Flight Control Systems and Autopilots

Brian Jewell
Department of Engineering, Calvin College
Engineering 315 Final Paper
Professor Ribeiro
Abstract: Autopilot systems have been crucial to
flight control for decades and have been making
flight easier, safer, and more efficient. However,
these autopilot systems are complex devices that
require precise control and stability. These
systems usually include a form of digital control
systems to allow for easier implementation. One
example, the eaver Autopilot system, uses an
inner, outer loop system to maintain control while
simpler systems often only require something as
simple as a !"# controller to keep the aircraft
stable.
1. Introduction
Since te creation of te first aircraft, te
abilit! for people to travel large "istances in
relativel! sort perio"s of time as "rasticall!
increase"# $owever, in te beginning of te
airplane age, traveling on tese craft was "iffic%lt
as tere are man! components of air travel an"
controlling tese components can be an e&tremel!
"iffic%lt tas' for a pilot# (n mo"ern aircraft, tere
are simpl! too man! tings for te pilot to control
tem all so some form of a%tomation m%st be
"one# )lso, long air trips can ca%se problems for
te pilots# *ile te plane is traveling along te
same tra+ector!, fl!ing can an" "oes become a
rater monotono%s +ob for te pilot an" te pilot
r%ns a iger ris' of falling asleep or s%ffering
from a re"%ce" response time# For tese reasons,
a%topilot s!stems ave become a blessing to te
aerospace in"%str!#
$owever, tese a%topilot s!stems are not
simple s!stems# ,e! re-%ire comple& control
s!stems wit rob%st meas%ring e-%ipment# ,e
scope of tis paper is to give an overview of
a%topilot s!stems .wit a "escription of "igital
controls/, to e&amine te Beaver )%topilot S!stem,
an" to e&plore a simple fligt control e&ample#
2. History
,e earliest form of a%topilots ave been
in e&istence for "eca"es# ,e first s!stems were
create" an implemente" abo%t ten !ears after te
*rigt Broters flew te ver! first airplane0 te
1itt! $aw'# ,ese earlier s!stems were simpl! a
g!roscope tat gave te plane a smooter fligt
pat# ,e onl! control tat tese s!stems gave was
in te altit%"e an" pitc# ,e! 'ept te plane from
fl!ing wit its nose pointe" "own an" from fl!ing
croo'e"#
)ro%n" te time of Secon" *orl" *ar, te
ver! first f%ll! f%nctional a%topilot s!stems were
"esigne" an" teste"# ,ese earlier s!stems a" te
capabilit! to 'eep te fligt pat level as well as
la%nc an" lan" te aircraft# ,is revol%tionar!
s!stem, owever, was not a simple tas' an" it was
prone to fail%re# ,e s!stems wo%l" often brea'
"own an" cras te plane .b! ma'ing te plane
point straigt "own as oppose" to straigt forwar"#
,o 'eep te s!stems operating properl!, te plane
re-%ire" a crew tat was more tan twice as large
as te original a%topilot2less planes# ,is ca%se"
problems beca%se it too' far more wor' to 'eep te
a%topilot wor'ing tan it "i" to act%all! fl! te
plane wito%t s%c a "evice# For tis reason, te
a%topilot was not %se" ver! often for man! !ears#
(t wasn3t %ntil te 14563s tat te "evice reall!
too' off .to %se an atrocio%s p%n/# )t tis point,
more sopisticate" s!stems were being intro"%ce"
an" a new form of fligt control was in te wor's0
a comp%ter controlle" fligt# ,is tecni-%e calle"
7fl! b! wire8 "i"n3t become a stan"ar" %ntil closer
to te 96s b%t it a" its beginnings in te late 56s#
,e basic concept of te 7fl! b! wire8
s!stems is "igital control s!stems# ,o %n"erstan"
tis form of a%topilot a brief "escription of "igital
control s!stems m%st be "isc%sse"#
3. Digital Control Systems
(n a t!pical control s!stem, te e-%ipment
to meas%re an" control signals can be e&tremel!
