n
gim t l t nng nghip trn u ngi.
Vic s dng cc ho cht trong nng nghip nh phn ho hc v thuc tr su
tuy cn thp nhng khng ng k thut, l nguyn nhn gy ra nhim mi
trng cc b mt s a phng v xu hng ngy cng gia tng.
. Mi trng nc.
nc ta do p lc ca gia tng dn s cng vi tc ca cng nghip ho v
th ho nhanh l nguyn nhn c bn gy nn p lc i vi mi trng
nc. Hu ht nc thi sinh hot (bao gm c nc thi bnh vin) cc th
v 90% nc thi t cc c s cng nghip c cha c x l, x trc tip vo
knh, mng, sng, h, gy ra nhim nghim trng i vi mi trng nc
mt s a phng. Nhiu ch tiu nh BOD
5
, COD, NH
4
, tng N, tng P cao
hn tiu chun cho php i vi ngun nc loi A t 2-3 ln.
nh gi tng hp mi trng nc nc ta cho thy, cht lng nc ca 9
lu vc sng chnh cn tt, iu ng lu l cc vng h lu phn ln b
nhim, c ni b nhim trm trng, nh sng Cu, sng Cm, sng Tam
bc pha Bc, sng Th vi, sng ng nai min Nam. Cht lng nc cc
sng min Trung, ni chung cn tt hn cc sng min Bc v min Nam.
Hin nay t l s dn c s dng nc hp v sinh vo khong 53%, t l ny
thnh th trung bnh l 60-70%, nng thn trung bnh l 30-40%.
Nc bin ven b bt u c du hiu nhim. Hm lng cc cht hu c,
cht dinh dng, kim loi nng, ho cht bo v thc vt mt s ni vt
tiu chun cho php. Hm lng du mt s vng bin vt qu tiu chun v

238
ang c xu hng tng ln. Nc ngm mt s th ln ang c xu hng
cn kit dn v lng, c du hiu nhim v suy gim v cht. Nhng nm
gn y xy ra hin tng suy gim mc nc ngm vo ma h Ty
nguyn v cc tnh min ni pha Bc. Do p lc nc ngm gim gy ra xm
nhp mn tng ln nhiu vng t ven bin.
. Hin trng v rng v a dng sinh hc.
Vit nam hin c khong 11,3 triu ha rng, trong 9,7 triu ha rng t nhin
v 1,6 triu ha rng trng. T nm 1990 n nay, che ph rng tng ln ng
k, t 27,2% nm 1990 ln 33,2% nm 2001. Tuy nhin cht lng rng cha
c ci thin v tip tc b xung cp, rng t nhin u ngun v rng ngp
mn vn b tn ph nghim trng do p lc ca pht trin kinh t. Hin ti rng
giu, kn nguyn sinh ch cn chim khong 13% trong khi rng ngho v rng
ti sinh chim ti 55% tng din tch rng. iu ny gii thch v sao chnh ph
Vit nam chuyn chng trnh 327 trc y sang chng trnh ph xanh 5
triu ha rng hin nay l cn thit.
Vit nam c nhiu cnh quan thin nhin v cc h sinh thi phong ph, c
nhiu loi c hu, c gi tr khoa hc v kinh t ln, chng ta c xp l mt
trong 10 quc gia c a dng sinh hc cao nht trn th gii. Nhng nm gn
y a dng sinh hc b suy gim v nhng nguyn nhn ch yu nh: S thu
hp v mt dn ni c tr ca cc ging loi do chy rng, mt phn t ai
chuyn i mc ch s dng, do khai thc v nh bt khng hp l, do
nhim mi trng, do tnh trng bun bn tri php ng thc vt qu him.
Trong 5 thp k qua mt 80% din tch rng ngp mn, ch yu l do pht
trin nui trng thu hi sn. Khong 96% cc rn san h ang b e do
nghim trng. Nhm bo tn a dng sinh hc ca quc gia, Nh nc y
mnh pht trin h thng cc khu rng c dng, hin c 17 vn quc gia, 58
khu bo tn thin nhin v 18 khu bo v cnh quan c quy hoch chnh
thc.
. Mi trng nng thn.
Xem xt v mc nhim mi trng khu vc nng thn c nhng vn
ni ln nh nhim do cc iu kin v sinh v c s h tng k thut yu km.
Vic s dng khng hp l cc loi ho cht trong nng nghip (phn ho hc
v thuc tr su) v ang lm cho mi trng nng thn nhim v suy
thoi. Hin nay nc ta c khong trn 1000 lng ngh. Vic pht trin tiu
th cng nghip cc lng ngh v cc c s ch bin mt s vng nng thn,
do cng ngh sn xut lc hu, quy m sn xut nh, phn tn xen k trong dn
v hu nh khng c thit b thu gom, x l cht thi, gy ra nhim mi
trng nng n, c bit nghim trng l cc lng ngh ti ch kim loi (ti

239
ch ch, thp, c ng), ti ch ni lng, sn xut giy, nhum, vng m, nung
gch, ngi, snh s v.v. i vi phn ln cc khu vc nng thn, nc sinh
hot v v sinh l vn cp bch, iu kin v sinh mi trng nng thn cha
c ci thin ng k, t l s h c h x hp v sinh ch t 28-30% v s h
nng thn c dng nc hp v sinh l 30-40%.
. Mi trng th v khu cng nghip.
Nc ta hin nay c 651 th ln nh, trong c 4 thnh ph trc thuc
trung ng, 20 thnh ph trc thuc tnh, 62 th x v 565 th trn. T l dn
th trn tng dn s nm 1986 l 19%; nm 1990 l 20%; nm 1999 l 23%;
nm 2002 khong 25%; d bo n nm 2010 l 33% v nm 2020 l 45%.
nhim mi trng th nc ta ni ln nhng vn c bn sau y, th
nht l nhim do cht thi rn, t l thu gom rc thi tnh trung bnh cc
th mi t khong 60-70%, c bit l cht thi nguy hi cha c thu gom v
x l theo ng quy nh, th hai l bi, kh thi, ting n do hot ng giao
thng vn ti ni th v mng li sn xut quy m va v nh, cng vi h tng
k thut th yu km l nguyn nhn lm cho iu kin v sinh mi trng
nhiu th ang thc s lm vo tnh trng ng bo ng. H thng cp nc,
thot nc lc hu, xung cp, khng p ng c yu cu. Mc nhim v
bi nhiu ni vt tiu chun cho php nhiu ln, c bit ti mt s thnh
ph ln nh H ni, thnh ph H Ch Minh v nhiu th khc nng bi
vt tiu chun cho php 5-7 ln. Do pht trin xy dng th khng theo kp
vi pht trin dn s th, hnh thnh nhiu xm liu, xm bi trong
th, l ni c iu kin mi trng xu nht, c nhiu t nn x hi v lm mt
m quan th.
Nc ta hin nay c khong 70 khu cng nghip, khu ch xut, khu cng ngh
cao, nhng ch khong 1/3 trong s xy dng c s h tng k thut v c
khong 12 khu cng nghip c h thng x l nc thi tp trung.
. Mi trng lao ng.
Mi trng lao ng y c hiu l mi trng ni lm vic ca ngi lao
ng.
Nhng nm gn y nc ta mi trng lao ng khng ngng c ci
thin, c tc ng tch cc n sc kho ngi lao ng, to iu kin thun li
cho hot ng sn xut, kinh doanh. Tuy nhin cn nhiu khu vc sn xut
khng m bo tiu chun v sinh, an ton lao ng. Tnh trng nhim v bi,
ho cht c hi, ting n, nhit lm gia tng t l cng nhn mc bnh
ngh nghip, nht l trong cc ngnh ho cht, luyn kim, vt liu xy dng,
khai thc m v.v.

240
. Mi trng x hi.
Do nhng nm va qua tng trng kinh t cao v lin tc l mt trong nhng
nhn t c bn thc y sn xut, gp phn xo i, gim ngho, to nn mi
trng x hi ngy cng c ci thin v n nh hn. Tuy nhin t l h
ngho cn mc cao, s chnh lch thu nhp gia cc nhm dn c giu v
ngho c xu hng ngy cng m rng. Ngi ngho cn gp nhiu hn ch
trong vic tip cn v hng th cc dch v x hi c bn. Nhng thnh tu c
bn ca cc chng trnh xo i gim ngho cn thiu tnh bn vng, nguy c
ti ngho cn ln. Nhng ngun lc trong nc cn qu hn hp, lao ng d
tha nhiu, t l lao ng c qua o to cn rt thp.
Cng vi tin trnh m ca v hi nhp, mi trng x hi cc th, khu dn
c tp trung, c bit l tng lp dn c c thu nhp thp, gp phi nhiu vn
bc xc nh thiu nh , thiu iu kin v sinh mi trng, cc hin tng ma
tu, bo lc c chiu hng gia tng, nhiu t nn x hi pht sinh nu khng c
mt s qun l cht ch v chnh sch ph hp cho cc khu vc .
. Nhng s c mi trng.
Nhng nm gn y s c mi trng xy ra lin tc gy ra nhng thit hi
ht sc nng n. Tai bin thin nhin c xu hng gia tng , hin tng l qut,
lt, bo, lc, ma , hn hn, nt dt, xi l b sng, b bin trong thp nin
va qua gy ra nhng thit hi to ln v ngi, nh ca, ti sn, ma mng
nhiu ni, tng thit hi do l lt gy ra t nm 1998 n thng 6 nm 2002 c
tnh ln n hng chc t ng.
Xem xt cc v chy rng t nhng nm 1999 tr li y cho thy nhng nm
1999, 2000, v 2001 s c chy rng c chiu hng gim, nhng nm 2002 li
c xu hng tng ln do nh hng ca kh hu kh nng v hot ng thiu
thc ca con ngi.
Nhng s c do con ngi gy ra m in hnh l cc s c trn du vn tip tc
xy ra cha c s ngn chn trit . Nm 1998 xc nh c 6 v vi tng
lng du trn l gn 13.000 tn, nm 1999 xy ra 10 v vi tng lng du
trn l gn 8.000 tn du, trong nm 2000, 2001 v 2002 mi nm xy ra 1-3
v, vi tng lng du trn t 24-800 tn.
Nhng hu qu ca cht c ho hc do chin tranh li cn ht sc nng n,
hng vn tr em b d tt bm sinh, hng triu ha rng b suy thoi n nay vn
cha phc hi c.
241
Nhng v ng c thc phm c chiu hng ngy cng gia tng v gy ra
nhng hu qu nghim trng cho hng vn ngi. Tc ng khng nh ti sc
kho v lao ng ca ngi dn.

+ Nhng thch thc i vi mi trng ca Vit nam trong thi gian ti.
Nhng thch thc ang t ra cho bo v v qun l mi trng vit nam
trong thi gian ti, m c th l t nay n nm 2010 c xc nh gm
nhng vn c bn sau y:
. Th nht l tnh trng c s h tng k thut, trang thit b bo v mi
trng thp km, lc hu, nhim mi trng ngy cng gia tng, trong khi
kh nng u t cho mi trng ca Nh nc cng nh ca cc doanh nghip
u b hn ch.
. Th hai l s gia tng dn s, di dn t do v i ngho tip tc gy ra nhng
p lc ln i vi ti nguyn v mi trng.
. Th ba l bo v mi trng cha c lng ghp mt cch hi ho vi pht
trin kinh t - x hi trong qu trnh cng nghip ho, hin i ho t nc,
iu s dn n kh khn trong vic thc hin ngn nga nhim v bo
m pht trin bn vng.
. Th t l nhn thc v mi trng v pht trin bn vng cha y , thc
bo v mi trng trong x hi cn thp.
. Th nm l t chc v nng lc qun l mi trng cha p ng yu cu.
. Th su l nhng mt tri ca hi nhp quc t v t do ho thng mi ton
cu gy ra nhiu tc ng phc tp v mt mi trng.
. Th by l tc ng ca nhng vn mi trng ton cu, mi trng khu
vc ngy cng mnh v phc tp hn.
II. Ni dung v nguyn tc qun l Mi trng
1. Ni dung qun l Nh nc v mi trng
Ti iu 37 chng 4 Lut bo v mi trng ca Vit Nam (12-1993) quy nh
ni dung qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng bao gm:
1.1. Ban hnh v t chc thc hin cc vn bn php lut v bo v mi trng,
ban hnh h thng tiu chun mi trng;
1.2. Xy dng, ch o thc hin chin lc, chnh sch bo v mi trng, s c
mi trng;
1.3. Xy dng, qun l cc cc cng trnh bo v mi trng, cng trnh c lin
quan n bo v mi trng;
1.4. T chc, xy dng, qun l h thng quan trc, nh k nh gi hin trng
mi trng, d bo din bin mi trng;

242
1.5. Thm nh bo co nh gi tc ng mi trng ca cc d n v cc c s
sn xut, kinh doanh;
1.6. Cp, thu hi giy chng nhn t tiu chun mi trng;
1.7. Gim st, thanh tra, kim tra vic chp hnh php lut v bo v mi trng;
gii quyt cc tranh chp, khiu ni, t co lin quan n bo v mi trng;
x l vi phm php lut v bo v mi trng;
1.8. o to cn b v khoa hc v qun l mi trng; gio dc, tuyn truyn,
ph bin kin thc, php lut v bo v mi trng;
1.9. T chc nghin cu, p dng tin b khoa hc, cng ngh trong lnh vc bo
v mi trng;
1.10. Quan h quc t trong lnh vc bo v mi trng.
2. Cc nguyn tc qun l mi trng
Cc nguyn tc qun l mi trng, trc ht, phi phn nh cc yu cu khch
quan ca cc quy lut t nhin, kinh t v x hi ang chi phi qu trnh qun l
mi trng. iu c ngha l mun thc hin y v c hiu qu cc nguyn
tc qun l mi trng, cn phi nghin cu, nhn thc v vn dng cc quy lut
khch quan vo iu kin c th ca i tng qun l.
i vi nc ta, qun l mi trng cn da vo nhng nguyn tc sau y:
- Bo m tnh h thng
Nguyn tc ny xut pht t bn cht h thng ca i tng qun l. Di nh
sng ca cuc cch mng khoa hc - k thut hin i, mi trng cn c hiu
nh l mt h thng ng phc tp, bao gm nhiu phn t hp thnh. Cc phn t
c bn cht t nhin v x hi khc nhau, b chi phi bi cc quy lut khc nhau,
hot ng khng ng hng, thm ch mu thun v i lp nhau. Nhim v ca
qun l mi trng l trn c s thu nhp, tng hp v x l thng tin v trng thi
hot ng ca i tng qun l (h thng mi trng) a ra cc quyt nh qun
l ph hp, thc y cc phn t cu thnh hot ng u n, cn i, hi ho
hng ti mc tiu nh.
- Bo m tnh tng hp
Nguyn tc ny c xy dng trn c s tc ng tng hp ca hot ng pht
trin ln i tng qun l. Cc hot ng pht trin thng thng din ra di
nhiu hnh thi rt a dng (hot ng sn xut, hot ng tiu th, hot ng
thng mi, hot ng dch v, hot ng u t, sinh hot vt cht v tinh thn
ca cc cng ng, v.v . . .). D di hnh thc no, qui m v tc hot ng ra
sao, mi loi hot ng, trc tip hay gin tip, mnh hay yu, u gy ra tc ng

243
tng hp ln i tng qun l (h thng mi trng). V th, trong khi hoch nh
chnh sch v chin lc mi trng, trong vic ra cc quyt nh qun l mi
trng cn phi tnh n tc ng tng hp v hu qu ca chng.
- Bo m tnh lin tc v nht qun
Mi trng l mt h thng lin tc, tn ti, hot ng v pht trin thng qua chu
trnh trao i vt cht, nng lng v thng tin chy lin tc trong khng gian v
thi gian. C th ni, hot ng ca h thng mi trng khng phn ranh gii theo
thi gian v khng gian. c tnh ny quy nh tnh nht qun v tnh lin tc ca
tc ng qun l ln mi trng, i hi khng ngng nng cao nng lc d on
v x l tng hp cng nh bn lnh ca qun l v m ca Nh nc.
- Bo m tp trung dn ch
y l mt trong nhng nguyn tc c bn ca qun l kinh t v qun l x hi.
Qun l mi trng c thc hin nhiu cp khc nhau. V th, cn phi bo m
mi quan h cht ch v ti u gia tp trung v dn ch trong qun l mi trng.
Tp trung phi thc hin trn c s trong bn bc, quyt nh cc vn c lin
quan ti mi trng theo phng chm dn bit, dn bn, dn lm, dn kim tra.
Ngc li, dn ch phi thc hin trong khun kh tp trung, khng mu thun, i
vi tp trung, trnh lng ph ngun lc ca x hi. Tp trung c biu hin thng
qua k hoch ho cc hot ng pht trin, ban hnh v thc thi h thng php lut
v mi trng, thc hin ch trch nhim ca ngi ng u cc cc c quan,
t chc, doanh nghip, h gia nh tt c cc cp qun l, v.v. . . Dn ch c
biu hin vic xc nh r v tr, trch nhim, quyn hn ca cc cp qun l,
vic p dng rng ri kim ton v hch ton mi trng, s dng ngy cng
nhiu cc cng c kinh t vo qun l mi trng nhm to ra mt bng chung,
bnh ng cho mi ngnh, mi cp, mi a phng, vic tng cng gio dc v
nng cao nhn thc, thc mi trng cho cc c nhn v cng ng, v.v...
- Kt hp qun l theo ngnh v qun l theo lnh th
Cc thnh phn mi trng nh khng kh, nc, t, m thanh, nh sng, lng t,
ni, rng, sng , h, bin, sinh vt, cc h sinh thi, cc khu dn c, khu sn xut,
khu bo tn thin nhin, cnh quan thin nhin, danh lam thng cnh, di tch lch
s v cc hnh thi vt cht khc thng do mt ngnh no qun l v s dng.
Nhng cc thnh phn mi trng li c phn b, khai thc v s dng trn mt
a bn c th thuc quyn qun l ca mt cp a phn tng ng. Cng mt
thnh phn mi trng c th chu s qun l song trng. Nu khng kt hp cht
ch gia qun l theo ngnh v qun l theo lnh th th s lm gim hiu lc v
hiu qu ca qun l mi trng, ti nguyn thin nhin tip tc b khai thc, s
dng khng hp l v lng ph, mi trng tip tc b suy thoi.

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- Kt hp hi ho cc loi li ch
Qun l mi trng trc ht l qun l cc hot ng pht trin do con ngi (c
nhn hay cng ng) tin hnh, l t chc v pht huy tnh tch cc hot ng ca
con ngu v mc ch pht trin bn vng. Con ngi, d l c nhn, tp th hay
cng ng, u c nhng li ch, nhng nguyn vng v nhng nhu cu nht nh.
Do , mt trong nhng nhim v quan trng ca qun l mi trng l phi ch
n li ch ca con ngi, khuyn khch c hiu qu hnh vi v thi ng x
ph hp vi mc tiu bo v mi trng ca h. Li ch khng nhng l s vn
ng t gic, ch quan ca con ngi nhm tho mn mt nhu cu no m cn
l ng lc to ln nhm pht huy tnh tch cc, ch ng ca con ngi, l phng
tin hu hiu ca qun l mi trng, cho nn phi s dng n khuyn khch
cc hot ng c li cho mi trng.
Kt hp hi ho cc li ch (li ch c nhn, h gia nh; li ch ca doanh nghip,
ngnh; li ch ca Nh nc, x hi; li ch ca cng ng a phng, vng v
quc gia) phi c tin hnh trn c s nhng i hi ca cc quy lut khch quan
thng qua cc bin php ch yu sau y:
+ Thc thi chnh sch mi trng khch quan, ng n, ph hp vi iu kin v
c im pht trin t nc trong tng thi k. Chnh sch mi trng phi
phn nh li ch c bn v lu di ca quc gia, ca ton x hi, cng tc l li ch
ca mi thnh vin trong x hi.
+ Xy dng v thc hin cc quy hoch v k hoch v mi trng chun xc, c
tm nhn xa, c tnh kh thi cao v quy t li ch ca c h thng.
+ Thc hin y v nghim ngt ch k ton v kim ton mi trng, s
dng ng n v rng ri cc khuyn khch, n by kinh t qun l mi
trng mt cch c hiu qu, nht l trong thi k qu ca nn kinh t t c ch
k hoch ho tp trung quan liu sang c ch th trng.
Kt hp hi ho cc li ch cn bao hm s kt hp li ch quc gia, li ch khu vc
v li ch quc t, bi v bo v mi trng tr thnh vn ton cu, l mt
trong nhng c trng c bn ca thi i ca nc ta trong tin trnh hi nhp vo
khu vc v th gii.
- Kt hp cht ch, hi ho gia qun l ti nguyn v mi trng vi qun l
kinh t, qun l x hi.
245
t ti mc tiu pht trin bn vng, hng n mt x hi bn vng trong
tng lai, ngay t u v trong sut qu trnh pht trin, phi kt hp cht ch, hi
ho gia qun l ti nguyn v mi trng vi qun l kinh t, qun l x hi thng
qua vic hoch nh chnh sch v chin lc pht trin ng n, c tm bao qut
v c tnh tng hp, thng qua qu trnh ho nhp cc k hoch v u t v mi

trng vo cc k hoch v u t v kinh t - x hi tt c mi khu, mi cp
qun l ca Nh nc.
- Tit kim v hiu qu
Qun l mt i tng v cng quan trng v phc tp nh mi trng i hi
nhng ngun lc ngy cng nhiu trong khi phi bo m ngun lc cho tng
trng kinh t v pht trin x hi. Gii php ti u cho vic nng cao nng lc
qun l Nh nc v mi trng l thc thi tit kim v tng hiu qu. Tit kim v
hiu qu l hai mt lin quan cht ch vi nhau ca qun l mi trng: lm sao
vi nhng ngun vt cht v k thut, kinh t v ti chnh, lc lng lao ng x
hi, trnh khoa hc v cng ngh, v.v... hin c v s c trong tng giai on
pht trin kinh t - x hi, c th khai thc, s dng ti nguyn mt cch tt nht.
chnh l yu cu ca nguyn tc tit kim v hiu qu ca qun l mi trng.
Nguyn tc ny c th c thc hin thng qua vc hoch nh chnh sch v
chin lc bo v mi trng ca quc gia, ph hp vi vic gim tiu hao ti
nguyn v chi ph nguyn vt liu bng cch p dng k thut hin i, cng ngh
tin tin c t hoc khng c cht thi, ci tin kt cu sn phm, gim khi lng
v trng lng; s dng cc vt liu thay th cc ti nguyn khan him, tn dng v
ti ch ph liu; tit kim lao ng tt c mi khu ca qui trnh qun l; bo m
u t vt cht v ti chnh c trng im, trnh u t dn tri, phn tn, coi trng
u t ng b v c h thng cho qun l mi trng, v.v..
3. Sn xut sch hn l mc tiu hng ti ca doanh nghip.
3.1. Nhng khi nim c bn.
a. Khi nim v sn xut sch hn (SXSH)
Khi nim v sn xut sch hn ln u tin c UNEP gii thiu vo nm 1989
(Cleaner Product) . y c coi nh cu tr li cho cu hi t ra l: lm th no
ngnh cng nghip c th hot ng theo hng pht trin bn vng.
SXSH c ngha l vic p dng mt cch c h thng cc bin php phng nga
trong cc quy trnh, sn phm hoc dch v nhm mc tiu tng hiu qu tng th.
iu ny n lt mnh li gip ci thin tnh trng mi trng, tit kim chi ph,
gim ri ro cho con ngi v cho mi trng.
i vi cc quy trnh sn xut. SXSH bao gm vic bo qun nguyn liu,
nng lng, loi b cc nguyn liu c hi, gim bt s lng v mc
c hi ca cc cht thi gy nhim ngay t giai on trc khi chng
c thi ra mi trng.
i vi cc sn phm. SXSH ch trng vic gim bt cc tc ng c hi
trong sut chu trnh sn phm, ngay t khi khai thc cc nguyn liu, cho n

