Text Book of Trigonometry, Vector Calculus and Analytical Geometry

1
TEXT BOOK OF TRIGONOMETRY, VECTOR CALCULUS

AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Contents

Unit 1: Lesson
1. Expansions
2. Hyperbolic functions
3. Logarithm of Complex numbers
4. summation of series
Unit 2:
5. vector columns an Introduction
6. Differential operators
7. Integration of vectors
8. Theorems of Gauss, Stokes and Green
Unit 3:
9. Fourier series
10. Polar coordinates
Unit 4: 11. Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions
12. Sphere

Unit 5:
13. Cone, Cylinder
14. Coincoids
This watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.com
2
Unit I
Lesson - 1
Trigonometry
Contents
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Expansions
1.2 Examples
1.3 Let us sum up
1.4 Check your progress
1.5 Lesson End activities
1.6 Points for discussion
1.7 References

We shall study the expansions of cosnx and sinnx by using the concept of Demoivres
Theorem, the concept of combinations and the concept of the Binomial expansion.

1.1 Expansions
1.1.1. Expansions of cos nq and sin nq
We know that
(cosq +i sinq )
n
= cos nq + i sin nq
cos nq + i sin nq = (cos q +i sin q )
n

= cos
n
q +nc
1
cos
n-1
q sinq +nc
2
cos
n-2
q (i sinq )
2
+
nc
3
cos
n-3
q (i sinq )
3
+nc
4
cos
n-4
q (i sinq )
4
+.
= cos
n
q +i nc
1
cos
n-1
q sinq - nc
2
cos
n-2
q sin
2
q -i nc
3
cos
n-3
q
sin
3
q + nc
4
cos
n-4
q sin
4
q + i nc
5
cos
n-5
q sin
5
q ..
= cos
n
q - nc
2
cos
n-2
q sin
2
q + nc
4
cos
n-4
q sin
4
q
+ i (nc
1
cos
n-1
q sinq - nc
3
cos
n-3
q sin
3
q + nc
5
cos
n-5
q
sin
5
q .)
3
Equate real and imaginary parts
Cos nq = cos
n
q - nc
2
cos
n-2
q sin
2
q + nc
4
cos
n-4
q sin
4
q .
Sin nq = nc
1
cos
n-1
q sinq - nc
3
cos
n-3
q sin
3
q + nc
5
cos
n-5
q sin
5
q .

1.2 Examples

(1) Expand cos 6q inpowers of cosq
Or
Prove that
Cos 6q = 32 cos
6
q +48 cos
4
q + 18 cos
2
q -1
Proof: we know that
Cos
n
q = cosnq - nc
2
cos
n-2
q sin
2
q + nc
4
cos
n-4
q sin
4
q ..
Put n = 6,
Cos 6q = cos
6
q - 6c
2
cos
4
q sin
2
q + 6c
4
cos
2
q sin
4
q -6c
6
sin
6
q

= q q q q q q
6 4 2 2 4 6
sin sin cos
4 . 3 . 2 . 1
3 . 4 . 5 . 6
sin cos
2 . 1
5 . 6
cos - + -
= cos
6
q -15 cos
4
q sin
2
q +15cos
2
q sin
4
q - sin
6
q
= cos
6
q - 15 cos
4
q (1- cos
2
q ) + 15 cos
2
q ( 1-cos
2
q )
2
(1-cos 2q )
3
= cos
6
q - 15 cos
4
q +15 cos
6
q + 15 cos
2
q (1+ cos
4
q -2 cos
2
q )
(1-cos
6
q - 3 cos
2
q + 3 cos
4
q )
= cos
6
q - 15 cos
4
q +15 cos
6
q + 15 cos
2
q + 15 cos
6
q - 30 cos
4
q -
1+cos
6
q + 3 cos
2
q - 3 cos
4
q
= 32 cos
6
q - 48 cos
4
q +18 cos
2
q -1
2. Expand
q
q
sin
6 sin
in powers of cosq
Prove that
q
q
sin
6 sin
= 32 cos
5
q - 32 cos
3
q +6 cosq
Proof : We know that
Sin nq = nc
1
cos
n-1
q sinq - nc
3
cos
n-3
q sin
3
q + nc
5
cos
n-5
q sin
5
q .
Put n = 6
4
Sin 6q = 6c
1
cos
5
q sinq - 6c
3
cos
3
q sin
3
q + 6c
5
cos
5
q sin
5
q
= 6 cos
5
q sin q -
. 3 . 2 . 1
. 4 . 5 . 6
cos
3
q sin
3
q + 6 cosq sin
5
q
= 6 cos
5
q sin q - 20 cos
3
q sin
3
q + 6 cosq sin
5
q
q
q
sin
6 sin
= 6 cos
5
q - 20 cos
3
q sin
2
q + 6 cosq sin
4
q
= 6 cos
5
q - 20 cos
3
q + 20 cos
5
q + 6 cosq (1+cos
4
q -2cos
2
q )
= 6 cos
5
q - 20 cos
3
q + 20 cos
5
q + 6 cosq +6 cos
5
q -12 cos
3
q
= 32 cos
5
q - 32 cos
3
q 6 cosq

1.3 Let us sum up
So far we have seen the expansion of cosnq and sinn q using Binomial theorem,
Demoivres theorem and concept of i
2
=-1
1. find sin 2x and cos2x
Prove that
q
q
sin
7 sin
= 64 cos
6
q - 80 cos
4
q + 24 cos
4
q - 1
1. Prove that cos 4q = 8 cos
4
q - 8 cos
2
q + 1
2. Prove that cos 7q = cos 7q - 21 cos
5
q sin
2
q +35 cos
3
q sin
2
q - 7cosq sin
6
q
3. Prove that
q
q
sin
6 sin
= 32 cos
5
q - 32 cos
3
q +6 cos q
1.6 Point for discussion
1. Prove that
cos 7q sec q = 64 cos
6
q +114 cos
4
q + 56 cos
2
q -7
1.7 References
1. Trigonometry by S. Narayanan
5

Lesson 2
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS
2.2. Examples
2.3 Let us sum up
2.7 References

Our aim is to define the hyperbolic cosines of x and series of x using
exponentiation.
Definition 1 : The hyperbolic cosine of x is defined as coshx =
2
x x
e e
-
+

Definition 2: The hyperbolic sine of x is defined as sinhx =
2
x x
e e
-
-

Definition 3: tanhx =
x x
x x
e e
e e
-
-
+
+

More results
1. sin (i x) = i sin hx
2. cos (i x) = cos hx
3. tan (i x) = i tan hx
2.2. Examples
Separate into real and imaginary parts
a) sin (+i)
sin (+i) = sin cos (i) + cos sin (i)
= sin cos h + cos i sin h
6
= sin cos h + i cos sin h
Real part = sin cos h
Imaginary part = cos sin h
b) sin (- i) = sin cos (i) - cos sin (i)
= sin cos h - cos i sin h
= sin cos h - i cos sin h
Real part = sin cos h
Imaginary part = - cos sin h
c) cos (+i)
cos (+i) = cos cos (i) - sin sin (i)
= cos cos h - sin (i sin h)
= cos cos h - i sin sin h

Real part = cos cos h
Imaginary part = - sin sin h
d) cos (- i)
cos (- i) = cos cos (i) + sin sin (i)
= cos cos h + sin (i sin h)
= cos cos h + i sin sin h
Real part = cos cos h
Imaginary part = sin sin h
e) tan (+i) =
) cos(
) sin(
b a
b a
i
i
+
+

multiply the numerator and denominator by 2 cos (-i)
tan (+i) =
) cos( ) cos( 2
) cos( ) sin( 2
b a b a
b a b a
i i
i i
- +
- +
---------(1)
numerator = 2 sin (+i) cos (- i)
= 2 sin A cos B; A = +i
B = - i
= sin (A+B) + sin (A-B)
= sin 2 + sin (2i)
7
= sin 2 + i sinh2
Denominator = 2 cos (+i) cos (- i)
= 2 cos A cos B; A = +i
B = - i
= cos (A+B) + cos (A-B)
= cos 2 + cos (2i)
= cos 2 + cos h2
Using in 1
tan (+i) =
b a
b a
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh 2 sin
+
+ i

=
b a
b
b a
a
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sin
+
+
+
i
Real part =
b a
a
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sin
+

Imaginary part =
b a
b
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh
+

f) sin h(+i)
sin h(+i) = [ ] ) sinh(
1
b a i i
i
+
= [ ] ) ( sin
1
b a i i
i
+
= [ ] ) sin(
1
b a - i
i

= [ ] ) cos( sin cos ) sin( a b b a i i i - -
= [ ] b a b a sin cosh cos sinh - - i i
= b a b a sin cosh cos sinh i +
Real part = sin h cos b ;
Imaginary part = cos h sin b
g) cosh (+i) = cos [i(+i)]
= cos (i-)
8
= cos (i) cos + sin (i) sin
= cosh cos + i sinh sin
= cos cos h - i sin sin h
Real part = cosh cos
Imaginary part = sinh sin
h) tanh (+i) = [ ] ) tanh(
1
b a i i
i
+
= [ ] ) ( tan
1
b a i i
i
+
= [ ] ) tan(
1
b a - i
i

= -i tan (i-)
= -i
) cos(
) sin(
b a
b a
-
-
i
i

=
) cos( ) cos( 2
) sin( ) cos( 2
a b a b
a b a b
i i
i i
i
- +
- +
------- (1)
Numerator = ) sin( ) cos( 2 a b a b i i - +

= 2 cos A sin B; A = +i
B = - i
= sin (A+B) - sin (A-B)
= sin 2 - sin (2i )
= sin 2 - i sinh2
Denominator = ) cos( ) cos( 2 a b a b i i - +
= 2 cos A cos B; A = +i
B = - i

= cos (A+B) + cos (A-B)
= cos 2 + cos (i2 )
= cos 2 + cos h2

Using in (1)
9
tan h (+i) =
a b
a b
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh 2 sin
+
- i
i
=
a b
a b
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh 2 sin
+
+ i

=
a b
b
a b
a
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sin
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh
+
+
+
i
Real part =
a b
a
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sinh
+

Imaginary part =
a b
b
2 cosh 2 cos
2 sin
+

Examples:
1. Prove that sinh3x = 3 sin hx + 4 sin h
3
x
Proof : sin 3q = 3 sinq - 4 sin
3
q
Put q = ix
Sin (3ix) = 3 sin(ix) 4 [sin (ix)]
3

i sinh3x = i3 sinhx 4 [i
3
sinh
3
x]
= i 3sinhx 4 i
3
sinh
3
x
i sinh3x = 3 i sinhx + 4 i sinh
3
x
/ i; sinh3x = 3sinhx + 4 sinh
3
x
2. Express sinh
7
q interms of hyperbolic sines of multiples of q
Solution
Sin hq =
2
q q -
- e e

2 sinhq =
q q -
-e e
( 2 sinhq )
7
= (
q q -
-e e )
7
2
7
sinh
7
q = e
7q
- 7c
1
e
6q
e
- q
+7c
2
e
5q
e
-2q
- 7c
3
e
4q
e
-3q
+7c
4
e
3q
e
-4q
-7c
5

e
2q
e
-5q
+7c
6
e
q
e
- q 6
-7c
7
e
-7q

= e
7q
- e
-7q
-7 e
5q
+
q q q q q 5 3 3
7
2 . 1
6 . 7
4 . 3 . 2 . 1
4 . 5 . 6 . 7
3 . 2 . 1
5 . 6 . 7
2 . 1
6 . 7
- - -
+ - + - e e e e e

=( e
7q
- e
-7q
-)- 7 e
5q
+ 21 e
3q
- 35 e
q
+35 e
- q
-21 e
-3q
+ 7 e
-5q

=( e
7q
- e
-7q
)- 7 (e
5q
- e
-5q
) + 21 (e
3 q
- e
-3q
) + 35 (e
q
- e
-q
)
10
2;
2
6
sinh7q =
-
- +
-
+
- -
- - - -
2
35
2
21
2
7
2
3 3 5 5 7 7 q q q q q q q q
e e e e e e e e

= sinh7q - 7 sinh5q + 21 sinh 3q - 35 sinhq
Sinh7q = [ ] sinh 35 - 3 sinh 21 + sinh5 7 7 sinh
2
1
6
q q q q -
3. If sin (q + if ) = tan +i sec , prove that cos2q cosh2f = 3
Solution
Sin (q +if ) = sin q cos (iq ) + cos q sin (iq )
= sinq coshq + cosq (i sinhq )
= sin q coshq + i cosq - sinhq
Sin q coshq + i cos sinhq = tan + i sec
Equate real and imaginary parts
Tan = sin q coshq
Sec = cos q sinhq

We know
sec
2
tan2 = 1
cos
2
q sinh
2
q sin
2
q cosh
2
q = 1

1
2
1 2 cosh
2
2 cos 1
2
1 2 cosh
2
2 cos 1
=
-
-
+ f q f q

(1+cos2q ) (cosh2f -1) - (1-cos2q ) (cosh2f +1) = 4
On simplification
Cos2q cosh2f = 3
4. If sin (x+iy) = cosq + i sinq , prove that
cos
2
x = sinh
2
y
Proof : sin (x+iy) = cosq + i sinq

sin x cos (iy) + cos x sin (iy) = cos q + i sin q
11
sin x coshy + cos x (i sinhy) = cosq + i sin q
sin x coshy + i cosx (i sinhy) = cosq + i sin q
equate real and imaginary parts
sin x coshy = cos q
cos x sinhy = sin q
we know cos
2
x + sin
2
q = 1
sin
2
x cosh
2
y + cos
2
x sinh
2
y = 1
(1 cos
2
x) ( 1+sinh
2
y) + cos
2
x sinh
2
y = 1
1 + sinh
2
y cos
2
x cos
2
x sinh
2
y + cos
2
x sinh
2
y = 1
cos
2
x = sinh
2
y
5. If sin (x+iy) = tan (+i), show that
Sin2 tanhy = sin h2 tan x
Solution :

sin (x+iy) = sin x coshy + i cosx sinhy

tan (+i) =

(1) (2)

2.3. Let us Sum up
So far we have studied the concept on finding the real and imaginary parts of
trigonometric fuction using cos(ix)=coshx: sin(ix)=isinhx
Sin2a
cos2a+cosh2b
Sinh2b
cos2a+cosh2b
Sin2a
cos2a+cosh2b
Sinh2b
cos2a+cosh2b
Sin2a
cos2a+cosh2b
Sinh2b
cos2a+cosh2b
cosx sinhy =
sin x coshy =
-------------- (1)
-------------- (2)
Sin2a
Sinh2b
tanx sinh2b = sin2a tanhy =
tanx cothy =
12
(i) Prove that cosh
2
x=1+sinh
2
x
(ii) Prove that sinh2x=2sinhx coshx
2.5 Lesson end activities
1. Prove that cosh 3x = 4 cosh3x 3coshx
2. Express cosh6q in a series of hyperbolic cosines of multiples of q
3. If tan (q +iq ) = Sin (x+iy), prove that cothy sinh2y = cotx sin2q
4. If sin (q +iq ) = R (cos + i sin ),
Prove that
2R
2
= cosh2f - cos2q
And tan tanq = tanhf
5. If (cos (a+ib) = +i, prove that
i) (1 + )
2
+
2
= (cosh b + cos a)
2

ii) (1 - )
2
+
2
= (cosh b - cos a)
2

6. If cos (A+iB) = cosq + i sinq , prove that sinq = sin
2
A
7. If cos (A+iB) = cosq + i sinq , prove that sinq = sin
2
B
8. If sin (A+iB) = l +iy, prove that
(i) 1
sinh cosh
2
2
2
2
= +
A
y
B
l

(ii) 1
cos sin
2
2
2
2
= +
A
y
A
l

Answer : : [ ] 10 2 cosh 15 4 cosh 6 6 cosh
32
1
+ + + q q q
2.7 References
Trigonometry by Rasinghamic and Aggarval
2
13
Lesson - 3
Logarithm of a complex number
Contents
3.0 Aim and Objectives
3.1 To find log
e
(x+iy)
3.2 Examples
3.3 Let us sum up
3.6 References


In this lesson we are going to see the definition of logarithm of a complex number
using the fundamental concepts of logarithm of a function.
Definition 1: Let Z = x+iy, if log z = u, then
Z = e
u

In general the logarithm of a complex number is also a complex number

3.1 To find log
e
(x+iy)

Let log
e
(x+iy) = +i
x+iy = e
+i

= e
e
i

= e
(cos + i sin )
x+iy = e
cos + i e
sin
equate real, imaginary parts
x = e
cos (1)
y = e
sin (2)

(1)
2
+ (2)
2
gives
x
2
+ y
2
= e
2
cos
2
+ e
2
sin
2

14
= e
2
(cos
2
+ sin
2
)
x
2
+ y
2
= e
2

2 = log
e
(x
2
+ y
2
)
= log (x
2
+ y
2
)
gives b tan =
x
y

=
-
x
y 1
tan b
( )
2 2 1
1
l o g ( ) l o g ( ) t a n
2
e
y
x i y x y i
x
-
\ + = + +

To find general logarithm of a complex number
Let b a i iy x
e
+ = + ) ( log
x+iy = e
+i

= e
e
i

= e
cos + i sin
x+iy = e
(cos (2n+) +i sin (2n+)) n=1,2,3,..

= e
e
i(2n+)
= e
+2ni+i
x+iy = e
+ i+2ni
o g ( ) 2
e
L x i y i n i a b p \ + = + +
o g ( ) l o g ( ) 2
e
L x i y x i y n i p + = + +
This is called the general logarithm of x+iy.