complicate" an" can re-%ire enormo%s levels of
sopistication# $owever, if it were possible to %se
a comp%ter to control te s!stems, a simple 7off
te co%nter8 processor co%l" be able to an"le
comple& control s!stems# For e&ample, a s!stem
tat re-%ires complicate" matematical algoritms
for control co%l" simpl! "igiti:e te signal an"
sen" it to a processor to ta'e care of te
calc%lations# ,e processor .%s%all! calle" a
7minicomp%ter8/ is %s%all! ine&pensive an"
relativel! eas! to implement# ,e control s!stem
%sing tese sorts of "evices is sown below in
Fig%re 10 Digital Control S!stem Bloc' Diagram#
$igure %& #igital 'ontrol (ystem lock #iagram
(n tis s!stem, te "igital comp%ter rea"s in te
"igital signals from te fee"bac' loop an" te
inp%t an" it sen"s tem to te D;) converter# ,is
converter ta'es te "igital val%es from te
comp%ter an" converts te signals into a %sable
val%e for te act%ator an" process# ,e signals are
ten sent via te fee"bac' loop tro%g te
meas%rement sensors %ntil it reaces te analog to
"igital convert# ,is portion ta'es te meas%re"
val%e an" converts it into a binar! "igital signal
tat can be rea" b! te comp%ter#
,is "igiti:ing is were te real callenge
enters into te pict%re# Since comp%ters cannot
rea" te same 'in" of signals tat an analog "evice
can, some meto" of transforming te analog "ata
to rea"able "igital "ata m%st be intro"%ce"# ,is is
"one tro%g a meto" calle" sampling# ) simple
circ%it is set %p wit a switc .sown below in
Fig%re <0 Switc Digiti:er/# ,e switc samples
te val%e of te signal at reg%lar intervals#
$igure )& (witch #igiti*er
,ese samples m%st be at a ig eno%g fre-%enc!
to acc%ratel! represent te inp%t signal# ,is
process ta'es te signal an" brea's it %p into a step
li'e f%nction# )n e&ample of tis is sown below
in Fig%re 30 Discrete Signal#
$igure +& #iscrete (ignal
)s can be seen, te res%lting f%nction is no longer
a smoot signal b%t it is a series of step f%nctions
tat represent te original signal#
,o "eal wit tese f%nctions, te :2
,ransform m%st be %se"# ,e :2,ransform is an
e&tension of te =aPlace transform an" is of te
following form0 > ? e
s,
were s is te val%e from
te =aPlace transform an" , is te perio" of te
sampler .ow man! secon"s between samples/# (n
te :2Plane, tere are several meto"s of stabilit!
anal!sis# For e&ample, a sample" s!stem is stable
if all of te poles of te close" loop transfer
f%nction ,.:/ lie witin te %nit circ%it of te :2
plane#
,ese s!stems can rea"il! be constr%cte"
in @),=)B# ,e f%nction can be "efine" as it
wo%l" in an! transfer f%nction owever te
sampling time is also incl%"e" .so te "efinition is
as follows0 s!s?tf.n%m,"en,,s/ were ,s is te
sampling time/# ,e s!stems can be converte"
from contin%o%s to "igital an" bac' again %sing te
c<" an" "<c comman"s# Below, in Fig%re A0
Discrete Step Response te following @),=)B
co"e was entere"0
BB n%m?C1DE"en?C1 1 6DE
BB s!sc?tf.n%m,"en/E
BB s!s"?c<".s!sc,1,F:oF/E
BB s!s?fee"bac'.s!s",C1D/E
BB ,?C6010<6DEstep.s!s,,/
,is co"e !iel"s te following grap0
Figure 4: Discrete Step Response
)s can be seen b! te above plot, te "igital signal
is no longer a smoot c%rve# Depen"ing on te
sampling rate .in tis case, once ever! secon"/ te
val%e is meas%re" an" ten el" constant %ntil te
ne&t val%e is meas%re"# For a "igital control
s!stem, tis val%e is converte" into a binar!