246
khi giao np sn phm.
i vi cc dch v. Phng php phng nga nhim mi trng bao gm
t khu thit k, ci tin vic qun l nh xung, n khu la chn cc loi
u vo (di dng cc sn phm).
Cc khi nim khc nh hiu qu snh thi, gim thiu cht thi hay phng nga
nhim u c chung mt mc tiu l loi tr hay gim thiu nhim, cht thi
ngay ti ngun, ni chng c sinh ra. Tuy nhin, chin lc SXSH khc ch
y l mt h thng cc phng php, th tc nh gi cc nguyn nhn gy ra
nhim, pht sinh cht thi v pht trin cc phng n c th c p dng trn
thc tin. H thng ny c thit k mt cch c bi bn, nhm gii quyt cc vn
mi trng c th. Hn na, ni dung chin lc SXSH cn bao gm h thng
qun l SXSH c xc nh r rng cho php lin tc ci thin tnh hnh kinh t
v mi trng ca n v.
Khng nn nhn nhn SXSH vi t cch l chin lc ch trong lnh vc mi
trng, v n cn bao gm trong c nhng ni dung kinh t quan trng. Trong
bi cnh ca chin lc ny, cht thi c coi l mt loi "sn phm" c gi tr
kinh t m. Mi hot ng lm gim mc tiu th nguyn vt liu, nng lng,
ngn nga hoc lm gim bt vic pht sinh cht thi, u c tc dng nng cao
nng sut, em li li ch ti chnh cho doanh nghip.
Cch tip cn theo kiu phng nga cn c ngha rng cc vn v mi trng
phi c gii quyt trc khi chng c th pht sinh. Tc l ngay t khu la
chn vic thc hin cc quy trnh, cc loi nguyn vt liu, mu thit k, phng
tin vn ti, dch v, vv... Cc tip cn ny gip gii quyt c hiu qu vn tit
kim ti nguyn v rng nhim khng nhng ch lm xung cp mi trng, m
cn l du hiu cho thy r tnh km hiu qu ca quy trnh sn xut hoc qun l.
Trn thc t SXSH c ngha l:
Trnh hoc gim bt lng cht thi c sn sinh ra;
S dng c hiu qu cc ngun nng lng v nguyn vt liu;
Sn xut ra cc sn phm v dch v c li cho mi trng;
Gim bt lng cht thi x vo mi trng, gim chi ph v tng li ch.
b. Cc nguyn tc v cc phng php SXSH
Nguyn tc cnh gic. Nguyn tc phng nga khng ch n gin l lm th no
khng vi phm php lut, m cn c ngha l bo m ngi lao ng c
bo v, khng b mc cc chng bnh kh cha chy, hoc nh my trnh c
nhng tn hi khng ng c. Nguyn tc cnh gic i hi gim bt mt phn s
can thip ca con ngi vo mi trng. iu ny, t ra yu cu phi c s thit

247
k li mt cch cn bn h thng sn xut v tiu th trong ngnh cng nghip, ci
thin np c vn tn ti cho n nay l vn ch yu da vo vic tng khi
lng s dng cc ngun nguyn vt liu (Jackson Tim, 1993).
Nguyn tc phng chng. Nguyn tc phng chng cng c tm quan trng khng
km, c bit trong cc trng hp mt sn phm hay mt quy trnh cng ngh
c s dng li chnh l nguyn nhn gy ra nhng tn hi v mt mi trng.
Nguyn tc phng chng c s dng nhm to ra nhng thay i ngay t nhng
khu u tin ca h thng sn xut hoc tiu dng. Bn cht "phng chng" ca
SXSH i hi phi c cch tip cn mi trong khi cn nhc cc mu sn phm,
nhu cu tiu dng, cc m hnh tiu th nguyn vt liu, v thc t l i hi phi
c cch tip cn hon ton mi i vi ton b c s vt cht ca hot ng kinh t
( Jackson Tim, 1993).
Nguyn tc tch hp. Tch hp l vic p dng mt cch nhn tng hp i vi
ton b chu trnh sn xut v phng php trong vic thc hin tng ny, thng
qua phn tch chu trnh sng ca sn phm. Mt trong nhng kh khn khi thc
hin cch tip cn phng chng l vic tch hp cng mt lc nhiu bin php bo
v mi trng, qua nhiu ranh gii khc nhau ca h thng. Theo truyn thng,
nhng quy nh php l ca cch tip cn cui ng ng thng c p dng
bng cch tm kim nhng bin php tch hp nhm gim bt nhu cu x cc cht
thi vo mi trng, nhng bin php ny s to ra s bo v c tnh ton din cho
mi trng vi t cch l mt tng th (Jackson tim, 1993).
C th thc hin SXSH bng cch p dng b quyt cng ngh, ci tin k thut,
hoc ch n gin bng cch thay i cch t duy, quan im ca mnh. Ni dung
thc tin ca SXSH l nhng bin php phng nga sau y:
- Qun l nh xng tt: Nhng quy nh hp l v qun l v tc nghip
nhm ngn nga cc cht nhim b r r hoc tro ra ngoi (v d: Qui nh thi
gian biu cho vic bo dng thng xuyn, hoc thc hin cc cuc duy tu thit b
theo nh k) v bt buc thc thi cc hng dn v an ton lao ng hin c (v
d: Thng qua vic gim st k cng, hoc bng cch tp hun, vv...).
- Thay th u vo: Thay th cc vt liu u vo bng nhng vt liu khc t
c hi hn, d ti to hn, hoc thm vo cc vt liu ph gia (v d: Du bi trn,
cht lm ngui my mc, cht ty ra, vv...) tng tui th cho sn phm.
- Kim sot tt hn i vi quy trnh sn xut: Ci tin qu trnh lm vic,
hng dn s dng my mc v thc hin vic ghi chp theo di y quy trnh
cng ngh nhm t c mc hiu qu sn xut cao hn, vi mc pht thi thp
hn v x cht c hi t hn.
- Thay i trang thit b: Thay i cc trang thit b hoc vt dng hin c

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(V d: bng cch b sung thm vo dy chuyn cc b phn o lng hoc kim
sot nhm t c hiu qu cao hn, vi mc pht thi thp hn v x cht c
hi t hn).
- Thay i cng ngh: Thay th cng ngh, thay i trnh t trong dy
chuyn sn xut, hoc cch thc tng hp, nhm gim thiu cht thi v cht gy
nhim trong khi sn xut.
- Thay i sn phm: Thay i cc tnh cht c trng ca sn phm, nhm
gim thiu tc ng c hi ca sn phm i vi mi trng, c trc v sau
khi sn phm c a vo s dng, hoc lm gim thiu nh hng ca vic sn
xut loi sn phm i vi mi trng.
- S dng nng lng c hiu qu: Nng lng l ngun u vo c kh
nng gy ra cc tc ng mi trng rt ng k. Vic khai thc cc ngun nng
lng c th gy tc hi i vi t, nc, khng kh, v a dng sinh hc, hoc l
nguyn nhn lm pht sinh mt s lng ln cht thi rn. Nhng tc ng mi
trng pht sinh t vic s dng nng lng c th c gim bt bng cch s
dng nng lng mt cch hiu qu hn, hoc bng cch thay th ngun nng
lng sch hn nh mt tri, nng lng gi.
- Ti ch, ti s dng ngay ti ch : Ti s dng cc ngun vt liu b thi ra
ngay trong quy trnh sn xut , hoc s dng cho cc mc ch khc ngay trong
phm vi mt doanh nghip hoc cng ty.
c. So snh SXSH v phng php cui ng ng.
Khi nim SXSH hon ton khc v mt bn cht so vi khi nim kim sot
nhim cui ng ng. Cc cng ngh kim sot cui ng ng bao gm vic s
dng hng lot cc k thut v sn phm (cc ho cht) x l cht thi, cc
ngun pht thi kh v cht lng. Cc cng ngh ny nhn chung khng lm gim
lng cht thi pht sinh. Chng ch c th gip lm gim c hi, v trn thc
t ch trung chuyn nhim t mt dng ny, sang mt dng khc m thi (v d:
Cht nhim khng kh c chuyn qua thnh nc thi trong khi nc thi c
pht ra li c th chuyn nhim sang cc cht thi rn).
S khc bit ch yu gia bin php kim sot nhim v SXSH l vic xc nh
thi im tin hnh cc bin php ny. Bin php kim sot nhim cui ng
ng c tin hnh sau khi cc cht thi nhim c pht sinh, nn cn gi l
bin php "phn ng v x l", trong khi SXSH l bin php ch ng, "bit
trc v phng nga". Phng bnh bao gi cng tt hn cha bnh.
249
Tuy nhin, iu khng c ngha l cc bin php cui ng ng s khng cn
cn thit na. Bng cch p dng SXSH u tranh vi vn nhim v cht
thi, mc ph thuc vo cc gii php cui ng ng c th c gim bt v

trong mt s trng hp c th dn n loi b hon ton.
Bng 2.6. Nhng khc bit ch yu gia SXSH v cc bin php kim sot
nhim
SXSH Kim sot nhim v qun l cht thi
Lin tc ci tin 1 gii php cho mt vn
Tin b theo hng s dng cc
quy trnh khp kn hoc theo chu
k
Cc quy trnh sn xut lm pht sinh cc ph
liu pht thi ra mi trng, to ra mt
ng ng vi u vo l nguyn vt liu v
u ra l cht thi
Mi thnh vin trong cng ng
u c vai tr ca mnh; s cng
tc v phi hp ht sc cn thit
Cc giiphp c thit k bi cc chuyn
gia, thng khng gn vi thc tin
Ch ng nhn bit v tm cch
phng chng nhim v cht thi
C nhng phn ng th ng i vi
nhim v cht thi sau khi chng pht
sinh ra
Loi tr cc vn mi trng
ngay t ngun pht sinh
Cc cht nhim c kim sot bng cc
thit b v phng php x l cht thi
Pht trin nhng phng php,
quan im v cc k thut qun l
mi, thc y tin b khoa hc-k
thut
Ch yu da vo nhng ci tin k thut i
vi nhng cng ngh hin tn ti
d. Ti sao phi c SXSH ?
SXSH gip lm gim mc nhim v ri ro cho mi trng. Vic s dng c
hiu qu hn cc ngun nguyn vt liu v ti u ho cc quy trnh sn xut s lm
gim bt cht thi v nhim pht sinh; iu ny s lm cho chi ph sn xut gim
xung. Vic ch trng bo v sc kho v an ton lao ng cng em li cc hiu
ng tch cc i vi nng sut lao ng, gip lm gim tai nn lao ng.
SXSH c vai tr c bit quan trng ti cc nc ang pht trin v cc nc c
nn kinh t chuyn i v ti cc nc ny, vic tiu th nguyn vt liu v nng
lng ti cc x nghip cn mc tng i cao.
e. Li ch ca SXSH l g ?
Vic p dng rng ri cc bin php SXSH c th mang li nhng li ch rt ng
k, v d:
Ci thin tnh trng mi trng: SXSH c th to ra nhng ci thin v mi

250
trng m cc vn bn php quy khng bao trm ht, nh lm tng tnh hiu qu
ca vic s dng nc hoc nng lng, gim thiu cht thi, gim lng nguyn
vt liu c hi c a vo s dng, gim mc s dng cc ngun ti nguyn,
duy tr cht lng t trng, gim mc nhim do hiu ng nh knh. SXSH cn
gip ci thin iu kin lm vic v bo v tt hn cht lng nc v khng kh.
Gim chi ph tng th: SXSH gip lm gim mc pht sinh cht thi, mc tiu
th nguyn vt liu, nng lng v nc. V th cc chi ph cng gim i ng k.
Cc hot ng bo v mi trng khng cn l nhng chi ph b sung nh trc
na. Nu tnh ton mt cch tng th, th SXSH gip lm gim cc chi ph ny,
nh vic gim bt chi ph u vo nh chi ph cho nguyn vt liu, nng lng, chi
ph x l cht thi.
Vic trnh lm pht sinh cht thi gip tit kim tin bc v n loi tr c
nhng chi ph x l hoc b cht thi, cng nh nhng chi ph mua nguyn
vt liu hoc dch v b bin thnh ph thi trong qu trnh sn xut.
Mt s d n SXSH gip phc hi li nhng ph phm c gi tr, c th c s
dng hoc em bn, v v th s gip lm tng li ch kinh t cho ngi sn xut.
Tng nng sut: Hiu qu v nng sut cc hot ng ca mt cng ty c th
c ci thin bng nhiu cch thng qua ng dng SXSH. Nhng li ch ch yu
SXSH mang li l:
- tin cy cao hn ca thi gian biu v cc k hoch ngn sch.
- S dng c hiu qu hn cc ngun nhn ti vt lc.
- Ci tin iu kin lm vic.
- Gim bt cc ngha v php l.
Tng li th so snh: p dng SXSH s lm tng li th so snh ca cc cng ty.
Cc cng ty c hin trng mi trng tt v cc sn phm p ng cc tiu chun
mi trng s c li th trn th trng. L do l ch hin nay ngi tiu dng
ngy cng thc r rng hn v vn mi trng.
Mi trng lin tc c ci thin: C l y l li ch quan trng nht; p dng
SXSH bo m rng mi trng c ci thin mt cch lin tc; iu ny chnh l
yu t cn bn t c pht trin bn vng. Vic cng nhn rng mi hot
ng u n cha trong mnh tim nng cho vic ci thin tnh trng mi trng
cng l mt trong nhng vn khng km phn quan trng.
f. Ci g khng phi l SXSH ?
Hin c rt nhiu cc bin php chng nhim hoc kim sot cht thi c thc
hin ch sau khi nhim hoc cht thi pht sinh. Nhng bin php sau y

251
khng th c coi l sn xut sch hn:
Ti ch ngoi phm vi x nghip l bin php rt c a chung trong s nhng
bin php gii quyt cht thi, v n gip tit kim nguyn liu v gim lng
nguyn liu b b sau . Tuy nhin, vic vn chuyn cht thi v bn thn qu
trnh ti ch c th e da nh hng sc kho ca ngi lao ng hoc gy
nhim cho mi trng. Nhn chung, phng php ny khng em li hiu qu s
cao cho bn thn x nghip thc hin n.
Di chuyn cc cht thi c hi sang mt mi trng trung gian khc cng
khng thuc phm tr cc bin php SXSH. Cc hot ng qun l cht thi ch
yu t trc n nay mi ch n gin l thu gom cc cht nhim v chuyn
chng t mt mi trng trung gian ny n mt a im khc m thi. V d, cc
dung mi c th c ly ra khi nc thi bng cch s dng cc cht ht bm
cc-bon c lm gim. Tuy nhin, c th phn hu c lng cc-bon i
hi phi s dng mt loi dung mi khc hoc phi t, tc l phi chuyn cht thi
vo mi trng khng kh. Trong cc trng hp ny, vic chuyn cht thi c hi
t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc l cch x l duy nht. Trn thc t, mc
tiu t ra thng l chuyn nhim sang mt mi trng khc t b kim sot hn
v mt lut php m thi.
X l cht thi trc khi b nhm lm gim c hi hoc lm gim nhu cu
v a im b cht thi, nhng khng phi l loi tr cht gy nhim. X
l cht thi bao gm cc quy trnh nh: Gim khi lng, pha long, gim c
hi ho cht gy nhim, nn thnh khi, bc v, c c cc cht c hoc nguy
him gim bt khi lng.
Cc cng on lm gim khi lng (nh rt bt nc trong cc cht thi) l nhng
phng php x l cht thi rt hu dng, nhng chng khng gip lm gim bt
cht gy nhim. V d phng php nn lc v lm kh loi bn c b nhim
do cc cht kim loi nng trc khi em b c th lm gim bt hm lng
nc trong bn v v th lm gim khi lng loi cht thi ny, nhng phng
php ny khng lm gim c hm lng kim loi nng cha trong lp bn .
Lm long thnh phn cht thi gim bt c hi v nguy him. Phng
php lm long c p dng i vi cc dng cht thi sau khi nhim pht
sinh v v vy khng gip lm gim s lng tuyt i ca cc cht c hi thi
vo mi trng.
g. Sn xut sch hn: Li ch v nhng ro cn:
C th phn chia cc cn tr i vi vic p dng SXSH ti cc doanh nghip thnh
2 phm tr nh sau:
Cc ro cn trong ni b doanh nghip:

252
- Thiu thng tin v kin thc chuyn mn. Trong rt nhiu trng hp, cc cng ty
khng c cn b chuyn mn v k nng p dng cc phng php SXSH,
hoc khng c thng tin v loi cng ngh c th. Thng thng, h vn quen
ngh rng bo v mi trng l nhng hot ng tn nhiu tin bc.
- Nhn thc v mi trng thp;
- Cc u tin v cnh tranh trong kinh doanh, c th l sc p v cc ngun li c
tnh ngn hn.
- Nhng kh khn v ti chnh;
- Thiu nhng mi giao lu gia cc doanh nghip;
- S tr tr ca cc nh qun l.
- Nhng kh khn v ngun nhn lc
Cc cn tr t bn ngoi:
- S yu km ca h thng quy phm php lut: Nu cc b phn qun l nh nc
thc hin tt nhim v ca h trong vic xc nh nhng hnh ng ph hp, th
cc cng ty khng cn phi gnh trch nhim lp k hoch qun l tch hp cho
mi trng, thc cht cc c quan qun l nh nc ch gi vai tr nh nhng
ngi ch o ra cc quy nh, cc tiu chun cho mi trng.
- Kh khn trong vic tip cn cc cng ngh SXSH.
- Kh khn trong vic tip cn cc ngun ti chnh t bn ngoi.
- Hin ang tn ti rt nhiu ng c tim tng cho vic p dng SXSH. Cc ng
c ny cng c th c phn chia thnh 2 dng nh sau:
Cc ng c bn trong (mt cng ty).
- H thng qun l mi trng v vic lin tc ci thin mi trng.
- Gii lnh o v mi trng ca cng ty: Ti nhng cng ty c ban lnh o thc
s cam kt vi tng p dng cc phng php SXSH, th chc chn s gy c
"hiu ng lan to", tc l cc thnh vin khc trong cng ty cng c cam kt mnh
hn i vi vn mi trng.
- Cc bo co mi trng ca cng ty: Lm bo co cng c th l mt phng
php hu dng cc cng ty c th ph bin cc thng tin v hot ng mi
trng ca h n cc bn c lin quan; v hn th na, cc bo co cn c th
c s dng nh mt cng c d bo ni b i vi SXSH.
- Hch ton mi trng: C nhiu hnh thc hch ton mi trng c p dng
vi mc ch lm gim bt vai tr ch o ca cc h thng hch ton ti chnh hp
hi hin nay. Hch ton mi trng hin ang c coi l lnh vc c tim nng

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ln trong nhng ng gp vo khng ch cc thnh tu kinh doanh, m cn c cho
pht trin bn vng.
- Ci thin v nng sut.
Cc ng c t bn ngoi:
- i mi trong h thng cc vn bn quy phm php lut.
- Cc cng c khuyn khch kinh t nh thu, cc khon tr cp, cc giy php pht
thi nhim, c th c p dng y nhanh tc thc hin SXSH. Cc cng
c khuyn khch kinh t c th mang tnh tch cc nh cc khon tr cp, gim
thu, hoc cng c th di cc dng khng c mong mun nh thu hoc ph
mi trng.
- Gio dc v o to;
- Quan h gia ngi mua- ngi bn. c bit nhng cng ty ln thng hay p
t cc sn phm hoc quy trnh ca mnh cho cc cng ty khc, li dng th lc th
trng ca mnh gy nh hng i vi hnh vi ca cc bn cung ng u
ngun, cng nh i vi cc bn tiu th cui ngun.
- Cc khon vay li sut thp ca cc c quan ti chnh.
- S tham gia ca cng ng: Ch khen thng chnh thc c th l mt trong
nhng phng php cc cng ty "trnh lng" rng h p dng SXSH. Tnh
cht cng khai ca vic khen thng cng c th l mt dng cng c gio dc
nhm nng cao nhn thc cng chng.
- Cc cng c khuyn khch trong thng mi quc t: Trong nn kinh t ngy cng
c ton cu ho mnh hn, sc mnh nh hng ca cc cng ty thng mi ln
i vi cc quy trnh sn xut kinh doanh ca cc cng ty chc chn s ngy cng
tng. Sc mnh ny s c th hin mt cch chnh thc thng qua nhng yu cu
c th, cng c th c th hin mt cch phi chnh thc thng qua nhng la
chn ca ngi tiu th ti cc th trng trong mt vng.
h. Vai tr ca cc t chc quc t trong lnh vc SXSH.
C rt nhiu t chc quc t c nhng hot ng tch cc trong vic xc tin
SXSH. Nhng hot ng quan trng nht s c miu t ngn gn di y.
- Chng trnh mi trng ca Lin hip quc "Cng nghip v mi trng"
(UNEPIE) hin ang hot ng vi t cch l bn xc tc cho vic thc thi mc
tiu tp hp gii cng nghip, cc t chc chnh ph v phi chnh ph cng hnh
ng tm ra cc hnh thc pht trin cng nghip theo hng c li cho mi
trng. UNEPIE ang tm kim bin php nhm:
Xc nh v khuyn khch vic a cc tiu ch mi trng vo pht trin cng