( )
2 2 1
1
o g ( ) l o g ( ) t a n 2
2
y
L x i y x y i n i
x
p
-
\ + = + + +

( )
2 2 1
1
l o g ( ) t a n 2
2
y
x y i n
x
p
-
= + + +

2 1
15
Note :
1. log Z is infinitely many valued function. This is called the general logarithm of Z.
2. If n = 0, we get the principal value of log Z
Important
1.
+ + = +
-
x
y
i y x iy x
1 2 2
tan ) log(
2
1
) log(
2. i n iy x iy x
e
p 2 ) log( ) ( log + + = +
3.2 Examples
1. find log (1+i)
1 + I = x + iy 1 , 1 = = \ y x
x
2
+y
2
= 2
amplitude =
-
x
y 1
tan = ( ) 1 tan
1 -
=i
4
p

4
2 log
2
1
) log(
p
i iy x + = + \
2. Find Log (1+i)
Log (1+i) = log (1+i) + 2 np i
p
p
n i i 2
4
2 log
2
1
+ + =

1
l o g 2 ( 2 )
4
2
i n
p
p = + +

3. Log i
i = 0 + 1 i 1 , 0 = = \ y x
q =
-
x
y 1
tan = ( )
0
1
tan
1 -
= a
1
tan
-
=
2
p

1 1
2 2
= = + y x
Log i = q i y x + + ) log(
2
1
2 2

=
2
1 log
2
1
p
i +
16
Log i =
2
p
i { } 0 1 log = \
4. Log i = log i + 2ni
= i n i p
p
2
2
+
5. Prove that log (cosq + i sin q ) = i q , p q p < < -
Solution :
log (cos q + i sin q ) = log (x+iy)
x = cos q ; y = sin q
; 1
2 2
= + y x
=
-
x
y 1
tan q
q
q q q
i
i i
=
+ = + \ 1 log
2
1
) sin log(cos

6. Find a power series for tan
-1
x using logarithm of complex number
Proof: if x is real
log ( 1+ix) = x i x
1 2
tan ) 1 log(
2
1
-
+ +
tan
-1
x = Imaginary part of log (1+ix)
but log (1 + Z) = . ..........
3
3
2
3
Z Z Z + -
tan
-1
x = IP of ......
3 2
3 3 2 2
+ + -
x i x i
ix
= IP of ......
3 2
3 3 2
+ - +
x i x
ix

= IP of
+ + - +
+ ......
5 3
.....
4 2
5 3 4 2
x x
x i
x x

3 5
1
t a n . . . . . . . .
3 5
x x
x x
-
\ = - +
7. Obtain the general value of o g
i
i
L
Solution : Let o g
i
i
L = a + ib
i = i
a+ib
17
= e
(a+ib)
log i
= e
(a+ib) [i(2n+/2)]

i = e
-b(2n+/2)
e
ia(2n+/2)

taking modulus on both sides
1 = e
-b(2n+/2)

b = 0
i = e
ia(2n+/2)

i = cos [a(2n+/2)] + i sin [a(2n+/2)]
= cos [a(2n+/2)] = 0
a(2n+/2) = 2m+/2

2
4
2
4 p p p p +
=
+ n n
a
Z n m
n
m
a
+
+
= , ;
1 4
1 4

1 4
1 4
log
+
+
= \
n
m
i
i

Method 2

o g
o g
o g
i
i e
i i
e
L
L
L
= (1)
o g l o g 2
i i
e e
L n ip = +
i n i p
p
2
2
+ =
( ) p
p
n i 2
2
+ =

4
;
2
n
i n Z
p p +
=

Similarly
4
o g ,
2
i
e
n
L i m Z
p p +
=

Using in (1)
18

+
=
2
4
2
4
log
p p
p p
m
i
n
i
i
i

Z m n
m
n
+
+
= , ;
) 1 4 (
) 1 4 (
p
p

8. If i
x+iy
= x+iy, prove that

y n
e y x
p ) 1 4 ( 2 2 + -
= +
Proof : i
x+iy
= x+iy
x+iy = i
x+iy

=
iy x
i
e
+
log

=
i iy x
e
log ) ( +

x+iy =
2
2 )( (
p
p i i n iy x
e
+ +

x+iy =
2
) 4 (
) (
p p +
+
n
iy x i
e
=
p p + - n y ix
e
4 ) (
2
1

=
) 4 (
2
) 4 (
2
p p
p p
+
+ -
n
ix n
y
e e

=
+ +
+
+ -
p p
p
) 1 4 (
2
sin ) 1 4 (
2
cos
) 1 4 (
2
n
x
i n
x
e
n
y

x =
+
+ -
p
p
) 1 4 (
2
cos
) 1 4 (
2
n
x
e
n
y

y =
+
+ -
p
p
) 1 4 (
2
sin
) 1 4 (
2
n
x
e
n
y

p ) 1 4 ( 2 2 + -
= + \
n y
e y x
3.3 Let us sum up.
So far we have studied the concept of finding the logarithm of a complex number
and also a here concept of the general logarithm a complex number.
19
3.4 Check you progress
(a) Find log (1- i)
(b) Find log (1+ i tan2)
3.5 Lesson End Activities
1. Prove that
2
) 1 4 (
p
+ -
=
n
i
e i ; n is any integer
2. Prove that Log (-1) = i( 2n+1)
3. Prove that Log (1- i) = ( ) [ ]
4
2 2 log
2
1
p
p - + + n i
4. Prove that Log (-5) = log 5 + I (2n + )
5. If = A+iB , prove that
a.
A
B A
=
2
tan
p
and
b.
B
e B A
p -
= +
2 2

6. Prove that x
i x
i x
i
1
tan 2 log
-
- =
+
-
p
7. Show that ( )
a
b
i
ib a
ib a
1
tan 2 log
-
=
-
+

8. Prove that
2
0 ; sec log ) tan 1 log(
p
a a a a < < + = + i i
9. Prove that p q p q q q q < < - + = + + * * ) cos 2 log( ) 2 sin 2 cos 1 log( i i
3.7 References
1. Trigonometry by S. Narayanan
20

Lesson - 4
Summation of Series
Contents
4.1 Summation of Series
4.2 Examples
4.3 Let us sum up
4.6 References

In this lesson, we are going to study trigonometric series using the concept of
arithmetic series using the concept of arithmetic progression, Geometric progression,
Binominal theorem, exponential Theorem and logarithmic theorem.
Model 1 :
Summation of series when angles are in Arithmetic progression

Sine series
1.4.1 Find the sum to n terms of the series
...... ) 3 sin( ) 2 sin( ) sin( sin + + + + + + + b a b a b a a
Proof :
Let ) 1 sin( .... ) 2 sin( ) sin( sin b a b a b a a - + + + + + + + = n s
n

Multiply both sides by 2 sin
2
b

2
sin ) 1 sin( 2 ...
2
sin ) 2 sin( 2
) sin(
2
sin 2
2
sin sin 2
2
sin 2
b
b a
b
b a
b a
b b
a
b
- + + + +
+ + + =
n
s
n
------(1)
We know 2 sin A sin B = cos (A-B) cos (A+B)
21
+ -
- = \
2
cos
2
cos
2
sin sin 2
b
a
b
a
b
a
+ -
+ = +
2
3
cos
2
cos
2
sin ) sin( 2
b
a
b
a
b
b a
+ -
+ = +
2
5
cos
2
3
cos
2
sin ) 2 sin( 2
b
a
b
a
b
b a
-----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) b a b a
b
b a
2
1
cos
2
3
cos
2
sin ) 2 1 sin( 2 - + - - + = - + n n n
Adding the above we get
( ) ( ) b a
b
a
b
2
1
cos
2
cos
2
sin 2 - + -
- = n S
n
---(2)

But we know that
cos A cos B=
2
sin
2
sin 2
B A B A - +
-
( ) b a
b
a
2
1
;
2
- + = - = n B A
( ) b a
b
a
2
1
2
- + + - = + \ n B A

2 2
2
b
b
b
a - + - = n
= b b a - + n 2
= ) 1 ( 2 - + n a
b a
2
1
2
-
+ =
+
\
n B A

( ) b a
b
a
2
1
2
- - - - = - n B A

2 2
b
b a
b
a + - - - = n
= b n -

2 2
b
n
B A
- =
-
\
22
(2) becomes
-
+ - =
2
sin
2
1
sin 2
2
sin 2
b
b a
b
n n
S
n

-
+ =
2
sin
2
1
sin 2
b
b a
n n

-
+
= \
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
sin
b
b
b a
n n
S
n

Results
1. But a b =
a a a a n sin ....... 3 sin 2 sin sin + + + + \

( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
sin
a
a
a

+
=
n n

4.2. Examples
Find the sum to n terms of the series
.. .......... .......... ) 3 cos( ) 2 cos( ) cos( cos + + + + + + + b a b a b a a
Solution
) 1 cos( ....... ) 2 cos( ) cos( cos b a b a b a a - + + + + + + + = n S
n

Multiply both sides by
2
sin 2
b

2
sin ) 1 cos( 2 .......... ..........
2
sin ) 2 cos( 2
2
sin ) cos( 2
2
sin cos 2
2
sin 2
b
b a
b
b a
b
b a
b
a
b
- + + +
+ + + + = \
n
S
n
--(1)
We know that
2 cos A sin B=sin (A+B) sin (A- B)
)
2
sin( )
2
sin(
2
sin cos 2
b
a
b
a
b
a - - + =
)
2
sin( )
2
3
sin(
2
sin )
2
cos( 2
b
a
b
a
b b
a + - + = +
23
)
2
3
sin( )
2
5
sin(
2
sin ) 2 cos( 2
b
a
b
a
b
b a + - + = +

-------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------
) ) 2 / 3 ( sin( ) ) 2 / 1 ( sin(
2
sin ) 1 cos( 2 b a b a
b
b a - + - - + = - + n n n
\ using in (1)
- -
- + =
2
sin
2
1
sin
2
sin 2
b
a b a
b
n S
n
----(2)
But we know that
2
sin
2
cos 2 sin sin
B A B A
B A
- +
= -
Here ( )
2
;
2
1
b
a b a - = - + = B n A
( )
2 2
1
b
a b a - + - + = + n B A

2 2
b
a
b
b a - + - + = n
= b b a - + n 2
= b a ) 1 ( 2 - + n
b a
2
1
2
-
+ =
+
\
n B A

2
2
1
b
a b b a + - - + = - n B A
= b n
2 2
b n B A
=
-
\
\ using in (2)
-
+ =
2
sin
2
1
cos 2
2
sin 2
b
b a
b
n n
S
n

24

-
+
= \
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
cos
b
b
b a
n n
S
n

Cor 1: Put a b =
( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
cos
cos ... 3 cos 2 cos cos
a
a
a
a a a a

+
= + + + + \
n n
n
1. First the sum to n terms of the series
Sin
2
a +sin
2
2a +sin
2
3 a +..
Solution
S
n
= Sin
2
a +sin
2
2a +sin
2
3 a ++sin
2
na
= [2 Sin
2
a +2 sin
2
2a +2 sin
2
3a ++2 sin
2
na ]
But we know 2sin
2
a = 1 cos 2a
( ) [ ] ) 2 cos 1 ( ...... ) 6 cos 1 ( ) 4 cos 1 ( 2 cos 1
2
1
a a a a n S
n
- + + - + - + - = \
( ) [ ] a a a a n n 2 cos ...... 6 cos 4 cos 2 cos
2
1
+ + + + - =

We know

-
+
= - + + + + +
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
cos
) 1 cos( ..... ) 2 cos( cos
b
b
b a
b a b a a
n n
n
Hence a =2a ; a b 2 =

25
-
+
- = \
2
2
sin
2
2
sin 2
2
1
2 cos
2
1
a
a
a a
n n
n S
n

+
- =
a
a a
sin
) sin( ) 1 cos(
2
1 n n
n

2. Find the sum to n terms of the series
cos
2
a +cos
2
2a +cos
2
2a ++cos
2
na +a

Proof:
Let
S
n
= cos
2
a +cos
2
2a +cos
2
2a ++cos
2
na
= [2 cos
2
a +2 cos
2
2a +2 cos
2
2a ++2 cos
2
na ]

But 1 + cos 2q =2cos
2
q
( ) [ ] ) 2 cos 1 ( ...... ) 6 cos 1 ( ) 4 cos 1 ( 2 cos 1
2
1
a a a a n S
n
+ + + + + + + + = \
( ) [ ] a a a a n n 2 cos ...... 6 cos 4 cos 2 cos
2
1
+ + + + + =

-
+
+ =
2
2
sin
2
2
sin 2
2
1
2 cos
2
1
a
a
a a
n n
n

+
+ =
a
a a
sin
) sin( ) 1 cos(
2
1 n n
n

3. Find the sum of the series

Sin
3
a +sin
3
2a +sin
3
3 a +..+sin
3
na
26

Proof:
We know sin
3
a = 3 sin a - 4 sin
3
a
\ 4sin
3
a =3 sin a - sin3a
Let S
n
= Sin
3
a +sin
3
2a +sin
3
3a ++sin
3
na
= [4 Sin
3
a +4 sin
3
2a +4 sin
3
3a ++4 sin
3
na ]

( )
- + +
- + - + -
=
a a
a a a a a a
n n 3 sin sin 3 ( .........
) 9 sin 3 sin 3 ( ) 6 sin 2 sin 3 ( 3 sin sin 3
4
1

( ) [ ]
[ ] a a a a
a a a a
n
n
3 sin ......... 9 sin 6 sin 3 sin
sin ......... 3 sin 2 sin sin 3
4
1
+ + + + -
+ + + + =

[ ]
[ ] a a a a
a a a a
n
n
3 sin ......... 9 sin 6 sin 3 sin
4
1
sin ......... 3 sin 2 sin sin
4
3
+ + + + -
+ + + + =

( ) ( )
2
3
sin
2
3
sin 3
2
1
3 sin
4
1
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
sin
4
3
a
a
a a
a
a a a
-
+
-
-
-
+
=
n n n n

( )
( )
( )
2
3
sin
2
3
sin
2
3 1
sin
4
1
2
3
sin
2
sin
2
1
sin
4
3
a
a a
a
a
a
+ -
-
+
=
n n n n

4. Find the sum to n terms of
Cos
3
a +cos
3
2a +cos
2
3a ++cos
3
na
Proof:
We know cos3q = 4cos3q -3cosq
\ 4cos
3
q =cos3q +3cosa
Let S
n
= cos
3
a +cos
3
2a +cos
3
3a ++cos
3
na
= [4 cos
3
a +4cos
3
2a +4cos
3
3a ++4 cos
3
na ]

( )
- + +
- + + + +
=
a a
a a a a a a
n n cos 3 3 (cos .........
) 3 cos 3 9 (cos ) 2 cos 3 6 (cos cos 3 3 cos
4
1

27

[ ]
[ ] a a a a
a a a a
cos ......... 3 cos 2 cos cos 3
3 cos ......... 9 cos 6 cos 3 cos
4
1
+ + + +
+ + + + + = n

[ ]
[ ] a a a a
a a a a
n
n
cos ......... 3 cos 2 cos cos
4
3
3 cos ......... 9 cos 6 cos 3 cos
4
1
+ + + + +
+ + + + =

( ) ( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
cos
4
3
2
3
sin
2
3
sin 3
2
1
3 cos
4
1
a
a a a
a
a
a a
-
+
+
-
+
=
n n n n

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
cos
4
3
2
3
sin
2
3
sin
2
3
cos
4
1
a
a a
a
a a
+
+
+
=
n n n n

Model 3 C+is method)

Type 1: Problems based on e
x
and e
-x

1. + + + + = .. .......... ..........
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1
3 2
x x x
e
x

2. + - + - =
-
.. .......... ..........
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1
3 2
x x x
e
x

Problems
1. Find the sum to infinity of the series
+ + + + + .. .......... .......... ) 2 sin(
! 2
) sin( sin
2
b a b a a
x
x
Proof:
Let + + + + + = .. .......... .......... ) 2 sin(
! 2
) sin( sin
2
b a b a a
x
i x S
+ + + + + = .. .......... .......... ) 2 cos(
! 2
) cos( cos
2
b a b a a
x
i x C
28

+
+ + + + + + + + = +
... .......... )......... 2 cos(
! 2
) 2 cos(
! 2
) sin( ) cos( ) sin (cos
2
2
b a
b a b a b a a a
x
i
x
ix x i iS C

+ + + =
+ +
.. .......... ..........
! 2
) 2 (
2
) ( b a b a a i i i
e
x
xe e
+ + + = .. .......... ..........
! 2
2
2
b a b a a i i i i i
e e
x
e e x e

+ + + = .. .......... ..........
! 2 ! 1
1
2
2
b
b
a i
i
i
e
x xe
e
( )

+ + + = .. .......... ..........
! 2
1
! 1
1
2
b
b
a i
i
i
xe
xe
e
[ ]
b
a
i
xe i
e e =

) sin (cos b b a i x i
e e
+
=

b b a sin cos ix x i
e e
+
=

b a b sin cos ix i x
e e e =

) sin ( cos b a b x i x
e e
+
=
[ ] ) sin sin( ) sin cos(
cos
b a b a
b
x i x e
x
+ + + =
) sin sin( ) sin cos(
cos cos
b a b a
b b
x ie x e is C
x x
+ + + = +

Equate imaginary part
S = ) sin sin(
cos
b a
b
x e
x
+

2. Find the sum of the series
+ + + + ........ .......... 3 sin
! 3
1
2 sin
! 2
1
sin a a a

Proof
+ + + + = ........ .......... 3 sin
! 3
1
2 sin
! 2
1
sin a a a S
29
Let
+ + + + + = ........ .......... 3 cos
! 3
1
2 cos
! 2
1
cos 1 a a a C
+ + + + + + + + = + \ ........ .......... ) 3 sin 3 (cos
! 3
1
) 2 sin 2 (cos
! 2
1
) sin (cos 1 a a a a a a i i i is C
+ + + + = ........ ..........
! 3
1
! 2
1
1
3 2 a a a i i i
e e e
( ) ( ) + + + + = ........ ..........
! 3
1
! 2
1
1
3 2
a a a i i i
e e e

a i
e y where y y y = + + + + = ........ ..........
! 3
1
! 2
1
1
3 2

y
e =

a i
e
e =

a a sin cos i
e
+
=

a a sin cos i
e e =
[ ] ) sin(sin ) cos(sin
cos
a a
a
i e + =
) sin(sin ) cos(sin
cos cos
a a
a a
ie e is C + = +

Equate imaginary parts
S = ) sin(sin
cos
a
a
e

3. Sum to infinity the series
+ + + ..... .......... ..........
! 2
3 cos sin
! 1
2 cos sin
cos
2
a a a a
a
Solution
+ + + = ..... .......... ..........
! 2
3 cos sin
! 1
2 cos sin
cos
2
a a a a
a C
+ + + = ..... .......... ..........
! 2
3 sin sin
! 1
sin sin
sin
2 2
a a a a
a S
30
+ + +
+ + + = + \
..... .......... .......... ) 3 sin 3 (cos
! 2
sin
) 2 sin 2 (cos
! 1
sin
) sin (cos
2
a a
a
a a
a
a a
i
i i is C

+ + + = ..... .......... ..........
! 2
sin
! 1
sin
3
2
2 a a a
a a
i i i
e e e

+ + + = ..... .......... ..........

! 2
sin
! 1
sin
1
2
2
a a a
a a
i i i
e e e

( )
+ + + = ..... .......... ..........

! 2
sin
! 1
sin
1
2
a
a a
a a
i
i i
e
e e

a a
a
i i
e y where
y y
e sin ..... .......... ..........
! 2 ! 1
1
2
=
+ + + =

y i
e e
a
=

a
a a
i
e i
e e
sin
=

) sin (cos sin a a a a i i
e e
+
=

a a a
a
2
sin cos sin i
i
e
+
+
=

) sin ( cos sin
2
a a a a +
=
i
e e
[ ] ) sin sin( ) sin cos(
2 2 cos sin
a a a a
a a
+ + + = i e

) sin sin( ) sin cos(
2 cos sin 2 cos sin
a a a a
a a a a
+ + + = ie e

Equate real part
) sin cos(
2 cos sin
a a
a a
+ = e C

4. Sum the series to infinity
+ + + ........ ..........
! 2
4 cos
! 2
2 cos
1
q q

Let + + + = ........ ..........
! 2
4 cos
! 2
2 cos
1
q q
C
31
+ + = ........ ..........
! 2
4 sin
! 2
2 sin q q
S
[ ] [ ] + + + + + = + ........ .......... 4 sin 4 cos
! 4
1
2 sin 2 cos
! 2
1
1 q q q q i is C
+ + + = ........ ..........
! 4
1
! 2
1
1
4 2 q q i i
e e

( ) ( ) + + + = ........ ..........
! 4
1
! 2
1
1
4 2
q q i i
e e

q i
e x where x x = + + + = ........ ..........
! 4
1
! 2
1
1
4 2

x
e e
x x
cosh
2
=
+
=
-

[ ] ) cosh(
2
1
q
q q
i e e
e e e
i i
= + =
-

) sin cos(cos q q i + =
[ ] ) sin (cos cos q q i i + =
[ ] ) sin cos cos q q - = i
) sin(sin ) cos sin( ) cos(sin ) cos cos( q q q q i i + =
) sin(sin ) sinh(cos ) cos(sin ) cosh(cos q q q q i + =

Equate real part

) cos(sin ) cosh(cos q q = C
Type 2 Summation of series based on logarithmic series

32
FORMULA

1. + - + - = + ........
4 3 2
) 1 log(
4 3 2
x x x
x x
2. - - - - - = - ........
4 3 2
) 1 log(
4 3 2
x x x
x x

(1) sum the series to infinity
+ + + .. ..........
3
3 cos
2
2 cos
cos
3 2
q q
q
a a
a
Let + + + = .. ..........
3
3 cos
2
2 cos
cos
3 2
q q
q
a a
a C
+ + + = .. ..........
3
3 sin
2
2 sin
sin
3 2
q q
q
a a
a S

+ +
+ + + + = +
.. .......... ) 3 sin 3 (cos
3
) 2 sin 2 (cos
2
) sin (cos
3
2
q q
q q q q
i
a
i
a
i a is C

+ + + = . ..........
3 2
3
3
2
2
q q q i i i
ae
a
ae
a
ae
+ + + = . ..........
3 2
3 2
x x
x
Where
q i
ae x =

