DIRECTING

DR. ROSEMARIE I. SO

DIRECTING
refers to the process of
motivation, communication, and
leadership.
MOTIVATION
The word motivation comes from
the latin word movere which means to
move. Numerous definitions are given for
the term. Usually include or such words
as aim, desire, end, impulse, intention,
objective and purpose.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Traditional Theory
The traditional theory of
motivation evolved from the work of
Frederick W. Taylor.
The Hierarchy of Needs
5th Level - Self Actualization
4th Level - Self Esteem
3rd Level - Love and Belongingness
2nd Level - Security
1st Level - Physiological


Achievement - Power Affiliation Theory
Closely related to the need
hierarchy theory is the achievement
power affiliation theory, primarily
developed by David McClelland. This
theory holds that all people have three
needs:
1. a need to achieve,
2. a need for power, and
3. a need for affiliation.
The need for achievement is a desire to
do something better more efficiently than
it has been done before.
The need for power is basically a concern
of influencing people to be strong and
influential.
The need for affiliation is a need to be
liked to establish or maintain friendly
relations with others.
Motivation Maintenance Theory
Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner,
and Barbara Syndeman developed a
theory of work motivation which has wide
acceptance in management circles. The
theory is referred to by several names:
motivation maintenance theory
dual factor theory
motivation hygiene theory
McGregors Theory X & Y
Theory X views human beings
as inherently lazy and hence must be
motivated by force. Theory Y contends
that external force or punishment is not
the best way of motivating individuals
because they are capable of exercising
self direction and self control.

Achievement Theory
This need is not something
inborn but it can be acquired through
training and teaching the teaching the
trainees to think and behave in terms of
achievement.

Barnard Simons Theory of Equilibrium
Equal wages must be paid for
equal work.
Vrooms Preference Expectancy Theory
This theory is based on the
premise that an individual assigns values
to the outcome of each alternative course
of action.
Reinforcement Theory
According to Skinner, the
following are the components of
motivated behaviour:
1. Stimulus: The environmental setting in
which behaviour occurs (performance).
2. Response: The behaviour level itself.
3. Reinforcement: The reward given for
good performance only.
Maturity Theory
Chris Argyrie proposed a theory of
motivation on maturity immaturity. He
contends that as people grow
(psychologically) and mature they strive
toward the highest level of need in
Maslows need hierarchy: self-
actualization.

Job Enlargement
This involves redesigning of jobs
so that related activities are added to
those currently being performed.
Job Enrichment
This involves putting meaning into
jobs.

COMMUNICATION
Communication is defined as the
transfer of information that is meaningful
to those involved in general, the
transmittal of understanding.
Types of Communication
In organizational situations, there
are formal communications, informal
communications, communication between
groups, interpersonal communications,
upward, downward, lateral
communications and so on.


Grapevines
Many informal paths of
communication also exist in
organizations. These informal channels
are generally referred to as grapevines.
Ways to Communicate
1. Informal talk or grapevine
communication.
2. Memoranda
3. Telephone calls
4. Interoffice News
5. Letters
6. Reports
7. Conferences / Conventions
8. Meetings
9. Bulletin Board Notices
10. Exhibits and Displays
11. Visual Aids
Communication Networks
Communication networks refer to
the pictorial depictions of informal
channels.

BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATION
1. Distance
2. Distortion
3. Semantics
4. Lack of Levelling
5. Lack of Trust
6. Inaccessibility
7. Lack of Clear Responsibilities
8. Personal Incompatibility
9. Refusal to Listen
10. Failure to Use Proper Media
11. Communication Gap
12. Lack of Direction
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Dictatorial leader accomplishes
tasks through fear of penalties, and
maintains a highly critical and negative
attitude in relations with subordinates.
2. Autocratic leader assumes a
paternalistic role which forces
subordinates to rely on the leader for
their satisfaction.
3. Democratic leader depends not
only on their capabilities but encourage
consultation of subordinates.
4. Laissez-faire leader depends
completely on subordinates to establish
their own goals and to make their own
decision.

Power, Authority, and Leadership
Power is the ability to command
or apply force.
Authority which exists in the
formal organization is the right to issue
directives and expend resources.
Leaders Attitudes
Generally, it has been found that
if the managers expectations are high,
productivity is likely to be high. On the
other hand; if the managers
expectations are low, productivity is
likely to be poor. McGregor called this
phenomenon the self-fulfilling prophecy.
It has been also Pygmalion in
management.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Three basic types of skills which
are needed by all managers:
Technical skills is the ability to
perform a managers job.
Human skill is the ability to work with
others by getting along with them,
motivating them, and communicating
effectively with others.
Conceptual skill is the ability to
coordinate and integrate the entire
organizations interests and activities.
MANAGEMENT ROLES
Role is defined as an organized
set of behaviours belonging to an
identifiable job.
Interpersonal
Figurehead: Manger represents the
organizational unit in all matters of
formality.
Liaison: Manager interacts with peers
and other people outside the
organizational unit to gain information
and favors.
Leader: Manager provides guidance
and motivation to the work group and
also defines the atmosphere in which the
work group will work.

Informational
Monitor: Manager serves as a receiver
and collector of information.
Disseminator: Manager transmits
special information within the
organizational unit.
Spokesperson: Manager disseminates
the organizations information into its
environment.

Decisional
Entrepreneur: Mangers role is to
initiate change.
Disturbance handler: the manager
must assume when the organization is
threatened, such as conflicts between
subordinates, the sudden departure of a
subordinate, or the loss of an important
customer.

Resource allocator: Manager decides
where the organization will expand its
resources.
Negotiator: Role the manager
assumes when the organization finds
itself in major non-routine negotiations
with other organizations or individuals.

MANAGERIAL GRID
In line with the Ohio State
studies, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
(1964, 1969) developed a distinctive
approach to the study of leadership: the
managerial grid. They began their
analysis by focusing on the two basic
aspects of leader behavior concern for
production (task orientation) and concern
for people (consideration). Each of these
dimensions was measured on a scale that
ranges from one (low) to nine (high).