254
nghip.
Gip xy dng cc chnh sch v chin lc pht trin cng nghip bn vng,
v to iu kin thun li cho vic thc thi cc chin lc hay chnh sch ny.
Thc y thc hin vic bo v mi trng thng qua vic p dng SXSH v cc
bin php ch ng khc;
Kch thch vic trao i thng tin v cc hnh thc pht trin cng nghip c li
cho mi trng.
UNEPIE xy dng Tuyn ngn v SXSH, Tuyn ngn ny c cng b ti
hi tho quc t cp cao ln th 5 v SXSH ti Seoul nm 1998.
T chc pht trin cng nghip ca Lin hip quc (UNIDO). Hot ng quan
trng nht ca UNIDO trong lnh vc SXSH l chng trnh Trung tm SXSH
quc gia. y l chng trnh lin kt gia UNIDO v UNEP. UNIDO chu trch
nhim v qun l chung, v c quan lin lc ti a phng, v bo m cung cp
cc chuyn gia, c bit l cho cc hot ng trnh din ti cc ngnh cng nghip.
UNEP chu trch nhim v cung cp cc chuyn gia, v o to, thng tin, phn
tch chnh sch. Mc tiu ca Chng trnh l thnh lp cc Trung tm quc gia v
SXSH, ni s thc hin 6 dng hot ng, c th l: Nng cao nhn thc, o to,
nh gi trong ni b x nghip, ph bin thng tin, xc tin u t v t vn chnh
sch.
T chc hp tc v pht trin kinh t (OECD) c bit tch cc trong vic thc y
SXSH ti cc nc Trung v ng u (CEEC) v cc quc gia mi c lp (NIS).
Cng vic ny c thc hin trong khun kh ca Chng trnh hnh ng mi
trng ca nhm cng tc chuyn trch v cc nc CEEC/NIS (EAP) cng tc
ny c thnh lp ti Hi ngh b trng "Mi trng cho chu u", vi cc
thnh vin l cc b trng mi trng. Hi ngh hp ti thnh ph Lucerne, Thu
S nm 1993. Ban gim c v mi trng ca T chc OECD gi vai tr l Ban
th k cho nhm cng tc ca chng trnh. Mt trong nhng mc tiu chnh ca
EAP trong lnh vc qun l mi trng trong cc doanh nghip l to dng c
nng lc c bn cho vic thc hin SXSH ti CEEC/NIS. Nm 1998 vn bn bo
co chnh sch v qun l mi trng doanh nghip ti cc nc CEEC/NIS
c nhm cng tc trnh v c thng qua ti Hi ngh b trng "Mi
trng cho chu u" ti Aarhees.
Hi ng doanh nghip v s pht trin bn vng th gii (WBESD) l t chc lin
kt ca trn 140 cng ty quc t, cng c chung mt cam kt v pht trin bn
vng, tc l cam kt v bo v mi trng, cng bng x hi v tng trng kinh
t. Xt theo ngha rng, mc tiu ca cc doanh nghip, chnh ph v cc t chc
khc c quan tm ti mi trng v pht trin bn vng. WBCSD cn t ra nhim

255
v khuyn khch cc tiu chun qun l mi trng cao ngay ti cc doanh nghip.
WBCSD thc thi quan im v hiu qu sinh thi. Gn y WBCSD bt tay
vo chun b thc hin Pha 2 ca "sng kin hiu qu sinh thi chu u" (EEEI), l
hot ng nng cao nhn thc v xy dng nng lc chuyn mn, nhm xc tin
hiu qu sinh thi vi t cch l quan im ch o trong chnh sch v kinh doanh
ca tt c cc nc thnh vin chu u.
U ban kinh t chu u ca Lin hp quc (UN/ECE) ang tin hnh chng trnh
nh gi thnh tu mi trng (EPR) ti nhiu nc trn th gii. Mt trong nhng
lnh vc c EPR quan tm l vic thc hin cc hot ng SXSH ti cc nc
thuc i tng nh gi. Hot ng ny cung cp 1 cch nhn tng th v hin
trng v a ra nhng khuyn ngh cho vic tip tc xc tin cc hot ng SXSH.
3.2. nh gi tnh kh thi i vi d n SXSH hn.
i vi bt c mt d n SXSH no khi c xc nh cng u phi xem xt
tnh kh thi ca n, v c bn tnh kh thi c cn c vo ba nh gi quan
trng, l nh gi k thut, nh gi kinh t v nh gi mi trng.
a. nh gi k thut.
nh gi k thut bao gm c 2 phn lin quan cht ch vi nhau.
Th nht l nh gi xem xt liu phng n ny c th a vo p dng trong
thc t c hay khng, chng hn nh trang thit b c hay cha, nh hng
ca vic thc hin ti cht lng sn phm v nng sut, nhng yu cu v duy
tu v s dng, cc k nng cn thit cho vic vn hnh v gim st.
Th hai l cn phi a nhng thay i v v c tnh k thut vo bng cn i
nguyn vt liu c d kin trc, th hin nhng thay i ny di dng
cc dng u vo/u ra v cc nhu cu v nng lng sau khi thc hin phng
n SXSH ny.
nh gi k thut i hi phi c nhng s nghin cu k cng, c bit lin
quan ti ngun vn.
b. nh gi Kinh t.
nh gi Kinh t ti thiu nht cng bao gm vic thu thp thng tin (v cc khon
u t v cc chi ph li ch tc nghip), la chn cc tiu ch nh gi (thi hn
hon vn, gi tr hin ti rng (NPV), hoc t l hon vn ni ti (IRR), v cc tnh
ton, v tnh kh thi. Nhng s liu kinh t c c s c b sung vo cc kt
qu nh ga k thut. c th c c cc li th kinh t di hn khi thc hin
SXSH, cn phi p dng cc nguyn tc nh gi tng chi ph trong khi thc hin
nh gi kinh t, iu ny c bit quan trng i vi cc phng n SXSH c chi
ph cao.

256
Nu phng n khng i hi nhng chi ph u t cao, vic nh gi kinh t
tng i n gin. Cc li ch kinh t c th c tnh ton lm r mc
gim bt cc chi ph vn hnh, hoc tng li ch mi trng (phng nga v gim
bt cht thi).
Thi h hon vn l mt trong nhng phng php nh gi kinh t ph bin nht.
Thi k hon vn c xc nh bng n v thi gian (v d: Nm) cn thit c
th sn sinh ra c s tin cho hon tr vn u t ban u. Thi k hon vn
cng ngn c ngha l u t cho SXSH cng c hiu qu.
u t t bn
Thi k hon vn = --------------------------------------------------
Tit kim chi ph hot ng hng nm
Thi k hon vn thng c tnh theo n v nm. Tuy nhin, c nhng d n
u t c bit c hiu qu, c th hon vn trong vng mt s thng. Thi k hon
vn trong khong t 3 n 4 nm thng c coi l c th chp nhn c i vi
cc d n u t t ri ro. Phng php ny thng s dng cho nh gi nhanh
nhm xac nh sut li nhun. Nu d n c chi ph t bn ln, cn phi c nhng
phn tch k cng, t m hn.
T sut hon vn ni ti (IRR) v gi tr hin ti rng (NPV) l hai phng php
tnh dng tin c chit khu, nhm xc nh sut li nhun. Nhiu cng ty s dng
phng php ny xp hng cc d n u t c bn, cn c s sp t u tin
khi tin hnh cp vn. Vic cp vn c bn cho mt d n c th ph thuc ln vo
kh nng ca d n trong vic to ra cc dng tin ngoi phm vi thi k hon vn,
c th hin thc ho kh nng thu hi vn u t mc c th chp nhn
c. C NPV v IRR phi tnh ti gi tr thi gian thng qua vic thc hin chit
khu ng tin c s dng trong tng lai v chuyn chng v hin ti. i vi
cc d n u t c mc ri ro thp, t l hon vn ni ti (IRR) sau thu vo
khong 12-15% l c th chp nhn c.
T sut li ch/ chi ph (BCR) l t sut so snh gia tng gi tr hin ti ca tt c
cc dng tin vo vi tng gi tr hin ti ca tt c cc dng tin ra ca mt d n.
BCR cho bit tng gi tr hin ti ca cc li ch ln gp bao nhiu ln tng gi tr
hin ti ca cc chi ph, chnh v vy BCR l ch tiu quan trng quyt nh xem
c nn thc hin mt d n SXSH ny hay d n khc hay khng. Tuy nhin khi
thc hin ch tiu ny cc doanh nghip cng phi lu tm ti mt vn ht sc
quan trng l cc quy ch v mi trng do lut php quy nh. Mt doanh
nghip vi phm cc quy nh php l v mi trng s phi i mt vi cc khon
pht hnh chnh, kin co, hoc thm ch c pht hnh s na (i vi cc cn b
qun l doanh nghip). Kt qu nh my c th b ng ca. Trong trng hp ny,

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s tn ti ca nh my/doanh nghip hon ton ph thuc vo vic d n ci thin
mi trng c thc hin tt hay khng.
b. nh gi mi trng.
Mc tiu ca nh gi mi trng l xc nh cc tc ng tch cc v tiu cc
ca phng n SXSH i vi mi trng. Bi l mt trong nhng mc ch
quan trng ca SXSH l ci thin cht lng mi trng ti doanh nghip, chnh
v vy cn phi c nh gi mi trng.
nh gi mi trng phi tnh n tt c cc yu t lin quan n vng i sn
phm hoc dch v. C hai cch phn tch vng i sn phm hin ang ph
bin l phn tch nh tnh v phn tch nh lng.
Th nht phn tch nh lng bao gm vic xy dng mt b tiu thc cho vic
nh gi tc ng mi trng ca sn phm v thc hin vic nh gi . Cc
tiu thc c th c xy dng bng cch s dng cc thng s nh: Chi ph
b hoc lm sch cc cht thi pht sinh tt c cc cng on trong vng i
sn phm, tng lng chi ph nng lng s dng ti tt c cc cng on
ca vng i sn phm, chi ph gy ra do nh hng ca sn phm v.v.
Th hai l phn tch nh tnh l loi phn tch hu dng hn trong vic nh gi
vng i sn phm. Phn tch ny bao gm vic xy dng mt ma trn cc vn
mi trng c i chiu vi tng giai on trong vng i sn phm. Phng
php ny thng c s dng nh mt cng c gip cho vic xc nh cc u
tin trong khi ti thit k cc mu sn phm.
Cc bc thc hin khi nh gi mi trng.
- Th nht: l vic nh gi nhng thay i v s lng; c hi ca cht
thi/cht nhim ti tt c cc giai on ca vng i sn phm (t nht l i
vi nguyn vt liu, sn xut, s dng v b).
- Th hai: nh gi nhng thay i v tiu th nng lng trong sut vng i
sn phm.
- Th ba: xem xt kh nng di chuyn nh hng mi trng sang cc mi trng
trung gian khc.
- Th t: xc nh kh nng ti s dng ca cc loi cht thi.
- Th nm: xc nh kh nng thay i trong mc lm tn hi mi trng ca
cht thi/cht gy nhim.
- Th su: xc nh mc s dng cc nguyn liu c th ti to.
- Th by: xc nh mc gim bt trong tiu th nng lng.

258
- Th tm: xc nh mc s dng cc ngun nng lng c th ti to c.
Trn c s nh gi v k thut, kinh t v mi trng chng ta loi b tt c
cc phng n khng kh thi v mt k thut hoc nhng phng n khng mang
li li ch ng k v mt mi trng. Tt c nhng phng n cn li v mt
nguyn tc u c th p dng c. Nhng phng n c u tin nht l
nhng phng n c gi tr hin ti rng cao nht, tuy nhin trong trng hp
ngun vn u t c hn s u tin li phi xem xt ti t sut gi tr hin ti rng.
Kinh nghim cho thy vic tin hnh nghin cu v nh gi v k thut, Kinh t
v mi trng i hi chi ph cao, chnh v vy vic la chn cu phi c tin
hnh ht sc thn trng c th tm ra cc phng n c kh nng c thc hin
cao nht trong nhng khong thi c xc nh.
3.3. u t cho sn xut sch hn.
a. u t cho sn xut sch hn nhn t gc Kinh t.
u t cho sn xut sch hn c hiu l vic huy ng mt ngun vn no
tp trung cho mt phng n c kh thi i vi mt doanh nghip trn c s quy
trnh cng ngh sn xut ang vn hnh nhm t c mc tiu "Sn xut sch
hn", thc hin mc tiu ny khng ch t hiu qu mi trng m quan trng hn
doanh nghip cn c sinh li t ngun vn u t, hay ni cch khc l
hiu qu Kinh t.
Thc t i vi cc phng n u t cho sn xut sch hn cc doanh nghip
cho thy trc khi tin hnh u t, ngi ta phi c mt qu trnh nghin cu
v phn tch tng bc i n khng nh l nu u t cho phng n ra s
c kh nng sinh li cho d n hay khng? i n quyt nh tnh ton kh nng
sinh li ca d n iu ht sc quan trng trc chng ta phi lm l phi
xc nh v nh gi cc khon chi ph no m chng ta phi b ra, v mt phn
quan trng ca bt k phn tch u t no l cn phi hiu r cc khon chi ph v
tit kim d kin d n s mang li.
Ni dung c bn ca xc nh v nh gi chi ph bao gm:
- Chi ph u t ban u nh chi ph mua trang thit b, lp t trang thit b, o
to. i vi cc doanh nghip, hoc cng ty xc nh chi ph u t ban u, tt
hn ht l xc nh chi ph vn hnh hng nm bi v vic xc nh chi ph u t
ban u nhiu khi khng phi l vn d dng v d nh lng.
- Chi ph vn hnh, tit kim v thu nhp hng nm , nhng khon ny bao gm
chi ph cho nguyn liu, nhin liu, nng lng, lao ng. Chi ph vn hnh hng
nm phi c xem xt trn c s hot ng hin ti trc khi c d n v sau khi
tin hnh d n, bi v thng qua hai con s ny l c s chng ta xem xt s

259
khc bit gia trc v sau khi c d n, xc nh c khon tin tit kim chi ph
cho cng ty. iu ht sc quan trng l trong khi xem xt chi ph vn hnh hng
nm cn phi a vo tt c cc yu t chu tc ng ca d n, vic xem xt v r
sot cng rng bao nhiu cng tt by nhiu, nu chng ta lm c vic ny th
qu trnh phn tch u t tnh kh nng sinh li ca d n s m bo cng
chnh xc.
- Cn xc nh, nh gi v phn b tt c cc khon mc thch hp v quan trng
m d n tc ng n. i vi d n sn xut sch hn y l vn cn c
xem xt ht sc cn thn bi l cc khon chi ph nh chi ph nguyn liu, chi ph
qun l cht thi hay chi ph t hu hnh hn thng rt kh xc nh v d b phn
b sai hoc b n trong s sch k ton. V d nh khi nghin cu v chi ph n ca
nguyn liu tht thot ti nh my ph tng t ch to thn sau bng cht do,
xem xt s sch k ton ngi ta thy t l tht thot nguyn liu cht do di
dng cht thi l 2%, nhng o lng thc t trong qu trnh sn xut cho thy con
s tht thot l 52%. Nguyn nhn l t l tht thot nguyn vt liu cao ny
c lng vo trong nhng c im thit k ca sn phm cht do c ch to,
chnh v vy khng bao gi chng xut hin trong s sch k ton. Trong nhiu
trng hp khc, c nhng loi chi ph c th thiu trong s sch k ton m khi
xc nh chi ph chng ta khng th c s liu, thng nhng chi ph ny l chi ph
t hu hnh hn nh li nhun mt i do sn lng gim, chi ph tun th cc quy
ch trong tng lai, nhng trch nhim, ngha v php l tim tng, hnh nh c
tnh tiu cc ca cng ty v.v....
Vic xc nh v nh gi chi ph s gip chng ta lp d ton ngn sch cho quyt
nh u t, bi l lp d ton ngn sch l mt qa trnh lin quan ti thu nhp,
phn tch chi ph - li ch ca d n ra quyt nh u t kh thi tt nht cho
cng ty. Vic nh gi chi ph -li ch ca mt d n u t phi th hin c kt
qu ca hot ng u t. Thng tin quan trng y l s thay i cc lung tin
mt do vic tin hnh thc hin d n gy ra. chnh xc cn thit cho cc nh
gi lin quan ti quyt nh u t ph thuc vo ba vn c bn, th nht l giai
on nh gi d n thng th c ba giai on u, gia v cui, trong cc giai
on u cha cn phi c chnh xc cao; Th hai l mc nhy cm v Kinh
t ca d n i vi chnh xc v thi im din ra ca mi yu t trong bn
nh gi d n; Th ba l s ging nhau ca d n ny v cc d n khc c
thc hin.
Ra quyt nh ti chnh i vi d n u t vn i hi phi c mt s phng
php c tnh k thut. v nhng nguyn l nht nh. Nhng phng php c bn
c th c lit k nh sau:
- Phng php tnh gi tr hin ti rng: Phng php ny da trn c s chit

260
khu tt c cc lung tin mt v thi im hin ti, t sut chit khu phi m
bo t sut hon vn ti thiu chp nhn c. Nu gi tr hin ti rng dng,
mc hon vn v ti chnh ca d n ln hn mc ti thiu c th chp nhn th d
n chp nhn c v mt kinh t . Nu gi tr hin ti rng m, d n khng chp
nhn c theo quan im kinh t.
- Phng php tnh t sut hon vn ni ti: T sut hon vn ni ti thc cht l
mt t l chit khu lm cho gi tr hin ti rng bng khng. y chnh l t l li
sut cao nht m cng ty c th chu c khi tin hnh vay vn m vn khng b
l.
- Phng php tnh chi ph hng nm tng ng: Chi ph hng nm tng
ng l lng tin hon tr hng nm cho khon vn vay trong sut qu trnh
thc hin d n theo mt t sut chit khu c xc nh. Khi cn nhc la
chn cc phng n u t thc cht c th ch cn xem xt cc chi ph. Trong
nhng tnh hung nh vy, chng ta c th chn nhng phng n m chi ph hng
nm tng ng thp nht, v phng n c tng chi ph thp nht s l phng
n tt nht.
- Phng php tnh thi gian hon vn: y l phng php s dng c
tnh thi gian cn thit thu li chi ph u t gc. Lung tin mt rng thu c t
d n c tnh cho mi nm c cng dn cho n khi chng bng khon u t
gc. Thi gian cn thit hon li u t c gi l thi hn hon vn. i vi
nhng d n c thi hn hon vn ngn nht l d n tt nht.
- Phng php tnh thi gian hon vn c chit khu: y l phng php da
trn c s tnh ton s nm cn thit cc lung tin mt thu vo hon li c
vn u t v thu li c mt t l hon vn cn thit trong thi gian . Theo
phng php ny, lung tin mt thu vo mi nm c chit khu theo mt t l
hon vn cn thit v cc gi tr hin ti ny c cng dn cho n khi tng ca
chng bng vi khon vn u t b ra. i vi nhng d n c thi gian hon vn
chit khu ngn hn l nhng d n c a thch hn
- Phng php tnh t sut hon vn k ton: T sut hon vn k ton l php o
thu nhp bnh qun hng nm sau thu trong sut qua trnh thc hin d n em
chia cho vn u t ban u hoc u t bnh qun cn thit to ra thu nhp .
Phng php ny khc vi phng php khc l nh gi thu nhp rng ch khng
nh ga lung tin mt. Phng php ny rt c li i vi cc nh qun l khi
xem xt tc ng ca mt khon u t vn ln ln cc kt qu ti chnh bo co
Trn c s tnh ton da vo cc ch tiu m cc phng php nh ga ti
chnh em li, quyt nh d n c u t hay khng v tm kim ngun vn nh
th no i vi mt d n sn xut sch hn l bc tip theo i hi cc doanh

261
nghip phi thc hin. Nhng ngun cung cp vn c th gip cc doanh nghip
thc hin d n u t sn xut sch hn bao gm:
- Ngun vn ni b. Ngun vn ni b (c th c to ra bng cch gi li li
nhun hoc vn do ch s hu cung cp. Ngun vn ni b cng c th l nhng
qu khc c to ra trong qu kh nay c s dng cho d n sn xut sch hn
l chi ph c hi tt nht).

- Ngun vn t cc ngn hng nh ngn hng thng mi; ngn hng pht trin v
cc ngn hng khc. Tuy nhin i vi cc d n sn xut sch hn th vay vn
ngn hng thng mi c nhiu u th hn.
- Ngun vn t cc qu h tr pht trin c th t ngn sch Nh nc thng qua
ti tr, tr cp do Nh nc qun l; vn trung v di hn ca cc thnh phn kinh
t; Vay vin tr nc ngoi.
- Ngun vn thng qua vic cho thu ti chnh. Ngi cho thu ti chnh l ch s
hu hp php ca ti sn, nhng ngi i thu ti chnh c quyn s dng ti sn
hp php v phi chu mi ri ro v li ch ca ti sn.
Ngoi ra cn c nhiu ngun vn khc c th huy ng cho cc d n sn xut sch
hn nh pht hnh c phn mi cng ty; ti tr ca cc t chc quc t; qu mi
trng Quc gia, a phng hoc ngnh v.v...

b. Li ch Kinh t ca vic u t cho sn xut sch hn.
u t cho sn xut sch hn l mt cch tip cn khc hn vi cch tip cn "cui
ng ng", i hi mt qa trnh ci tin lin tc nhm tit kim nguyn liu,
nhin liu, nng lng, lao ng, qun l v ng nhin s hn ch cht thi ra
mi trng. cch tip cn ny c tnh cht phng nga l chnh nhm mc tiu
tng hiu qu tng th.
Kt qu phn tch l lun cng nh vn dng trong thc tin cho cc doanh nghip
thc hin d n sn xut sch hn chng minh li ch kinh t ca loi d n
ny, c th tm lc nhng li ch c bn nh sau:
- Sn sut sch hn s lm tng hiu qu ca vic s dng nguyn liu u vo,
ngun nc, ngun nhin liu v nng lng, ci thin iu kin lm vic v do
s tng hiu qu kinh t so vi khi cha tin hnh d n sn xut sch hn thng
qua tit kim chi ph.
- D n sn xut sch hn s lm gim mc pht sinh cht thi, tiu th nguyn vt
liu, nng lng v nc do vy s gim chi ph x l cht thi, tit kim chi ph

262
cho doanh nghip.
- i vi cc d n sn xut sch hn s lm tng hiu qu v nng sut hot ng
ca cc doanh nghip nh k hoch thi gian, k hoch ngn sch, s dng hiu
qu nhn ti vt lc, ci thin iu kin lm vic, gim bt c cc ngha v php
l.
- p dng d n sn xut sch hn s lm tng li th so snh ca cc doanh nghip
v cng ty trn th trng v sn phm ca h p ng tiu chun mi trng,
ngi tiu dng a thch hn v do vy sn phm s tiu th c nhiu hn, li
nhun tng. Hnh nh cng ty s ngy cng chim lnh trn th trng.
- p dng sn xut sch hn l l do lm cho mi trng lin tc c ci thin, cc
cng ty s hng pht trin ca mnh vo mc tiu pht trin bn vng, do vy
hot ng ca cng ty s tn ti lu di, sn xut kinh doanh n nh.
Xt trn tng th v kinh t, p dng sn xut sch hn khng ch nhn thy nhng
li ch kinh t nh phn tch trn m cn cha ng nhiu li ch tim tng
khc m bn thn ngi thc hin nhiu khi cng kh nhn thy v lng ha trc
c.
Minh ho 5.1: SXSH trng hp cng ty thc phm thin hng

Chng ti bt u lc sch du chin gim lng du tiu th do du b
gi trong m v trong cn du. iu ngc nhin l vic lm ny khng nhng tit
kim c du chin m cn ci thin ng k cht lng sn phm ca chng ti.
Khch hng ca chng ti by gi khng cn lo ngi v ngy sn xut/ng gi.
Pht biu ca Ph Gim c cng ty thc phm Thin Hng.