) 1 log( x - - =
) 1 log(
q i
ae - - =
[ ] ) sin (cos 1 log q q i a + - - =
[ ] q q isain a - - - = cos 1 log
[ ]

-
-
+ + - - =
-
q
q
q q
cos 1
sin
tan sin ) cos 1 log
2
1
1 2 2 2
a
a
i a a

33
Equal to real part
( ) [ ] q q
2 2 2
sin cos 1 log
2
1
a a C + - - =
[ ] q q q cos 2 sin cos 1 log
2
1
2 2 2 2
a a a - + + - =
[ ] q cos 2 1 log
2
1
2
a a - + - =
(2) sum the series to infinity
+ + + - . )......... 2 sin(
3
1
) sin(
2
1
sin
3 2
b a b a a c c c
Solution
+ + + - = . )......... 2 sin(
3
1
) sin(
2
1
sin
3 2
b a b a a c c c S
+ + + - = . )......... 2 cos(
3
1
) cos(
2
1
cos
3 2
b a b a a c c c C

[ ]
[ ] ) 2 sin( ) 2 cos(
3
1
) sin( ) cos(
2
1
) sin (cos
3
2
b a b a
b a b a a a
+ + + +
+ + + - + = + \
i c
i c i c is C

+ - =
+ +
.... ..........
3
1
2
1
) 2 ( 3 ) ( 2 b a b a a i i i
e c e c e c
+ - = .... ..........
3
1
2
1
2 3 2 b a b a a i i i i i
e e c e e c e c

+ - = ....... ..........
3
1
2
1
2 3 2 b b a i i i
e c e c c e

+ + = ...... ..........
3
1
2
1
3 3 2 2 b b b
b
a
i i i
i
i
e c e c ce
e
e

+ - =
-
...... ..........
3
1
2
1
3 2 ) (
x x x e
i b a

Where
b i
ce x =
) 1 log(
) (
x e
i
+ =
-b a

) 1 log(
) ( b b a i i
ce e + =
-

[ ] ) sin (cos 1 log
) (
b b
b a
i c e
i
+ + =
-

34
[ ] ) sin ) cos 1 log
) (
b b
b a
ic c e
i
+ + =
-

[ ]
( )
+
+ + +
- + - =
-
b
b
b b
b a b a
cos 1
sin
tan
sin ) cos 1 ( log
2
1
) sin( ) cos(
1
2 2 2
c
c
i
c c
i

Equate imaginary part
[ ]

+
- + + + - =
-
b
b
b a b b b a
cos 1
sin
tan ) cos( sin ) cos 1 ( log ) sin(
2
1
1 2 2 2
c
c
c c S

Type 3: Summation of series using Binomial series
1. Sum the series
+ - + - .... .......... .......... 3 cos
6 . 4 . 2
5 . 3 . 1
2 cos
4 . 2
3 . 1
cos
2
1
1 q q q
Solution :
+ - + - = .... .......... .......... 3 cos
6 . 4 . 2
5 . 3 . 1
2 cos
4 . 2
3 . 1
cos
2
1
1 q q q C
+ - + - = .... .......... .......... 3 sin
6 . 4 . 2
5 . 3 . 1
2 sin
4 . 2
3 . 1
sin
2
1
q q q S

+ + -
+ + + - = +
.... .......... .......... ) 3 sin 3 (cos
6 . 4 . 2
5 . 3 . 1
) 2 sin 2 (cos
4 . 2
3 . 1
) 2 sin (cos
2
1
1
q q
q q q q
i
i i is C

+ - + - = .... .......... ..........
2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1
5 . 3 . 1
2 . 2 . 2 . 1
3 . 1
2
1
1
3 2 q q q i i i
e e e

+ - + - = .... .......... ..........
2 ! 3
5 . 3 . 1
2 ! 2
3 . 1
2
1
1
3
3
2
2 q q
q
i i
i
e e
e

+
- = .... .......... ..........

2 ! 3
5 . 3 . 1
2 ! 2
3 . 1
2 ! 1
1
1
3 2
q q q i i i
e e e

This is of the form
+
+ +
-
+
+
- .... .......... ..........

! 3
) 2 )( (
! 2
) 8 (
! 1
1
3
2
q
x q p q p p
q
x
p p
q
x
p

35
2 3 ; 1 = \ = + = q q p p

2
q i
e
q
x
=

2 2
q i
e x
=

q i
e x =
q
p
x is C
-
+ = + \ ) 1 (
2
1
) 1 (
-
+ =
q i
e
2
1
) sin cos 1 (
-
+ + = + q q i is C
[ ]
2
1
2
2
cos
2
sin 2
2
cos 2
-
+ =
q q q
i
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
1
2
1
2
sin
2
cos
2
cos 2
-
-
+ =
q q q
i
( ) [ ]
2
1
2
2
1
2
cos 2
-
-
=
q
q
i
e
( ) [ ]
=
-
4
2
1
2
cos 2
q
q
i
e
[ ]
4
sin
4
cos ) cos 2 (
q q
q i is C - = +
Equate real part on both sides
( )
4
cos ) cos 2 (
2
1
q
q
-
= C
4.3 Let us sum up
So far we have studied the concept of finding a trigonometric series using ap, gp,
etc. Also we have seen the sum to arrive a certain trigonometric series using the
fundamental forms of sin3x, cos3x, sin
3
x, cos
3
x, sin
2
x, cos
2
x
4.4. Check you progress
(a) Find sum for cos2a+cos4a+cosba+.a
(b) Find sum for sin2a+sin4a+sinba+.a

36

4.5. Lesson end Activities
sum the series to infinity
1.
+ + + + + .. .......... ) 2 cos(
! 2
cos
) cos(
! 1
cos
cos
2
b a
b
b a
b
a

Ans: ) cos sin cos(
2
cos
b b a
b
+ + e
2.
+
+
+
+ .. ..........
! 4
) 4 sin(
! 2
) 2 sin(
sin
b a b a
a
Ans: [ ] ) sinh(sin sin cos ) cosh(sin ). cos(cos sin b b a b b a -
3. . .......... 5 cos
! 5
5 sin
3 cos
! 3
3 sin
cos sin + + + q
q
q
q
q q
Ans: ) cos(sin ) cos sinh(sin
2
q q q
4. + - + .... .......... .......... 6 cos
6 . 4 . 2
3 . 1
4 cos
4 . 2
1
2 cos
2
1
1 a a a
Ans: ( )
2
cos cos 2
a
a
5. + + + . .......... 3 sin
3
2 sin
2
sin
3 2
q q q
a a
a
Ans:
-
-
q
q
cos 1
sin
tan
1
a
a

6. a a a a a a 3 sin cos
3
1
2 sin cos
2
1
sin cos
3 2
+ -
Ans:
+
-
a
a a
2
1
cos 1
cos sin
tan
4.7 Sources

1) Trigonometry : M.L. Khanna
2) Trigonometry : S. Narayanan
37
Unit II
Lesson - 5

Vector Calculus
Contents
5.1 Scalar and Vector point functions differential vectors
5.2 Examples
5.3 Let us sum up
5.6 References

We are going to study the concept of Scalar and Vector point functions,
differential vectors in detail.

5.1 Scalar and Vector point functions differential vectors
5.1.1. Scalar point function
Let A be any subset of the set of real numbers. If to each element a of A, we
associate by some rule a unique real number f(a), then this rule defines a scalar function
of the scalar variable a. Here f(a) is a scalar quantity and therefore f is a scalar function.
5.1.2. Vector point function
Let A be any subset of the set of real numbers. If to each element a of A, we
associate by some rule a unique vector ) (a f , then this rule defines a vector function of
the scalar variable a. Here ) (a f is a vector quantity and f is a vector function.
5.1.3. Derivative of a vector function with respect to a scalar
Let ) (t f r = be a vector function of the scalar variable t.
38
If
dt
r d
exists, there r is said to be differentiable.

dt
r d
is denoted by r . Similarly
........ ,
3
3
2
2
dt
r d
dt
r d
are denoted by r , r .
respectively.
5.1.4. Some results on differentiation of vectors.
Let c b a , , be differentiable vector function of a scalar t. let f be a differentiable
scalar point function of the same variable t , then
a.
dt
b d
dt
a d
b a
dt
d
+ = + ) (
b. b
dt
a d
dt
b d
a b a
dt
d
. . ) . ( + =
c. b
dt
a d
dt
b d
a b a
dt
d
+ = ) (
d. a
dt
d
dt
a d
a
dt
d f
f f + = ) (
e. [ ]

=
dt
c d
b a c
dt
b d
a c b
dt
a d
c b a
dt
d

f. [ ]

+ =
dt
c d
b a c
dt
b d
a c b
dt
a d
c b a
dt
d
) ( ) (
5.1.5. Derivative of a constant vector.
A vector is said to be constant only if both its magnitude and direction are fixed.
Let r be a constant vector function of the scalar variable t
Let r = c ; c is a constant vector
c r r = + \ d
0 = - + \ r r r d
0 = r d
39
0 = \
t
r
d
d

0
0
= \

t
r
im l
t
d
d
d

0 = \
t
r
d
d
(zero vector)

5.1.6 Derivative of a vector point function in terms of its components

Let k z j y i x r + + = where x, y, z are scalar functions of the sector variable t.
Then k
dt
dz
j
dt
dy
i
dt
dx
dt
r d
+ + =
Results
(1) The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector point function ) (t a to be
constant is that 0 =
dt
a d

(2) If a is a differentiable vector point function of the scalar variable t and if than a a , = ,
then
a.
dt
da
a a
dt
d
2
2
=

b.
dt
da
a
dt
a d
a = .
c. if a has constant length, then 0 , . = ^
dt
a d
if
dt
a d
r a
d. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector ) (t a to have constant
magnitude is 0 . =
dt
a d
a
40
5.2 Examples
1. If a is a differentiable vector function of the scalar variable t , then

2
2
dt
a d
a
dt
a d
a
dt
d
=

Proof :

+ + =
dt
a d
dt
d
a
dt
a d
dt
a d
dt
a d
a
dt
d

2
2
0
dt
a d
a + =

2
2
dt
a d
a = { } 0 = \ a a
2. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t) to have a constant direction
is 0 =
dt
a d
a .
Proof: Let a be the unit vector in the direction of a
a a a = \
d a d a d
a a a
d t d t d t
\ = +
r
r r

.
d a d a d
a a a a a a
d t d t d t

\ = +

r
r r r r

0
r
+
dt
a d
a a

dt
a d
a a
2
= (1)
The condition is necessary
Suppose a has a constant direction then a is a constant vector

2
41
( ) 0 = \ a
dt
d

\ using in (1) 0 =
dt
a d
a
\ The condition is necessary
The condition is sufficient
Suppose 0 =
dt
a d
a
From (1), 0
2
=
dt
a d
a a
0
= \
dt
a d
a ---(2)
Since a is of constant length,
0
. = \
dt
a d
a ---(3)

a \ is a constant vector is the direction of a is constant

3. Find a unit tangent vector to the curve x = 3t+2; y=5t
2
, z=2t-1 at t=1

Solution : Unit tangent vector is defined as
dt
r d

dt
r d

k z j y i x r + + =
k t j t i t ) 1 2 ( 5 ) 2 3 (
2
- + + + =

k j t i
dt
r d
t
2 10 3
1
+ + =
\
=

113 4 100 9 = + + =
dt
r d

k j t i
dt
r d
2 10 3 + + =
42
\ unit tangent vector =
113
2 10 3 k j t i + +

4. A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are x = e
-t
; y = 2 cos3t, z =
2sin3t, where t is the time. Find its velocity and acceleration at t = 0.
Solution :
k z j y i x r + + =
k t t i e
t
3 sin 2 3 cos 2 + + =
-

k t j t i e
dt
r d
t
3 cos 6 3 sin 6 + - - =
-

k t j t i e
dt
r d
t
3 sin 18 3 cos 18
2
- - =
-

\ At t = 0, k i
dt
r d
6 + - =
Which is the required velocity vector
\ At t = 0, j i
dt
r d
18
2
2
- =
Which is the required acceleration vector.
5.3. Let us sum up
So far we have studied in finding the velocity, acceleration of a particle using
fundamental of calculus.
5.4. Check your progress
(1) Find b a n
dt
r d
r = = , 0
2
2
2
= + r n
dt
r d
if
2 r x i y i x = + +
r r r r
where
x=t, y=t
2
, z=t
3
at t =1
(2) Find c o s s i n
d x
i f r a i b i
d t
= +
r
r r r
or t=0
1. If a r = cos nt + b sin nt where b a, ,n are constants, prove that
43
a. b a n
dt
r d
r = =
b. 0
2
2
2
= + r n
dt
r d

c. 0
2
2
=
dt
r d
dt
r d
r
2. Find the unit tangent vector to the curve x = a cost; y = a sint; z = ct
Ans
2 2
cos sin
c a
k c y t a i t a
+
+ +

3. Find the velocity vector, the speed and the acceleration vector for the particle whose
path is given by
x = 3 cos2t; z = 2 sin3t
Ans:
i) Velocity = k t i t 3 cos 6 2 sin 6 + -
ii) Speed = t t 2 sin 3 (cos 36
2 2
+
iii) Acceleration = k t i t 3 sin 18 2 cos 12 - -

4. The position vector of a moving point as given by j at i at r sin cos + = . Show that the
velocity v is perpendicular to r
5. If j at i at r sin cos + = , show that v r is a constant vector.
5.7 References
1) Vector Calculus by - Namasivayam
2) Vector Calculus by - Rasinghmia aggarval
3) Vector calculus by - P. Durai Pandian
4) Vector calculus by - Chatterjee
44
Lesson - 6

Contents
6.1 Differential operators and directional derivative
6.2 Example
Let us sum up
Check your progress
Lesson End activities
References

We are going to study the concept of new ideas on del operator. We also study the
concept of operators line dir f
u r
, curl and grade f
u r
. Also our aim is to study the concept of
solenoidal vectors and irrotational vectors.
6.1 Differential operators and directional derivative
6.1.1 The vector differential operator (del) is defined as

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
6.1.2 The gradient
Let ) , , ( z y x f be a differentiable scalar field. Then gradient of f is defined as

z
k
y
j
x
i
f f f
and is denoted by grad f
z
k
y
j
x
i grad
= \
f f f
f
f
f
=
z
k
y
j
x
i
f =
f is a vector field.
45
6.1.3. Divergence of a vector point function Let ) , , ( z y x f be a vector point function
differentiable at each point ) , , ( z y x in a certain region of space. The divergence of
f is defined as

z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i
. . . and is
Written as div f
. . .
f f f
d i v f i j k
x y z

\ = + +

u r u r u r
u r r r u r

. i j k f
x y z

= + +

r r r u r

f . =
6.1.4. Solenoidal vector
A vector point function is called solenoidal if 0 . = f
6.1.5 Curl of a vector point function.
Let ) , , ( z y x f be a differentiable vector point function in a certain region of space. Then
the curl of f is defined as
z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i
and is written as curl f .

z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i f curl
= \
i j k f
x y z

= + +

r r r u r

f =
6.1.6 A vector point function f is called irrotational or rotation of f if 0 = f
6.1.7 f . and f in terms of components
1. Let k f j f i f f
3 2 1
+ + =

z
f
y
f
x
f
f
=
3 2 1
.
46
2. k f j f i f f
3 2 1
+ + =

3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f

=
y
f
x
f
k
z
f
x
f
j i
y
f
y
f
1 2 1 3 2 3

6.1.8 Directional derivative
1. Let f be a scalar point function of the variable t.
Let f(A), f(B) be the functional values of

the scalar point function f at A and B respectively. Then if
AB
A f B f
A B
) ( ) (
lim
-
exists, it is
called the directional derivative of the scalar functional A along AB.
2. Let f be a vector point function.
Then
AB
A f B f
A B
) ( ) (
lim
-
if it exists, is called the directional derivative of f at A

along AB.
Note (1) :
z
f
y
f
x
f
, , are the directional derivatives of f at A in the directions of the

coordinate axes
(2)
z
f
y
f
x
f
, , are the directional derivatives of f at A in the directional derivatives of

f at A in the direction of the coordinate axes.

6.1.9 Directional derivative of f along any line
Let f be a scalar point function consider the line AB
A
B
47
Let be A (x,y,z)
Let the direction cosines of AB be n m l , , then the directional derivative of f along AB is
defined as
z
f
n
y
f
m
x
f
l

6.1.10 Let f be a vector point function consider the line AB. Let A be (x,y,z)
Let the direction derivative of f along AB is defined as
z
f
n
y
f
m
x
f
l

6.1.11. The directional derivative of f in the direction of n is defined as
n
n . f

a. If f is a constant, then the directional derivative is zero.
b. f is a vector normal to the level surface , ) , , ( c z y x = f c is a constant.
6.1.12. Level surface. Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar point function in a certain region of
space. The set of all points of the region for which f becomes a constant is called a
level surface and is written as f(x, y, z) = c, c is a constant.
a. The angle between the surfaces
2 1 1
) , , ( ) , , ( c z y x and c z y x = = f f is defined
as the angle between their normal.

6.2 Example
Type 1
1. Find the directional derivative of ) 3 , 1 , 1 ( 2
2
- + at xy Z in the direction of k j i 2 2 + +
Solution :
k j i n 2 2 + + =
3 4 4 1 = + + = n
xy Z z y x 2 ) , , (
2
+ = f
z
z
f
x
y
f
y
x
f
2 ; 2 ; 2 =

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
k z j x i y 2 2 2 + + =
48
k j i 6 2 ) 2 ( ) 3 , 1 , 1 ( + + - = -
k j i 6 2 2 + + - =
( ) ( ) k j i k j i n 2 2 . 6 2 2 . + + + + - = f
12 4 2 + + - =
14 =
The directional derivative of f along n

n
n . f
=

3
14
=
2. Find the maximum directional derivative of ) 3 , 0 , 1 (
2
at xyz = f
Solution:

2
xyz = f
xyz
z
xz
y
yz
x
2 ; ;
2 2
=
f f f

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
k xyz j xz i yz 2 2
2 2
+ + =
) j 9
) 3 , 0 , 1 (
= f
9 81 = = f
\ The maximum directional derivative of 9 = f f is
3. Find the magnitude and the direction of the greatest directional derivative of
) 1 , 1 , 2 (
3 2
- at yz x
Solution :
The direction of the greatest directional derivative is along f and magnitude is
f

3 2
yz x = f
49

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
k yz x j z x i xyz
2 2 3 2 3
3 2 + + =
) k j i 12 4 4
) 1 , 1 , 2 (
+ + - =
-
f
11 4 16 11 176 144 16 16 = = = + + = f
The direction of the greatest directional derivative is along k j i 12 4 4 + + - = f
4. Find the unit normal to the surface
2 2
y x Z + = at the point (-1,-2,5)
z y x xyz - + = =
2 2
f
1 ; 2 ; 2 - =
z
y
y
x
x
f f f

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
k j y i x - + = 2 2
) k j i - - - =
-
4 2
) 5 , 2 , 1 (
f
21 1 16 4 = + + = f
FORMULA unit normal vector to the surface ( ) c xyz = f is
f
f

\ unit normal vector
21
4 2 k j i - - - =

4. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface yz zx + xy + 5 = 0 at ) 2 , 1 , 1 ( -
Solution
xy zn yz + - = f yz zx + xy
y z
x
+ - =
f

x z
y
+ =
f

2 2 3 2 3
3 ; ; 2 yz x
z
z x
y
xyz
x
=
f f f
50
x y
y
- =
f

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
k x y j z x i z y ) ( ) ( ) ( - + + + - =
) k j i 2 3 3
) , 2 , 1 , 1 (
- + - =
-
f
\The direction ratios of the normal to the tangent plane at (1,-1,2) are -3, 3, -2
The tangent plane passes through (1,-1,2) we know that equation of any plane passing
through (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
= - + - + - z z c y y b x x a ------(1)
Here a,b,c = -3,3,-2; (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) = (1,-1,2)
Using in (1)
Equation of the tangent at (1, -1, 2) is
-3(x-1) + 3(y+1) d(z-2) = 0.
-3x+3+3y+3-2z+4 = 0
-3x+3y-2z+10 = 0
or 3x 3y + 2z 10 = 0