n%mber tat is ten fe" into te minicomp%ter for
anal!sis#
,is sort of s!stem is e&tremel! beneficial
to te aviation in"%str!# *it a "igital control
s!stem, te a%topilots can ave a m%c more
precise control of te fligt pat of te aircraft#
Rater tan fee" te controlle" signal .s%c as
altit%"e or !aw/ tro%g a comple& process .wic
wo%l" be e&tremel! "iffic%lt to "esign/, te signal
can be converte" to a "igital signal an" sent to te
minicomp%ter# (n te minicomp%ter, te signal can
be operate" on wit a iger level of ease beca%se
te comp%ter can "irectl! r%n te algoritms on te
"igital n%mbers# ,is meto" can !iel" a iger
-%alit! control s!stem for te aircraft# )lto%g it
"oes re-%ire more circ%itr! .te minicomp%ter/ it is
%s%all! smaller an" easier to implement bac'%p
s!stems#
*it tis general %n"erstan"ing of "igital
control s!stems, te Beaver )%topilot S!stem is
te foc%s of te rest of tis paper# ,is "igital
control s!stem overview will elp %n"erstan"
some of te m!ster! of te proprietar! .an"
terefore %n"isclose"/ portions of te Beaver
s!stem#
4. Beaer Autopilot System
,e Beaver a%topilot "oc%ment tat is
%se" for tis report entitle" 7) Sim%lin' ,oolbo&
for Fligt D!namics an" Control )nal!sis8 an" is
written b! @arc Ra%w# ,is "oc%ment "escribes
te Beaver s!stem in great "etail an" "isc%sses its
implementation in te Fligt D!namic Control
toolbo& for S(@G=(H1# $owever, since tis
toolbo& was not written b! te S(@G=(H1 people,
te stan"ar" S(@G=(H1 pac'age "oes not contain
tis toolbo&# ,erefore, for an! attempte"
sim%lations, reg%lar S(@G=(H1 will be %tili:e"
an" an! %n'nown f%nctions will be estimate" as
best as is capable b! tis a%tor#
4.1 Functions
,e f%nctions of an a%topilot s!stem can
be bro'en "own into two ma+or categories0
g%i"ance an" control# ,e g%i"ance f%nction of an
a%to2pilot "etermines te spee" an" te co%rse to
be followe" b! te craft# ,is is "one b!
meas%ring te c%rrent act%al val%es an" comparing
tem to some reference s!stem# ,e control
f%nction is te f%nction tat ta'es te "ata from te
g%i"ance s!stem an" applies te proper
corrections# For e&ample, if te g%i"ance sa!s tat
te altit%"e of te aircraft is <66m too ig, te
control f%nction wo%l" move te wing flaps to
bring te craft bac' "own to te appropriate level#
,e control "oes not %s%all! contain an! sort of
meas%ring "evices as tis f%nction is "elegate"
entirel! to te g%i"ance f%nction# ,e g%i"ance
loop acts as a comman"er to te control loop an"
te control loop comman"s te p!sical movement
an" response of te aircraft# )s is evi"ent, it is
"esirable for tese control s!stems to ave a fast
an" stable response# ,e! m%st also be able to
witstan" an! "ist%rbances from te s%rro%n"ing
environment# ,is is e&tremel! important beca%se,
if a "ist%rbance ca%se" a critical control s!stem to
become %nstable, te a%topilot wo%l" cease to
f%nction an" possibl! p%t te lives of te
passengers at ris'#
,e best wa! to "escribe te two f%nctions
is to tin' of tem as two interrelate" loops# ,e
control loop is te inner loop as it is controlle" b!
te o%ter loop g%i"ance s!stem# ,is is best sown
in Fig%re 50 Basic Bloc' Diagram of )%topilot#
$igure %& asic lock #iagram of eaver Autopilot
,ese two controllers .g%i"ance an" control/
control two ma+or areas of te fligt pat of te
aircraft0 =ongit%"inal an" =atit%"inal "irection#
,e =ongit%"inal @o"e is "isc%sse" below# ,e
=atit%"inal mo"e is of a similar format wit
sligtl! "ifferent constants an" "ifferent control
bloc's#
Figure 6: Block Diagram of Longitudinal Mode
4.1.1 !ongitudinal "ode #erie$
,is portion of te a%to2pilot controls te
pitc angle an" te altit%"e of te aircraft# ,e
complete bloc' "iagram for tis portion of te
a%topilot is sown above in Fig%re 50 Bloc'
Diagram of =ongit%"inal @o"e# )s can be seen b!