Cng ty thc phm Thin Hng l mt trong nhng cng ty ch bin thc phm
ln nht TP. H Ch Minh. Thi im nm 1999 Cng ty c lc lng cng nhn,
vin chc l 1 200 ngi. Sn phm chnh l m n lin nhng cng ty cn sn
xut cho n lin, bt canh, u phng chin v tng t. Cng ty thc phm Thin
Hng l cng ty Quc doanh v c mt i ng qun l lnh ngh. Vo thi gian
ni trn, cng ty ng trc hai thch thc quan trng. Th nht l thc hin ch
trng ca Nh nc, cng ty ang trong qu trnh chun b c phn ho sm, do
vy c mt p lc ln ban qun l nhm ci thin tnh hnh Kinh t ca cng ty;
Th hai l cng ty b c quan qun l mi trng thnh ph a vo Sch en
do c nhng tc ng xu ln mi trng, mt khc do lch s li cc nh my
ca cng ty phn b trong khu dn c, pht thi ca Nh my tc ng xu ti
mi trng xung quanh .

263
ci thin cht lng mi trng, cng ty thc phm Thin Hng quyt nh
tham gia vo d n SXSH. Nhm SXSH ca nh my c thnh lp vi 6
thnh vin do mt ph gim c ph trch sn xut ng u. Nh my c nhiu
quy trnh sn xut cc loi sn phm khc nhau, y ch tp trung nh gi SXSH
cho dy chuyn sn xut m n lin. Vi s tr gip ca cc chuyn gia trong nc
v quc t, nhm SXSH phn tch ton din cc dng cht thi lm c s
cho vic xc nh cc gii php nhm ti thiu ho cht thi bng cch ti u ho
quy trnh sn xut. T la chn ra c mt s ln cc gii php SXSH
thc hin, c 24 gii php, ch yu l cc gii php t tn km hoc khng tn chi
ph c thc hin vi tng chi ph u t khong 868 triu ng (62.000 USD).
Nhng gii php ny tit kim trc tip c hng nm 9,3 t ng
(633.700USD). Nhng ci thin mi trng chnh l gim c 66% lng nc
thi, gim c 30-35% ti lng cht thi hu c v gim ng k kh thi.
Nhng kt qu t c bc u ca cng ty cha phi l kt qu cui cng ca
d n SXSH. iu ng quan tm l sau nhng kt qu cng ty c mt i
ng cn b lnh ngh c hun luyn nn c th xc nh v thc hin c cc
gii php SXSH tip theo. Cc gii php ny s to thm cc hiu qu kinh t ln
hn v ci thin mi trng tt hn na. V qun l, cng ty thay i phng
thc qun l nhm m bo c s kim sot cht ch vic s dng nguyn nhin
vt liu. Sau mi thng sn xut cng ty c nhng bo co v s liu tiu th ca
tt c cc loi nguyn nhin vt liu chnh v c nhng hnh thc thng pht cho
nhng cng nhn c sng kin trong vic tit kim s dng nguyn nhin vt liu.
Nhng thnh qu t c ca cng ty thc phm Thin Hng phi tri qua
nhiu cn tr, c bit l khi bt u thc hin d n SXSH. Tr ngi chnh l thi
v s hiu bit v khi nim SXSH trong hm l khng mun c s thay
i. Khng c mt cn b no ca cng ty tng tm hiu v SXSH v khng c
phng php gii quyt vn mt cch h thng. Hn na vi t cch l mt
cng ty thc phm ln v c qun l tt, ngi ta thng cho rng quy trnh sn
xut ca nh my khng th c ci thin tt hn na. S phi hp lm vic ca
cc chuyn gia ngoi nh my v cc cn b trong nh my, thm vo l p lc
ngy cng tng phi gim thiu cc tc ng xu ln mi trng lm thay i c
bn thi ca cn b qun l cng nh cng nhn trong nh my. Minh chng
cho s nhn thc ny l ban gim c cng ty dnh ra mt khon ngn sch
hng thng khong 120 triu ng(8500USD) thc hin chng trnh SXSH,
iu gip ci thin mt cch lin tc khng ch mi trng khu vc hot
ng sn xut ca nh my v ln cn m cn li ch kinh t ca nh my.
Tm tt kt qu chnh ca d n trnh din SXSH ti cng ty thc phm Thin
Hng tnh n ngy 20/07/1999.

264
Kinh ph u t 868 triu ng (62 000USD)
Tit kim hng nm 9,3 t ng (663 000USD)
Thi gian hon vn
Nhng li ch v mi trng Gim 68% lng nc thi
Gim 30-35% ti lng cht thi hu c
Gim ng k kh thi
Nhng thay i trong qun l *Thit lp h thng gim st kim tra vic
tiu th nguyn nhin vt liu theo 27 ch tiu
* Thit lp h thng khen thng cho vic
tit kim tiu th nguyn nhin vt liu

Ci thin cht lng sn phm Ci thin cht lng thnh phm.
Gim t l m vn t 9% cn 3%
Tng 25% nng sut.
Ngun: Kho tp hun CP3 Sinh li t sn xut sch hn UNEP, MPI, CEERD 2001
4. H thng qun l mi trng cho doanh nghip
Trn th gii, mi c quan Chnh ph v doanh nghip u ang phi i u vi
tnh trng nhim mi trng do sn xut cng nghip gy ra v lun cng cng
tc tm nhng gii php mang tnh lut php hn khng ch trong tng nc m
cn phm vi khu vc v quc t.
4.1. Ti sao doanh nghip phi quan tm ti vic qun l mi trng
Qun l mi trng l mt phng thc tip cn h thng chm lo ti mi kha
cnh c lin quan ti mi trng trong cc hot ng sn xut kinh doanh ca mt
t chc. N phi c xem nh l mt b phn gn lin trong hot ng v chin
lc kinh doanh ca t chc.
Doanh nghip phi quan tm ti qun l mi trng v:
4.1.1. Php lut v nhng s p buc khc i vi doanh nghip
Tuy cc mc khc nhau nhng Chnh ph ca tt c cc quc gia u ang
tng cng kim sot cc hot ng cng nghip, nghim khc x pht vic vi
phm cc iu lut v cc gii hn cho php v mi trng. Cc hnh pht dn s
v hnh s mi, nghim ngt hn v vi phm lut v cc quy nh mi trng ang
c cc nc pht trin c bit ch trng p dng. c bit l cc vi phm dn

265
ti nguy c tn hi v sc kho, tn hi lu di cho ti nguyn t, nc mt, nc
ngm, ... Tnh hnh buc cc doanh nghip phi tin hnh cc bin php gim
st cn thit minh chng rng h p ng cc yu cu cho php hoc tun th
cc iu lut. Cc nhn vin gim st khu vc cng ang c o to cch xc
nh v kp ch ra cc vi phm v lut php hay nhng quy nh v mi trng.
Nhiu x nghip nhn thy tip tc tn ti v xc tin hot ng sn xut kinh
doanh h buc phi ch trng mt chin lc lu di v mi trng. Vi chin lc
h mi to c c hi kinh doanh, cnh tranh c vi cc i th bit cn
nhc ti cc yu t mi trng, thu ht c cc nh u t, cc c ng v cc
bn lin quan nh vin cnh tt p v mi trng ca h.
Trch nhim php l, hnh s v vi phm lut hay cc quy nh mi trng khng
ch tr nn nghin khc hn m c s php l ca n cng ang c ch trng ti
nhiu nc. iu ny gip kim sot c mi tc hi mi trng ngay c khi cha
c cc bng chng vi phm. Cc hot ng sn xut, kinh doanh d ch c nguy c
ri ro cng s b cm v ch doanh nghip s b x pht thu mt cch nghim
khc.
Ngoi cc trch nhim php l, hnh s do cc nguy hi v s c hoc nhim, ti
nhiu nc, cc doanh nghip cn gp kh khn v cc trng hp x l khn cp
khi c quan chc nng buc h phi nh ch sn xut cho ti lc gii quyt xong
s c. Trong mt s trng hp, cc doanh nghip buc phi di di a im hoc
u t mua sm trang thit b cng ngh mi kim sot nhim.
ng ca hay khng ng ca?. Liu c a im thch hp di chuyn v
gii php di chuyn c thc thi khng? ... lun l nhng cu hi kh tr li i
vi cc c quan chc nng ca Chnh ph. Ti Vit Nam cc trng hp nh vy
cng xy ra.
4.1.2. p lc v nhn thc, v danh ting v v quan h cng ng:
Nhn thc ca x hi ni chung v ca ngi tiu dng ni ring v mi trng
ang dn dn thay i. L thng thng ngi ta xem mt doanh nghip c tnh
trng mi trng km th kh c th sn xut cc sn phm c cht lng cao . Xu
th hin nay ngi tiu dng c s la chn cc sn phm c sn xut trong cc
iu kin tt v mi trng. Bn hng, nhng ngi lun cn trng khi la chn,
k kt cc hp ng hn phi cn nhc k hn v iu ny.
Cc bn quan tm hoc cc bn c quyn li lin quan khc nh cc c ng, cc t
chc ti chnh, cc cng ty bo him ... lun xem trong yu t m bo mi trng
trong qu trnh nh gi tng th, nh gi v cc khch hng hin c v cc khch
hng tng lai trc lc thc hin cc dch v u t, cho vay, dch v bo him
hay chp nhn cc iu kin m phn thch hp.

266
Cc doanh nghip thiu cn trng v vn nhim c th gp nhiu rc ri trong
quan h i vi dn c a phng.
4.1.3. Cnh tranh
nhim mi trng thng gn lin vi vic tiu hao lng ph nhin liu v nng
lng, cht lng sn phm km, gi thnh cao nn mt kh nng cnh tranh th
trng ni a, th trng nc ngoi, nhiu nc, c ch hay h thng Tiu
dng xanh - Green Consumer ang l p lc rt ln trn th trng. Ngi tiu
dng ngy cng i hi c cc sn phm mi hn, bn hn theo cc chun mc mi
trng. Cc nhu cu c th bao gm c vic phi m bo cc sn phm c
cung cp tho mn mi yu cu ca nc nhp khu ng thi c s sn xut phi
p ng cc yu cu ti thiu v mi trng trong hot ng sn xut kinh doanh
ca h.
Cho d trong nhiu trng hp, vic tun th cc iu lut v mi trng c th
lm tng gi thnh nhng xu th l cc sn phm t cc yu cu mi trng cao
hn vn c a chung hn.
4.1.4. Sc p v ti chnh
gim gi thnh, tng kh nng cnh tranh doanh nghip phi tm cc gii php
gim thiu hoc loi b nhim, tit kim nng lng, nguyn nhin liu, gim
ngun thi, ti ch hoc ti s dng cc ph liu.
4.2. p dng h thng qun l mi trng EMS (Environmental Management
Systems)
4.2.1. H thng qun l mi trng (EMS) l g?
Vn mi trng ngy cng c ngha thc tin quan trng cho mi t chc v
doanh nghip. Tu theo cch x l ca mnh, cc vn lin quan ti mi trng
c th c tc ng xu hoc tt cho chin lc mc tiu ca h. Cc doanh nghip
thnh t thng quan tm ti cc nguy c hin ti cng nh cc c gng t c hi
c th v mi trng v t nht hai l do chnh sau:
- Tit kim ti chnh nh gim chi ph, trnh c trch nhim v php l
- To thm ngun thu nh m rng v tm kim thm th trng
c bit, h thng qun l mi trng gip cho doanh nghip:
- Xc nh, kim sot mi kha cnh, mi tc ng v mi nguy c mi trng c
th lin quan ti t chc.
- t c chnh sch mc tiu v mi trng bao gm c trch nhim php l
- Xc nh cc nguyn tc, cc ch dn v phng thc doanh nghip t c

267
cc mc tiu mi trng trong tng lai.
- Xc nh cc mc tiu di hn, ngn hn v trung hn v tnh trng mi trng
m bo s cn i chi ph v li ch cho doanh nghip v cc bn lin quan.
- Xc nh cc ngun lc t c cc mc tiu, xc nh trch nhim v s
cam kt cung cp cc ngun lc.
- Xc nh v vn bn ho cc nhim v, trch nhim chc nng, cc th tc
m bo mi thnh vin lun thc hin ng cc cng vic hng ngy, gip vic
gim thiu hoc loi b cc tc ng xu cho mi trng
- To phng thc th trng rng ri trong doanh nghip, o to mi ngi
h c th thc hin ng cc cng vic chc nng c giao.
- ra cc bin php m bo tun th cc th tc, cc chun mc, mc tiu
c tho lun v c sa i khi cn thit.
im mu cht l phi c s kt ni cht ch gia qun l mi trng v chc nng
qun l chung v mi trng ch l mt trong cc yu t tc ng n x nghip.
Mt h thng qun l mi trng tch bit vi cc c ch qun l khc s khng
gii quyt c vic g. C th gii thch h thng qun l mi trng l tp hp
cc hot ng qun l c k hoch v nh hng v cc th tc thc hin, lp ti
liu, bo co, n c trin khai nh mt c cu t chc ring c chc nng, trch
nhim, ngun lc c th ngn nga cc tc ng xu v mi trng cng nh
thc y cc hot ng duy tr v nng cao cc kt qu hot ng mi trng
H thng qun l mi trng cng tun th chu trnh Lp k hoch - Thc hin -
Kim tra - Hnh ng khc phc (Chu trnh PDCA) nh quen bit trong hot
ng qun l cht lng sn phm. Cc phn nh, s dng cc cng c gii quyt
s hon ton ph thuc vo mc tiu v nhu cu c th ca tng doanh nghip hoc
t chc.
. Chnh sch mi trng
Cng b ca t chc v cc nh cc cc nguyn tc lin quan n kt qu hot
ng tng th v mi trng ca mnh, to ra khun kh cho cc hnh ng v cho
vic ta cc mc tiu v ch tiu mi trng ca mnh.
. Ch tiu mi trng
Yu cu chi tit v kt qu hot ng lng ho c khi c kt qu p dng cho
mt t chc hoc cc b phn ca n, yu cu ny xut pht t cc mc tiu mi
trng khc cn phi c ra v p ng nhm t c cc mc tiu .
. Bn hu quan
C nhn hay mt nhm lin quan n hoc b nh hng bi kt qu hot ng mi
trng ca mt t chc.

268
. T chc
Cng ty, Tng cng ty, Hng, X nghip, C quan, Vin nghin cu, hoc mt b
phn hoc kt hp nhiu b phn ca n d l chng c t hp vi nhau hay khng,
l Nh nc hay t nhn, c cc b phn chc nng v qun tr ring ca mnh.
i vi cc t chc c nhiu n v hot ng, th mt n v hot ng c lp c
th c coi l mt t chc.
. Ngn nga nhim
S dng cc qu trnh, cc phng php thc hnh, vt liu hoc sn phm trnh
gim bt (hn ch) hoc kim sot nhim. Hot ng ny c th bao gm vic ti
ch, x l, thay i qu trnh, c ch kim sot.
4.2.2. Xut x ca h thng qun l mi trng (EMS):
Trong gn gai thp k va qua, h thng qun l mi trng thc s c quan
tm v mt trong nhng l do pht trin ca n gn lin vi hai vn sau:
- S gia tng ca cc khon chi ph do vi phm cc iu lut mi trng
- Nhng quan nim mi v qun l cht lng ton din (TQM) d khi u ch
hn ch v loi b khuyt tt trong sn xut, nng cao hiu qu kinh doanh
nhng sau c vn dng cho vic qun l mi trng.
Trc cc thch thc v mi trng cc doanh nghip c th i ph theo nhiu
cch. Chng hn:
- Khng phn ng g: Doanh nghip khng nhn thy cc xu th v cc nguy c
e do v mi trng, khi nhn ra th qu mun v ri vo khng hong.
- Phn ng th ng phc hi, ch khi c cc vn , s c thc s xy ra ngi
ta mi lo bin php x l chng. Trng hp ny doanh nghip c th c li
nhun trong thi hn ngn nhng khng bao gi t s pht trin bn vng thm
ch lao ao khi c vn lin quan ti mi trng xy ra.
- Phn ng ch ng: Cc doanh nghip ny s theo di khng ch cc ngun
nhim v mi vn lin quan mi trng, xem chng nh mt phn trong hot
ng sn xut kinh doanh thng ngy kp c hot ng trc khi tnh trng
tr nn trm trng. Chnh sch ny khng c ngha l doanh nghip thot
khi mi kh khn m ch c ngha l h chun b tt hn x l v cc
trng hp khng hong.
Thc ra hot ng theo ri, khng ch tnh trng mi trng m ta thng gi l
thanh tra mi trng c trin khai t nhng nm 1970-1980 ti cc cng ty
nh Allied Signal; Westinghuse; Philips; ICI v ti mt s nc nh M, Canaa
v Ty u l nhng ni cc iu kin lut mi trng c yu cu cao v chi ph

269
trch nhim khi khng tho mn cc quy nh lin quan v sc kho, an ton.
Ngy nay thut ng Thanh tra mi trng c s dng rng ri nhng i
khi b nhm ln vi khi nim xem xt tnh trng mi trng ban u hoc thut
ng Kim tra nh gi h thng qun l mi trng.
4.2.3. Mc ch ca h thng qun l mi trng
- Nhn bit, kim sot cc tc ng cng nh cc xu th quan trng v mi
trng;
- Nhn bit v tn dng cc c hi v mi trng;
- Xc nh cc chnh sch v c s cho vic qun l mi trng;
- Kim sot v khng ch, nh gi tnh hiu qu h thng bao gm vic thc y
v ci bin ph hp vi s thay i ca nhu cu v cc iu kin.
4.2.4. Cc yu t c bn ca h thng qun l mi trng
Tu thuc vo bn cht, quy m, tnh phc tp ca cc hot ng, ca sn phm
hay dch v m h thng qun l mi trng ca tng doanh nghip c th s khc
nhau. Mc d vy chng u c mt s yu t c bn ging nhau nh:
Chnh sch mi trng: Thng dng vn bn nn cam kt ca lnh o v vic
tun th tnh trng mi trng v c chnh thc cng b v cc n lc v cc
nguyn tc hot ng doanh nghip t c cc yu cu v mi trng. Chnh
sch phi bao qut v nu c th nn nh lng v nhng d nh cn t.
Chng trnh hay k hoch hot ng v mi trng. Nu bin php m doanh
nghip s tin hnh trong thi gian ti nhm chuyn chnh sch ca doanh nghip
thnh cc mc ch v mc tiu c th, xc nh hot ng, trch nhim ca tng
ngi v s cam kt m bo cung cp cc ngun lc cho vic trin khai.
Xy dng c cu t chc: B nhim, phn cng, u quyn trch nhim cho cc hot
ng
To s kt ni ho hp ca vic qun l mi trng trong cc hot ng qun l
kinh doanh khc. Lp cc th tc kt hp hi ha cc bin php qun l mi
trng trong cc lnh vc hot ng kinh doanh khc ca t chc nh an ton lao
ng, mua bn, nghin cu trin khai, tip th, ti chnh.
4.3. ISO v s ra i ca b tiu chun ISO 14000
4.3.1. Vic xy dng cc tiu chun v qun l mi trng ca ISO (International
Standardiztion Organizations).
Trong nhng nm 1980 ISO bt tay vo thc hin nhim v tiu chun ho mt
vn qun l ca t chc l qun l cht lng. y l ln u tin ISO mnh

270
dn i vo lnh vc tiu chun ho khng mang bn cht k thut v/hoc l khoa
hc mt cch thun tu. Ban k thut TC176 v m bo cht lng v qun l
cht lng c thnh lp xy dng cc tiu chun u tin v qun l cht
lng v n nm 1987 b tiu chun ISO9000 v m bo cht lng c
ISO ban hnh. C th ni y l mt b tiu chun mang li ting tm v thnh
cng nht trong lch s ca ISO, a s cc quc gia trn th gii chp nhn cc
tiu chun ISO9000 thnh cc tiu chun quc gia (trong c Vit Nam) a
vo p dng mt cch rng ri. Tuy nhin ngoi ngha v xy dng mt h thng
qun l hu hiu trong doanh nghip nhm nng cao cht lng sn phm.
ISO9000 nh chng ta thy tr thnh cc yu cu i vi thng mi v nhiu
khi tr thnh iu kin mua hng ca cc nh nhp khu i vi cc nc xut
khu.
Vi thnh cng ca b tiu chun ISO9000, ISO tr nn ng tin cy trong cng
ng quc t i vi kh nng xy dng cc tiu chun cho cc vn khc v
qun l ca t chc. Vo cui nhng nm 1980, c nhiu tranh lun trong ISO
v i tng T chc ho. Tuy nhin cc yu t b sung sau y cng vi s thnh
cng ca ISO9000 dn ti vic ISO quyt nh vo cuc trong vic xy dng
b tiu chun t chc v qun l mi trng.
Trng tm ca cc vn mi trng quc t
Trong cng thi k, khi m ISO ang gt hi c cc kt qu kh quan trng
trong vic a ra p dng cc tiu chun ISO9000 v cht lng th trn din n
mi trng th gii ang din ra nhiu s kin gy xn xao nhiu gii chc ca
nhiu quc gia v cc t chc quc t. S hu hoi tng zn,s nng ln ton cu,
s pht rng nghim trng v cc vn mi trng khc c ng ti trn
trang u ca cc bo ch trn ton th gii v n c xem nh l cc vn
mang tnh ton cu. i din ca nhiu quc gia c quan tm gp nhau ti
Motrenteal -Canaa vo nm 1987 son tho ra cc tho thun nhm ngn cn
vic sn xut ra cc ho cht gy ph hu tng ozn nh CFC ... v.v, vic lm gim
tnh a dng sinh hc cng gy s lo ngi ca cng ng quc t v mt lot cc
yu cu i vi cc vn ny c cng b. Trong thc t c mt phong
tro th hin mong mun ca cc quc gia c c s quan tm tt hn n vn
mi trng ca tri t.
Mt yu t khc vo thi im ny gy nhiu s quan tm l s vng mt ca
ch s tng hp nh gi s c gng n lc ca mt t chc/doanh nghip trong
vic t c cc thnh qu bo v mi trng mt cch lin tc v ng tin cy.
Chnh loi ch s ny hnh thnh nn tiu chun ISO14001 v HTQLMT l tiu
chun c th s dng bn th ba c lp c th nh gi mt cch khch quan s
ph hp gia cam kt ca t chc/doanh nghip vi cc quy nh ca php lut v

271
cc vn mi trng cng nh nh gi cc tc ng ln mi trng ca cc hot
ng, sn phm hoc dch v ca t chc/doanh nghip v tt nhin n c dng
xy dng hoc ci thin HTQLMT ca h.
Hi ngh v Mi trng v pht trin Lin hp quc c t chc vo thng 6/1992
ti Rio De Janeiro, Brazil t ra cc vn khn cp v mi trng v bo v
mi trng trn phm vi ton cu. i vi cc c quan/t chc tiu chun ho quc
gia, khu vc v quc t, khng phi n lc ny vn mi trng mi c
cp n m n c xc nh l mt i tng cn t chc ho trong nhng nm
trc . Vo u nhng nm 1990, chng ta chng kin vic ra i ca cc t
chc quc gia v khu vc v qun l mi trng nh Vin T chc Anh (BSI)
ban hnh b BS 7750 v qun l mi trng vo nm 1992; Hip hi Tiu chun
Canaa a ra nhng quy nh v qun l, kim sot mi trng, ghi nhn mi
trng ..., EU ban hnh cc iu l v nhn sinh thi, qun l sinh thi v nh
gi mi trng (EMAS) nh nu phn trn.
Ni tm li, s thnh cng ca ISO9000 v s ni ln ca cc vn mi trng
ton cu dn n vic ISO thc s bt u cc cng vic xem xt n din n
mi trng. Nm 1993 ISO quyt nh thnh lp Ban k thut ISO/TC207 v qun
l mi trng, cc tiu chun u tin ca b tiu chun ISO 14000 c ban
ny son tho v ban hnh vo cui nm 1996, nhn c s ng tnh hng
ng v nh gi cao nhiu quc gia trn th gii.
4.3.2. Mt s nt c bn v B tiu chun quc t ISO14000
B Tiu chun c xy dng trn c s tho thun quc t bao gm cc yu cu
i vi cc yu t c bn c th iu chnh c thit lp nn h thng qun l
mi trng c kh nng ci thin mi trng mt ch lin tc ti ti cc t chc c
s.
B tiu chun ISO14000 em n cch tip cn h thng cho vic qun l mi
trng nhm thit lp h thng qun l mi trng v cung cp cc cng c h tr
c lin quan nh nh gi mi trng, nhn mi trng, phn tch chu trnh sng
ca sn phm, cc kha cnh mi trng trong tiu chun v sn phm v.v... cho
cc doanh nghip v cc t chc c s khc qun l s tc ng ca cc hot
ng ca h i vi mi trng, ngn nga nhim v lin tc ci thin mi
trng vi s cam kt ca lnh o v s tham gia c thc ca mi thnh v in
ca c s t ngi sn xut trc tip n cc cn b qun l.
B ISO14000 cp n 6 lnh vc sau:
1. H thng qun l mi trng.
2. Kim tra nh gi mi trng.