5. Find the angle between the surfaces Z = x
2
+y
2
-3; and x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 9 at the point
(2, -1, 2)
Proof:
; ;
2 2 2
2
2 2
1
z y x z y x + + = - + = f f
The angle between
1
f and
2
f is

1 2
1 2
. f f
f f

---(1)
z y x - + =
2 2
1
f
2 2 2
2
z y x + + = f
x
x
2
1
=
f
x
x
2
2
=
f

y
y
2
1
=
f
y
y
2
2
=
f

51
1
1
- =
f
z
z
2
2
=
f

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
1 1 1
1
f f f
f
k j y i x - + = 2 2
) k j i - - =
-
2 4
) , 2 , 1 , 2 ( 1
f

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
2 2 2
2
f f f
f
zk j y i x 2 2 2 - + =
) k j i 4 2 4
) , 2 , 1 , 2 ( 2
- - =
-
f
21 1 4 16
1
= + + = f
6 36 16 4 16
2
= = + + = f
16 .
2 1
= f f
Using in (1)

21 3
16
cos = q

=
-
21 3
16
cos
1
q
6. Find the function f if
k yz x z j z x xy i xyz y ) 3 6 ( ) 2 3 ( ) 2 (
2 2 3 3 2 3 2
- + - + + - = f
Solution
By definition

z
k
y
j
x
i
=
f f f
f
; 2
3 2
xyz y
x
- =
\
f
---(1)

3 2
2 3 z x xy
y
- + =
f
---(2)
52

2 2 3
3 6 yz x z
z
+ =
f

Integrating both side of (1), (2), (3) w.r.t. x,y,z resply.
+ - =
3 2 2
yz x xy f a function not containing x
+ - + =
3 2 2
3 yz x xy y f a function not containing y
+ - =
3 2 4
2
3
yz x z f a function not containing z
The general form of f is
c yz x xy z y + - + + =
3 2 2 4
2
3
3 f
7. Find r . if k z j y i x r + + =
k z j y i x r + + =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
z f y f x f = = =
3 2 1
; ;
1 1 1
3 2 1
=
z
f
y
f
x
f

z
f
y
f
x
f
f
=
3 2 1
.
= 1+1+1 = 3.
9. Find r . if k z j y i x r + + =
k z j y i x r + + =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
z f y f x f = = =
3 2 1
; ;
0 0 0
3 2 1
=
x
f
z
f
y
f

0 0 0
3 2 1
=
y
f
x
f
z
f

53
3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
r

=

k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 1 3 2 3

=
9. If k yz j xz i y x f 2 2
2
+ - = , find (i) f . (ii) f
Solution (i) k yz j xz i y x f 2 2
2
+ - =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
yz f xz f y x f 2 ; 2 ;
3 2
2
1
= - = =
y
x
f
z
f
xy
y
f
2 0 2
3 2 1
=

z
f
y
f
x
f
f
=
3 2 1
.
y xy 2 0 2 + + =
y xy 2 2 + =
) 1 ( 2 + = x y
(ii) yz f xz f y x f 2 ; 2 ;
3 2
2
1
= - = =
0 2
3 2 2 1
=
- =
x
f
x
z
f
x
y
f

z
y
f
z
x
f
z
f
2 2 0
3 2 1
=
- =

3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f

=

54
k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 1 3 2 3

[ ] [ ] [ ]k x z j i x z
2
2 0 0 2 2 - - + - - + =
[ ] [ ]k z x i z x 2 2 2
2
+ - + =
10. Find the constants a,b,c so that the vector
k z cy x j z y bx i az y x f ) 2 4 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( + + + - - + + + = is irrotational.
Solution: k z cy x j z y bx i az y x f ) 2 4 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( + + + - - + + + =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
z cy x f z y bx f az y x f 2 4 ; 3 ; 2
3 2 1
+ + = - - = + + =
4 1
3 2 1
=
- =
x
f
z
f
z
y
f

c
y
f
b
x
f
a
z
f
=
3 2 1

3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f

=

k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 1 3 2 3

[ ] [ ] [ ]k b j a i c 2 4 1 - + - - + =
f is irrotational 0 = f
[ ] [ ] [ ] 0 2 4 1 = - + - - + \ k b j a i c
0 2 ; 0 4 ; 0 1 = - = - = + \ b a c
2 ; 4 ; 1 = = - = b a c
Hence ; 1 , 2 , 4 - = = = c b a
11. Prove that r r
n
is irrotational for any value of n.
Proof : k z j y i x r + + =
55
2 2 2
z y x r r + + = =
2 2 2 2
z y x r + + =

z
z
r
r y
y
r
r x
x
r
r 2 2 2 2 2 2 =
\

r
z
z
r
r
y
y
r
r
x
x
r
=

r r f
n
=
) ( k z j y i x r
n
+ + =
k z r j y r i x r
n n n
+ + =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
x r f
n
=
1

r
y
nr x
y
r
xnr
y
f
n n
. .
1 1 1 - -
=

2 -
=
n
nxyr
2 1 1 - -
=
n n
nxzr
r
z
xnr
z
f

y r f
n
=
2

2 1 2 - -
=
n n
nyzr
z
r
ynr
z
f

2 1 2 - -
=
n n
yxnr
x
r
ynr
x
f

z r f
n
=
2

1 1 3 - -
=
n n
nxzr
n
r
zxnr
x
f

2 1 3 - -
=
n n
yznr
y
r
znr
y
f

56
3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f

=

k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 1 3 2 3

[ ] [ ] [ ]k xynr xynr j nyzr nxzr i nyzr nyzr
n n n n n n 2 2 2 2 2 2 - - - - - -
- + - - - =
0 =
f \ is irrotational for any value of

6.2.1. Important vector identities
1. Prove that, if g be a differentiable scalar point function and f be a differentiable vector
point function ) . ( ). ( ) .( f g f g g f + =
Proof:
( ) g f
z
k
y
j
x
i g f . ) .(

=
( ) ( ) ( ) g f
z
k g f
y
j g f
x
i
= . .

=
z
g
f g
z
f
k
y
g
f g
y
f
j
x
g
f g
x
f
i . . .
f
z
g
k
y
g
j
x
g
i g
z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i . . . .

= f
z
g
g
z
f
k f
y
g
g
y
f
j f
x
g
g
x
f
i . . .

=
f
y
g
k f
y
g
j f
x
g
i
g
z
f
k g
y
f
j g
x
f
i
.
. . .

57

=
f
y
g
k f
y
g
j f
x
g
i
g
z
f
k g
y
f
j g
x
f
i
. . .
. . .

f
y
g
k
y
g
j
x
g
i g
z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i . .
=
( ) ( ) f g g f . . - =

4. Prove that ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ). . ( ) .( g f g f f g f g g f + - - =
Proof:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( g f
z
k g f
y
j g f
x
i g f
=
z
g
f g
z
f
k
y
g
f g
y
f
j
x
g
f g
x
f
i

=
z
g
f k g
z
f
k
y
g
f j
g
y
f
j
x
g
f i g
x
f
i

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z
g
f k f
z
g
k g
z
f
k
z
f
g k
y
g
f j f
y
g
j
g
y
f
j
y
f
g j
x
f
f i f
x
g
i g
x
f
i
x
f
g i
=
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) f
z
g
k f
y
g
j f
x
g
i
z
g
k f
y
g
j f
x
g
i f
g
z
f
k g
y
f
j g
x
f
i
z
f
k g
y
f
j g
x
f
i g
=
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

58
f
z
g
k
y
g
j
x
g
i g
z
k
y
j
x
i f
g
z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i f
z
k
y
j
x
i g
=
. . . .
. . . .
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] f g g f g f f g . . . . + - - =

5. ) ( .) ( ) . ( ). . ( ) . .( g f f g g f f g g f + + + =
Proof:
) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( g f
z
k g f
y
j g f
x
i g f
=
z
g
f g
z
f
k
y
g
f g
y
f
j
x
g
f g
x
f
i . . . . . . .

=
z
g
f k
y
g
f j
x
g
f i g
z
f
k g
y
f
j g
x
f
i
. .
. . . .
----(1)

But ( ) i
x
g
f
x
g
i f i
x
g
f

. .
( )

\ i
x
g
f
x
g
i f i
x
g
f . .

( )

=
x
g
i f
x
g
i f .

( )

x
g
i f
x
g
i f i
x
g
f . .
59
Also ( )
x
f
i g i
x
f
g
x
f
i g
. . .
( )
x
f
i g
x
f
i g i
x
f
g
\ . . .
( )
x
f
i g
x
f
i g i
x
f
g
\

. . .

Using in (1)
( ) ( )

=

x
g
i f
x
g
i f
x
f
i g
x
f
i g g f . . ) . .(
) ( ) . ( ) . ( ) ( g f g f f g f g + + + =

6.2.2 Second order differential operation
The operator
2
is defined as
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x
=
2
is called Laplacian operator
=
z
k
y
j
x
i
j j j
f . ) .(

=
z z y y x x
j j j

2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x
=
f f f

Example 1 : Prove that 0 ) .( = f (or) Curl (grad 0 ) = f
Proof:
z
k
y
j
x
i
=
j j j
f
60
z y x
z y x
k j i
=
j j j
f)

=
x y y x
k j
x z z x
i
z y z y
j j j j j j
2 2 2 2 2 2

0 =
0 ) = f
2. Prove that 0 ) .( = f (or) dir curl 0 = f
Proof:
z
k f
y
j f i f f
+ =
j j
3 2 1

3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f
=

k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 1 3 2 3

k
y
f
x
f
j
x
f
z
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
1 2 3 1 2 3

= \
y
f
x
f
z x
f
z
f
y z
f
y
f
x
f
1 2 3 1 2 3
) .(

y z
f
x z
f
x y
f
z y
f
z x
f
y x
f

=
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
3
2

0 =
0 ) . .( = f
61
3. Prove that
2 2
) 1 (
-
+ =
n n
r n n r
Proof:
n
r f =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z y x r z y x r + + = \ + + =
) .( .
2
f f =

=
z
f
k
y
f
j
x
f
i . ---(1)

n
r f =
r
x
nr
x
r
nr
x
f
n n 1 1 - -
=

2 -
=
n
nxr
r
y
nr
y
r
nr
y
f
n n 1 1 - -
=

2 -
=
n
nyr
r
z
nr
z
r
nr
z
f
n n 1 1 - -
=

2 -
=
n
nzr
[ ] k nzr j nyr i nxr f
n n n 2 2 2
. ) .(
- - -
+ + =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 - - -
n n n
nzr
z
nyr
y
nxr
x

- + + - + +
- =
- - - - - -
1 . ) 2 ( . ) 2 ( 1 . ) 2 (
2 3 2 3 2 3 n n n n n n
r
z
r
r n z r
r
y
r n y r
n
r
r n x n

- + - + - + =
- - - -
r
z
r n z
r
y
r n y
r
r
r n x r n
n n n n 3 3 3 2
) 2 ( . ) 2 ( ) 2 ( 3
[ ]
4 2 4 2 4 2 2
) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( 3
- - - -
- + - + - + =
n n n n
r n z r n y r n x r n
[ ] ) ( ) 2 ( 3
2 2 2 4 2
z y x r n r n
n n
+ + - + =
- -

[ ]
2 4 2
) 2 ( 3 r r n r n
n n - -
- + =
[ ]
2 2
) 2 ( 3
- -
- + =
n n
r n r n
[ ]
2
2 3
-
- + =
n
r n n
2
) 1 ( .
-
+ =
n n
r n n r
2 2
) 1 ( ) (
-
+ = \
n n
r n n r
62

6.3 Let us sum up
So far we have studied the concept of . , y f y f
u r u r u r u r
and y f
u r
. Also the definition of
solenoidal vectors and irrotational vectors.
(1) Find f = x
2
y
2
z
2

(2) Find
f a r e y x f i f
f x i y i z x = + +
u r u r
r r r

6.5. Lesson End Activities

1. Find f if
2 3 2
3 z y y x - = f at (1,-2,-1)
2. Find a unit normal to the surface 4 2
2
= + xz y x at (2,-2,3)
3. If a is a constant vector and r is the position vector of any point (x,y,z), prove that
(i) a r a = ) . ( (ii) 0 ) .( = r a (iii) a r a = ) . ( (iv) a r a 2 ) ( =
4. Find the directional derivative of yz x xz
2 2
4 + at (1,-2,-1) in the direction of
k j i 2 2 - - .
5. Find the maximum directional derivative of
2 2 2
z y x + + at (2,-2,-2)
6. Find the magnitude and the direction of the greatest directional derivative of
zx yz xy + + at (1,1,3)
7. Find the unit vector normal to the surface 0 1 3
2 4
= + + - z xyz x at (1,1,1)
8. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface 25
2 2 2
= + + z y x at the point
(4,0,3)
9. Find the angle of intersection of the surfaces 29
2 2 2
= + + z y x and
0 47 8 6 4
2 2 2
= - - - + + + z y x z y x at (4,-3,2)
10. Find f . and f if k yz j yz x i xy f
2 2 2
3 2 - + = at (1,-1, 1)
11. If , ) ( ) 1 ( k y x j i y x f - - - + + + = prove that 0 ) .( = f f
63
12. Determine the constant a so that the vector
, ) ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( k az x j z y i y x f + + - + + = is solenoidal.
13. Show that the vector k y x j z y x i z y f ) ( ) cos ( ) (sin - + - + + = is irrotational.
14. Find the constants a,b,c so that the vector
k xz a j x z a i z axy f
2 2 3
) 1 ( ) ( ) ( - + - + - = is irrotational
15. Show that , ) 2 4 ( ) 3 3 ( ) 8 2 (
3 2 2 3 2 2
k z x z y j xy y x i z xy x f + + - + + = is not solenoidal
but f xyz g
2
= is solenoidal.
1. Let a be a constant vector. Prove that
(i) a r a 2 ) ( = (ii)
3 3
6 ) .( r r r = (iii) r
r r
r
2 2
2
=
(iv)
4 3
3 1
r r
r =

2. Prove that r nr r
n n 2 -
= where k z j y i x r + + = and r r =
3. Prove that
n n
r n r r ) 3 ( ) .( + =
4. For what value of n, 0 ) .( = r r
n

5. Prove that [ ] 0 ) ( = r r f if f(r) its differentiable
6.7 Sources

64
Lesson 7

Contents
7.0Aim and Objectives
7.1. Integration of Vectors
7.2. Surface Integral
7.3. Volume Integral
7.4 Let us sum up
7.7 References

In this lesson we are going to study about the different types of integrals in vector
calculus (viz) line integral, surface integral and volume integral using the fundamentals
of integration.

7.1. Integration of Vectors
Line Integral
Let ) , , ( z y x f be a vector point function defined through out some region of space
then
c
dr f . is defined as the line integral of f along C. Where C is any curve in that
region.
Also
B
A
r d f . is called the tangential line integral over C from A to B.
Let k f j f i f f
3 2 1
+ + =
k z j y i x r + + =
k dz j dy i dx dr + + =
dz f dy f dx f dr f
3 2 1
. + + = \
65
( )

+ + = \
C C
dz f dy f dx f dr f
3 2 1
.
More over

C
dr f and
C
dr f are also line integrals.
Problems:
1. Evaluate
C
dr f . where
2 3 2
x y along j y i x f = + = from (0,0) to (1,1)
Solution : The limits for x are x = 0 to x = 1
2
x y =
xdx dz 2 = ---(1)
j y i x r + =
j dy i dx dr + =
( ) ) .( .
3 2
j dy i dx j y i x dr f + + =
dy y dx x
3 2
+ =
, 2 .
6 2
xdx x dx x + = using (1)
, 2
7 2
dx x dx x + =

+ = \
1
0
7 2
2 . dx x dx x dr f
C

1
0
1
0
3
8
8
2
3

= x
x

12
7
24
14
8
2
3
1
= = + =
2. If , 20 14 ) 6 3 (
2 2
k xz j yz i y x f + - + = evaluate
C
dr f . where C is a straight line joining
(0,0,0) to (1,1,1)
Solution : Step: Equation of the line joining the points: (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) is
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
x x
x z
y y
x y
x x
x x
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-

66
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
-
=
-
=
- z y x

) (say t z y x = = =
t z t y t x = = = \ , ,
1 ) 1 , 1 , 1 ( , 0 ), 0 , 0 , 0 ( = = t at t At
1 0 = = \ t to t
k z j y i x r + + =
( ) k j i t r + + =
( ) dt k j i dr + + =
( ) k xz j yz i y x f
2 2
20 14 6 3 + + + =
( ) k t j t i t t f
3 2 2
20 14 6 3 + + + = \
3 2 2
20 14 6 3 . t t t t dr f + - + =
t t t 6 11 20
2 3
+ - =
( )

+ - = \
1
0
2 3
6 11 20 . dt t t t dr f
C

3
13
=
7.2. Surface Integral
In order to evaluate surface integrals it is convenient to express them as double
integrals taken over the orthogonal projection of the surface S on the line of coordinate
places. Let S be a given surface. Let f be the vector point function. Let n be the unit
outward drawn normal vector to the surface S. Then the surface integral is defined as
ds n f
S

.
a. If the position is on the xy plane, then the surface integral is
x n
dxdy
n f
R .
.

where R is the orthogonal projection.
67
b. If the Orthogonal projection R is on yz plane then the surface integral is
j n
dydz
n f
R .
.

c. If the Orthogonal projection R is on zx plane then the surface integral is
k n
dzdx
n f
R .
.

Examples:
1. Evaluate ds n f
S

. where k z y j x i z f
2
3 + + = and S is the surface of the
cylinder 16
2 2
= + y x included in the first octant between z =0 and z = 5.
Solution :
y
y
x
x
y x 2 ; 2 ;
2 2
=
+ =
j j
f
y
j
x
i
=
j j
j
j y i x 2 2 + =
2 2
4 4
2 2
y x
j y i x
n
+
+
=
=
f
f

( )
2 2
2
2
y x
j y i x
+
+
=

16
j y i x +
=
( ) j y i x n + =
4
1

Let R be the projection of S on xz plane

j n
dxdz
n f ds n f
R S .
. .