te above "iagram, tere are several components
tat ma'e %p tis portion# ,e main tree bloc's
of te s!stem are te controllers of tis f%nction#
,e! ta'e te val%es from te o%ter loops wic
pass tro%g constants an" integrators an" o%tp%t
te appropriate controls for te aircraft# ,e inp%t
signal $ref is te c%rrent altit%"e as meas%re" from
te g%i"ance s!stems# ,is val%e ten is ta'en
wit te control3s new altit%"e as well as te pitc
angle .I/ an" fe" into te control bloc's of te
"iagram# (t so%l" be note" tat te gains sown
in te fee"bac' loops of te s!stem are all variable
an" "epen" on te velocit! of te aircraft# ,is
appens beca%se te control to te aircraft will
cange as te spee" "oes# *in" resistance an"
oter factors contrib%te to tis#
,e final portion of te longit%"inal mo"e
of te aircraft is te )pproac mo"e# (t so%l" be
note" tat te Jli"eslope "evice is a %ni-%e "evice
to te Beaver a%topilot mo"e# ,is portion of te
control s!stem is a fee"bac' loop from te $"ot
o%tp%t .from Fig%re 5/ to te inp%t $"otref signal#
,e gli"eslope receiver is an on2boar"
meas%rement "evice tat interacts wit a
transmitter on te airport r%nwa!# ,is s!stem is
an e&tra fee"bac' loop tat as more control over
te "escent of te aircraft# ,o properl! operate, te
"istance to te r%nwa! is calc%late" %sing Distance
@eas%rement E-%ipment .D@E/# $owever, tis
e-%ipment "oesn3t often wor' well wit a%topilot
mo"%les beca%se of ar"ware limitations#
,erefore, a "ifferent approac m%st be %se"# ,e
tree "imensional "istance to te r%nwa! is
calc%late" %sing te following e-%ation#
(n tis e-%ation, R is te tree "imensional
"istance to te r%nwa!, $ref is te eigt above te
r%nwa!, an" Kgs is te reference fligt pat angle
or, te angle te plane ma'es wen fl!ing along
te nominal pat# Jenerall!, a ra"io altimeter is
%se" to "etermine te val%e of $ref#
D%ring a gli"eslope approac, tere are
two "ifferent mo"es of operation# ,e first is te
7gli"eslope arme" mo"e# )s te a%tors of te
Beaver "oc%ment sa!0 7,is pase is engage" as
te approac mo"e is selecte" b! te pilot# ,e
longit%"inal a%topilot mo"e in wic te aircraft
flew before selecting te approac mo"e, %s%all!
)=$, will be maintaine" %ntil te aircraft as
reace" te gli"eslope reference plane8 .Ra%w,
1LL/# ,is mo"e simpl! tells te aircraft tat it is
going to be lan"ing soon an" tat it nee"s to get
rea"! for lan"ing# (t "oes not affect an! of te
c%rrent fligt pats#
,e secon" mo"e is te gli"eslope
co%ple" mo"e# ,e a%tor "escribes tis mo"e b!
sa!ing tat 7,is pase is initiate" as soon as te
aircraft passes te gli"eslope reference plane for
te first time# (n tis pase te control laws of te
JS mo"e ta'e over te longit%"inal g%i"ance tas'
of te a%topilot8 .Ra%w, 1LL/# (n tis mo"e, te
JS act%all! ta'es over te rest of te a%topilot# (t
"oes tis b! a""ing its own signals wit te $"otref
inp%t signal# *en te JS is not engage", te
signal tat is te o%tp%t of te JS is :ero allowing
te aircraft to operate as it normall! wo%l"# ,e
timing of te co%pling of te JS is e&tremel!
important# (f te JS is co%ple" too earlier, te
aircraft will follow te pat as sown below in
Fig%re L0 Res%lt of Earl! JS Co%pling
$igure ,& -esult of .arly /( 'oupling
)s can be seen b! te above fig%re, te timing is
important beca%se, if te JS is co%ple" too earl!,
te aircraft tries to approac te reference line .te
slante" "otte" line in te fig%re/ before it is
s%ppose" to# ,e res%lt of tis is tat te plane
will rise to te reference line an" ten ave to
s%""enl! sift "own after te line is crosse"# ,o
properl! co%ple te JS, te mo"e controller is
constantl! e&amining te state of te aircraft#
*en te aircraft reaces te correct point, te
mo"e controller imme"iatel! switces to co%ple"
mo"e an" te aircraft can lan"# ,is s!stem is not
perfect an" it "oes !iel" a sligt oversoot b%t te
res%lting oversoot is far more "esirable tan te
oversoot sown in Fig%re L#
4.1.2 !ongitudinal "ode Simulation
,o get a better pict%re of ow e&actl! tis
a%topilot s!stem wor's, it became "esirable to
sim%late te s!stem in @),=)B# )ll of te 1
val%es .as seen in Fig%re 5/ are given in te Beaver
"oc%ment an" can be constr%cte" in Sim%lin'#
$owever, tere are still a few "ifferent bloc's tat
are not e&plaine" in te Beaver "oc%ment# ,is is
"%e to te fact tat te a%topilot s!stem is
proprietar! information .or if it isn3t, te a%tors of
te "oc%ment "on3t "isclose te information/#
Beca%se of tis, te following ass%mptions are
ma"e# ,e first is in te Comp%tational Dela!