272
3. nh gi kt qu hot ng mi trng.
4. Nhn mi trng.
5. Phn tch chu trnh sng ca sn phm .
6. Cc yu t mi trng ca cc tiu chun v sn phm.
B tiu chun ny c ban hnh p dng cho cc nh sn xut, dch v, cc t
chc c s ln v nh trn phm vi ton cu c xm xt n cc yu t ca khu vc
pht trin v ang pht trin ca th gii mt cch thch hp v chp nhn c i
vi bt k t chc c s no, khng phn bit loi hnh hay hnh thc hot ng
hoc v tr. B tiu chun ny cng xem xt n cc iu kin a phng v pht
trin kinh t trong ton b qu trnh pht trin. H thng lut quc gia trn ton cu
cng c xem xt ti nhng ch c th c.
B tiu chun ISO14000 c th th hin theo quan im nh gi nh sau:

ISO 14000-b tiu chun v qun l mi trng

273

H thng qun l mi
trng
Kim tra nh gi
(Auditing) mi trng
nh gi kt qut hot ng
mi trng
Ghi nhn mi trng
Cc kha cnh mi trng
trong cc tiu chun v SP
nh gi chu trnh sng ca
sn phm

4.3.3. Cc tiu chun v nh gi t chc
nh gi t chc
nh gi sn phm
Cc tiu chun v nh gi t chc a cc hng dn xy dng mt h thng
qun l mi trng cho cc c s sn xut hoc dch v. H thng qun l mi
trng theo ISO14000 yu cu mt s thay i trong cch thc qun l khc vi
cch thc truyn thng l ch i hi s chp hnh theo yu cu, mnh lnh hoc
ch quan tm n x l nhim cng on cui ng ng. ISO 14000 yu cu
phi tip cn vn mi trng bng c mt h thng qun l, t vin xc nh v

xem xt cc i tng mi trng c lin quan. Nu xt t gc mt cng ty, ISO
14000 yu cu phi c mt chnh sch v bo v mi trng v chnh sch ny phi
c lp thnh vn bn (c ti liu ho), c ph bin v p dng trong ton
cng ty cho tt c cc thnh vin ca cng ty cng nh nhng ngi lin quan.
Nhim v bo v mi trng phi c a vo k hoch hot ng ca cng ty.
Cc tiu chun v nh gi t chc:
ISO 14000 Cc tiu chun v nh gi t chc

274

nh gi kt qu hot
ng mi trng (EPE)
ISO 14031
Qun l mi trng - nh
gi kt qu hot ng mi
trng Hng dn
ISO 14032
Qun l mi trng - nh
gi kt qu hot ng mi
trng V d minh ho
s dng ISO14031

H thng qun l mi
trng (EMS)
ISO 14001
H thng qun l mi
trng. Quy nh v
hng dn s dng
ISO 14004
H thng qun l mi
trng. Hng dn
chung v nguyn tc,
h thng v k thut h
tr
Kim tra nh gi (KTG) mi trng
(EA)
ISO 14010
Hng dn KTG mi trng. Nhng
nguyn tc chung.
ISO 14011
Hng dn KTG mi trng. Cc th
tc KTG -Phn 1: KTG h thng qun
l mi trng
ISO 1402
Hng dn K G mi trng - cc chun
c v trnh i vi cc nh gi vin
mi trng v h thng qun l mi
trng
ISO 14015
nh gi mi trng ti hin trng v
trong doanh nghip

ISO 14050 Thut ng v nh ngha

4.3.4. Cc tiu chun v nh gi sn phm
Nhn chung, cc tiu chun v nh gi t chc c vo khu t chc ca mt
c s sn xut, s cam kt ca cc nh qun l i vi vic ci tin v p dng
chnh sch mi trng trong c s ca mnh, i vi vic o c cc tnh nng mi
trng cng nh tin hnh thanh tra mi trng ti chnh c s ca mnh. Cc tiu
chun v nh gi sn phm s thit lp cc nguyn l v cch tip cn thng nht
i vi vic nh gi cc kha cnh mi trng ca sn phm. Cc tiu chun ny

s t ra nhim v cho cc cng ty phi lu n cc thuc tnh ca mi trng
ca sn phm ngay t khu thit k, chn nguyn vt liu cho n khu thi b sn
phm ny ra mi trng.
Cc tiu chun v nh gi sn phm v c bn c th hin thng qua s sau.
(v li s )

ISO 14000 cc tiu chun v nh gi sn phm

Cc kha cnh mi
trng trong cc tiu
chun v sn phm
(EAPS)
ISOGuide 64
Hng dn a cc
kha cnh mi trng
vo cc tiu chun sn
phm
ISO/TR14061
Thng tin tr gip cho
cc c s khai thc
ch bin lm sn s
dng cc tiu chun
v HTQLMT
ISO14001 v 14004
Ghi nhn mi trng (EL)
ISO 14020
Nhn mi trng v s cng
b-cc nguyn tc chung
ISO 14021
Nhn mi trng v s cng
b - cc yu cu mi trng
t cng b
ISO 14024
Nhn mi trng v s cng
b cng b mi trng
kiu III cc th tc v
nguyn tc hng dn
nh gi chu trnh sng
(LCA)
ISO 14040
Qun l mi trng - nh gi
chu trnh sng - Cc nguyn tc
v khun kh
ISO 14041
chu trnh sng-Mc tiu v nh
ngha/phm vi v cc phn tch
kim k
ISO 14042
chu trnh sng-nh gi tc
ng ca chu trnh sng
ISO 14043
chu trnh sng Gii thch nh
gi chu trnh sng
ISO 14048
chu trnh sng D liu nh
gi chu trnh sng
ISO 14050 Thut ng v nh ngha

4.4. Cc ni dung c bn ca tiu chun ISO 14001 v h thng qun l mi
trng
4.4.1. Tiu chun ISO 14001

275
ISO 14001 l ti liu quy nh cc yu cu i vi h thng qun l trong b tiu
chun ISO14000. N bao gm cc yu t m cc t chc c s mun c ng k
hoc chng nhn ph hp vi t chc phi tha mn. Cc chc nng c bn ca
ISO14001 tng t nh i vi ISO9001, ISO9002 v ISO9003 trong b tiu
chun ISO9000 c gi l cc ti liu v yu cu i vi h thng qun l.
Cc yu t c chi tit ho trong ISO14001 phi c p dng, lp thnh vn bn
v thc hin sao cho c quan chng nhn bn th ba c th xc minh v cp giy
chng nhn trn c s ca cc bng chng xc thc rng t chc/Cng ty p
dng mt cch tt nht v c th duy tr HTQLMT c. ISO14001 cng thit k
cho cac t chc c s mun cng b s ph hp vi tiu chun cho cc bn th hai
c nh sn sng chp nhn vic t cng b m khng c s can thip ca bn th
ba.
Thch thc chnh i vi c t chc p dng ISO14001 ln c quan Chng nhn -
Ngi s kim tra nh gi (auditing) s ph hp l tnh thng nht trong vic th
hin cc yu cu. Di y l mt s lun im v cc yu t ca yu cu i vi
h thng qun l mi trng cng nh lm sng t cc khi nim v thut ng m
h v d hiu nhm.
C cu ca HTQLMT theo ISO 14001
H thng qun l mi trng l mt phn ca h thng qun l chung bao gm c
c cu, k hoch, cc hot ng, trch nhim, thc hnh, cc th tc - quy trnh,
cc qu trnh v cc ngun lc xy dng v p dng, t ti, xem xt li v duy
tr chnh sch mi trng (iu 3.5). Cc yu t ca h thng qun l nh m t
trong phn nh ngha v trong nhiu ch khc ca tiu chun c th hin qua
hnh v di y:
nh gi-kim tra v
hnh ng khc phc
Ci thin lin
tc
Xem xt li ca lnh o
Chng trnh qun l mi trng
Cc mc ch mi trng v
mc tiu, ch tiu mi trng
Cam kt chnh sch mi trng

276

Nh thy trong hnh v, cc yu t ca HTQLMT c th th hin trn cc ca
hnh chp, vi cc yu t cn bn l s cam kt v chnh sch mi trng to nn
nn mng cho tt c cc phn cu thnh ca HTQLMT. Nc th hai ca hnh chp
bao gm cc mc ch, mc tiu v cc ch tiu mi trng ca t chc trong
chng trnh qun l mi trng nhm thit lp cc qu trnh, thc hnh, th tc,
quy trnh v quy nh r trch nhim.
Tiu chun ISO14001 bt buc phi thit lp nn mt hoc nhiu chng trnh mi
trng t c cc mc tiu v cc ch tiu mi trng do t chc ra. Tnh
ph hp v hiu qu ca HTQLMT c nh k nh gi bi cc xem xt ca
lnh o v cc tin b t c thng qua chng trnh mi trng ny. S tin b
c theo di bi phn h nh gi kt qu hot ng mi trng cung cp kt
qu trc tip cho qu trnh xem xt cu lnh o.
Mt yu t u vo ng k khc i vi qu trnh xem xt ca lnh o l vic
kim tra nh gi nh k HTQLMT bao gm bn nc. Mc ch ca cc vic kim
tra nh gi ny l xc nh chc chn rng HTQLMT c duy tr v n ang lm
vic theo ci cch m n d kin. Cc cuc kim tra nh gi nh vy cng
c s dng nh gi s ph hp v bn thn qu trnh xem xt ca lnh o.
Vic xem xt ca lnh o l nc th nm v n c thit k xc nh tnh y
, thch hp v tnh hiu qu ca HTQLMT bng vic qun l trn c s tt c cc
yu t u vo. Nc cui cng lm ni bt mc ch mu cht phi t c l ci
tin lin tc HTQLMT m bo rng t chc c s tho mn mt cch y
v ng tin cy cc ngha v mi trng v bo v mi trng.
Khi xem xt theo c cu hnh chp ta c th d thy c cc yu t cc nc thp
nht ca HTQLMT l cc khi mang ngha h tr cho cc khi bn trn trong
mi quan h thng nht. V vic t c s ci thin lin tc khng th thc hin
c nu thiu tt c cc kha cnh ca HTQLMT ti ch. HTQLMT c thit k
cung cp cho cc t chc mt c cu v phng thc tip cn h thng n qun
l mi trng ni chung.
4.4.2. Mc ch, ngha c bn ca ISO 14001
Tiu chun quc t ISO 14001 quy nh cc yu cu ca h thng qun l mi
trng. Tiu chun c vit p dng cho tt c cc loi hnh, c ca cc tiu
chun/doanh nghip v thch hp vi cc iu kin x hi, vn ho, a l khc
nhau. Thnh cng ca h thng ph thuc vo s cam kt t tt c cc cp v b
phn chc nng, c bit l cp lnh o cao nht. H thng loi ny gip cho t
chc thit lp, v tip cn n cc th tc c hiu qu ra chnh sch v mc
tiu mi trng, t c cc kt qu hot ng vi cc mc tiu v chnh sch ny

277
v th hin s ph hp vi cc yu cu khc.
Mc ch tng th ca tiu chun quc t ny l tr gip cho vic bo v mi
trng v phng nga nhim trn c s cn i vi cc nhu cu kinh t - x hi.
Mc ch chnh ca tiu chun ISO 14001 l h tr cho cc t chc p dng hoc
ci tin mt h thng qun l mi trng. Mc ch ny ph hp vi nguyn l
pht trin bn vng v thch hp vi cc c cu vn ho, x hi v t chc. Tiu
chun quc t ny bao gm cc v d, cc m t v s la chn nhm gip nhm
thc hin mt h thng qun l mi trng cng vi vic tng cng mi quan h
ca h thng qun l mi trng vi s qun l ton b ca t chc.
Tiu chun quc t ny quy nh nhng yu cu i vi h thng qun l mi
trng, gip cho mt t chc c th thit lp chnh sch v cc mc tiu c tnh
n cc yu cu php l v thng tin v cc tc ng mi trng quan trng. Tiu
chun c p dng nhng vn mi trng m t chc c th kim sot c v
c th to nh hng ti c. Bn thn tiu chun ny khng a nhng chun c
v kt qu hot ng mi trng c th.
4.4.3. Ni dung chnh ca tiu chun ISO 14001.
a). nh ngha v mt s thun ng.
Nhng thut ng cn phi c lm r trong ISO 14001 nh: Ci tin lin tc;
Mi trng; Kha cnh mi trng; Tc ng mi trng; H thng qun l mi
trng; nh gi HTQLMT; Mc tiu mi trng; Tnh nng hot ng mi
trng; Chnh sch mi trng; Nhim v mi trng; Cc bn quan tm; T chc
c s; Ngn nga nhim . Khi hiu r cc thut ng l c s cho vic thc
hin cc ni dung tip theo m bo tnh chnh xc v st thc.
b). Cc yu cu i vi h thng qun l mi trng
Nhng yu cu c bn cho h thng qun l c xc nh gm: Yu cu chung;
Yu cu v k hoch; Yu cu i vi vic p dng v vn hnh; Yu cu i vi
vi vic kim tra v hnh ng khc phc; Yu cu kim tra vn hnh; Yu cu i
vi vic sn sng v p ng cho nhng trng hp khn cp; Yu cu xem xt li
ca lnh o. Nhng yu cu ny l cc ni dung cn phi t c khi thc hin
ISO 14001.
c).Phn ph lc hng dn vic s dng cc ni dung ca tiu chun.
Ph lc hng dn nhm lm sng t ni dung ca tiu chun v t mc ch
hng dn.
d). Phn ph lc v so snh cc ni dung tng ng gia ISO 14001 v ISO 9001
Trong bn ni dung th ni dung quan trng nht ca tiu chun l cc yu cu i
vi h thng qun l mi trng.

278
Trong phn ny, tiu chun cp n cc yu cu c th m T chc c s phi
thc hin khi thit lp h thng qun l mi trng ca mnh trong quy nh chi
tit hn vo hai yu cu quan trng nht l yu cu v k hoch v yu cu v thc
hin v iu hnh.
Trong yu cu v k hoch, ni dung quan trng u tin l phi xc nh c cc
kha cnh mi trng ca cc hot ng, sn phm cng nh cc dch v ca t
chc/doanh nghip. Cn phi quan tm n vic phn tch, nh gi cc yu cu
ca lut php m t chc c s phi tun th. T chc c s phi xc nh cc mc
tiu v ch tiu mi trng r rng cho cc cp v cc b phn chc nng trong vic
xy dng v p dng h thng qun l mi trng. Trn c s cc d kin c
phn tch nh gi, t chc/doanh nghip s phi xy dng v duy tr mt chng
trnh qun l mi trng t c cc mc tiu v ch tiu mi trng ra.
Trong yu cu v p dng, tiu chun cp n mt lot cc vn thc t
nh: yu cu v c cu v trch nhim, v o to, hiu bit v nng lc ca cc
cn b nhn vin, yu cu v thng tin, h thng ti liu ca h thng qun l mi
trng v kim sot ti liu, yu cu v kim tra vn hnh h thng v c bit l
yu cu i vi vic sn sng v p ng cho cc trng hp khn cp.
Ton b cc yu cu trong tiu chun quc t ny c d kin kt hp vi bt k
mt h thng qun l cht lng no. Mc p dng s ph thuc vo cc yu t
nh chnh sch mi trng ca t chc, bn cht ca cc hot ng ca t chc v
iu kin hot ng. Tiu chun quc t ny cng cung cp ch dn mang tnh
thng tin v cch s dng nhng yu cu ca tiu chun nu trong ph lc A.
H thng qun l mi trng ra trnh t v s nht qun i vi vn lin quan
n mi trng ca t chc thng qua vic phn b cc ngun lc, xc nh trch
nhim v nh gi thc hnh tip theo, cc th tc v cc qu trnh.
ISO 14001 xem xt cc yu t ca mt h thng qun l mi trng v a ra ch
dn thc t v thc hin hoc tng cng h thng ny. N cng cung cp cho cc
t chc li ch dn lm sao c th bt u xy dng, ci tin hoc duy tr c hiu
qu mt h thng qun l mi trng. Mt h thng nh vy l thit yu i vi
kh nng ca t chc d bo v p ng c nhng mc tiu v mi trng v
m bo s ph hp lin tc vi cc yu cu quc gia v/hoc quc t.
Qun l mi trng l mt phn cu thnh ca h thng qun l ton din ca mt
t chc. Vic thit k mt h thng qun l mi trng l mt qu trnh lin tc tc
ng qua li. C cu, trch nhim, quy tc, th tc, qu trnh v ngun lc thc
hin cc chnh sch, mc tiu v ch tiu v mi trng phi c phi hp vi cc
n lc hin c trong cc lnh vc khc (v d: iu hnh, ti chnh, cht lng, sc
kho ngh nghip an ton).

279
4.4.4. Cc nguyn tc then cht cho cc nh qun l thc hin hoc tng cng
mt h thng qun l mi trng bao gm (nhng khng hn ch) cc im sau:
V c bn c mi nguyn tc c xc nh sau y:
Cng nhn vic qun l mi trng l mt trong s cc u tin phi hp cao
nht;
Thit lp v duy tr cc mi quan h vi cc bn hu quan bn trong v bn
ngoi t chc;
Xc nh cc yu cu v php lut v cc kha cnh v mi trng c lin quan
ti cc hot ng, sn phm hoc dch v ca t chc.
Xy dng cam kt ca lnh o v nhn vin i vi vic bo v mi trng vi
s phn cng r rng v trch nhim v ngha v;
Khuyn khch vic lp k hoch mi trng cho sut chu trnh sng ca sn
phm hoc qu trnh;
Thit lp mt qu trnh t c mc kt qu hot ng ra;
Cung cp cc ngun lc thch hp v y , bao gm c o to, lin tc t
c cc mc kt qu thc hin ra;
nh gi kt qu thc hin v mi trng theo cc chnh sch, mc tiu v ch
tiu ca t chc v tm kim s ci tin khi cn thit;
Thit lp mt qu trnh qun l xem xt li v kim tra nh gi h thng
qun l mi trng v xc nh cc c hi ci tin h thng v kt qu hot
ng v mi trng t c;
Khuyn khch cc nh thu v nh cung cp thit lp mt h thng qun l mi
trng
Cc t chc c th xem xt n nhng cch thc s dng khc nhau sau y ca
cc tiu chun quc t v h thng qun l mi trng:
- S dng ISO 14001: 1996, h thng qun l mi trng - yu cu v hng dn
s dng - nhm t c chng nhn ca bn th ba hoc t ng cng b v h
thng qun l mi trng ca t chc.
- S dng tiu chun ISO 14004 hoc cc phn ca n bt u v/hoc ci tin
h thng qun l mi trng ca mnh. Vic ny khng nhm mc ch chng
nhn;
- S dng tiu chun ISO 14004 nh l bn hng dn hoc tiu chun ISO 14001
nh l yu cu cho vic cng nhn ca bn th hai gia cc bn k hp ng c th
l ph hp cho mi quan h kinh doanh;

280
- S dng cc ti liu ISO c lin quan
Vic la chn s ph thuc vo cc vn : th nht l chnh sch ca t chc; th
hai l mc trng thnh ca t chc, liu s qun l theo h thng c th to
iu kin cho vic a qun l mi trng theo h thng vo thc hin ti ch hay
cha; th ba l li th v bt li c th do chu nh hng ca nhng vn nh v
tr th trng, ting tm hin c, cc quan h vi bn ngoi v th t l quy m
ca t chc.
III. Cc cng c qun l mi trng
Cng c qun l mi trng l cc bin php hnh ng nhm thc hin cng tc
qun l mi trng ca Nh nc, cc t chc khoa hc v sn xut. Mi cng c
c mt chc nng v phm vi tc ng nht nh, chng lin kt v h tr ln nhau.
Theo bn cht, c th chia cng c qun l mi trng thnh cc loi c bn nh
sau:
- Cng c lut php v chnh sch
- Cng c kinh t
- Cng c k thut qun l
- Cng c gio dc nng cao nhn thc
1. Cng c lut php v chnh sch.
Cng c lut php chnh sch hay cn gi l cc cng c php l bao gm cc
vn bn v lut quc t, lut quc gia, cc vn bn khc di lut (php lnh, ngh
nh, quy nh, cc tiu chun mi trng, giy php mi trng ...), cc k hoch,
chin lc v chnh sch mi trng quc gia, cc ngnh kinh t v cc a
phng.
Lut quc t v mi trng l tng th cc nguyn tc, quy phm quc t iu
chnh mi quan h gia cc quc gia, gia quc gia v t chc quc t trong
vic ngn chn, loi tr thit hi gy ra cho mi trng ca tng quc gia v
mi trng ngoi phm vi s dng ca quc gia. Cho n nay c hng nghn
cc vn bn lut quc t v mi trng. Vit Nam tham gia k kt nhiu vn
bn trong s . Php lut quc t v bo v mi trng do nhiu nc k kt
hoc tham gia khng c hiu lc trc tip trn lnh th quc gia c th. Mun
thi hnh trn phm vi lnh th quc gia no , cc qui phm ca Lut quc t
v bo v mi trng cn phi c chuyn ho thnh quy phm php lut quc
gia, ngha l Nh nc phi ph chun cc vn bn ny.
Lut Mi trng quc gia l tng hp cc quy phm php lut, cc nguyn tc

281
php l iu chnh cc quan h pht sinh gia cc ch th trong qu trnh cc
ch th s dng hoc tc ng n mt hoc mt vi yu t ca mi trng trn
c s kt hp cc phng php iu chnh khc nhau nhm bo v mt cch c
hiu qu mi trng sng ca con ngi. H thng lut bo v mi trng ca
mt quc gia thng gm lut chung v lut s dng hp l cc thnh phn mi
trng hoc bo v mi trng c th mt a phng, mt ngnh.
Vit Nam, Lut Bo v Mi trng c Quc hi thng qua ngy 27/12/1993 l
vn bn quan trng nht v bo v mi trng. Chnh ph cng ban hnh Ngh
nh 175/CP ngy 18/10/1994 v hng dn thi hnh Lut Bo v Mi trng v
Ngh nh 26/CP ngy 26/4/1996 v x pht vi phm hnh chnh v bo v mi
trng. Nhiu kha cnh bo v mi trng cng c cp trong cc vn bn
php lut khc (gi l lut v cc thnh phn mi trng) nh Lut Khong sn,
Lut Pht trin v bo v rng, Lut Du kh, Lut Hng hi, Lut Lao ng, Lut
t ai, Lut Bo v sc kho nhn dn, Lut Ti nguyn nc, Php lnh iu,
Php lnh v bo v ngun li thu sn, Php lnh v bo v cc cng trnh giao
thng...
Quy nh l nhng vn bn di lut nhm c th ho hoc hng dn thc hin
cc ni dung ca lut. Quy nh c th do Chnh ph trung ng hay a
phng, do c quan hnh php hay lp php ban hnh.
Quy ch l cc quy nh v ch th l, t chc qun l bo v mi trng
chng hn nh quy nh chc nng, nhim v, quyn hn ca cc c quan, B,
S khoa hc, cng ngh v mi trng...
Tiu chun mi trng l nhng chun mc, gii hn cho php, c quy nh
dng lm cn c qun l mi trng. Tiu chun mi trng c quan h mt
thit vi s pht trin bn vng ca mi quc gia. Vic xy dng tiu chun mi
trng mt mt da trn cc quy nh c kim nghim thc t, mt khc
phi c nhiu cn c khoa hc, nhm bo m cho tiu chun mi trng ph
hp vi nhu cu bo v sinh thi, ng thi kh thi v mt kinh t, x hi. H
thng tiu chun mi trng phn nh trnh khoa hc, cng ngh, t chc
qun l v tim lc kinh t x hi c tnh n d bo pht trin. C cu ca h
thng tiu chun mi trng bao gm cc nhm chnh sau:
- Nhng quy nh chung
- Tiu chun nc (nc mt, nc ngm, nc thi...)
- Tiu chun khng kh (khi, bi, kh thi...)
- Tiu chun lin quan n bo v t canh tc, s dng ho cht trong sn xut
nng nghip.