= ---(1)
( ) ) (
4
1
. 3 .
2
j y i x k z y j x i z n f + - + =
68
) (
4
1
xy xz + =
) (
4
1
z y x + =

4
). (
4
1
.
y
j j y i x j n = + =
\using in (1)

+
=
R S
y
z y x
ds n f
4
) (
4
1
. 3

= =
+
5
0
4
0 z z
y
xy xz

= =

+ =
5
0
4
0 z z
dxdz x
y
xz

= =
+
-
=
5
0
4
0 2
16
z z
dxdz x
x
xz

90 =
7.3. Volume Integral
Let V be a volume bounded by a surface suppose f(x,y,z) is a single valued function of
position defined over V.
Then
V
dv z y x f ) , , ( is defined as a volume integral.
If we sub divide the volume V into small cuboids by drawing lines parallel to the
three co-ordinate axes, then dxdydz dv = and the volume integral becomes
V
dxdydz z y x f ) , , (
If f is a vector point function, then
V
dv f
Example: Evaluate
V
dv f where f =45x
2
y and v is the closed region bounded by the
planes
0 , 0 , 0 ; 8 2 2 4 = = = = + + z y x y x
Solution: We have
69

=
-
=
- -
=
=
2
0
2 4
0
2 4 8
0
2
45
x
x
y
y x
z V
ydxdydz x dv f
In the equation , 8 2 2 4 = + + y x
Put y =0, z = 0, 4x = 8
x = 2
2 0 = = \ x to x
Put z = 0,
8 2 2 4 = + + y x
8 2 = + y x
x y 2 8 - =
x y to y 2 8 0 - = = \
Also from
8 2 2 4 = + + y x
y x z 2 4 8 - - =
y x y to z 2 4 8 0 - - = = \

=
- -
-
=
=
2
0
2 4 8
0
2 4
0
2
) (
45
x
y x
x
y V
dxdy y x dv
z
f

- - =
- 2
0
2 4
0
2
) 2 4 8 ( 45 dydx y x x y x
x

-
- - =
2
0
2 4
0
2 2 3 2
) 2 4 8 ( 45
x
dydx y x y x y x

-
-
- - =
2
0
2 4
0
2 4
0
3
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
4
2
8 45
x
x
dx
y
x
y
x
y
x

- - - - - =
2
0
3
3
2 3 2 2
) 2 4 (
3
2 ) 2 4 ( 2 ) 2 4 ( 4 45 dx x
x
x x x x
128 =

70
7.4 Let us sum up
We have studied so far evaluating the line integral surface integrals and volume
integrals, with the fundamentals of integration of vectors.
1. Evaluate
C
dr f . where j y i x f
3 2
+ = and the curve C is the arc of the parabola y = x
2

in the xy plane from (0,0) to (1,1)

12
7
: Ans
2. Evaluate
C
dr f . where j xy i y x f + - = ) (
2 2
and the curve C is the arc of the curve
y=x
3
from (0,0) to (2,8)
21
821
: Ans

3. Evaluate ( )
- ydx xdy around the circle 1

2 2
= + y x
( ) p 2 : Ans
4. Evaluate
C
dr f . where j y x i xy f ) (
2 2
+ + = and the curve C is the arc of the curve
y=x
3
-4 from (2,0) to (4, 12)
( ) 732 : Ans
5. Evaluate ds n f
S

. where k xy j zx i yz f + + = and S is that part of the surface of the
sphere 1
2
2 2
= + + z y x which lies in the first quadrant
8
3
: Ans
7.6. Points for discussion.
1. Evaluate ds n f
S

. where k yz j x i y x f 2 2 ) (
2
+ + + = and S is the surface of the
plane 6 2 2 = + + z y x in the first octant.
( ) 81 : Ans
71
2. Evaluate ds n f
S

. where k j x i y f 2 2 - + = .Where S is the surface of the
plane 6 2 = + y x in the first octant cut off by the plane z = 4.
( ) 108 : Ans

3. If k x j xy i x f 4 2 ) 3 2 (
2
- + - = then evaluate .
V
dv f . Where V is the closed region
bounded by the planes x=0, y=0, z=0, and 2x+2y+z=4.
3
8
: Ans
7.7 References

72
Lesson 8

Contents
8.1Theorems of Gauss, Green and Stokes.
8.2. Examples
8.3 Let us sum up
8.6 References


In this lesson we are going to study about the theorems of gauss, green and
strokes. These theorems help us in evaluating a particular type of integral.

8.1Theorems of Gauss, Green and Stokes.
8.1.1.Greens Theorem: Let R be a closed bounded region in the xy plane whose
boundary C consists of finitely many smooth curves.
Let M and N be continuous function of x and y having continuous partial derivatives
x
N
and
y
M
in R. Then

+ =
C R
Ndy Mdx dxdy
y
M
x
N
) (
8.1.2. Gauss Theorem: Suppose V is the volume bounded by a closed piece wise smooth
surface S. Suppose ) , , ( z y x f = be a vector point function which is continuous and has
continuous first order partial derivatives in V. then
ds n f dv f
S V

= . .
8.1.3.Stokes Theorem: Let S be a piece wise smooth open surface bounded by a piece
wise smooth simple closed curve C. Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous vector point function
which has continuous first order partial derivatives in a region of space which contains S
in its interior. Then
ds n f dr f
S C

= ). ( .
73
8.2. Examples
1. Gauss Theorem : Verify Gauss Theorem for
k xy z j zx y i yz x f ) 4 ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2
- + - + - = taken over the rectangular parallelepiped.
, 0 , 0 , 0 c z b y a x
Solution: Step 1. To find ( )
V
dv f .
k xy z j zx y i yz x f ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2
- + - + - =
; ; ;
2
3
2
2
2
1
xy z f zx x f yz x f - = - = - =
; 2 ; 2 ; 2
3 2 1
z
z
f
y
y
f
x
x
f
=

z y x f 2 2 2 . + + =
( ) z y x + + = 2

+ + =
a b c
V
xdydz d z y x dv f
0 0 0
) ( 2 2 .

+ + =
a b c
xdydz d z y x
0 0 0
) ( 2
[ ]

+ + =
a b
c
dydz z yz xz
0 0
0 2
2
2
[ ]

+ + =
a b
dydz
c
ycy cx
0 0
2
2
2
[ ]

+ + =
a
b
dx y
c
cy cxy
0
0
2
.
2 2
2
2
[ ]

+ + =
a
dx
c
b
c
b bcx
0
2
2
2 2
2

a
a
x bc cx b bcx
0 0
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
+ + =

+ + =
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
abc c ab bc a

74
[ ] c b a
abc
+ + =
2
2
[ ] c b a abc + + = -------(1)

Step 2: To evaluate ds n f
S

.

+ + + + + =
6 5 4 3 2 1
.
S S S S S S S
ds n f
Where
1
S is OAFB, S
2
: GECH; S
3
: AEGF; S
4
: OBHC; S
5
: OCEA; S
6
: HBFG
To evaluate
1
S
Put z = 0 in f
k n in z - = = 0 k xy f - =

= =
= \
b
y
a
x OAFB
xydxdz
0 0
) .( . k k xy n f - - =

=
b
y
a
dy
y x
0 0
2
2
xy =

=
b
y
ydy a
2
2
1

2 2
0
2
2
4
1
2 2
1
b a
y
a
b
=
=
To evaluate S
2
O
B
F
A
E
C
H
G
Y
X
Z
75
k n c z ds n f
S GECH
= = =

2
; .

) ( .
2
xy c n f - = \

= =
- =
b
y
a
x S
dxdz xy c
0 0
2
) (
2

- =
b
y
a
dy
y x
x c
0 0
2
2
2

- =
b
y
dy
y a
a c
0
2
2
2

b
y a
ay c
0
2
2
2 2

- =

4
2 2
2
b a
abc - =
To evaluate

=
3
.
S AEGF
ds n f
i n a x = = ;
) ( .
2
yz x n f - + =

2 2
) ( a yz yz a + - = - + =

= =
+ - = \
b
y
c
z S
dzdy a yz
0 0
2
) (
3

+ - =
b
y
c
dz z a
yz
0 0
2
2
2

+ - =
b
y
dy c a
y
c
0
2
2
2

b
cy a
y c
0
2
2 2
4

+ - =
bc a
c b
2
2 2
4
+ - =
76
To evaluate

=
4
.
S OBHC
ds n f
i n x - = = ; 0
) ).( 3 ( .
2 2
i k j y i yz n f - + + - + =
yz + =

= =
+ = \
b
y
c
z S
yzdzdy
0 0
4

= =
+ =
+ =
b
y
b
y
c
dy
yc
dz
yz
0
2
0 0
2
2 2

b
y c
0
2 2
2 2

+ =

4
2 2
c b
+ =
To evaluate

=
5
.
S OCEA
ds n f
j n y - = = ; 0
) ).( ( .
2 2
j k z j zx i x n f - + - =
zx + =

= =
= \
c
z
a
x S
zxdxdz
0 0
5

=
c
z
a
dz
zx
0 0
2
2

=
c
zdz a
0
2
2
1

c
z
a
0
2
2
2 2
1
=

4
2 2
c a
=
77
To Find

b y j n ds n f
S HBFG
= = =

6
; .
zn b n f - = \
2
.

= =
- = \
c
z
a
x S
dxdz zx b
0 0
2
) (
6

- =
c
z
a
dz
zx
x b
0 0
2
2
2

- =
c
z
dz
z a
a b
0
2
2
2

c
z a
az b
0
2 2
2
2 2

- =

4
2 2
2
c a
ac b - =
4 4 4 4 4 4
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
6 5 4 3 2 1
c a
ac b
c a c b
bc a
c b b a
abc
b a
S S S S S S
- + + - + + - +
=
+ + + + + \

c ab bc a abc
2 2 2
+ + =
) ( c b a abc + + =
\ Gauss Theorem is verified.
2. Stokes theorem:

=
S
ds n f dr f ). ( .
Problem verify strokes theorem for
k z y j yz i y x f
2 2
) 2 ( - - - = where S is the upper half surface of the sphere
1
2 2 2
= + + z y x and C is its boundary
Solution: Step 1: The boundary C of its a circle in the xy plane of radius = 1 and centre
at the origin.
1
2 2
= + y x
78
, 0 ; sin ; cos = = = \ z t y t x
, 0 ; sin ; cos = = = \ z t y t x
p 2 0 to t =
k z y j yz i y x f
2 2
) 2 ( - - - =
zdz y dy yz dx y x dr f
2 2
) 2 ( . - - - =
t x cos = t y sin = z = 0
dt t dx sin - = dt t dy cos = dz = 0

- - =
p 2
0
) sin )( sin cos 2 ( . dt t t t dr f

+ - =
p 2
0
2
) sin cos sin 2 ( dt t t t

+ =
p p 2
0
2
0
2
(sin cos sin 2 ( dt t dt t t

- + - =
p p 2
0
2
0
) 2 cos 1 (
2
1
2 (sin dt t dt t

- +
-
- =

p p
p
2
0
2
0
2
0
2 cos
2
1
2
2 cos
dt t dt
t

p 2
0
2
2 sin
2
1
) 1 1 (
2
1
- + - =
t
t
[ ] ) 0 ( ) 0 25 (
2
1
- - =

= p dr f .
Step 2: To evaluate

S
ds n f ). (
k z y j yz i y x f
2 2
) 2 ( - - - =
k f j f i f
3 2 1
+ + =
z y f yz f y x f
2
3
2
2 1
2 - = - = - =
79
0 2 1
3 2 1
=
- =
- =
x
f
yz
z
f
y
f

yz
y
f
x
f
z
f
2 0 0
3 2 1
- =

3 2 1
f f f
z y x
k j i
f
=
.
1 2 3 3 2 3
k
y
f
x
f
j
z
f
x
f
i
z
f
y
f
=
( ) ( ) ( ) . 1 0 0 0 k j i xyz xyz + + - - + - =
k =
k f = \
Here k n =
( ) ( ) ds k f ds n f
S S

= \ . .
ds k k
S
= .

= =
S S
ds p
\ Stokes theorem is verified.

Greens Theorem:

+ =
C R
Ndy Mdx dxdy
y
M
x
N

Verify Greens theorem in the plane for dy x dx y xy
C
2 2
) ( + +
where C is the closed curve

of the region bounded by y = x and y = x
2

80
Solution : Step 1

x
x
N
x y
y
M
x N y xy M
2 2
2 2
=
+ =
= = =

x y = ---(1) and
2
x y = ---(2)

(1) and (2) intersect at (0,0) and (1,1)

1 0 = = \ x to x
x to x y
2
=
[ ]dydx y x x dxdy
y
M
x
N
x
x
x y R

= =
- - =
1
0
2
2 2
[ ]dydx y x
x
x
x y

= =
- =
1
0
2
2
[ ] dx y xy
x
x x
2
1
0
2
=
- =
( ) [ ]
- - - =
1
0
4 3 2 2
) ( dx x x x x
( )
- =
1
0
3 4
dx x x

20
1
4
1
5
1
4 5
1
0
4 5
- = - =
- =
x x

Step 2: To evaluate
+
C
Ndy Mdx

xdx dy
x y
2
2
=
=

x
y
y = x
2

y = x
(1,1)
0
81

Along y = x
2

dx dy x y = = ,
1 0 = = x to x
[ ] dx x dx x x x
2
1
0
2
. + + =
+ + =
1
0
2 2 2
) ( dx x x x
=
1
0
2
3 dx x
1
3
3
3
0
1
- =
= x
\ The required integral =
20
1
1
20
19
- = -

\ Greens Theorem is verified

8.3. Let us sum up
So far we have seen the verification of gauss, stokes and greens theorem. For
example if we want to evaluate.

f mdn+nly, we can use greens theorem depending on the problem given.

1. State Greens theorem
2. State Gauss theorem
3. State Stokes theorem

1. Verify Greens theorem in a plane with respect to
+ - xydy dx y x 2 ) (
2 2
Where C
is the boundary of the rectangle in the xoy plane bounded by the lines x = o, x =
a, y = o, y = b (Ans: 2ab
2
)

2. Verify Greens Theorem for
- + - dy xy y dx y x ) 6 4 ( ) 8 3 (
2 2
Where C is the
boundary of the region defined by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1. (Ans: 5/3)

82
3. Use Greens theorem in a plane to evaluate
- + - dy y x dx y x ) ( ) 2 ( where C is
the boundary of the circle x
2
+y
2
= a
2
in xoy plane.

4. Use Greens theorem in a plane to evaluate
+ + + dy y x dx y x ) ( ) 1 (
3 3 2
Where C
is the square formed by x = 1 and y = 1.

5. Verify Greens theorem in a plane with respect to
- ) (
2
xydy dx x Where C is the
boundary of the square formed by x = 0, y = 0, x = a , y = a

6. Verify Gauss divergence theorem for k xy z j zx y i yz x f ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2
- + - + - = and
the closed surface of the rectangular parallel piped formed by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0,
y = 2, z = 0, z = 3.

7. Verify divergence theorem for k yz j y i xz f + - = 4 when S is a closed surface of
the cube formed by x = o, x = 1, y = o, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1.

8. Use divergence theorem to evaluate
+ +
S
ds k z j x i yz ). 2 2 (
2 2 2
Where S is the
closed surface boundary by the xoy plane and the upper half of the sphere
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + + above this plane

9. Use divergence theorem to evaluate
+ -
S
ds k z j y i x ). 2 4 (
2 2
Where S is the
closed surface bounded by the cylinder 4
2 2
= + y x and the planes z = 0 and z = 3.
(April 2004)

10. Verify gausss theorem for k z j yz i xz f
2
2 + + = over the upper half of the
sphere
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + + (April 2005)

8.6. Points for discussion

1. Verify divergence theorem for k xy z j zx y i yz x f ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2
- + - + - = taken over
the rectangular parallellopiped b y a x 0 , 0 (November 2006)

2. Using gauss theorem find the value of ds n f .
where k zx j yz i xy f
2 2
+ + = and
S is the surface bounded by x = 0,x = 1, y = 0, y =2, z = 0, z = 3 (November 2005)

83
3. Verify gauss theorem for k yz j y i xz f - + =
2
4 over the cube x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y
= 1, z = 0, z = 1 (November 2000)

4. Verify Stokes theorem for k y j z i x f
2 2
+ + = over the surface x + y + z = 1
lying in the first octant. (November 2000)

5. Verify Stokes theorem for k z y j yz i y x f
2 2
) 2 ( + - - = Where S is the upper half
of the sphere 1
2 2 2
= + + z y x and C its boundary (April 2004)

6. Verify stokes theorem for the function
2 2
2 a k z j yz i y f = + + - = and C its
boundary (April 2005)

7. Verify stokes theorem for the function k xz j y i y f + - =
2
and for the surface S
which is upper half of the sphere
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + + and 0 z (November 2004
Bharathiar)

8. Verify stokes theorem for k y j z i x f
2 2
+ + = over the surface 1 = + + z y x lying
in the first octant (November 2000: Bharathiyar)

9. Verify stokes theorem for j y x i x x f ) ( ) 2 (
2 2 2
- - - = and C is the boundary of
the region enclosed by the parabolas y
2
= x and x
2
= y (Ans:
5
3
- )

10. Verify stokes theorem to evaluate
dr f . where j x i y x f cos ) (sin - - = and C is

the boundary of the triangle. Whose vertices are (0,0), ( ) 0 ,
2
p
and ( ) 1 ,
2
p

Ans: ( )
p
p 2
4
+
8.7 References


84

Unit III
Lesson - 9

Fourier Series

Contents
9.1 Fourier Series
9.2. Examples
9.3 Let us sum up
9.5 Lesson-End activities
9.6 References


In this lesson we are going to study about the fourier series which is a
trigonometric series defined in various intervals (viz) (0,2B) (-B , B ) (0,2l), (- l,l) and
cosine and sine series of f(x) defined in (o,l).

9.1 Fourier Series:

A trigonometric expression of the form

=
+ + =
1 1
sin cos
2
) (
n n
nx bn nx an
an
x f is
called a Fourier expansion of f(x) where f(x) is defined in a specified internal. a
0
, a
n
, b
n

are called Fourier Coefficients:
Model :1
Let f(x) be defined in the interval ) 2 , 0 ( p . Then its fourier expansion is given by

1 1
( ) c o s s i n
2
n n
a o
f x a n n x b n n x

= =
= + +

--(1)

Where
=
p
p
2
0
0
) (
1
dx x f a
85

=
p
p
2
0
cos ) (
1
nxdx x f a
n

=
p
p
2
0
sin ) (
1
nxdx x f b
n

9.2. Examples
1. Determine a fourier series for f(x) = x
2
in (0,2p )

Step 1: To find a
0

3
8
3
8
.
1
3
1 1
2 3
2
0
3 2
0
2
0
p p
p p p
p
p
= =
= =

x
dx x a

=
p
p
2
0
2
cos
1
nxdx x a
n

n
nx
V u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
sin
2
sin
1
cos 2
cos
1
cos
11
2
2
1
2
1
2
= =
- = = =
- = = =

[ ] - - - - - + - = \
2
11
1
1
1
j j j
p
u u u a
n

p
p
2
0
2 2
2
sin
1
. 2 cos
1
2
sin 1
-
+
-
- = nx
n
nx
n
x
n
nx x

p
p
2
0
2 2
2
sin
2
cos
2 sin 1
- + = nx
n
nx n
n n
nx x

[ ]
= 0 1 2
2 1
2
p
p n

2 2
4 4
n n
= =
p
p

2
4
n
a
n
=

To find b
n

86
=
p
p
2
0
2
sin
1
nxdx x b
n

n
nx
V u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
cos
2
sin
1
sin 2
sin
1
sin
11
3
2
1
2
1
2
- = =
- = = =
- = = =

[ ]
- = \ udv uv b
n
p
1

p
p
2
0
3 2
2
cos
1
. 2 sin
1
2 cos
1 1
-
-
- = nx
n
nx
n
x nx
n
x

p
p
2
0
2 2
2
cos
2
sin
2 cos 1
+ +
-
= nx
n
nx x
n n
nx x

+ - =
3 3
2
2 2
) 4 (
1 1
n n n
p
p

- + - =
3 3
2
2 2 4 1
n n n
p
p

n
b
n
p 4 -
=
\using in (1)

=
- + =
1 1
2
2
sin
4
cos
4
2
3
8
) (
n n
nx
n
nx
n
x f
p
p

=
- + =
1 1
2
2 sin
4
cos
4
3
4
n n
n
nx
n
nx
p
p

Model 2:

Let f(x) be a function of x defined in ) , ( p p - . Then its Fourier expansion is given
by

=
+ + =
1 1
0
sin cos
2
) (
n n
nx bn nx an
a
x f
87

Where
-
=
p
p
p
dx x f a ) (
1
0

-
=
p
p
p
nxdx x f a
n
cos ) (
1

-
=
p
p
p
nxdx x f b
n
sin ) (
1

Example: ) , ( ; ) (
2
p p - + = x x x f

-
=
p
p
p
dx x f a ) (
1
0

-
+ =
p
p
p
dx x x ) (
1
2

+ =

- -
p
p
p
p
p
dx x xdx
2
1

=
- - p p
p 3 2
1
3 2
x x

( )
- - + = ) (
3
1
0
1
3 3
p p
p

3
2
2 .
3
1
.
1
2
3
p
p
p
= =

-
=
p
p
p
nxdx x f a
n
cos ) (
1

-
+ =
p
p
p
nxdx x x cos ) (
1
2

88
n
nx
V u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x x u
sin
2
sin
1
sin 2 1
cos
1
cos
11
3
2
1
2
1
2
= =
- = = + =
- = = + =