bloc'# ,is bloc' is ass%me" to be a simple signal
"ela! an" is set to "ela! te signal b! one secon"#
,e ne&t bloc' is te )ct%ator an" Cable
D!namics bloc'# ,is bloc', for te sa'e of te
sim%lation is ass%me" to be a simple transfer
f%nction .a secon" or"er is %se"/# )t te eart of
te bloc' "iagram is te Beaver D!namics# ,is
bloc' is te portion of te control s!stem tat rea"s
in te meas%re" val%es an" operates on tem# For
te sa'e of sim%lation, te bloc' was ass%me" to
be tree transfer f%nctions0 one of wic is a
simple constant val%e, te secon" is an integrator
f%nction, an" te tir" is a "erivative f%nction#
)fter te s!stem was constr%cte", te o%tp%ts were
e&amine"# ,e I plot is sown below in Fig%re 90
I Sim%lin' Plot#
$igure 0& 1 (imulink !lot
)s can be seen, tis is invali" "ata# ,e plot
sows noting an" ever! one of te o%tp%ts loo's
abo%t te same# Canges ma"e in te f%nctions of
te control s!stem !iel"e" no res%lts eiter# ,e
s!stem wo%l" eiter be :ero an" ten "rop off to
negative infinit! or te signal wo%l" be :ero an"
rise to positive infinit!# ,e s!stem "i" not
compensate for an!ting# ,e reason tat tese
sim%lations "i" not !iel" vali" res%lts is beca%se of
te fact tat te set%p of te Beaver D!namics is
%navailable for researc# ,e act%al s!stem for te
Beaver D!namics ( probabl! not act%all! a simple
transfer f%nction# (f it was a simple transfer
f%nction, canges to te sim%late" s!stem wo%l"
ave a" a larger effect# ,e Beaver D!namics is
probabl! a control s!stem in an" of itself# Since
te s!stem is a mo"eratel! comple& s!stem, it can
probabl! be ass%me" tat te Beaver D!namics is
a "igital control s!stem# ,ere is probabl! a
minicomp%ter .as "isc%sse" earlier/ at te eart of
te s!stem tat "oes all of te act%al control for te
aircraft# For tis reason, it cannot be a"e-%atel!
sim%late" for tis paper# For tat to appen, more
information abo%t te Beaver D!namic wo%l" ave
to be available for st%"!# ,o ma'e %p for tis lac'
of sim%lation, a simple aircraft fligt control
s!stem is e&amine" in te final portion of tis
paper#
4.2 Beaer Conclusion
,e Beaver )%topilot s!stem is a comple&
s!stem tat cannot be rea"il! sim%late" "%e to its
comple&it! an" a lac' of information concerning
its primar! controllers .te Beaver D!namics to be
precise/# $owever, tat asi"e, it is still a
fascinating s!stem# ,e "oc%ment b! @arc Ra%w
gives a soli" an" "etaile" "escription of te s!stem
an" ma'es it simple for people wit basic
e&perience in control s!stems to %n"erstan" te
periperals# *ile it "oes not go into "etail on te
eart of te s!stem, it at least gives a general
overview of ow te s!stem wor's# ,e Beaver
a%topilot s!stem is a %ni-%e s!stem tat "oes not
follow all of te same r%les tat its bretren follow#
For e&ample, te JS as "isc%sse" is a %ni-%e
feat%re to te Beaver )%topilot S!stem in tat it is
not ow te lan"ing mo"e is implemente"# @ost
oter s!stems %se te "istance meas%rement
e-%ipment .D@E/# (t so%l" be note" tat te
"escription given in tis paper onl! gives a brief
overview of te s!stem# @an! of te "etails of te
s!stem .as well as te lateral an" t%rn
compensation mo"es/ were not "isc%sse"# ,o
better %n"erstan" tose mo"es, or to %n"erstan"
te s!stem in greater "etail, see te paper b! @arc
Ra%w#
%. "A&!AB Simulation
%.1 'urpose
,e p%rpose of te following sim%lation is
te better %n"erstan" a partic%lar e&ample of a
fligt control s!stem# Since te Beaver )%topilot
co%l" not be sim%late" in tis paper, a simpler
e&ample is necessar!# ,e following sections give
a "escription of a partic%lar simple s!stem# ,e!