282
- Tiu chun v bo v thc vt, s dng thuc tr su, dit c...
- Tiu chun lin quan n bo v cnh quan thin nhin, di tch lch s, vn ho.
- Tiu chun lin quan n mi trng do cc hot ng khai thc khong sn
trong lng t, ngoi bin...
Chnh sch bo v mi trng gii quyt nhng vn chung nht v quan im
qun l mi trng, v cc mc tiu bo v mi trng c bn cn gii quyt
trong mt giai on di 10 - 15 nm v cc nh hng ln thc hin mc tiu,
ch trng vic huy ng cc ngun lc cn i vi cc mc tiu v bo v mi
trng.
Chnh sch bo v mi trng phi c xy dng ng thi vi chnh sch pht
trin kinh t - x hi. Chc nng quan trng nht ca chnh sch mi trng l to
iu kin gn kt cc mc tiu pht trin bn vng vo hot ng pht trin ca
tng ngnh, tng vng; to lin kt gia cc ngnh v cc cp trong vic thc hin
cc mc tiu bo v mi trng.
Chin lc bo v mi trng c th ho chnh sch mt mc nht nh.
Chin lc xem xt chi tit hn mi quan h gia cc mc tiu do chnh sch
xc nh v cc ngun lc thc hin chng; trn c s la chn cc mc
tiu kh thi, xc nh phng hng, bin php thc hin mc tiu.
Cc cng c php l l cc cng c qun l trc tip (cn gi l cng c mnh lnh
v kim sot - CAC). y l loi cng c c s dng ph bin t lu nhiu
quc gia trn th gii v l cng c c nhiu nh qun l hnh chnh ng h.
Gim st v cng ch l hai yu t quan trng ca cng c ny. C th thy nhng
u im ni bt ca loi cng c ny; th nht, cng c ny c coi l bnh ng
i vi mi ngi gy nhim v s dng ti nguyn mi trng v tt c mi
ngi u phi tun th nhng quy nh chung; th hai, cng c ny c kh nng
qun l cht ch cc loi cht thi c hi v cc ti nguyn qu him thng qua
cc quy nh mang tnh cng ch cao trong thc hin.
Bn cnh nhng u im , cng c CAC cng cn tn ti mt s hn ch nh i
hi ngun nhn lc v ti chnh ln c th gim st c mi khu vc, mi hot
ng nhm xc nh khu vc b nhim v cc i tng gy nhim. ng thi,
bo m hiu qu qun l, h thng php lut v mi trng i hi phi y
v c hiu lc thc t.
2. Cng c kinh t
283
Cng c kinh t hay cn gi l cng c da vo th trng l cc cng c chnh
sch c s dng nhm tc ng ti chi ph v li ch trong hot ng ca cc c
nhn v t chc kinh t to ra cc tc ng nh hng n hnh vi ca cc tc

nhn kinh t theo hng c li cho mi trng.
Mt s cng c kinh t ch yu s c cp di y.
2.1 Thu ti nguyn
Thu ti nguyn l mt khon thu ca Ngn sch Nh nc i vi cc doanh
nghip v vic s dng cc dng ti nguyn thin nhin trong qu trnh sn xut.
Mc ch ca thu ti nguyn l
- Hn ch cc nhu cu khng cp thit trong s dng ti nguyn.
- Hn ch cc tn tht ti nguyn trong qu trnh khai thc v s dng
- To ngun thu cho Ngn sch v iu ho quyn li ca cc tng lp dn c v
vic s dng ti nguyn
Thu ti nguyn bao gm mt s sc thu ch yu nh thu s dng t, thu s
dng nc, thu rng, thu tiu th nng lng, thu khai thc ti nguyn khong
sn...
C cu tnh thu ti nguyn phi c thay i ph hp vi kh nng cng ngh
ca doanh nghip, phng thc qun l ca Nh nc v iu kin a cht k
thut ca khu vc khai thc ti nguyn bo m c s phn bit i vi cc
doanh nghip hoc hot ng gy ra cc tn tht ti nguyn v suy thoi mi
trng cc mc khc nhau; nguyn tc chung l: hot ng cng gy nhiu tn
tht ti nguyn v suy thoi mi trng th cng phi chu thu cao hn. Vic xc
nh ng n phng php tnh thu ti nguyn l rt quan trng s gp phn thc
y cc doanh nghip u t cng ngh, k thut v nng lc qun l nhm lm
gim tn tht ti nguyn, c bit l cc ti nguyn khng ti to.
Trong thc t, khi p dng thu ti nguyn ngi ta thng phn bit ti nguyn
thnh hai loi theo mc xc nh tr lng:
- Loi ti nguyn xc nh tr lng: thu c tnh s da trn tr lng a
cht (hoc tr lng cng nghip) ca loi ti nguyn m doanh nghip c
php khai thc.
- Loi ti nguyn cha xc nh tr lng hoc xc nh cha chnh xc tr
lng: c th s dng sn lng khai thc lm c s tnh thu trong khi ch c
cc thm d a cht v tr lng b sung.
Ngoi ra, thu ti nguyn cng phi c p dng t t tng bc trnh lm mt
cn bng kinh t; nn cng b thi hn p dng v tng thu trc mt thi gian
di gip cc doanh nghip c thi gian thch ng, ng thi b tr li bng
cch gim bt cc thu khc.

284
2.2 Thu/ph mi trng
Thu/ph mi trng c s dng kh ph bin ti cc nc cng nghip pht
trin (OECD) t hn hai thp k qua v bc u c p dng c kt qu cc
nc Chu nh Hn Quc, Thi Lan, Trung Quc, Singapore, Philippin...
Thu/ph mi trng l cng c kinh t nhm a chi ph mi trng vo gi sn
phm theo nguyn tc ngi gy nhim phi tr tin. Thu/ph mi trng
nhm hai mc ch ch yu: khuyn khch ngi gy nhim gim lng cht
nhim thi ra mi trng v tng ngun thu cho Ngn sch. Hin ti nhiu nc,
ngun thu t thu mi trng c s dng cho Ngn sch chung ca Chnh ph
nh cc ngun thu thu khc; cn ngun thu t ph mi trng s c dnh ring
chi cho cc hot ng bo v mi trng nh thu gom x l ph thi, nc
thi, khc phc nhim, h tr cc nn nhn ca nhim...
Trn thc t, thu/ph mi trng c p dng di nhiu dng khc nhau tu
thuc mc tiu v i tng nhim nh: thu/ph nh vo ngun nhim,
thu/ph nh vo sn phm gy nhim, ph nh vo ngi s dng.
Thu/ph nh vo ngun gy nhim l loi thu/ph nh vo cc cht gy
nhim c thi vo mi trng nc (nh BOD, COD, TSS, kim loi nng...),
kh quyn (nh SO
2
, Cacbon, NO
x
, CFCs...), t (nh rc thi, phn bn...),
hoc gy ting n (nh my bay v cc loi ng c...), nh hng ti mi
trng xung quanh.
Thu/ph nh vo ngun gy nhim c xc nh trn c s khi lng v hm
lng (nng ) cc cht gy nhim.
Thu/ph nh vo sn phm gy nhim c p dng i vi nhng loi sn
phm gy tc hi ti mi trng mt khi chng c s dng trong cc qu
trnh sn xut, tiu dng hay hu b chng. Loi ph ny c p dng i vi
cc loi sn phm c cha cht c hi cho mi trng nh kim loi nng, PVC,
CFCs, xng pha ch, cc nguyn liu cha cacbon v sulphat, pin/c quy c
cha ch, thu ngn, cc loi v hp, v chai, giy bao gi...
Ph nh vo sn phm c th c s dng thay cho ph gy nhim nu v l do
no , ngi ta khng th trc tip tnh c ph i vi cc cht gy nhim.
Loi ph ny c th nh vo sn phm l nguyn liu u vo, sn phm trung
gian hay thnh phm, ty theo tng trng hp.
Ph nh vo sn phm c s dng rng ri cc nc OECD di dng ph ph
tnh vo gi xng du, phn bn, thuc tr su, bt ty git...
Ph nh vo ngi s dng l tin phi tr do c s dng cc h thng dch
v cng cng x l v ci thin cht lng mi trng nh ph v sinh thnh

285
ph, ph thu gom v x l rc thi, nc thi, ph s dng nc sch, ph s
dng ng v bi xe, ph s dng danh lam thng cnh, ph hnh chnh
nhm ng gp ti chnh cho vic cp php, gim st v qun l hnh chnh i
vi mi trng...
Cc khon thu t ph ny c dng gp phn thit lp h thng kim sot, x
l nhim cng cng, b p chi ph bo m cho hot ng ca cc h thng .
i tng thu l cc c nhn hay t chc trc tip s dng cc h thng dch v
mi trng cng cng.
Ni chung, mc ph phi tng ng vi chi ph ca loi dch v mi trng c
s dng. Ph nh vo ngi s dng cn nhm mc ch hn ch vic s dng qu
mc cc dch v mi trng.
Mt s vn p dng thu/ph mi trng trong thc t:
Nu nh trong m hnh l thuyt chng ta c th d dng thy c vai tr ca thu
mi trng trong vic buc cc doanh nghip ni vi ho cc chi ph ngoi ng th
trong thc t, vic ny hon ton khng n gin.
Thu mi trng c th nh ln mt n v sn phm gy nhim hoc chnh n
v nhim y. V mt l thuyt, thu sut phi ng bng chi ph ngoi ng cn
bin ca nhim m trong thc t chi ph ny li khng nh nhau i vi cc
doanh nghip v cc vng lnh th khc nhau. V vy, Nh nc thng t ra mt
mc thu sut chung, trn c s cc doanh nghip s c nhng phn ng c th
ring bit v thch hp.
Vn cn quan tm hn c l tc ng ca thu mi trng i vi vic ci thin
tnh trng mi trng v cng bng x hi; thc s ai l ngi gnh chu mc thu
? C hp l hay khng?
R rng sc iu tit v mt mi trng v tnh cng bng ca thu ph thuc rt
nhiu vo h s co dn ca cung v cu. Vn t ra l: Nh sn xut phi tr
thu mi trng do qu trnh s dng v gy nhim ca h l cng bng nhng
ngi tiu dng cng phi gnh tip mt phn thu do gi tng th c cng bng
khng? Cu tr li l, v mt nguyn tc, tnh cng bng vn bo m. V nh sn
xut ch cung cp hng ho khi c cu ca ngi tiu dng, nn ngi tiu dng
phi chu mt phn trch nhim trong s cn kit ti nguyn v nhim mi
trng. Thu mi trng pht ra nhng tn hiu gi c ng n cho c ngi sn
xut v tiu dng, khin cho h nhn thc c nh hng ca cc gi tr mi
trng v to mt ng lc thng xuyn thc y h chuyn sang sn xut v tiu
th cc sn phm t tc ng n mi trng hn.
286
Khi cung cu hu nh khng co dn, sc iu tit v mt mi trng ca thu rt
yu. Ngc li, nu cung cu co dn qu mnh thu mi trng c th dn n

nhng tn tht v ch cho qu trnh tng trng kinh t. Nu thu c p dng cn
c vo mc sn lng u ra th vic thc hin v t chc thu thu tng i n
gin. Tuy vy vic nh thu n gin theo sn lng u ra s khng c s phn
bit gia nhng n v sn phm c sn xut bi cng ngh sch v nhng n
v sn phm c sn xut bi cng ngh khng sch. Vic nh thu theo sn
lng u ra cng khng to c ng c khuyn khch cc doanh nghip tch cc
sn xut sch hn hoc x l cht thi. V th, cch nh thu/ph cn c vo s
lng cht thi thc t s c hiu qu r rng hn v mt mi trng.
2.3 Giy php v th trng giy php mi trng
Giy php mi trng thng c p dng cho cc ti nguyn mi trng kh c
th quy nh quyn s hu v v th thng b s dng ba bi nh khng kh, i
dng. Cng c ny c p dng mt s nc, v d giy php (quota) khai thc
c ng v s dng nc Australia, giy php nhim khng kh M, Anh v
mt s nc thnh vin ca OECD nh Canaa, c, Thu in. Giy php x
thi c th mua bn c (Tradeable Emission Permit) l khi nim ch loi th
trng trong hng ho l cc giy php thi kh hoc nc thi, ngi bn l cc
n v s hu giy php v ngi mua l cc n v cn giy php x thi. Th
trng ny vn hnh theo quy lut cung cu nh cc th trng thng thng
nhng li c c im gn ging th trng chng khon ch giao dch cc chng
ch, cc giy php mang mt gi tr nht nh vi gi c c nh ot theo ch
quan, k vng v d bo ca cc bn tham gia giao dch. Nguyn l c bn ca th
trng giy php thi (hay th trng mi trng) l vic t ra gii hn ti a v
lng kh thi hoc nc thi no mc thng nht vi ch tiu mi trng ti
mt vng hay khu vc c th. Mt khi tng lng thi cho php thp hn lng
thi m cc n v hot ng trong vng mun thi th s to nn s khan him v
quyn c thi v lm cho n c gi th trng.
thc hin cng c ny, trc ht Nh nc phi xc nh mc s dng mi
trng chp nhn c trn c s pht hnh giy php. Vic ny khng n
gin v cng i hi chi ph thc hin kh ln. Sau khi quy nh mc thi ti a
trong vng, c th pht khng giy php cho cc doanh nghip hot ng trn a
bn da trn mt s cn c no hoc t chc bn u gi. Cch thc hin c
nhiu ngi tn thnh nht l phn phi giy php da vo mc nhim hoc
hin trng tc ng mi trng ca tng doanh nghip, ni cch khc l tha k
quyn c thi qu kh. Khi c giy php, cc doanh nghip t do giao dch,
mua i bn li s giy php ; gi giy php trn th trng s iu tit nhu cu
trong phm vi tng hn mc.
u im ng k nht ca loi cng c ny l s kt hp gia tn hiu gi c v hn
mc nhim. So vi cc loi thu mi trng hay ph nhim th th trng giy

287
php mang tnh chc chn, bo m hn v kt qu t mc tiu mi trng v d
giao dch mua bn nh th no th tng lng giy php vn nm trong phm vi
kim sot s pht hnh ban u. Mt khc, cng c giy php linh hot ch n
cho php cc doanh nghip la chn cc phng n mua thm giy php tip tc
thi hay tm cch ci thin hin trng, gim thi xung mc cho php. Hn na,
quyn c bn giy php vi gi c xc nh bi cu ca th trng cn to ra
ng c khuyn khch cc doanh nghip gim thi nhiu hn c th bn cc giy
php tha ra . y l xut pht cho cc ci tin v cng ngh, k thut c li cho
mi trng.
Tuy c nhng u im nh vy nhng th trng giy php vn cha c p dng
rng ri do cc nh mi trng v cng chng ni chung cha quen vi khi nim
quyn c thi nn kh chp nhn vic cc doanh nghip c giy php thi kh
hay nc thi vo mi trng. Cc nh qun l th cho rng vic kinh doanh giy
php thi phc tp, kh kim sot hn so vi vic thu thu hay ph mi trng quen
thuc, c sn b my hnh chnh ti chnh thc hin. Hn na, vic quan trc
mi trng, theo di mc nhim hoc thnh qu mi trng ti cc doanh
nghip theo cc ch tiu ra trong chng trnh giy php cng c coi l vn
kh khn, phc tp.
Kinh nghim ca mt s nc cho thy cng c giy php thch hp cho vic p
dng trong mt s iu kin nht nh nh sau:
- Cht nhim cn kim sot thi ra t nhiu ngun khc nhau nhng gy tc
ng mi trng tng t nhau (v d cc nh my in cng thi SO
2
gp phn
vo nguy c chung ca nn ma axit).
- C s chnh lch ln trong chi ph gim thi ca cc doanh nghip do nhiu yu
t (cng ngh, tui th my mc, thit b, qun l ...)
- S lng doanh nghip tham gia th trng vi t cch l ngi mua v ngi
bn giy php phi tng i ln to c mt th trng mang tnh cnh
tranh v nng ng.
2.4 H thng t cc - hon tr
t cc - hon tr c s dng trong hot ng bo v mi trng bng cch quy
nh cc i tng tiu dng cc sn phm c kh nng gy nhim mi trng
phi tr thm mt khon tin (t cc) khi mua hng, nhm bo m cam kt sau
khi tiu dng s em sn phm (hoc phn cn li ca sn phm ) tr li cho
cc n v thu gom ph thi hoc ti nhng a im quy nh ti ch, ti s
dng hoc tiu hy theo cch an ton i vi mi trng. Nu thc hin ng,
ngi tiu dng s c nhn li khon t cc do cc t chc thu gom hon tr li.
288
Mc ch ca h thng t cc - hon tr l thu gom nhng th m ngi tiu th

dng vo mt trung tm ti ch hoc ti s dng mt cch an ton i vi
mi trng.
t cc - hon tr c coi l mt trong nhng ng c vin sng gi cho cc
chnh sch nhm gip nn kinh t thot khi chu trnh sn xut tuyn tnh (khai
khong nguyn liu th sn phm ph thi) v hng ti chu trnh tun
hon trong cc ti nguyn c ti ch, ti s dng ti mc ti a c th c.
Phm vi s dng cc h thng t cc - hon tr bao gm:
- Cc sn phm m khi s dng c kh nng gy nhim mi trng nhng c
th x l ti ch hoc ti s dng
- Cc sn phm lm tng lng cht thi, cn cc bi thi c quy m ln v tn
nhiu chi ph tiu hu
- Cc sn phm cha cht c, gy kh khn c bit cho vic x l; nu tiu hu
khng ng cch s gy nguy c nh hng nghim trng n mi trng v
sc kho con ngi.
H thng t cc - hon tr t ra c bit thch hp vi vic qun l cc cht thi
rn. Cc quc gia thuc t chc OECD p dng kh thnh cng h thng t cc
- hon tr i vi cc sn phm ung, bia, ru (ng trong v chai nha hoc
thu tinh) mang li hiu qu cao cho vic thu gom cc ph thi. Hin nay cc nc
ny v ang m rng vic p dng h thng t cc - hon tr sang cc lnh vc
khc nh v tu, t c, du nht, c quy c cha ch, thu ngn, cadimi; v chai
ng thuc tr su, cc in gia dng nh my thu hnh, t lnh, iu ho khng
kh...
Nhiu nc trong khu vc ng nh Hn Quc, i Loan cng c thnh cng
nht nh trong vic p dng h thng t cc - hon tr i vi v lon, v chai
nha, thu tinh, st, thp, nhm ph liu, c quy, sm lp, du nht, giy loi, ...
Theo kinh nghim ca cc nc, mc t cc l mt trong nhng yu t quan trng
tc ng n hiu qu ca h thng t cc - hon tr. Cc mc t cc thp s
khng to ra ng c kinh t mnh cho vic thu gom v ti ch ph thi. Ngoi
ra cc yu t nh nhn thc v thc ca ngi sn xut v tiu dng i vi vn
thu gom ph thi, kh nng t chc, qun l h thng thu gom cng nh vn
cng ngh ti ch u c nh hng khng nh n s hot ng v thnh cng ca
h thng.
2.5 K qu mi trng
K qu mi trng l cng c kinh t p dng cho cc hot ng kinh t c tim
nng gy nhim v tn tht mi trng. Nguyn l hot ng ca h thng k
qu mi trng cng tng t nh ca h thng t cc - hon tr. Ni dung chnh