+ =

- -
p
p
p
p
p
dx x xdx
2
1

=
- - p p
p 3 2
1
3 2
x x

( )
- - + = ) (
3
1
0
1
3 3
p p
p

3
2
2 .
3
1
.
1
2
3
p
p
p
= =
-
=
p
p
p
nxdx x f a
n
cos ) (
1

-
+ =
p
p
p
nxdx x x a
n
cos ) (
1
2

n
nx
V u
nx
n
V x u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x x u
sin
2
sin
1
2 1
cos
1
cos
11
3
2
1
2
1
2
= =
= + =
- = = + =

[ ] - - - - - + - = \
2
11
1
1
1
j j j
p
u u u a
n

p
p
p
-
-
+
-
+ - + = nx
n
nx
n
x
n
nx
x x sin
1
. 2 cos
1
) 2 1 (
sin
) (
1
3 2
2
]
- + + + =
-
p
p
p
nx
n
nx x
n n
nx
x x sin
2
cos ) 2 1 (
1 sin
) (
1
3 2
2

- - + -
- - + + =
n n
n n
) 1 )( 2 1 (
1
0 0 ) 1 )( 2 1 (
1
0
1
2 2
p p
p

89
+ - +
-
= ) 2 1 2 1 (
) 1 ( 1
2
p p
p n
n

2 2
4 ) 1 ( 4 ) 1 (
n n
n n
-
=
-
=
p
p

2
4 ) 1 (
n
a
n
n
-
= \
-
=
p
p
p
nxdx x f b
n
sin ) (
1

-
+ =
p
p
p
nxdx x x sin ) (
1
2

n
nx
V u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x u
nx
n
V nxdx dv x x u
cos
2
cos
1
sin 2 1
sin
1
sin
11
3
2
1
2
1
2
-
= =
= = + =
- = = + =

[ ]
- = udv uv b
n
p
1

p
p
p
-
-
+ -
- + = nx
n
nx
n
x
n
nx
x x cos
1
. 2 sin
1
) 2 1 (
cos
) (
1
3 2
2

p
p
p
-
+ + + + - = nx
n
nx x
n n
nx
x x cos
2
sin ) 2 1 (
1 cos
) (
1
3 2
2

- + +
- + -
- -
- + +
- +
- =
n
n
n
n
n n n n
) 1 (
2
0
) 1 )( (
) 1 (
2
0
) 1 )( ( 1
3
2
3
2
p p p p
p

- - - + - + - -
-
=
n n
n
n n n
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
2
) (
) 1 ( 1
3 3
2 2
p p p p
p

-
-
= ) 2 (
) 1 ( 1
p
p n
n

n n
n
n
) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
2 - -
= -
-
=
p
p

90

- - + = \
1
2
2
sin
2
cos
4
) 1 (
3
) (
n
n
nx
n
nx
n
x f
p

Model 3: Change of Interval:

Let f(x) be a function of x defined in the interval (0, 2l). Then its fouriers
expansion is

+ =
1 1
0
sin cos
2
) (
n n
l
x n
bn
l
x n
an
a
x f
p p

Where
=
l
dx x f
l
a
2
0
0
) (
1

=
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f
l
a
2
0
cos ) (
1 p

=
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f b
2
0
sin ) (
1 p
p

Problem:

Determine a fourier series for

l x
l
x
x f < < = 0 ; ) (

l x l
l
x l
2 ;
2
< <
-
=

+ =
1 1
0
sin cos
2
) (
n n
l
x n
bn
l
x n
an
a
x f
p p

=
l
dx x f
l
a
2
0
0
) (
1

+ =

L l
dx x f dx x f
0
2
0
) ( ) (

-
+ =

L l
dx
l
x l
dx
l
x
l
0
2
0
2 ) 1

91
- +
=
l
l
l
x
lx
x
l
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2
1

- -
- + =
2
2 (
2
4
4
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
l
l
l
l
l
l

- + =
2
3
2
4
2
1
2 2 2
2
l l l
l

1
2
2
.
1
2 2
1
2
2
2 2
2
= =
+ =
l
l
l l
l

1
0
= a
To find a
n

=
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f
l
a
2
0
cos ) (
1 p

-
+
=

L l
dx
l
x n
l
x l
dx
l
x n
l
x
l
0
2
0
cos
2
cos
1 p p

[ ]
2 1
2
1
I I
l
+ = --------(1)

- = =
L l
dx
l
x n
x l I dx
l
x n
l
x
I
0
2
0
2 1
cos ) 2 ( ; cos
p p

To find I
1

Integrate by Parts

=
= =
= =

l
x n
n
v
dx
l
x n
dv u
dx
l
x n
dv x u
p
p
p
p
sin
1
cos 1
cos
1

- = \ vdx uv I
1

92

dx
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
n
l
x
l
l
=
0 0
sin sin .
p
p
p
p

l
l
n
l
x n
n
l
0
cos
-
- =
p
p
p

[ ] 1 ) (cos(
2 2
2
- - = p
p
n
n
l

[ ] 1 ) 1 (
2 2
2
- - - =
n
n
l
p

To find I
2

- =
l
dx
l
x n
x l I
2
0
2
cos ) 2 (
p

=
= - =
- = - =

l
x n
n
v
dx
l
x n
dv u
dx dv x l u
p
p
p
sin
1
cos 1
2
1

- = \ vdx uv I
1

) ( sin sin ) 2 (
2
2
dx
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
n
l
x l
l
l
l
l
-
- =

p
p
p
p

l
l
l
x n
n
l
2
sin

=
p
p

l
l
l
x n
n
l
2
2 2
2
cos

=
p
p

{ } p p
p
n n
n
l
cos 2 cos
2 2
2
- - =

[ ]
n
n
l
) 1 ( 1
2 2
2
- - - =
p

93
\using in (1)

- - - - - = ) ) 1 ( 1 ( ) 1 ) 1 ((
1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
n n
n
n
l
n
l
l
a
p p

[ ]
n n
n
l
l
) 1 ( 1 1 ) 1 ( .
1
2 2
2
2
- + - - - =
p

[ ] 2 ) 1 ( 2
1
2 2
- - =
n
n p

[ ] 1 ) 1 (
2
2 2
- - =
n
n
n
a
p

When n is even, a
n
= 0

When n is odd,
2 2 2 2
4
) 2 (
2
p p n n
a
n
-
= - =

Step 3: To find b
n

=
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f
l
b
2
0
sin ) (
1 p

=

l l
dx
l
x n
x f dx
l
x n
x f
l
0
2
0
sin ) ( sin ) (
1 p p

=

l l
dx
l
x n
x f dx
l
x n
x
l
0
2
0
2
sin ) ( sin
1 p p

[ ]
4 3
2
1
I I
l
+ = --------(2)

Where

- =
=
l l
l
dx
l
x n
x l I dx
l
x n
x I
0
2
4 3
sin ) 2 ( ; sin
p p

=
l
dx
l
x n
x I
0
3
sin
p

94
l
x n
n
l
v
l
x n
n
l
v dx du
dx
l
x n
dv u
dx
l
x n
dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
sin ; cos
sin 1
sin
2 2
2
1
1
-
- =
- = =
= =
= =

.......
1
1
3
+ - = v u uv I

l
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
n
l
x
0
2 2
2
sin . 1 cos

-
-
- =
p
p
p
p

l
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
x
n
l
x
0
2 2
2
sin cos

- =
p
p
p
p

[ ] [ ]
- + - - = 0 ) 0 ) 1 ( (
2 2
n
l
n
l
p

n
n
l
) 1 (
2
-
-
=
p

- =
l
l
dx
l
x n
x l I
2
4
sin ) 2 (
p

l
x n
n
l
v
l
x n
n
l
v
dx
l
x n
dv u
dx
l
x n
dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
sin ; cos
sin 1
sin 21
2 2
2
1
1
-
=
- =
= - =
= - =

.......
1
1
3
+ - = v u uv I

l
l
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
n
x l
2
2 2
2
sin . 1 cos
1
) 2 (

-
-
- - =
p
p
p
p

l
l
l
x n
n
l
l
x n
x l
n
l
2
2 2
2
sin cos ) 2 (

- - =
p
p
p
p

95
[ ]
- - - - - = 0 ) cos( ) 0 0 (
2 2
2
p
p
n
n
l

n
n
l
n
n
l
) 1 ( cos
2 2
- = =
p
p
p

Using in (2)

0 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
1
2 2
2
=
- + -
-
=
n n
n
n
l
n
l
l
b
p p

0 =
n
b
- =
5 , 3 , 1
2 2
cos
4
2
1
) (
n
l
x n
n
x f
p
p

=
5 , 3 , 1
2
cos
4
.
2
1
l
x np
p

Model 4:
Let f(x) be a function of x defined the interval ) , ( l l - . Then its fourier series is

+ =
1 1
0
sin cos
2
) (
n n
l
x n
bn
l
x n
an
a
x f
p p

Where
-
=
l
l
dx x f
l
a ) (
1
0

=
l
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f
l
a
p
cos ) (
1

=
l
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f b
p
p
sin ) (
1

Problem: Determine a fourier series for f(x) = x
2
in (-1,1)

Here l = 1

( ) ( )

=
+ + =
1 1
0
sin cos
2
) (
n n
x n bn x n an
a
x f p p
3
2
3
) 1 (
3
1
3
3 3
1
1
3 1
1
2
0
=
-
- =
= =
-
-
x
dx x a

96
-
=
1
1
2
cos xdx n x a
n
p
x n
n
v x n
n
v u
n
x n
v x u
xdx n dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
sin
1
; cos
1
2
sin
2
cos
3 3
2
2 2
1
11
1
2
- = - = =
= =
= =

.......
2
11
1
1
v u v u uv a
n
+ - =

1
1
3 3 2 2
2
sin
1
2 cos
1
2
sin
-
- +
- - = x n
n
x n
n
x
n
x n x
p
p
p
p p
p

1
1
3 3 2 2
2
sin
2
cos
2 sin
-
- + = x n
n
x n x
n n
x n x
p
p
p
p p
p

- - -
- + = 0 cos
2
0 0 cos
2
0
2 2 2 2
p
p
p
p
n
n
n
n

p
p
p
p
n
n
n
n
cos
2
cos
2
2 2 2 2
+ =
p
p
n
n
cos
4
2 2
=

2 2 2 2
4 ) 1 (
) 1 (
4
p p n n
n
n
-
= - =

To find b
n
:

-
=
1
1
sin ) ( xdx n x f b
n
p
-
=
1
1
2
sin xdx n x p
x n
n
v x n
n
v u
x n
n
v x u
xdx n dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
cos
1
; sin
1
2
cos
1
2
sin
3 3
2
2 2
1
11
1
2
= - = =
- = =
= =

97
......
3
111
2
11
1
1
+ + + - = \ j j j j u u u u b
n

1
1
3 3 2 2
2
cos
1
2 sin
1
2 cos
1
-
- -
- = x n
n
x n
n
x x n
n
x p
p
p
p
p
p

1
1
3 3 2 2
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
1
-
+ + - = x n
n
x n x
n
x n x
n
p
p
p
p
p
p

-
+ + - -
- + + - - =
3 3 3 3
) 1 ( 2
0 cos
1
) 1 (
2
0 ) 1 (
1
p
p
p p p n
n
n n n
n
n n

n n
n
n
n n n
) 1 (
2
cos
1 2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1
3 3 3 3
- - + - + - - =
p
p
p p p

0 =
n
b

( )
=
- + = \
1
2 2
cos
4
) 1 (
3
1
) (
n
n
x n
n
x f p
p

Model 5: Cosine series and sine series

a). Let f(x) be a function defined in the interval (0,l) then its cosine series is defined

+ =
1
0
cos
2
) (
n
l
x n
an
a
x f
p

=
l
dx x f
l
a
0
0
) (
2

=
l
n
dx
l
x n
x f
l
a
0
cos ) (
2 p

b. Its sine series is
=
l
x n
bn x f
n
p
sin ) (
1

Where dx
l
x n
x f
l
a
l
=

p
0
0
sin ) (
2

Examples

1. Determine a cosine series for . 1 0 ; ) 1 ( ) (
2
< < - = x in x x f

Here l = 1

98
x n an
a
x f p cos
2
) (
1
0
+ =

- = =
1
0
1
0
2
0
) 1 ( 2 ) ( 2 dx x dx x f a
1
0
3
3
) 1 (
2

-
=
x

3
2
) 1 0 (
3
2
= + =

=
l
n
xdx n x f a
0
cos ) ( 2 p
- =
l
xdx n x
0
2
cos ) 1 ( 2 p

x n
n
v
x n
n
v
n
x n
v u
xdx n dv x u
xdx n dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
sin
3
1
cos
1
sin
2
cos ) 1 ( 2
cos ) 1 (
3
2
2 2
1
11
1
2
- =
- =
= =
= - =
= - =

[ ] .......... 2
2
11
1
1
j j j u u u a
n
+ - =
1
0
3 3 2 2
2
sin
1
2 cos
1
) 1 )( 2 (
sin
) 1 ( 2

- +
- - - - = x n
n
x n
n
n
n
x n
x p
p
p
p p
p

1
0
3 3 2 2
2
sin
2
cos ) 1 (
2 sin
) 1 ( 2

- - + - = x n
n
x n n
n n
x n
x p
p
p
p p
p

[ ]
- - - - + + = 0 1
2
0 0 0 2
2 2
p n

2 2
4
p n
a
n
=

=
+ = \
1
2 2
cos
4
3
1
) (
n
x n
n
x f p
p

99
b) Sine series

). 1 , 0 ( ; ) 1 ( ) (
2
- = x x f

; sin ) (
1

l
x n
bn x f
p

Here l = 1
( )
- = \
1
0
2
sin ) 1 ( 2 dx x n x b
n
p
x n
n
v
x n
n
v
n
x n
v u
xdx n dv x u
xdx n dv x u
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
cos
3
1
sin
1
cos
2
sin ) 1 ( 2
sin ) 1 (
3
2
2 2
1
11
1
2
=
- =
-
= =
= - =
= - =

[ ] .......... 2
2
11
1
1
j j j u u u b
n
+ - =
- - -
- - = x n
n
x n
n
n x n
n
x p
p
p
p
p
p
cos
1
2 sin
1
) 1 ( 2 cos
1
) 1 ( 2
3 3 2 2
2

1
0
3 3 2 2
2
cos
2
sin
) 1 ( 2
cos ) 1 (
1
2
+
-
+ - - = x n
n
x n
n
n
x n x
n
p
p
p
p
p
p

+ + -
+ + =
3 3 3 3
2
0
1
cos
2
0 0 2
p p
p
p n n
n
n

- - =
3 3 3 3
2
) 1 (
2
2
p p n n
n

[ ] 1 ) 1 (
4
3 3
- - =
n
n
n
b
p

When n is even, b
n
= 0
When n is odd,
3 3
8
p n
b
n
-
=

=
+ - = \
,.... 5 , 3 , 1
3 3
sin
1 8
) (
n
x n
n
x f p
p

100
9.3. Let us sum up
We studied so far in finding fourier series in the intervals (0,2B),(-B,B), (0,2l),
(-l,l) etc.,
Due care should be taken in finding a
n
and b
n
while for use the formula
Bernonllis formula on Integration by parts.

(1) Find a
0
if f(x) =x; (0,2B)
(2) Find b
n
if f(x) = x2 (-B,B)
(3) Find an if f(x) = a, (0,2l) where a is a constant


1. If , 0 , 1 ) ( p < < = x x f
, 2 , 1 p p < < - = x prove that

=
=
,.... 5 , 3 , 1
3
sin 4
) (
n
n
nx
x f
p

2. If ), 2 ( ) ( n x x f - = p show that
) 2 , 0 ( ; cos
1
4
3
2
) (
1
2
2
p
p
=
- =
n
nx
n
x f
3. If , 0 , ) ( p < < = x R x f
, 2 , p p < < - = x R
Prove that

=
=
,.... 5 , 3 , 1
sin
1 4
) (
n
nx
n
n
x f
p

4. If 0 , 1 ) ( < < - + - = x x x f p
p < < + = x x 0 , 1
Prove that
[ ]
=
+ - - =
1
sin ) 1 ( ) 1 ( 1
1 2
) (
n
n
nx
n
x f p
p


1. 0 , ) ( < < - - = x x f p p
p p < < = x 0 ,
Show that

+ + + -
-
= .......
5
5 cos
3
3 cos
cos
2
4
) (
2 2
x x
x x f
p
p

101
2. 0 , 2 ) ( < < - = x x f p
p < < = x 0 , 4
Prove that

=
+ =
.... 5 , 3 , 1
sin 4
3 ) (
n
n
nx
x f
p

9.7 References

1. Fourier series by S. Narayanan T.K.M. Pillai

102

Lesson 10
Contents

10.0 Aims and Objective
10.1 Analytical Geometry
10.2 Examples
10.3 Let us sum up
10.7 References

In this lesson we are going to learn about the concept of the polar coordinates,
converting the castesian system to polar system, polar of a straight line, circle, a concern.

10.1 Analytical Geometry

10.1.1. Polar coordinates:

We shall study another type of coordinates called polar coordinates to represent
plane curves. By this system of coordinates, any point P is specified by its distance from
a fixed point O and the angle made by the join of P and O with a fixed line out.

The point P is represented by the polar coordinate P(r, ); OP = r is called the
radius vector and is called the vectorial angle. The radius vector is considered positive
if measured from O along the line bounding the vectorial angle and negative in the
opposite direction.
0
A
P

r
Fixed line
0
A
P

r
Fixed line
0
A
P

r
Fixed line
103

10.1.2. Distance between the points (r
1
,
1
) and (r
2
,
2
).

Let the points be P (r
1
,
1
) and Q (r
2
,
2
).

OP = r
1
; OQ=r
2
;
2 1
; q q = = AOQ AOP

1 2
J J - = POQ
In D OPQ, we have

2 2 2
cos . 2 0 PQ POQ OQ OP Q OP = - + (Cosine formula)

2
1 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
) cos( 2 J J J P r r r r = - - +

) cos( 2
1 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
J J - - + = \ r r r r PQ

10.1.3. Area of triangle in polar coordinates

Let O be the pole:Let OA be the initial lline

Let PQR be the triangle whose vertices are P (r
1
,
1
) , Q (r
2
,
2
) and R (r
3
,
3
)

Let OP = r
1
; OQ=r
2
; QR=r
3

0
A
P
1

Q
2

0
A
P
1

Q
2

3

R
104

3 2 1

;
q q q = = = Q O A Q O A P O A

In D OPQ,
1 2
J J - = POQ

\ Area of ) sin( . . .
2
1
1 2
q q - = D OQ OP OPQ
) sin( . . .
2
1
1 2 2 1
q q - = r r
In D QOR,
2 3
J J - = QOR

\ Area of QOR OR OQ QOR sin . . .
2
1
= D
) sin( . . .
2
1
2 3 3 2
q q - = r r
In D OPR,
1 3
J J - = POR

\ Area of POR OR OP OPR sin . . .
2
1
= D
) sin( . . .
2
1
2 3 3 1
q q - = r r

\ Area of = DPQR

= Area of D OPQ + Area of D QOP Area of D OPR

) sin( . . .
2
1
) sin( . . .
2
1
) sin( . . .
2
1
1 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 1
q q q q q q - - - + - = r r r r r r

[ ] ) sin( . . . ) sin( . . . ) sin( . . .
2
1
1 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 1
q q q q q q - - - + - = r r r r r r

10.1.4. Conversion of polar coordinates into Cartesian coordinates

Rule: To convert the Cartesian coordinate (x,y) into polar coordinate.

Put x = r cos ; y = r sin

2 2
y x r + =

=
-
x
y
1
tan q
Equation of a straight in polar coordinates
105

Continue 110 pages:
Consider a straight line AB. Draw a perpendicular from the origin to the line B.
Let this perpendicular make an angle with the x axis.
Then the equation of the straight line AB is
x cos + y sin = r ----(1)
Taking the origin as the pole and the x axis as the initial line
Put x = r cos , y = r sin in (1)

p r r = + a q a q sin sin cos cos

[ ] p r = + a q a q sin sin cos cos

p r = - ) cos( a q

This is the polar equation of a straight line.

Equation of a straight line not passing through the pole.