ten r%n tro%g some sim%lations to e&amine ow
te s!stem respon"s#
%.2 &he 'ro(lem
,is e&ample comes from page 5<A of
2odern 'ontrol (ystems b! Ricar" Dorf an"
Robert Bisop# ,e control s!stem of te problem
is tat of a bi2wing aircraft# ,e control s!stem is
sown below in Fig%re 40 Bi2*ing Fligt
Controller
$igure 3& i45ing $light 'ontroller
)s can be seen in Fig%re 4, te aircraft consists of
an engine, a controller an" )ircraft D!namics#
,ere is also a little "ist%rbance in te s!stem
ca%se" b! win"# ,e goal of tis e&ploration is to
"etermine te best wa! to control a step inp%t
signal .sim%lating some variable of fligt tat
nee"s to be rectifie"/# Beca%se tis control s!stem
is controlling te fligt of an aircraft, te percent
oversoot an" stea"!2state errors m%st be as small
as possible .less tan 5M for stea"! state error/#
%.3 Analysis
For tis e&ample, te )ircraft D!namics
an" te Engine bloc's are consi"ere"
%ncangeable an" tat it is te controller tan m%st
be mo"ifie" to meet te appropriate re-%irements#
,e simplest approac is to simpl! %se a constant
gain f%nction to control te s!stem# ,e gain
largel! as control over te stabilit! of te s!stem#
For certain gains, te s!stem is stable, an" for
oters, it is not# )fter setting te s!stem %p in
S(@G=(H1, te val%e of te gain .1/ was varie"
an" te res%lts e&amine"# (t was fo%n" tat val%es
of 1 greater tan appro&imatel! 1#5 ca%se" te
s!stem to become %nstable# $owever, gains of les
tan 1#5 ca%se" stabilit! b%t te stea"! state error
was e&tremel! ig# )s is sown in Fig%re 160
Stea"! State Error of P%re Jain S!stem, te stea"!
state error for te s!stem ranges from <6M for
gains closer to 1#6 an" %p to 56M for smaller gains#
$igure %6& (teady (tate .rror of !ure /ain (ystem
)s can be seen b! te above plots, te s!stem tat
as te faster an" smooter response also as a
completel! %nacceptable stea"! state error# ,e
s!stem tat as a slower response an" a large
amo%nt of oversoot as a better stea" state error
b%t it is still aro%n" 15M wic is %nacceptable#
(f a better res%lt is to be attaine", a
"ifferent approac becomes necessar!# ,o
eliminate tis error an" oversoot, implementing
some oter 'in" of controller will be beneficial#
,e %s%al approac is to implement a P(D
controller# ,e components in tis 'in" of
controller can ta'e sensitive control s!stems an"
give tem a more stable, smooter, faster, an" less
oscillator! response# ) P(D controller was a""e"
an" te s!stem was teste" in S(@G=(H1# ,e
first step in setting %p a P(D controller is to set all
of te val%es to 1# ,e res%lts of tis test are
sown below in Fig%re 110 P(D Controlle" S!stem
.P?1, (?1, D?1/#
$igure %%& !"# 'ontrolled (ystem 7!8%, "8%, #8%9
)s can be seen, tis response is alrea"! better tan
an! of te constant gain s!stem responses# ,e
stea"! state error is eliminate" an" te percent
oversoot is less .alto%g it is still abo%t 36M/#
$owever, as can be seen, te response of te
s!stem is relativel! slow# ,is wo%l" not be
acceptable for an aircraft as it is imperative tat te
s!stem respon" -%ic'l! to canges in its state# ,o
spee" %p te response time, te proportional
portion of te P(D controller is increase" %ntil te
"esire" response time is met# (f te response time
is "efine" to be te time nee"e" to rise from 16M
to 46M, a goo" response time wo%l" be 6#5
secon"s# ,is is acieve" wen te proportional
component is set to 5# (t !iel"s te res%lt sown
below in Fig%re 1<0 P(D Controlle" S!stem .P?5,
(?1, D?1/#
$igure %)& !"# 'ontrolled (ystem 7!8:, "8%, #8%9
)s can be seen, tis is a fairl! goo" response# ,e
stea"! state error is ver! close to :ero, te percent