289
ca k qu mi trng l yu cu cc doanh nghip, cc c s sn xut kinh doanh
trc khi tin hnh mt hot ng u t phi k gi mt khon tin (hoc kim loi
qu, qu, hoc cc giy t c gi tr nh tin) ti ngn hng hay t chc tn dng
nhm bo m s cam kt v thc hin cc bin php hn ch nhim, suy thoi
mi trng.
Mc ch chnh ca vic k qu l lm cho ngi c kh nng gy nhim, suy
thoi mi trng lun nhn thc c trch nhim ca h t tm ra cc bin
php thch hp ngn ng nhim, suy thoi mi trng.
Trong qu trnh thc hin u t v sn xut, nu cc doanh nghip / c s c cc
bin php ch ng ngn chn, khc phc khng xy ra nhim hoc suy thoi
mi trng, hon nguyn hin trng mi trng ng nh cam kt th h s c
nhn li s tin k qu . Ngc li nu bn k qu khng thc hin ng cam
kt hoc ph sn th s tin k qu s c rt ra t ti khon ngn hng / t
chc tn dng chi cho cng tc khc phc s c, suy thoi mi trng.
K qu mi trng to ra li ch cho Nh nc v khng phi u t kinh ph khc
phc mi trng t ngn sch. K qu mi trng cng khuyn khch cc doanh
nghip tch cc trong hot ng bo v mi trng. Cc doanh nghip s c li ch
do ly li c vn khi khng xy ra nhim hoc suy thoi mi trng.
Vi mc ch v nguyn l hot ng nh vy, r rng s tin k qu phi ln hn
hoc xp x vi kinh ph cn thit khc phc mi trng nu doanh nghip gy
ra nhim v suy thoi mi trng. Nu s tin k qu qu nh so vi chi ph bo
v mi trng, cc doanh nghip s c xu hng t b vic nhn li s tin k qu
v khng thc hin cc cam kt bo v mi trng ca mnh.
Cng c k qu mi trng c thc hin nhiu nc trn th gii, c bit
vi cc hot ng cng nghip nh khai thc m, khai thc rng hoc i dng.
2.6 Tr cp mi trng
Tr cp mi trng l cng c kinh t quan trng c s dng rt nhiu nc
trn th gii, c bit l cc nc thuc t chc OECD. Tr cp mi trng c th
di cc dng sau:
- Tr cp khng hon li
- Cc khon cho vay u i
- Cho php khu hao nhanh
- u i thu (min, gim thu)
Chc nng chnh ca tr cp mi trng l gip cc ngnh cng - nng nghip
v cc ngnh khc khc phc nhim mi trng trong iu kin khi tnh trng

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nhim mi trng qu nng n hoc kh nng ti chnh ca doanh nghip khng
chu ng c i vi vic x l nhim. Tr cp cng cn nhm khuyn khch
cc c quan nghin cu v trin khai cc cng ngh sn xut c li cho mi trng
hoc cc cng ngh x l nhim.
Tuy nhin, tr cp c th gy ra s khng hiu qu. Cc nh sn xut c th u t
qu mc vo kim sot v x l nhim (lm gim nhim nhiu hn so vi mc
ti u cng l khng hiu qu).
Trng hp ngc li, tr cp khng c hch ton ton b vo chi ph gim
nhim m mt phn c dng h thp chi ph sn xut c nhn, lm tng li
nhun.
Tr cp mi trng ch l bin php tm thi, nu vn dng khng thch hp hoc
ko di s dn n phi hiu qu kinh t v tr cp i ngc vi nguyn tc ngi
gy nhim phi tr tin, n to ra s thay i s cng ty (vo - ra t do i vi
ngnh cng nghip), thay i mc hot ng ca ngnh cng nghip m mc ch
gim nhim li khng t c.
V vy, tr cp mi trng ch c th thc hin trong mt thi gian c nh vi mt
chng trnh c hoch nh v kim sot r rng, thng xuyn.
2.7 Nhn sinh thi
Nhn sinh thi l mt danh hiu ca Nh nc cp cho cc sn phm khng gy ra
nhim mi trng trong qu trnh sn xut v sn phm hoc qu trnh s dng
sn phm . c dn nhn sinh thi l mt s khng nh uy tn ca sn phm v
ca nh sn xut. Cc sn phm c dn nhn sinh thi thng c sc mnh cnh
tranh cao v gi bn ra th trng cng thng cao hn cc sn phm cng loi.
Nh vy, nhn sinh thi l cng c kinh t tc ng vo nh sn xut thng qua
phn ng v tm l ca khch hng. Rt nhiu nh sn xut v ang u t
sn phm ca mnh c cng nhn l sn phm xanh, c dn nhn sinh thi
v iu kin c dn nhn sinh thi ngy cng kht khe hn. Nhn sinh thi
thng c xem xt v dn cho cc sn phm ti ch t ph thi (nh cao su...),
cc sn phm thay th cho cc sn phm c tc ng xu n mi trng, cc sn
phm c tc ng tch cc n mi trng hoc hot ng sn xut, kinh doanh sn
phm c nh hng tt n mi trng.
2.8 Qu mi trng
Qu mi trng l mt th ch hoc mt c ch c thit k nhn ti tr vn t
cc ngun khc nhau, v t phn phi cc ngun ny h tr qu trnh thc
hin cc d n hoc cc hot ng ci thin cht lng mi trng.
Ngun thu cho qu mi trng c th c hnh thnh t nhiu ngun khc nhau

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nh:
- Ph v l ph mi trng
- ng gp t nguyn ca cc c nhn v doanh nghip
- Ti tr bng tin hoc hin vt ca cc t chc trong nc, chnh quyn a
phng v chnh ph trung ng.
- ng gp ca cc t chc, cc nh ti tr quc t
- Tin li v cc khon li khc thu c t hot ng ca qu;
- Tin x pht hnh chnh do vi phm quy nh v bo v mi trng
- Tin thu c t cc hot ng nh vn ho, th thao, t thin, x s, pht hnh
tri phiu...
H tr do Qu mi trng cung cp thng thng di hnh thc h tr ti chnh
vi cc iu khon u i, chng hn nh cc khon tr cp khng hon li, cc
khon vay vn di hn vi li sut thp hn li sut hin hnh trn th trng
khuyn khch cc d n u t bo v mi trng, h tr cc d n nghin cu
trin khai, o to v truyn thng mi trng, cc d n kim sot v x l
nhim ca cc doanh nghip. Qu mi trng thm ch cn h tr tin cho vic
iu tr ca cc nn nhn nhim.
S dng cc cng c kinh t trong qun l mi trng l bin php m cc nh kinh
t cho l c hiu qu cao xt t gc chi ph thc hin. ng thi do c tnh linh
hot ca bn thn cng c, vn hnh trn c s s dng sc mnh ca th trng v
nguyn tc ngi gy nhim phi tr, cng c kinh t c kh nng khc phc
nhng tht bi ca th trng, c hiu qu trong vic thay i hnh vi gy nhim,
khuyn khch s nng ng v t gic ca ngi gy nhim. Thc t vic s dng
cng c kinh t cc nc trn th gii cho thy nhng tc ng tch cc nh cc
hnh vi mi trng c iu chnh mt cch t gic, cc chi ph x hi cho cng
tc bo v mi trng c hiu qu hn, khuyn khch vic nghin cu trin khai k
thut, cng ngh c li cho bo v mi trng, gia tng ngun thu phc v cho
cng tc bo v mi trng v cho ngn sch Nh nc, duy tr tt cc gi tr mi
trng ca quc gia.
Theo kinh nghim ca cc nc i trc, c th p dng thnh cng cc cng c
kinh t vo qun l mi trng, cn xem xt cn nhc cc iu kin di y:
- Nhng thng tin c bn c lin quan nh li ch - chi ph ca cc phng n
chnh sch mi trng, cc ch tiu bin i cht lng mi trng v phc li
x hi, kh nng th ch, ti chnh v k thut... cn c cung cp y cho
nh lp chnh sch, cc c quan chc nng v cc i tng nh doanh nghip,

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ngi gy nhim
- Th ch php l mnh, c hiu lc cng ch v trch nhim php l; c
bit quyn ti sn i vi cc ti nguyn mi trng v cc c ch s hu ngun
lc cn c xc nh r v c hiu lc thc t.
- S vn hnh ca cc th trng cnh tranh vi s lng ln ngi mua - ngi
bn v c s chnh lch ln trong chi ph gim nhim ca cc i tng gy
nhim. Nh vy, ti cc khu vc cng nghip v th pht trin, vic p dng
cng c kinh t s kh thi hn so vi cc vng nng thn.
- Nng lc qun l hnh chnh, bao gm: nng lc ca cc c quan trong vic
thit k v thc hin cng c, gim st vic thc hin, cng ch cc iu kin
p dng cng c v iu chnh cc cng c cho ph hp vi iu kin thc t.
bo m nng cao nng lc qun l hnh chnh, r rng cn c ngun ti
chnh cho vic nghin cu, o to nhn lc v trang b h thng gim st thc
hin.
- thc chnh tr: Vic p dng cng c kinh t i hi s chp nhn ca c quan
chc nng, ca cc i tng gy nhim v ca cc t chc phi li nhun i
din cho cc nn nhn ca s xung cp mi trng. Trong thc t, cc c quan
lin quan c th quen vi cc cng c CAC c v khng mun nhng thay
i i hi nhng k nng v cng ngh qun l mi; cc i tng gy
nhim cng c th phn i khi cho rng vic p dng cng c kinh t s to
thm nhng khon chi ph cho h.
Cc iu kin cn cho vic p dng cng c kinh t nu trn thng kh nh
lng. Trong thc t, khng phi bao gi v u cc iu kin trn u c tho
mn. Mt khc khng phi tt c cc cng c kinh t u cn phi c cc iu
kin trn mi p dng c; mt s loi cng c nh thu, ph, tr cp, h thng
t cc - hon tr c th c p dng tng bc trong nhng iu kin tng i
d dng hn.
Kinh nghim ca OECD v cc nc ng khc ch ra rng, quyt nh s
dng cng c kinh t khng ng ngha vi vic u tin cc cng c ny m b i
cc cng c CAC truyn thng. Thng thng, cng c kinh t c xy dng da
trn ni dung c bn ca cc quy nh c, trong , cc tiu chun mi trng vn
l thc o cn bn hiu qu ca cc chnh sch. Kt qu l mt h thng hn hp
c to ra nhm duy tr nhng yu t tch cc ca CAC, ng thi thng qua cng
c kinh t, pht huy tnh linh hot, gim chi ph thc hin, khuyn khch nhng
bc pht trin bn vng trong cng tc bo v mi trng.

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3. Cng c k thut qun l mi trng
Cc cng c k thut qun l mi trng thc hin vai tr kim sot v gim st
Nh nc v cht lng v thnh phn mi trng, v s hnh thnh v phn b
cht nhim trong mi trng.
Cc cng c k thut qun l mi trng c th bao gm cc nh gi mi trng,
kim ton mi trng, cc h thng quan trc (monitoring) mi trng, x l cht
thi, ti ch v ti s dng cht thi.
Cc cng c k thut c coi l nhng cng c hnh ng quan trng ca cc t
chc trong cng tc bo v mi trng.
Thng qua vic thc hin cc cng c k thut, cc c quan chc nng c th c
nhng thng tin y , chnh xc v hin trng v din bin cht lng mi trng
ng thi c nhng bin php, gii php ph hp x l, hn ch nhng tc ng
tiu cc i vi mi trng.
Cc cng c k thut cng ng vai tr quan trng trong vic h tr tun th cc
tiu chun, quy nh v bo v mi trng.
4. Cng c gio dc v truyn thng mi trng
Bo v mi trng l s nghip ca qun chng. Cc nhim v bo v mi trng
c c hon thnh hay khng ph thuc mt phn ln vo nhn thc v thc
mi trng ca ton x hi. Do , gio dc v truyn thng mi trng cng l
mt cng c qun l mi trng gin tip v rt cn thit, c bit l cc nc
ang pht trin.
4.1 Gio dc mi trng
Gio dc mi trng l mt qu trnh thng qua cc hot ng gio dc chnh
quy v khng chnh quy nhm gip con ngi c c s hiu bit, k nng v gi
tr to iu kin cho h tham gia vo pht trin mt x hi bn vng v sinh thi"
Mc ch ca gio dc mi trng l nhm vn dng nhng kin thc v k nng
vo gi gn, bo tn v s dng mi trng theo cch bn vng cho c th h hin
ti v tng lai. Gio dc mi trng cng bao hm c vic hc tp cch s dng
nhng cng ngh mi nhm tng sn lng kinh t v trnh nhng thm ho mi
trng, xo ngho i, tn dng cc c hi v a ra nhng quyt nh khn kho
trong vic s dng ti nguyn. Hn na, gio dc mi trng bao hm c vic t
c nhng k nng, c nhng ng c v cam kt hnh ng, d vi t cch c
nhn hay tp th, gii quyt nhng vn mi trng hin ti v phng nga
nhng vn mi ny sinh.
Gio dc mi trng bao gm nhng ni dung ch yu:

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- a gio dc mi trng vo trng hc
- Cung cp thng tin cho nhng ngi c quyn ra quyt nh
- o to chuyn gia v mi trng
4.2 Truyn thng mi trng
Truyn thng c hiu l mt qu trnh trao i thng tin, tng, tnh cm, suy
ngh, thi gia cc c nhn hoc nhm ngi.
Truyn thng mi trng l mt qu trnh tng tc x hi hai chiu nhm gip
cho nhng ngi c lin quan hiu c cc yu t mi trng then cht, mi quan
h ph thuc ln nhau gia chng v cch tc ng vo cc vn c lin quan
mt cch thch hp gii quyt cc vn v mi trng
Mc tiu ca truyn thng mi trng nhm:
- Thng tin cho ngi b tc ng bi cc vn mi trng bit tnh trng ca
h, t gip h quan tm n vic tm kim cc gii php khc phc
- Huy ng cc kinh nghim, k nng, b quyt a phng tham gia vo cc
chng trnh bo v mi trng
- Thng lng ho gii cc xung t, khiu ni, tranh chp v mi trng gia
cc c quan v trong nhn dn
- To c hi cho mi thnh phn trong x hi tham gia vo vic bo v mi
trng, x hi ho cng tc bo v mi trng
- Kh nng thay i cc hnh vi s c hu hiu hn thng qua i thoi thng
xuyn trong x hi.
Truyn thng mi trng c th thc hin thng qua cc phng thc ch yu
sau:
- Chuyn thng tin ti tng c nhn qua vic tip xc ti nh, ti c quan, gi
in thoi, gi th
- Chuyn thng tin ti cc nhm thng qua hi tho tp hun, hun luyn, hp
nhm, tham quan kho st.
- Chuyn thng tin qua cc phng tin truyn thng i chng: bo ch, ti vi,
radio, pano, p phch, t ri, phim nh...
- Tip cn truyn thng qua nhng bui biu din lu ng, t chc hi din, cc
chin dch, cc l hi, cc ngy k nim...

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IV. H thng t chc qun l mi trng Vit Nam
1. Lch s qun l mi trng Vit Nam
Mi mt hot ng ca con ngi u c tc ng n ti nguyn Mi trng xung
quanh chiu hng thun li hay khng thun li cho i sng v pht trin ca
con ngi. Ngay t xa xa con ngi c nhng hnh thc nhm bo v ti
nguyn nh hnh thnh cc quy c bo v rng u ngun, hay lp cc miu th
da vo uy th ca thn linh nhm ngn cm vic ph rng
Ch khi x hi pht trin, nh tin b khoa hc v k thut m kinh t tng trng
nhanh, song ti nguyn cn kit, cn bng sinh thi b o ln, cht lng mi
trng sng suy thoi th qun l mi trng tr thnh mt hot ng c th ca
qun l Nh nc.
Vit nam cng tc Qun l mi trng c quan tm n t nm 1962, khi
chng ta thnh lp vn quc gia Cc phng.
Nm 1986, ln u tin Vit Nam , vi s hp tc ca cc chuyn gia Lin Hip
Quc, Hi Quc t bo v thin nhin (IUCN), cc nh khoa hc Vit Nam son
tho "chin lc quc gia bo v thin nhin".
Bn chin lc c ngha nh l khi u cho qu trnh qun l ti nguyn, mi
trng Vit Nam. V cng vo nm 1986 chng trnh quc gia nghin cu v
ti nguyn v mi trng vi s cng tc ca IUCN, xut vi Nh nc
CHXHCN Vit Nam mt chin lc quc gia v bo v mi trng. Trn c s
chin lc ny, trong cc nm 1990 - 1991 mt k hoch quc gia v mi trng v
pht trin bn vng c Hi ng B trng CHXHCN Vit Nam chp nhn
v chnh thc ban hnh ngy 12 - 06 - 1991.
K hoch quc gia xc nh mc tiu ln v th ch v t chc l"
- Thnh lp c quan qun l mi trng
- Xy dng chnh sch v lut php v mi trng
- Thnh lp mng li quan trc mi trng
- Lp k hoch tng hp v s dng v pht trin ti nguyn
- Xy dng cc chin lc pht trin lu bn cho cc ngnh
- nh gi tc ng mi trng
- Son tho chin lc mi trng v pht trin bn vng
K hoch quc gia cng vch ra 7 chng trnh hnh ng:
- Qun l pht trin th v dn s

296
- Qun l tng hp cc lu vc
- Kim sot nhim v cht thi
- Qun l tng hp vng ven bin
- Bo v a dng sinh hc
- Bo v cc vng t ngp nc
- Qun l cc vn quc gia v cc khu bo v.
Mt s kin quan trng i vi s nghip bo v mi trng, l thng 12 nm
1993, Quc hi nc CHXHCN Vit Nam kho IX k hp th IV thng qua
lut Bo v Mi trng. V ngy 18 thng 10 nm 1973, Ngh nh 175 CP ban
hnh hng dn thi hnh lut bo v mi trng.
V t chc b my qun l mi trng, nm 1992 B Khoa hc, Cng ngh v Mi
trng c thnh lp, m tin thn ca n l UBKHKT Nh nc, vi chc nng
l qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
Cc s Khoa hc - Cng nghip - Mi trng cc a phng sau c thnh
lp vi chc nng l qun l Nh nc v mi trng a phng.
Do yu cu nhim v ca cng tc qun l ngun ti nguyn thin nhin v bo v
mi trng ph hp vi xu th pht trin ca t nc trong thi k mi, ti k hp
th nht, Quc hi nc cng ho x hi ch ngha Vit nam kho XI, ngy 05
thng 8 nm 2002 quyt nh thnh lp B ti nguyn v mi trng trn c s
3 n v ch yu hin c gm cc mi trng; tng cc a chnh v tng cc kh
tng thu vn.
Cho n nay, Vit Nam hnh thnh h thng t chc Qun l Nh nc v
Mi trng t trung ng n a phng.
2. H thng t chc qun l mi trng Vit Nam
H thng t chc Qun l mi trng Vit Nam theo quy nh ca lut Bo v
mi trng (iu 38) v ngh nh 175 CP.
- Theo nhim v v quyn hn ca mnh, Chnh ph thng nht qun l Nh nc
v bo v mi trng trong c nc.
- B Khoahc, Cng ngh v Mi trng chu trch nhim trc Chnh ph thc
hin chc nng qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng.
- Cc B, c quan ngang B, c quan trc thuc Chnh ph theo chc nng, nhim
v v quyn hn ca mnh phi hp vi B Khoa hc, Cng ngh v Mi trng
thc hin vic bo v mi trng trong ngnh v cc c s thuc quyn qun l
trc tip.

297
- U ban Nhn dn tnh, thnh ph trc thuc Trung ng thc hin chc nng
qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng ti a phng.
- S Khoa hc, Cng ngh v Mi trng chu trch nhim trc UBND tnh,
thnh ph trc thuc Trung ng trong vic bo v Mi trng a phng.
iu 39 lut Bo v Mi trng cng quy nh: H thng t chc, chc nng,
nhim v, v quyn hn ca cc c quan qun l Nh nc v bo v mi trng
do chnh ph quy nh.
Nh vy trong thc t t trc ti nay h thng qun l mi trng Vit Nam
va kt hp qun l theo ngnh v qun l theo lnh th.
Nhm p ng kp thi v c cu t chc v n nh i vo hot ng ca b ti
nguyn v mi trng, ngy 11 thng 11 nm 2002, th tng chnh ph k
ngh nh ca chnh ph ban hnh s 91/2002/N-CP v Quy nh chc nng,
nhim v, quyn hn v c cu t chc ca B Ti nguyn v Mi trng. Ti
iu 1 ca ngh nh ny qui nh v v tr v chc nng ca b ch r:
B ti nguyn v Mi trng l c quan ca Chnh ph thc hin chc nng
qun l nh nc v ti nguyn t, ti nguyn nc, ti nguyn khong sn, mi
trng, kh tng thu vn, o c v bn trong phm vi c nc; qun l nh
nc cc dch v cng v thc hin i din ch s hu phn vn ca nh nc ti
doanh nghip c vn nh nc trong lnh vc ti nguyn t, ti nguyn nc, ti
nguyn khong sn, mi trng, kh tng thu vn, o c v bn theo quy
nh ca php lut.
Ti iu 3 ca ngh nh ny cng quy nh r c cu t chc ca b gm hai b
phn cu thnh c bn, th nht l cc t chc gip b trng thc hin chc nng
qun l nh nc gm 16 b phn, th hai l cc t chc s nghip ca b gm 6
b phn.
i vi cc t chc gip b trng thc hin chc nng qun l nh nc gm: v
t ai; v ng k v thng k t ai; v mi trng; v thm nh v nh gi
tc ng mi trng; v kh tng thu vn;v khoa hc-cng ngh; v k hoch-
ti chnh; v hp tc quc t; v php ch; v t chc cn b; cc qun l ti
nguyn nc; cc a cht v khong sn Vit nam; cc bo v mi trng; cc o
c bn ; thanh tra v vn phng.
Cc t chc s nghip thuc b gm: trung tm kh tng thu vn quc gia; trung
tm iu tra quy hoch t ai; trung tm vin thm; trung tm thng tin; tp ch ti
nguyn v mi trng; bo ti nguyn v mi trng.
Nh vy c th khng nh rng, vi chc nng, nhim v v c cu t chc mi,
vai tr qun l Nh nc v mi trng v ti nguyn thin nhin s c tng

298
cng ph hp vi tin trnh pht trin kinh t-x hi ca t nc.
3. Cc vn bn php l hin hnh lin quan ti qun l mi trng Vit
Nam
3.1. H thng chnh sch v php lut v mi trng
Vn kin i hi ng v Ngh quyt ca Quc hi nc CHXHCN Vit Nam c
ngha chin lc ch o ton b cngtc bo v mi trng Vit Nam.
Lut bo v mi trng ban hnh 1/1993 l c s php l quan trng nht cho hot
ng bo v mi trng.
Ngoi lut bo v mi trng, cn c mt s lut khc lin quan n mi trng,
c ban hnh trc v sau lut bo v mi trng
Lut Hng hi
Lut t ai
Lut Bo v v Pht trin Rng
Lut Lao ng
Lut Du kh
Lut Ti nguyn nc
Lut Khong sn
Lut Bo v Sc kho ca Nhn dn
V cc php lnh:
Php lnh th y, Php lnh bo v ngun li thu sn, Php lnh bo v iu,
Php lnh bo v v kim nh.
H thng php lut v Mi trng l c s php l quan trng cho ton b cng tc
bo v mi trng nc ta. N cn to c s php l cho ton b hot ng pht
trin kinh t - x hi trn t nc, ng thi n cn to iu kin thun li cho s
hp tc quc t u t, nhm s dng hp l ti nguyn thin nhin, bo v mi
trng.
3.2. K hoch quc gia v mi trng
Nm 1986, Vit Nam cng b "chin lc quc gia bo v thin nhin. Xut bn
d tho Chin lc quc gia v bo tn (sa i theo quyt nh s 246/HBT
ngy 20/9/1985)
Nm 1991, ch tch Hi ng B trng thng qua K hoch Quc gia v mi
trng v Pht trin bn vng giai on 1991-2000 (ch th 187/CT ngy