Consider the equation of the straight line as ax+by+c = 0 ----(1)

Transforming into polar coordinates

Put x = r cos , y = r sin in (1)

0 sin cos = + + c br ar q q
0 sin cos = + +
r
c
b a q q
0
A
B
y
P

N
x
106
K
r
c
b a = - = + q q sin cos where
r
c
K - =
Which is the equation of the line not passing through the pole.
The equation of the line passing through the pole is a = q constant.

Parallel lines:

If the equation of the line is
K b a = + q q sin cos , then the equation of the line parallel to this is
' sin cos K b a = + q q

Perpendicular lines:

Consider the perpendicular lines

Ax+By+C = 0 ----(1) and Bx-Ay-C' = 0 ---(2)

Put x = r cos, y = r sin in (1) & (2)

We get

A cos + B sin = K ----(1)
B cos A sin = K' ----(2)

We observe that the line perpendicular to (1) is obtained by replacing by
q
p
+
2
and K by K'.
Equation of a circle in polar coordinates

P
a
c

l
A
0
107
Let 0 be the pole and OA be the initial line. Let C be the centre of the circle of radius a
units.

Let P be any point on the circle and OP = r; J = P O A

Let c OC let P O A = = ;
a
\ a q - = \ COP

In OCP D

) cos( . . 2
2 2 2
COP OC OC OP OC CP - + =
) cos( 2
2 2 2
a q - - + = cr r c a -----(1)

Cor1: If the pole lies on the circumference on the circle, then c = a

\using in (1)

) cos( 2
2 2 2
a q - - + = ar r a a
) cos( 2
2
a q - = \ ar r
) cos( 2 a q - = \ a r ----(2)

10.1.5. Equation of chord joining the points ) ( ) (
2 1
q q andP P of the circle r = 2acosq
Proof:

Consider the equation of the circle where the pole lies on it and the initial line passes
through the centre of the circle.

The equation of the circle is r = 2acos --(1)

The points ) ( ) (
2 1
q q andP P lie in the circle (1)

P
Q

O
r=2acos
108
\ the radii vectors of P and Q are 2acos
1
, and 2acos
2
respectively

\ ) , cos 2 ( ) , cos 2 (
2 2 1 1
q q q q a Q and a P

Let the equation of the straight line PQ be

c o s ( ) p r q a = - ----(2)

\ The points P,Q lie on (2)

\ ( )
1 1
2 c o s c o s p a q q a = - ----(3)

( )
2 2
2 c o s c o s p a q q a = -

\ ( ) ( ) a q q a q q - = -
2 2 1 1
cos cos 2 cos cos 2 a a

( ) ( ) a q q a q q - = -
2 2 1 1
cos cos 2 cos cos 2

But ) cos( ) cos( cos cos 2 B A B A B A - + + =

a a q q a a q q cos ) cos( cos ) cos(
2 2 1 1
+ - + = + - + \

) 2 cos( ) 2 cos(
2 1
a q a q - = -

a q a q - = - \
2 1
2 2

2 1
q q \ Taking negative sign ) 2 ( 2
2 1
a q a q - - = -

a q a q + - = -
2 1
2 2

a q q 2 2 2
2 1
= +

a q q = +
2 1

Sub in (3)

1 1 1 2
2 c o s c o s ( ) p a q q q q = - -

) cos( cos 2
2 1
q q - = a

1 2
2 c o s c o s p a q q =
109

Substitute the value of ** and in (2) the equation of PQ is

) cos( cos cos 2
2 1 2 1
q q q q q - - = r a ---------(A)

Cor 1: To find the equation of the tangent at

Put a q q = =
2 1
in (A)

( ) a q a a 2 cos cos . cos 2 - = r a

( ) a q a 2 cos cos 2
2
- = r a

( ) a a q
2
cos 2 2 cos a r = - \

10.1.6.Polar equation of conic

X

Let S be the focus and SX be the initial line
Let XM be the directrix. Let e be the eccentricity of the conic
Draw SX perpendicular to the directrix..
Let P be any point on the conic
Let P be (r,)
Let SP = r; XSP =
Draw PM perpendicular the directrix.
PN perpendicular the initial line.
L
L '

M
P
A N
S

r
110
Let LSL' be the latus rectum of the conic.
L is a point on the conic.
\By the definition of the conic,

e
SX
SL
=

SX e SL . =

But l SL =

SX e l . = \

e
l
SX =
Also P is a point on the conic

\ e
PM
SP
=

PM e SP . =

NX e. =

) ( SN SX e - = ---(1)

But
e
l
SX =
In
SP
SN
SPN = D q cos ,

c o s
S N
r
q =

c o s S N r q \ =

\ using in (1)

c o s
l
r e r
e
q

= -

c o s r l e r q = -
111
c o s r e r l q + =
( 1 c o s ) r e l q + =
1 c o s
l
e
r
q = +
Note: Let SX makes an angle with the initial line SA, then the radius vector SP makes
an angle a q - with the initial line

\ The equation of the conic in this case is 1 c o s ( )
l
e
r
q a = + -

Note 2: Directrix corresponding to the poles.

Let Q (r, ) be any point on the directrix.

\ In
SQ
SX
SQX = D q cos ;

q cos SQ SX = \

q cos r =

But
e
l
SX =

q cos r
e
l
= \
X
Q
S
V
r
112

q cos e
r
l
= \
Note 3: Consider the equation of the conic ) cos( cos a q q - + = e e
r
l

\Equating of the corresponding directrix is ) cos( a q - = e
r
l

10.1.7.Equation of the chord joining the points ) ( b a - A and ) ( b a + B of the conic
q cos 1 e
r
l
+ =

Solution: The equation of the conic is q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = (1)

Let A and B be two points on the conic (1) whose vectorial angles are - and +
respectively.

The equation of any chord not passing through the pole is
q q cos ' cos ' B A
r
l
+ = -----(2)

The points A(SA, -) and B (SB, +) lie on (1) and (2)

S
A
B
+
-
S
113
) cos( 1 b a - + = \ e
SA
l
----(2)

) cos( 1 b a + + = e
SB
l
----(3)
Also
) sin( ' ) cos( ' b a b a - + - = B A
SA
l
----(4)

) sin( ' ) cos( ' b a b a + + + = B A
SB
l
----(5)

From (2) and (3)

) sin( ' ) cos( ' ) cos( 1 b a b a b a - + - = - + B A e

1 ) sin( ' ) cos( ) ' ( = - + - - \ b a b a B e A ----(6)

From (2) and (5)

) sin( ' ) cos( ' ) cos( 1 b a b a b a + + + = + + B A e

1 ) sin( ' ) cos( ) ' ( = + + + - \ b a b a B e A ----(7)

Solve (6) and (7)

(6) X sin (+) given

) sin( ) sin( ) sin( ' ) sin( ) cos( ) ' ( b a b a b a b a b a + = + - + + - - B e A

(7) X sin (-) given

) sin( ) sin( ) sin( ' ) sin( ) cos( ) ' ( b a b a b a b a b a - = - + + - + - B e A

Subtracting

[ ] ) sin( ) sin( ) sin( ) cos( ) cos( ) sin( ) ' ( b a b a b a b a b a b a - - + = - + - - + -e A

( ) [ ] b a b a b a sin cos 2 sin ) ' ( = + - + -e A

b
b a
2 sin
sin cos 2
' = - \ e A

114
b b
b a
cos sin 2
sin cos 2
=

b a sec cos ' = -e A

To find B'

(6) X cos (+) given

) cos( ) cos( ) sin( ' ) cos( ) cos( ) ' ( b a b a b a b a b a + = + - + + - - B e A

(7) X cos (-) given

) cos( ) cos( ) sin( ' ) cos( ) cos( ) ' ( b a b a b a b a b a - = - + + - + - B e A

Subtracting

[ ] ) cos( ) cos( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ' b a b a b a b a b a b a - - + = - + - + - B

( ) [ ] b a b a b a sin sin 2 sin ' - = - - - B

b a b sin sin 2 ) 2 sin( ' - = - B

b a b sin sin 2 2 sin ' - = - B

b b
b a
cos sin 2
sin sin 2
' = B

b a sec sin ' = B

b a sec cos ' + = \ e A

Substitute A', B' in (2)

Equation of chord AB is

q b a q b a sin sec sin cos ) sec cos ( + + = e
r
l

q b a q b a q sin sec sin cos sec cos cos + + = e

115
[ ] a q a q b q sin sin cos cos sec cos + + = e

) cos( sec cos a q b q - + = e
r
l
-----(A)

Cor 1:
When 0 = b , the points A and B coincide. Chord AB becomes the tangent at

\ Put 0 = b in (A)

Equation of the tangent at is

) cos( cos a q q - + = e
r
l

BW Equation of the normal at on the conic q cos 1 e
r
l
+ =

Let the equation of the conic be

q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ---(1)

Equation of the tangent at is

r
l
---(2)

\ The equation of the line perpendicular to the line (2) is

- + +
+ = a q
p
q
p
2
cos
2
cos e
r
R

) sin( sin a q q - - - = e e
r
R
---(3)

If this is the normal at P(), then P (SP, ) lies on (3)

a sin e
SP
R
- = ---(4)

P (SP, ) lies on the conic.

116
a cos 1 e
SP
l
+ = \

a cos 1 e
l
SP
+
=

Using in (4)

a
a
cos 1
sin
e
le
R
+
-
=

Using in (3)

Equation of the normal at .

) sin( sin
1
.
cos 1
sin
a q q
a
a
- - - =
+
-
e e
r e
le

) sin( sin
) cos 1 (
sin
a q q
a
a
- + =
+
-
\ e e
e r
le

10.1.8. Properties

1. If the tangent at P to a Conic meets the directrix at K, prove that
0
90
= P S K

Solution :

x
k
P ()
S
directrix
117
Let the equation of the conic be

q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ---(1)

Let P be any point on it whose vectorial angle is

\ The equation of the tangent at P() is

r
l
---(2)

The equation of the directrix is

q cos e
r
l
= ---(3)

Solve (2) and (3)

) cos( cos cos a q q q - + = e e

0 ) cos( = - \ a q

2
p
a q = -

2
p
a q = \

ZSK ZSP KSP = = \

- =
2
p
a a

2
p
= P S K
2. Prove that the tangents at the extremities of any focal chord of a conic q cos 1 e
r
l
+ =
intersect on the corresponding directrix.

Proof: Equation of the conic is q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ---(1)
Let PQ be a focal chord of (1)
Let P be (SP, ). Then Q is (SQ, ) a p +
118
\The tangents at P,Q is
r
l
---(2)

) cos( cos p a q q - - + = e
r
l
---(3)

Let ) , (
1 1
q r be the point of intersection of the tangents at P,Q

) cos( cos
1 1
1
a q q - + = \ e
r
l

and ) cos( cos
1 1
1
p a q q - - + = e
r
l

) cos( cos
1 1
q a p q - + + = e

) cos( cos
1 1
a q q - - = e

1
1
cos 2
2
. q e
r
l
Add = \

, cos 2
1
1
q e
r
l
= \

\ The locus ) , (
1 1
q r is q cos e
r
l
= which is the directrix

3. If the tangents at P and Q on the conic q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = meet at T, then prove the
following
^
a. ST bisects PSQ
b. If PQ intersects the directrix at K, than
0
90
= K S T
c. ST
2
= SP.SQ of the conic in a parabola

119
Solution :

Let the equation of the conic be q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ----(1)
Let P,Q be the points with vectorial angles , respectively. Then equations of the
tangent at P() and Q() are

r
l
---(1)

) cos( cos b q q - + = e
r
l
---(2)

Solve (1) and (2)

) cos( cos ) cos( cos b q q a q q - + = - + e e

) cos( ) cos( b q a q - = - \

) ( ) ( b q a q - = -

Taking ve, sign, b q a q + - = -

b a q + = 2
z
k
P
S
Q
T
120
2
b a
q
+
=

2
b a +
= \ ZST

Proof of (a):
2
, ;
b a
b a
+
= = = ZST ZSQ ZSP

2
2

a b
a
b a
-
=
-
+
= - = \ P S Z T S Z T S P

T S Z Q S Z Q S T

- =
+
- =
2
b a
b

2 2
2 a b b a b -
=
- -
=

Q S T T S P

= \
Is ST bisects Q S P

b) The equation of PQ is

+
-
-
+ =
2
cos
2
sec cos
b a
q
b a
q e
r
l
---(1)

Equation of the directrix is q cos e
r
l
= ---(2)

Let the chord PQ intersect the directrix at K.

\solve (1) and (2)

q
b a
q
b a
q cos
2
cos
2
sec cos e e =
+
-
-
+

0
2
cos
2
sec =
+
-
- b a
q
b a

121

0
2
cos =
+
- \
b a
q
2 2
p b a
q =
+
- \

2 2
p b a
q
+
= \

2 2
p b a

+
= LSK

K S Z T S Z T S K

- =

2 2 2 2
p p b a b a
=

+
-
+
=

c) \ The conic is a parabola, e = 1

\ Equation of the tangent at is

r
l
---(1)
T is
+
2
,
b a
ST

The point T lies on (1)

-
+
+
+
= \ a
b a b a
2
cos
2
cos
ST
l

-
+
+
=
2
cos
2
cos
b a b a

=
2
cos
2
cos 2
b a
ST
l

= \
2
cos
2
cos 2
b a
l
ST
But P, Q lis on q cos 1+ =
r
l

122
b a cos 1
1
; cos 1 + = + = \
SQ SP
l

b a cos 1
;
cos 1 +
=
+
= \
l
SQ
l
SP

) cos 1 )( cos 1 (
.
2
b a + +
=
l
SQ SP

2
cos 2
2
cos 2
2 2
2
b a
l
=

2
cos
2
cos 4
2 2
2
b a
l
=

2
2
2
cos
2
cos 2
=
b a
l

2
ST =
SQ SP ST .
2
= \

10.2. Examples

10.3. Let us sum up
We have studied so far hints to find the equation straight lines, circle, conic in
polar coordinates.
(1) Find the equating the differ box to the conic l/r=1+e cosq
(2) Find the eccentricity of the cosq conic
l/r= 2+4 cosv
1) If PSQ is a focal chord of the conic l/r=1+e cosq, with the focus at
Prove that
1 1 2
s p s q l
+ =
123
2) If a chord of the conic l/r=1+ecos q subtends a right angle at the focus
Prove that
2 2
2
2
1 1 1 1 e
s p e s q e e

- + - =

(1) If the normal at L, one of the extremities of the latus sectum of the conic
l/r=1+e cosq mees the curve again in, Show that

2 4
2 4
( 1 3 )
1
l e e
S Q
e e
+ +
=
+ -

1. In any conic, prove that the sum of reciprocals of two perpendicular focal chord is
constant
Proof: Let the equation of the conic be

q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ---(1)

Let PSP', QSQ' be the perpendicular focal chords of the conic (1)

Let the vectorial angle of P be

Let the vectorial angle of Q be a
p
+
2

Let the vectorial angle of P' be ) ( a p +
Let the vectorial angle of Q' be a
p
+
2
3

a cos 1 e
SP
l
+ = \

S
P'
Q(/2+)
Q'
P()
124
a a
p
sin 1
2
cos 1 e e
SP
l
- =
+ + =
( ) a a p cos 1 cos 1
'
e e
SP
l
- = + + =

a a
p
sin 1
2
3
cos 1
'
e e
SQ
l
- =
+ + =
a cos 1 e
l
SP
+
= \

a cos 1
'
e
l
SP
-
=

a sin 1 e
l
SQ
-
=

a sin 1
'
e
l
SQ
-
=

a a cos 1 cos 1
' '
e
l
e
l
SP SP PP
-
+
+
= + =

[ ]
) cos 1 )( cos 1 (
cos 1 cos 1
a a
a a
e e
e e l
- +
+ + -
=

a
2 2
cos 1
2
e
l
-
=

a a sin 1 sin 1
' '
e
l
e
l
Q S SQ QQ
+
+
-
= + =

[ ]
) sin 1 )( sin 1 (
sin 1 sin 1
a a
a a
e e
e e l
+ -
+ + -
=
a
2 2
sin 1
2
e
l
-
=

l
e
l
e
QQ PP 2
cos 1
2
cos 1
'
1
'
1
2 2 2 2
a a -
+
-
= + \

( ) [ ] a a
2 2 2
sin cos 2
2
1
+ - = e
l

125
( ) a e
l
= - =
2
2
2
1
constant

2. Prove that the perpendicular focal chords of a rectangular hyperbola are equal.

Proof:

Asian prob (1), pute = 2

[ ] 0 2 2
2
1
'
1
'
1
= - = +
l QQ PP

'
1
'
1
QQ PP
- = \

' ' QQ PP - = \

' ' QQ PP = \ ( in magnitude)

3. PSP', QSQ' are two focal chords of a conic cutting each other at right angles.

Prove that
' .
1
' .
1
SQ SQ SP SP
+ = a constant

Solution : Let PSP' and QSQ' be two focal chords of the conic

q cos 1 e
r
l
+ = ---(1)
Let the vectorial angle of P be

+ + + \ a
p
a p a
p
2
3
' , ' ,
2
is Q is P is Q

The points ,
2
, ) , (
+ a
p
a SQ Q SP P

+ + a
p
a p
2
3
, ' ' ) , ' ( ' SQ Q SP P ---(1) lie on

a a
p
a
sin 1
2
cos 1
; cos 1
e e
SQ
l
e
SP
l
- =
+ + =
+ = \

126
a a
p
a a p
sin 1
2
3
cos 1
'
cos 1 ) cos( 1
'
e e
SQ
l
e e
SP
l
+ =
+ + =
- = + + =

l
e
SP
l
l
e
SP
l a a cos 1
'
;
cos 1 -
=
+
= \

2
) cos 1 )( cos 1 (
'
.
l
e e
SP
l
SP
l a a - +
= \

) cos 1 (
1
2 2
2
a e
l
- = ---(2)

l
e
l
e
SQ
l
SQ
l a a sin 1 sin 1
'
.
+
-
=
[ ] ) sin 1 )( sin 1 (
1
2
a a e e
l
+ - =
) sin 1 (
1
2 2
2
a e
l
- =
(2) + (3) gives

2
2 2
2
2 2
sin 1 cos 1
'
.
'
.
l
e
l
e
SQ
l
SQ
l
SP
l
SP
l a a -
+
-
= +
[ ] a a
2 2 2
2
sin (cos 2
1
+ - = e
l

) 2 (
1
2
2
e
l
- =
a = constant.

10.7. References

Analytical Geometry by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai.

127
Unit IV
Lesson 11
Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions

Contents
11.1 Coplanar lines
11.2 Examples Model 1
11.3. Shortest distance between two lines.
11.4 Examples model I
11.5 Let us sum up
11.8 Points for Discussion
11.9 References


In this lesson we concentrate on the concept of the equations of a straight
live, sphere, including the fundamental of the planes and straight lives. Also we study the
shortest distance between two lines.