oversoot is <M an" te response time is less tan
6#5 secon"s# $owever, tis s!stem is not perfect#
)lto%g it ma! not be initiall! evi"ent b! te
above plot, tere is oscillation in te signal an" te
oscillations last for more tan 16 secon"s# *ile
some s!stems ma! not ave serio%s problems wit
tese oscillations, fligt control s!stems ma! ave
complications# For e&ample, if tis s!stem was te
altit%"e controller, te aircraft ma! see tese
oscillations as vibrations of te aircraft# ,ese
vibrations wo%l" a"" to te vibrations tat are
alrea"! present an" co%l" increase te nat%ral wear
an" tear of te aircraft "evices# )lso, if te
vibrations occ%rre" at te e&act rigt .or wrong/
fre-%enc!, some s!stems tat %se tis signal co%l"
become %nstable# ,erefore, te s!stem m%st be
mo"ifie" again to accommo"ate for tese
oscillations# ,e best res%lts tat co%l" be attaine"
in te time span allowe" for te e&periment en"e"
%p not !iel"ing a m%c better response# ,e
oscillations were eliminate" b%t te percent
oversoot is s%bstantiall! iger as is sown below
in Fig%re 130 P(D Controlle" S!stem .P?1, (?3,
D?6#</
$igure %+& !"# 'ontrolled (ystem 7!8%, "8+, #86.)9
)s can be seen b! te above plot, if te s!stem can
an"le a <5M oversoot, tis response is better
beca%se of te fact tat te oscillations are not
present ere# $owever, if te s!stem can an"le
oscillations, te first P(D controller is m%c more
"esirable beca%se of its ig response time, low
oversoot, an" low stea"! state error#
%.4 Summary
,e s!stem presente" in te previo%s
e&ample, sows ow an aircraft respon"s to
canges in te s!stem# For all of te e&plorations,
te s!stem was given a step inp%t wic co%l" be
e-%ate" to a cange in altit%"e or"ere" b! te pilot#
,e pilot wo%l" cange te altit%"e an" te s!stem
wo%l" ave to respon" -%ic'l! an" smootl!#
Beca%se te s!stem presente" in te problem is
inerentl! sensitive to canges, a P(D controller is
necessar! to ai" te s!stem in respon"ing
effectivel!# (t was fo%n" tat a larger proportional
controller as well as a %nit integrator an" "erivator
were necessar! to 'eep te s!stem stable an"
respon"ing -%ic'l!# $owever, as were "iscovere",
tere were tin! oscillations present tat co%l"
potentiall! ca%se problems for te aircraft#
). Conclusion
,ro%g tis paper, a brief overview of
Digital Control s!stems was given to sow ow
te! relate to a%topilot s!stems, te Beaver
)%topilot s!stem was anal!:e" an" st%"ie", an" an
e&ample of a fligt control s!stem was e&plore" to
see te effects of vario%s controllers on te s!stem#
)%topilot s!stems an", more broa"l!, fligt control
s!stems are comple& s!stems tat generall! are
sensitive s!stems# $owever, in or"er for fligt to
be smoot, te s!stems m%st be rob%st an" able to
an"le "ist%rbances# (f a "ist%rbance co%l"
potentiall! ca%se instabilit!, te fligt wo%l"
become "angero%s# $owever, to combat tese
%ne&pecte" instabilities, most fligt s!stems are <
an" 3 times re"%n"ant0 te! ave several bac'%p
s!stems tat can step in an" ta'e over in te event
of a fail%re# ,ese emergenc! s!stems can mean
te "ifference between fligt an" a cras in te
event of a s%""en "ist%rbance# $owever, it is still
%p te control s!stems on te aircraft to ins%re tat
te plane will ma'e it from point ) to point B an"
bac' again#
Bi(liography
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(ystems# Hew Jerse!0 Prentice $all, <661
Fligt D!namic an" Control ,oolbo& page#
O ttp0;;ome#wana"oo#nl;"%tcroll;B
$%ges, )rt%r# History of Air ;avigation# Jreat
Britain0 Gnwin Boters =imite" *or'ing,
14A5
Sevell, Ricar"# $undamentals of $light# HJ0
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