299
12/6/1991).
Nm 2000, Trnh Chnh ph Chin lc quc gia v Bo v mi trng giai on
2001 2010 (9/2000).
Cc k hoch quc gia v mi trng ra cc mc tiu v mi trng trong giai
on v xy dng chng trnh hnh ng t c mc tiu .
3.3. Ngh nh ca chnh ph
- Ngy 18 - 10 - 1994, Chnh ph ban hnh N 175 CP "V vic hng dn thi
hnh lut bo v mi trng"
- 26 - 4 - 1996, Chnh ph ban hnh N 26/ CP "X pht hnh chnh v vi phm
mi trng"
- Nm 1995, Tiu chun mi trng Vit Nam c ban hnh
Ngoi ra, B Khoa hc - Cng ngh v Mi trng c nhiu thng t v hng
dn cng tc nh gi tc ng mi trng, v cng tc thanh tra mi trng, cc
quyt nh lin quan khc n lnh vc qun l nh nc v mi trng.
3.4. Cc ch th, quyt nh.
- 25-6-1998 Ban chp hnh Trung ng ng Cng sn Vit nam ra Ch th 36-
CT/TW v tng cng cng tc bo v mi trng trong thi k cng nghip
ho, hin i ho t nc.
Th tng chnh ph cng c nh ng ch th quan trng nh:
- Ch th s 200/TTg ngy 29/4/1994 v m bo nc sch v v sinh mi
trng nng thn.
- Ch th s 406/TTg ngy 8/8/1994 v vic cm sn xut v bun bn pho n.
- Ch th s 199/TTg ngy 3/4/1997 v nhng bin php cp bch trong cng tc
qun l cht thi rn cc th v khu cng nghp.
- Ch th s 29/1998 v tng cng cng tc qun l vic s dng thuc bo v
thc vt v cc cht hu c gy nhim kh phn hu.
Cc quyt nh ng lu lin quan n qun l nh nc v mi trng trong thi
gian va qua nh:
- Quyt nh s 07/TTg ngy 3/1/1997 v thnh lp ban iu hnh quc gia Qu
mi trng ton cu vit nam.
- Quyt nh s 152/1999/Q-TTg ngy 10/7/1999 v vic ph duyt Chin lc
qun l cht thi rn ti cc th v khu cng nghip Vit nam n 2020.
- Quyt nh s 155/1999/Q-TTg ngy 16/7/1999 ca th tng Chnh ph v

300
vic ban hnh Quy ch qun l cht thi nguy hi.
- Quyt nh s 82/2002/Q-TTg ngy 26/6/2002 ca Th tng Chnh ph v
vic thnh lp, t chc hot ng ca Qu bo v mi trng Vit Nam.
4. S tham gia ca Vit Nam vo cc cng c quc t v mi trng
Nh tuyn b ca chnh ph Vit Nam ti Hi ngh thng nh RIO - 1992, Vit
Nam cam kt bo v mi trng ca nc mnh v hp tc cng cc nc trong
khu vc v trn th gii gp phn bo v mi trng ca khu vc v mi trng
chung ca ton cu.
V vy, chng ta coi trng vic hp tc v mi trng nng cao nng lc bn
thn, nhm gii quyt nhng vn mi trng ca mnh v gp phn trong n lc
chung ca th gii.
* Vit nam hp tc vi cc t chc quc t v cc chnh ph.
Nhiu t chc quc t hp tc v gip nc ta di cc hnh thc vin tr,
cc d n tr gip k thut, ch yu nhm nng cao nng lc ca ta trong hoch
nh chnh sch, tm hiu v la chn cc bin php trong qun l, iu hnh, cng
nh gii php c tnh cng ngh trong mt s lnh vc v mi trng.
l cc t chc nh: UNDP, UNEP, FAO, WHO, UNICEP, WWF, IUCN
Vic hp tc v tr gip quc t cn c th hin thng qua quan h song phng
gia chnh ph ta vi cc chnh ph nh: Thu in, Phn Lan, Lin X (trc
y), Php, Canaa, H Lan, CHLB c, Oxtraylia, Nht Bn, an Mch,
Singapo, Thi Lan
* Vit Nam tham gia cc cng c quc t:
Nc ta tham gia cc cng c quc t sau y:
- Cng c lin quan n bo v cc di sn vn ho v t nhin th gii 1972. K
ngy 19/10/1982.
- Cng c IAEA v thng bo sm s c ht nhn, 1985. K ngy 29/9/1987.
- Cng c v tr gip trong cc trng hp s c ht nhn hoc cp cu v
phng x, 1986. K ngy 29/12/1987.
- Cng c v cc vng t ngp nc c tm quan trng quc t, c bit nh l
ni c tr ca cc loi chim nc RAMSAR, 1971. K ngy 20/9/1989.
- Tho thun v mng li cc trung tm thu sn chu -Thi bnh Dng,
1998. K ngy 02/2/1989.
- Cng c ca LHQ v s bin i mi trng. K ngy 26/8/1990.

301
- Cng c quc t v ngn nga nhim bin do tu thuyn MARPOL. K ngy
29/8/1991.
- Cng c v bun bn quc t nhng loi ng, thc vt hoang gi c nguy c
b e do 1973 (Cng c CITES). K ngy 20/1/1994.
- Ngh nh th Montreal v cc cht lm suy gim tng Zn, 1987. K ngy
26/1/1994.
+ Bn b sung Lun n cho Cng c Lun n, 1990
+ Bn b sung Copenhagen, 1992
- Cng c Vin v bo v tng zn, 1985. K ngy 26/4/1994.
- Cng c ca LHQ v Lut Bin, 1982. K ngy 25/7/1994.
- Cng c khung ca LHQ v bin i kh hu, 1992. K ngy 16/11/1994.
- Cng c v a dng sinh hc (CBD), 1992. K ngy 16/11/1994.
- Cng c Bazen v kim sot v vn chuyn qua bin gii cht thi nguy hi v
vic loi b chng, 1989. K ngy 13/3/1995.
- Cng c chng sa mc ho. K kt 11/1998.
- Tuyn ngn quc t ca Lin hp quc v sn xut sch hn. K ngy
22/9/1999.
- Cng c Stockholm v cc cht gy nhim hu c kh phn hu (POP). K
ngy 23/11/2001.
thc hin cc cng c quc t, nc ta tng bc a nhng ni dung c
lin quan vo k hoch hnh ng. i vi mt s cng c quan trng, Chnh ph
ph duyt v cho thc hin nhng k hoch hoc chng trnh hnh ng c
tnh quc t nh:
* K hoch hnh ng bo v a dng sinh hc ca Vit Nam.
* Chng trnh quc gia v bin i kh hu.
* Chng trnh quc gia nhm loi tr dn cc cht lm suy gim tng zn.
Bo v mi trng l s nghip ca tt c mi ngi. Qun l mi trng chnh l
phi gic ng, huy ng v t chc tt c mi ngi thc hin trch nhim , v
li ch ca bn thn mnh, li ch ca mi ngi v li ch ca cc th h tng lai.
Cng chnh v vy m qun l cht Nh nc v bo v mi trng khng th n
c, ch da vo php lut v cng ch m cn c cc hnh thc qun l x hi phi
Nh nc khc phi c pht huy v vn dng.

302

303
Tm tt chng V

Chng V cp n nhng vn c bn lin quan ti bo v mi trng.
ngi hc hiu bn cht ca qun l mi trng, phn u ca chng lm r cc
khi nim c bn ca qun l mi trng, qun l nh nc v mi trng, phn
ny cng l gii c s khoa hc no cn phi c s qun l v mi trng. Tnh tt
yu khch quan phi c s qun l nh nc v mi trng, c bit l nhng vn
thc tin v thch thc v mi trng Vit Nam hin nay ang t ra nhng
yu cu phi c s qun l nh nc v mi trng.
Trn c s hiu c cc khi nim v bn cht ca qun l mi trng, phn II
cp n nhng ni dung v nguyn tc ca Qun l mi trng. c bit trong
phn ny cp n hai vn lin quan trc tip ti doanh nghip, th nht l sn
xut sch hn v th hai l phn tch kh chi tit v h thng qun l mi trng
cho doanh nghip (EMS), trong cp ti s dng ISO 14000 nh l mt cng
c qun l c tnh t nguyn m cc doanh nghip cn hng ti khng ch t
hiu qu mi trng m chnh l hiu qu kinh t hu hnh trong tng lai ca cc
doanh nghip khi tham gia vo th trng quc t.
Phn III cp ti cc cng c cho qun l mi trng, c 4 loi cng c c
phn tch trong phn ny l cng c php l, cng c kinh t, cng c k thut v
cng c tuyn truyn, gio dc nhn thc mi trng. Trong bn loi cng c
mi loi c mt vai tr c th ring trong cu thnh tng hp ca qun l mi
trng. Tuy nhin cng c c phn tch chi tit v t m nht chnh l cng c
kinh t, cng c ny rt ph hp vi c ch ca nn kinh t th trng c s iu
hnh v qun l nh nc.
Phn IV phn tch ti h thng t chc qun l mi trng Vit nam. Trong phn
ny xem xt ti lch s qun l mi trng ca vit nam, c th khng nh mc
nh du quan trng nht l t nm 1962 khi chng ta quyt nh thnh lp vn
quc gia Cc Phng v cho n thi im mi y nht nm 2002 thnh lp b
ti nguyn v mi trng. Cng vi qu trnh hnh thnh v pht trin, h thng c
cu t chc ca c quan qun l mi trng cng d c nhng s thay i nht
nh ph hp vi yu cu mi. Phn ny cng a ra v phn tch kh chi tit v
cc vn bn hin hnh lin quan ti qun l mi trng Vit Nam. c bit lin
quan n nhng vn mi trng quc t, nhng cng c quc t lin quan n
s tham gia ca Vit nam cng c ch ra ngi hc c th hnh dung c
nhng loi cng c no Vit nam tham gia v thi gian k cam kt tham gia.
Ngi c chng ny s c cm nhn c nm bt kh y t c s l lun
n thc tin v qun l mi trng.

304
Cu hi n tp
1. Hy phn bit 2 khi nim: Qun l Mi trng v Qun l Nh nc v mi
trng.
2. Hy phn tch tnh tt yu khch quan ca Qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
3. Hy trnh by nhng thc trng v thch thc v nhng vn mi trng ton
cu v Vit Nam, t cho nhn xt v mi quan h gia qu trnh pht trin kinh
t v bo v mi trng hin nay.
4. Hy nu v phn tch cc ni dung qun l Nh nc v mi trng.
5. Hy nu v phn tch cc nguyn tc qun l Nh nc v mi trng?
6. V sao doanh nghip phi quan tm n qun l mi trng? H nhn c
nhng li ch g khi phi qun l mi trng?
7. Phn tch nhng khi nim c bn v sn xut sch hn? Trnh by nhng
nguyn tc v cc phng php sn xut sch hn.
8. So snh sn xut sch hn v phng php x l cui ng ng? Nhng li
ch ca sn xut sch hn?
9. Trnh by nhng ni dung cn thc hin nh gi tnh kh thi i vi d n
sn xut sch hn.
10. u t cho sn xut sch hn nhn t gc kinh t ra nhng quyt nh ti
chnh c nhng phng php no? Li ch kinh t ca vic u t cho sn xut
sch hn?
11. Hy nu nhng ni dung c bn ca b tiu chun ISO 14000.
12. C cu ca h thng qun l mi trng theo ISO 14001. Mc ch ngha ca
vic p dng h thng ny.
13. Cng c lut php chnh sch trong qun l mi trng bao gm nhng loi
no? Vai tr ca tng loi? u im v hn ch ca tng loi?
14. Phn tch vai tr, chc nng ca cc cng c kinh t trong qun l mi trng?
Kh nng p dng trong thc t, u im v hn ch ca tng loi cng c kinh t?
15. Mc tiu v cc hnh thc ca gio dc v truyn thng mi trng?
16. Trnh by nhng nt c bn v lch s qun l mi trng Vit nam.
17. Trnh by h thng t chc qun l mi trng hin hnh ca Vit nam.
18. Trnh by nhng nt c bn cc loi vn bn lin quan n qun l mi trng
Vit nam. Ly v d minh ho.
19. Ti sao Vit Nam li tham gia vo cng c quc t v mi trng? Nu mt
s cng c quan trng m Vit Nam tham gia.

305

Ti liu tham kho

I. Ting Vit
1. L Huy B - Mi trng - Sch xut bn 1997.
2. Bo co nghin cu chnh sch ca Ngn hng th gii xanh ho cng
nghip vai tr mi ca cng ng, th trng v chnh ph. Ngn hng
th gii 2000.
3. B Khoa hc Cng ngh v Mi trng , Trung tm Kinh t Mi trng
v Pht trin vng, H KTQD, Bo co tng hp ti "C s khoa hc
v thc tin xy dng cc quy nh v t cc - hon tr, k qu v bo
him mi trng, H Ni 1999.
4. B Khoa hc Cng ngh v Mi trng , Cc Mi trng, Cc quy nh
php lut v mi trng, Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia - Tp 1,2,3,4
5. B Khoa hc Cng ngh v Mi trng, Cc Mi trng, 200 cu hi
p v Mi trng, H Ni 2000
6. B Khoa hc Cng ngh v Mi trng, Cc Mi trng, Gii thiu v
cng c kinh t v kh nng p dng trong qun l mi trng Vit
Nam, H Ni 2001.
7. L Thc Cn - nh gi tc ng mi trng, Phng php lun v kinh
nghim thc tin - NXB KHKT - 1995
8. L Thc Cn, Nguyn Duy Hng, Hong Xun C - Kinh t Mi trng,
Gio trnh i hc M - HN 1995
9. L Thc Cn - C s khoa hc mi trng - Gio trnh i hc M -
1995.
10. Nguyn Th Chinh, p dng cc cng c kinh t nng cao nng lc
qun l mi trng H Ni, Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia, H Ni
1999.
11. TS. Nguyn Th Chinh - u t cho sn xut sch hn nhn t gc
kinh t. Thng tin d n nhng chin lc v c ch nhm khuyn
khch u t cho sn xut sch hn ti cc nc ang pht trin. Chng
trnh mi trng Lin hp quc (UNEP). B K hoch v u t (MPI).
2002.
12. Chng trnh o to kinh t FulBright, tp bi ging "Kinh t hc Mi
trng v chnh sch", Tp. H Ch Minh 1998.

306
13. Chng trnh Mi trng Lin hp quc (UNEP); B K hoch v u
t (MPI); Trung tm Kinh t mi trng v Pht trin vng (CEERD).
Kho tp hun CP3 Sinh li t sn xut sch hn H Ni, Thi
Nguyn, Hi Phng , Vit Tr, Thanh Ho, Tha Thin Hu. 2001.
14. Cc mi trng; CEETIA, NORAD, UNEP Bo co hin trng mi
trng Vit Nam 2001.
15. Cc mi trng Hnh trnh v s pht trin bn vng 1972-1992-2002.
Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia. H Ni 2002.
16. Cc Mi trng 1993-2000: Xy dng, pht trin. H Ni 2000.
17. Cc mi trng Pht trin bn vng Vit Nam mi nm nhn li v
con ng pha trc Bo co quc gia ti Hi ngh thng nh th
gii v pht trin bn vng. H Ni 2002.
18. D n Kinh t cht thi (WASTE ECON). Kinh t cht thi trong pht
trin bn vng. Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia. H Ni 2001.
19. D n VIE/97/007. S tay hng dn s dng cc cng c cho cc mc
tiu mi trng trong k hoch ho pht trin. H Ni thng 5/2001.
20. David Lucas & Paul Meyer, Nhp mn nghin cu dn s, i hc Tng
hp Quc gia Australia 1990, (bn dch ca Phan nh Th, d n
VIE/92/P04).
21. David W.Pearce (Tng bin tp), T in kinh t hc hin i, Nh xut
bn Chnh tr Quc gia, H Ni 1999.
22. Ng nh Giao (Ch bin), Kinh t hc vi m, Nh xut bn Gio dc
1997.
23. L Thu Hoa, Bn thm v s dng cc cng c kinh t v c ch t cc
- hon tr trong qun l mi trng Vit Nam , k yu hi tho khoa
hc: Kinh t mi trng: L lun v p dng vo thc tin Vit Nam, H
Ni 1999.
24. Trn Vn Hc, Tng cc Tiu chun o lng cht lng B tiu
chun ISO14000 v vn p dng ti Vit Nam. K yu Hi tho ngy
6/3/1999 Din n cc nh qun l v trch nhim ngn nga nhim
cng nghip. B Khoa hc cng ngh v Mi trng. Cc mi trng. H
Ni 1999.
25. L Th Hng, Kinh t mi trng, Nh xut bn Thng K, Tp. H Ch
Minh 1999
26. L Vn Khoa - Mi trng v nhim - NXB Gio dc 1997
27. Lut bo v mi trng - CHXHCN VN- 1993.

307
28. Nh xut bn KH-KT - Tn hiu sng cn - HN 1995
29. N 175 CP - Chnh ph CHXHCN VN 1994.
30. MPI, UNDP, SDC. Bo co k thut s 5, ti liu tham kho. Phn tch
chi ph li ch v cc vn mi trng trong k hoch pht trin,
nghin cu tnh hung xi mn t Bo Lc, tnh Lm ng. Thng
7/2001. Nhng vn mi trng trong lp k hoch u t.
31. GS.TS. ng Nh Ton PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Chinh. Mt s vn
c bn v Kinh t v Qun l mi trng. Nh xut bn Xy dng H
Ni 1997.
32. GS.TS. ng Nh Ton. Kinh t mi trng. H Ni 1996.
33. Ng nh Tun, Nguyn Duy Hng v NGK - nh gi tc ng mi
trng cc cng trnh pht trin ti nguyn nc - B Nng nghip v
Pht trin Nng thn - HN 1996.
34. Trung tm khoa hc x hi v nhn vn Quc gia Bo co pht trin
con ngi Vit Nam 2001 - i mi v s nghip pht trin con ngi
(sch tham kho). Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia, H Ni 2001.
35. Robert S.Pindyck & Daniel L.Rubinfeld. Kinh t hc vi m, Nh xut
bn Thng k, H Ni 1999.
36. R. Kerry Turner, David Pearce & Ian Bajeman Kinh t mi trng. Ti
liu dng cho lp hun luyn ngn hn Kinh t ti nguyn v Mi trng
t chc ti trng i hc Nng lm thnh ph H Ch Minh t
24/7/1995 n 1/9/1995.
37. Joseph E. Stiglitz, Kinh t hc cng cng, Nh xut bn khoa hc v k
thut, H Ni 1995.
38. Vin Pht trin Kinh t - Ngn hng Th gii v Cc Mi trng, B
KHCN &MT, K yu hi tho ngn nga nhim cng nghip, Lt,
9/1997.
39. Trn V Hng Sn, Nhp mn phn tch li ch chi ph. Nh xut bn i
hc quc gia TP. H Ch Minh. 2001

308
II. Ting nc ngoi
1. Ahmed M. Hussen, Principles of Environmental Economics: Economics,
ecology and public policy, T.J. Internatinal Ltd., Padstow, Great Britain,
2000.
2. Barry C Field, The Economics of Environmental Quality, Environmental
Economis Mc Graw Hill Publishers, New York 1994.
3. David O'Connor, Managing the Environment with Rapid Industrialization
Lessons from the East Asian Experience, OECD, Development Centre,
Paris, 1994.
4. David Pearce and R. Kerry Turner, Economics of Natural Resource and
the Environment, Harvester Wheatsheaf, T. J. Press (Padstow) Ltd.,
Great Britain, 1990.
5. Environmentall issues in investment planning for sustainable
development. Proceedings of a Seminar for Planning Experts from
Vietnam; Germany, Tune 2000.
6. Hans. B. Opschoor, Kenneth Button and Pieter Nijkamp, Environmental
Economics and Development, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited,
Cheltenham, UK, 1999.
7. Henk Folmer, H. Landis Gabel and Hans Opschoor, Principles of
Environmental and Resource Economics. A guide for students and
Decision Makers, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., Cheltenham, UK 1997.
8. E. Kula, Economics of Natural Resources, the Environment and Policies,
Second Edition, Chapman and Hall, St. Edmundsbury Press, Great
Britain, 1997.
9. Michael Common, Environmental and Resource Ecomomics: An
Introduction, Second Edition, Addision Wesley Longman Ltd., New York
1996.
10. OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development,
Managing the Environment: The role of Economic Instruments, Paris,
1994.
11. Tom Tietenberg, Environmental and Natural Resource Economics, Third
Edition, Harper Collins Publishers Inc. New York, 1992.
12. The VAT Project, Economics and Environmental Protection (Lecture
Material), Ha Noi, 2001.
13. R. Kerry Turner, David Pearce & Ian Bateman, Environmental
Economics - An Elementary Introduction, Harvester Wheatsheaf, T. J.

309
Press (Padstow) Ltd, Great Britain, 1994.
14. Zvi Adar and James M. Griffin, Uncertainty and the Choice of Pollution
Control Instruments, Journal of Environmental Economics and
Management, 3/1976.
15. Jan Bojo, Karl Goran Maler and Lena Unemo, Environment and
Development: An Ecomomics Approach, Kluer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands 1990

310
Chng m u
Chng I: Mi trng v pht trin
Chng II: Kinh t hc cht lng mi trng
Chng III: nh gi tc ng mi trng v phn tch kinh t ca nhng tc ng mi
trng
Chng IV: Khan him ti nguyn, dn s, kinh t v mi trng
Chng V: Qun l Mi trng
Ti liu tham kho

Kinh Te Va Quan Ly Moi Truong

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Trng i hc kinh t quc dn

Khoa Kinh t - Qun l Mi trng v th

Phn ng ca con ngi v sinh vt

Cc cht pht thi ph

Ngun: Sch dn, trang 32

) (lm vic Ngn hng th gii) th mt th

) Theo Conexion s 3, thng 9, 1992

) hay cn gi l hiu qu kinh t l mt tiu ch hu dng thng

Cn lu 2 c tnh quan trng ca ng MEC do nhim gy ra.

). Mt khc, khi thu nhp tng, cc ng b b

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