Results:
1) The distance between two points A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) is

2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( ) ( z z y y x x AB - + - + - =
2) If a straight line makes angles g b a , , with the coordinate axes, then the direction
cosines of the line are defined as g b a cos , cos , cos . These are denoted by n m l , , .
Note that . 1
2 2 2
= + + n m l
3) If k z j y i x OP + + = , then the direction cosines of OP are
OP
z
OP
y
OP
x
, ,
4) A set of numbers a,b,c which are proportional to he direction cosines l,m,n of a line are
called the direction ratios of that line.
128
If a,b,c are direction ratios of a line then the direction cosines of that line are
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
, ,
c b a
c
n
c b a
b
m
c b a
a
l
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
5) The equation of a straight line passing through a point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)having direction ratios
l,m,n is
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
-
=
-
=
-

6) Equations of straight line passing through the points A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) is

1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-

7) The direction ratios of the straight line joining the points A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) are
1 2 1 2 1 2
, , z z y y x x - - -
8) The condition for the lines
1
1
1
1
1
1
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x -
=
-
=
-
and
2
1
2
1
2
1
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x -
=
-
=
-
to be
perpendicular is 0
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + n n m m l l and to be parallel is
2
1
2
1
2
1
n
n
m
m
l
l
= =
9) If a point P divides the line joining the points A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) internally in
the ratio m:n, then P is given by
+
+
+
+
+
+
n m
nz mz
n m
yn my
n m
nx mx
P
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
10) If the point P divides AB externally where A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
), then
-
-
-
-
-
-
=
n m
nz mz
n m
yn my
n m
nx mx
P
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
11) Two planes intersect on a straight line. The general equation of a plane is of the form
ax+by+cz+d=0. a,b,c are called the direction rations of the normal to this plane.
12) Equation of any plane passing through the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is a(x- x
1
) + b(y-y
1
) + c(z-
z
1
) = 0.
13) Angle between two planes is defined as angle between their normals.
Let the equations of two planes be
a
1
x+b
1
y+c
1
z+d
1
=0 and a
2
x+b
2
y+c
2
z+d
2
=0
a). Then the angle between them is
129

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
cos
c b a c b a
c c b b a a
+ + + +
+ +
= q

b) The condition for these planes to be parallel is
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
b
b
a
a
= =
c) The condition for these planes to be perpendicular is 0
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + c c b b a a
14) Equation of the plane containing the line 0
1 1 1
=
-
=
-
=
-
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
is
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
= - + - + - z z c y y b x x a
Where al+bm+cn = 0.
15) Consider equations of the plane and the line as ax+by+cz+d=0 ---(1) and

n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
-
=
-
=
-
---(2)
The condition for the plane and line to be parallel is al+bm+cn = 0 and to be
perpendicular is
n
c
m
b
l
a
= =
16) The length of perpendicular from the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) to the plane ax+by+cz+d=0 ---
(1) is

2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
d cz by ax
+ +
+ + +

a) The length of perpendicular from the origin to the plane (1) is
2 2 2
c b a
d
+ +

b) The distance between the parallel planes ax+by+cz+d=0 and ax+by+cz+d
1
=0
is
2 2 2
1
c b a
d d
+ +
-

11.1 Coplanar lines
1. Symmetrical form of straight line
The equation of the line
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
-
=
-
=
-
is called they symmetrical
form of a straight line.
130
2. Since two planes intersect in a straight line, its equation can be put in the form
ax+by+cz+d=0 = a
1
x+b
1
y+c
1
z+d
1
=0
This is called non symmetrical form of a straight line.

11.2 Examples Model 1:
1. Put in symmetrical form the lines
3x-2y+z-1 = 0 = 5x+4y-6z-2 ---(1)
Step 1: Let l,m,n be the direction rations of the given line
0 2 3 = + - \ n m l ---(1)
0 6 4 5 = - + n m l ---(2)
By rule of cross multiplication
l m n
-2 1 3 -2

4 -6 5 4

10 12 18 5 4 12 +
=
+
=
-
n m l

22 23 8
n m l
= =

Then the direction cosines of the line are proportional to 8,23,22 (which are nothing but
d.rs)
Step 2: To find any point on the line (1).
Let the line (1) meet xy plane
\ put z = 0 in (1)
\ 3x-2y-1 = 0,
5x+4y-2 = 0
\ By rule of cross multiplication
x y 1
-2 -1 3 -2

4 -2 5 4
131

10 12
1
6 1 4 4 +
=
+ -
=
+
y x

22
1
5 8
= =
y x

22
5
,
22
8
= = \ y x
\ Any point on the lines
1 1 1
, ,
0 ,
22
5
,
22
8
z y x

\ Equation of the line in symmetrical form is

22 23
22
5
8
22
8
-
=
-
=
-
z
y x

2) Prove that the lines
z y x z y x 3 4 0 2 4 3 + + - = = + - ----(1) and
7 5 7 0 9 5 3 + - - = = + - + z y x z y x ----(2) are parallel
Solution step 1:
Let l,m,n be the direction ratios of the line (1)
, 0 2 4 3 = + - \ n m l
0 3 4 = + + - n m l
\ By rule of cross multiplication
l m n
-4 2 3 -4

1 3 -4 1

16 3 9 8 2 12 -
=
- -
=
- -
n m l

13 17 14 -
=
-
=
-
n m l
or
13 17 14
n m l
= =
\ The d.cs of line (1) are proportional to
132
+14 , +17, +13
a
1
b
1
c
1

Step 2: Let l,m,n be the d.rs of the line (2)
, 0 5 3 = - - \ n m l
0 5 7 = - - n m l
l m n
3 -5 1 3

-5 -1 7 -5

21 5 1 35 25 3 - -
=
+ -
=
- -
n m l

26 34 28 -
=
-
=
-
n m l
or
13 17 14
n m l
= =
\ The d.cs of line (2) are proportional to
+14 , +17, +13
a
2
b
2
c
2

\
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
b
b
a
a
= =
\The lines (1) and (2) are parallel
3) Prove that the lines
5 2 0 7 3 2 - + - = = - + + z y x z y x and
z y x z y x 7 8 10 0 8 4 4 + - = = - + are at right angles.
Solution: Proceed as before in example (2), check 0
2 1 2 1 2 1
= + + c c b b a a for right angles
(ie. Perpendicular)
Condition for Two straight lines to be coplanar consider two straight lines

1
1
1
1
1
1
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x -
=
-
=
-
----(1) and

2
1
2
1
2
1
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x -
=
-
=
-
----(2)
Equation of the plane through the line (1) is
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
= - + - + - z z C y y B x x A ----(3)
133
Where 0
1 1 1
= + + Cn Bm Al ----(2)
If the plane (3) contains the line (1), then (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) lies on the plane (3)

\ Put x= x
2
, y = y
2
, z = z
2
in (3)
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1 2 1 2
= - + - + - z z C y y B x x A ----(4)
Also the line (2) is perpendicular to the normal to the plane (3)
0
2 2 2
= + + Cn Bm Al
Where 0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1 2 1 2
= - + - + - z z C y y B x x A
0 = + + Cn Bm Al
0
1 1 1
= + + Cn Bm Al
Eliminate A,B,C between the above, we get
0
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x

Equation of the plane containing the line (1) and (2) is
0
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x

Model 1: Two symmetrical form of straight lines are given.
Examples: 1. Show that the lines

1
1
5
1
4
1
;
3
7
3
5
2
3
-
+
=
+
=
+
-
-
=
+
=
+ z y x z y x

are coplanar and find the equation of the plane containing them.
Solution : Let
1 1
3
7
3
5
2
3
r
z y x
L =
-
-
=
+
=
+
=
1 1 1
3
7
3
5
2
3
r
z
r
y
r
x
=
-
-
=
+
=
+

; 3 7 ; 3 5 ; 2 3
1 1 1
r z r y r x - = - = + = +
7 3 , 5 3 2 3
1 1 1
+ - = - = + - = r z r y r x
134
\ Any point on ) 7 3 , 5 3 , 3 2 (
1 1 1 1
+ - - - r r r is L ----(A)
Let
2 2
1
1
5
1
4
1
: r
z y x
L =
-
+
=
+
=
+

2 2 2
1
1
5
1
4
1
r
z
r
y
r
x
=
-
+
=
+
=
+

2 2 2
1 ; 5 1 ; 4 1 r z r y r x - = + = + = +
1 ; 1 5 ; 1 4
2 2 2
- - = - = - = r z r y r x
\ Any point on ) 1 , 1 5 , 1 4 (
2 2 2 2
- - - - r r r is L ----(B)
If the lines L
1
and L
2
are coplanar, then A and B represent the same point.
1 7 3 ; 1 5 5 3 ; 1 4 3 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
- - = + - - = - - = - r r r r r r
) 3 ( 8 3
) 2 ( 4 5 3
) 1 ( 2 2 4
2 1
2 1
1 2
- - - = + -
- - - = -
- - - - = -
r r
r r
r r

Solve (1) and (3)
1 ; 3
2 1
= = r r
Using in (3), the equation if statisfied.
\The lines L
1
and L
2
are coplanar

Step 2: To find the point of intersection Put r
2
=1 in (B), the point of intersection is (3,4,-
2)
Step 3: Equation of the plane containing them is
0
1 5
3 3 2
7 5 3
=
-
-
- + + z y x

0 ) 12 10 )( 7 ( ) 12 2 )( 5 ( ) 15 3 )( 3 ( = - - + + - + - + - + z y x
0 ) 7 ( 2 ) 5 ( 10 ) 3 ( 12 = - - + - + z y x
0 14 2 50 10 36 12 = + - - + + z y x
0 2 10 12 = - - z y x
135
; 2
6x-5y- z=0
Model 2: Given a symmetrical form of a line and a non-symmetrical form of a line.
Prove that the lines
3
1
2
1
1
1 +
=
+
=
+ z y x
and 1 4 3 2 0 8 3 2 + + + = = - + + z y x z y x
intersect and find their point of intersection. Find also the equation of the plane
containing them.
Solution:
3
1
2
1
1
1
:
1
+
=
+
=
+ z y x
L ---(1)
11 4 3 2 0 8 3 2 :
2
- + + = = - + + z y x z y x L ---(2)
Equation of any plane through the line (2) is

0 ) 11 4 3 2 ( 8 3 2 = - + + + - + + z y x z y x l ---(3)
L
1
passes through (-1, -1, -1)
L
1
lies on the plane (3) if (-1, -1, -1) lies on (3)
If ( -1-2-3-8) + l (-2-3-4-11) = 0
10
7 -
= l
Using
10
7 -
= l in (3)
0 ) 11 4 3 2 (
10
7
8 3 2 = - + + - - + + z y x z y x
Simplifying we get the equation of the plane (3) is
4x+y-2z-3=0 ---(4)
The d.rs of the normal to this plane
4, 1, -2
a b c
The d.rs of the line L
1
: 1, 2, 3
l m n

0 6 2 4 = - + = + + \ cn bm al
\ The line L
1
lies in the plane (4)
136

2 1
L and L \ are coplanar

Step 2: To find the point of intersection.
Any point on L
1
:
Let
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
r
z y x
=
+
=
+
=
+
(say)
\ ; 1 3 ; 1 2 , 1
1 1 1
- = - = - = r z r y r x
\ Any point on ) 1 3 , 1 2 , 1 (
1 1 1 1
- - - r r r is L ----(A)
This point lies on the plane x+2y+3z-8=0
Then 0 8 ) 1 3 ( 3 ) 1 2 ( 2 1
1 1 1 1
= - - + - + - r r r is L
0 8 3 9 2 4 1
1 1 1
= - - + - + - r r r
0 14 14
1
= - r
1
1
= r
Put 1
1
= r in (A), the point of intersection is (o,1,2).
Model 3: Two straight lines are given in non-symmetrical form prove that the straight
lines.
0 5 4 3 2 0 3 = - + + = = - + + z y x z y x ---(1) and
3 5 2 0 7 5 4 - - - = = - + - z y x z y x ---(2) are coplanar. Find the point of
intersection and find the equation of the plane containing them.
Solution : Reduce the line (1) to symmetrical form and proved as in model 2.
Ans:
a) They are coplanar
b) Point of intersection is (4, -1, 0)
c) Equation of the plane containing them is x+2y+3z-2-0.

11.3. Shortest distance between two lines.
Definition 1: Two straight lines are called s kew if they are neither intersecting nor
parallel.

137
Definition 2: If two straight lines are skew, then there will be one and only are
perpendicular common to both the straight lines , then this common perpendicular is
known as the shortest distance between the two lines.

11.3.1. Find the short distance between the skew lines and find also find
its equation.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
:
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
L
-
=
-
=
-
and
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
:
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
L
-
=
-
=
-

Let AB and CD represent the two lines L
1
and L
2
respectively.

Let GH be the shortest distance between the lines L
1
and L
2
L
1
passes through A(x
1
,y
1
, z
1
) and L
2
passes through B (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
)
Equation of any plane containing L
1
is
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
= - + - + - z z c y y b x x a ---(1)
Where 0
1 1 1
= + + cn bm al ---(2)
The plane (1) is parallel to L
2

0
2 2 2
= + + \ cn bm al ---(3)

Solve (2) and (3)

0
1 1 1
= + + cn bm al
A
C
D
B
G
H
(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
)
(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
138
0
2 2 2
= + + cn bm al
a b c
m
1
n
1
l
1
m
1

m
2
n
2
l
2
m
2

1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1
m l m l
c
n l l m
b
n m n m
a
-
=
-
=
-

\ Using in (1)
0 ) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1
= - - + - - + - - z z m l m l y y n l l m x x n m n m
The SD = Perpendicular from the point B (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) on the plane (4)

-
- - + - - + - -
=
2
1 2 2 1
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1
) (
) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
n m n m
z z m l m l y y l n l n x x n m n m

-
- - -
= \
2
1 2 2 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
) ( n m n m
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x
SD
Step 2: Equation of the plane containing the line L
1
and line GH is
0
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x
---(A)
Where l, m, n are the d.rs of GH
Equation of the plane containing the line L
2
and the line GH is
0
1 1 1
2 2 2
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x
---(B)

Equation of A and B together representative equation of the line GH
11.4.Examples : Model 1:
Find the length of the SD between the lines
139

4
6
2
7
3
3
1
3
1
8
3
3
:
1
-
-
=
-
+
=
+
-
-
=
-
=
-
- z y x
and
z y x
L and find its equation.
Solution: Step 1
;
1
3
1
8
3
3
:
1
-
-
=
-
=
-
- z y x
L
4
6
2
7
3
3
:
2
-
-
=
-
+
=
+ z y x
L
Let GH be the SD between L
1
and L
2

Let l,m,n be the d.rs of GH
GH perpendicular L
1
0 3 = - + - \ n m l
GH perpendicular L
2
0 4 2 3 = - + \ n m l

By rules of cross multiplication
l m n
1 -1 -3 1

-2 -4 3 -2

3 6 12 3 2 4 -
=
- -
=
- -
n m l

3 15 6 -
=
-
=
-
n m l

or
1 5 2
n m l
=
-
=
-

\The d.cs of GH are proportional to -2, -5, 1
l , m, n
The d.cs of GH are ,
30
1
,
30
5
,
30
2 - -

L M N

140
L1 passes through
) 3 , 8 , 3 (
1 1 1
z y x

L1 passes through
2 2 2
) 6 , 7 , 3 (
z y x
- -

2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) T h e S D l x x m y y n z z \ = - + - + - (formula)
) 3 6 (
30
1
) 8 7 (
30
5
) 6 (
30
2
- + - - - -
-
=

30
3
30
75
30
12
+ + =

30
90
=
30 3
30
30 3
=
= SD
Step 2: To find the equation of GH
The equation of SD is
0
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x
= 0
1 1 1
2 2 2
=
- - -
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x

0
1 5 2
1 1 3
3 8 3
=
- -
- -
- - - z y x
=
1 5 2
4 2 3
6 7 3
- -
-
- + + z y x

91 19 11 18 0 23 17 5 4 + - - = = - + - z y x z y x
Model 2: Find the SD between their lines
1
9
4
6
3
5
:
1
-
=
-
-
=
- z y x
L
9 2 2 0 3 2 2 :
2
- + - = = - + - z y x z y x L

141
Solution: Any plane through L
2
is
0 ) 9 2 2 ( ) 3 2 2 ( = - + - + - + - z y x z y x l
0 9 2 2 3 2 2 = - + - + - + - l l l l z y x z y x
0 9 3 ) 2 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 2 ( = - - + + + - + l l l l z y x ---(1)

The d.rs of the normal to this plane are l l l 2 1 ), 2 ( , 2 2 + + - +
Plane (1) is parallel to L
1

0 2 1 ) 2 ( 4 ) 2 2 ( 3 = + + + + + \ l l l
0 2 1 4 8 6 6 = + + + + + l l l
0 15 12 = + l
15 12 - = l

4
5 -
= l
Using (1), the equation of the plane is 2x+3y+6z-33=0

L
1
passes through (5, 6, 9)
\ SD = Perpendicular distance from (5, 6, 9) to the plane 2x+3y+6z-33=0

2 2 2
6 3 2
33 ) 9 ( 6 ) 6 ( 3 ) 5 ( 2
+ +
- + +
=

49
33 54 18 10 - + +
=
7
7
49
= = unit.
Model 3:
Find the SD between the lines
z y x z y x L - + = = + - 0 5 9 3 :
1
and
3 2 0 10 3 8 6 :
2
- + + = = - + + z y x z y x L

142
Solution: Reduce L
1
to symmetric form and proceed as proceeded in model 2
Ans:
342
13
= SD
11.5 Let us sum up
So far we have studied how to prove two lines are coplanar, how to find the
shortest distance between two skew lines.
(1) Find the condition of the lines

1 1 1
1 1 1
x a x b x c x a y b z c
a n d
a b c a b c
- - - - - -
= = = = to be perpendicular
(2) Find the direction ratios of the normal to the plane x-y+2-1=0
1. Show that the lines

5
4
4
3
3
2
: ;
4
3
3
2
2
1
:
2 1
-
=
-
=
- -
=
-
=
- z y x
L
z y x
L are coplanar. Find
their point of intersection and the equation of the plane containing them
Ans: x-2y+z = 0


c
c z
b
b y
a
a x
and
c
c z
b
b y
a
a x ' ' '
' ' '
-
=
-
=
- -
=
-
=
-
are coplanar.

and
b z z y x
3 1 2
1
-
+
=
-
-
=
-

6 3 5 4 0 2 2 + + + = = + + + z y x z y x are coplanar. Prove also that their point
of intersection is
-7 ,
3
5
,
3
5
and the equation of the plane containing them is
2x+y+z+2=0/
143
1. Prove that the lines
and
b z z y x
1 2 1
1 -
=
+
=
+

8 5 4 , 3 2 2 = + - = + - z y x z y x are coplanar.

2. Find the length and equation of the SD between the lines

1
7
1 4
2
;
2 6
6
4
3 -
= =
-
+
=
-
=
-
+ z y x z y x

Ans:
3
14
= SD
Equation : 16x+11y-z-18=0=2x+7y+z-3

11.9. References
Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions by N.P Bali
144
Lesson-12
Contents
12.1 Sphere
12.2 Examples
12.3 Tangent plane
12.4 Examples
12.5 Let us sum up
12.8 Points for Discussion
12.9 References

In this lesson we are going to learn in detail about sphere.
12.1 Sphere
The locus of a variable point in space whose distance from a fixed point is a
constant is called a sphere. The fixed point is called its centre and fixed distance is called
its radius.
12.2 Examples
1. Find the equation of a circle whose centre is at the point (a,b,c) and radius r units.
Solution :

Let C (a,b,c) be the centre. Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the sphere
Given CP = r
r c z b y a x = - + - + - \
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (

Squaring both sides

P(x,y,z)
C (a,b,c)
145

2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( r c z b y a x = - + - + -

Cor: If the centre is at the origin (0,0,0) then equation of the sphere is x
2
+y
2
+z
2
=r
2

2. Prove that the equation x
2
+y
2
+z
2
+2ux+2vy+2wz+d=0 represents a sphere. Hence find
its centre and radius.
Solution: The given equation is
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
+2ux+2vy+2wz+d=0
adding u
2
+v
2
+w
2
to both sides.
(x
2
+2ux+u
2
)+(y
2
+2vy+v
2
)+(z
2
+2wz+w
2
)+d = u
2
+v
2
+w
2
d w v u w z v y u x - + + = + + + + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( d w v u w z v y u x - + + = - - + - - + - -

This is of the form
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( r c z b y a x = - + - + -
Which is a sphere.

\ The given equation represents sphere whose centre is at (-u, -v, -w) and
d w v u r - + + =
2 2 2
.
Problems 1: Find the radius and the centre of the sphere
0 11 4 2 6
2 2 2
= - - - - + + z y x z y x
Solution: The given equation of the form 0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x
11
2
4 2
1
2 2
3
6 2
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =
- =
\ d
w
w
v
v
u
u

\Centre = (-u, - v, -w) = (3,1,2)
d w v u r - + + =
2 2 2

11 4 1 9 + + + =
25 =
5 = r unit.
146
2. Find the centre of and radius of the sphere 0 5 6 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + - + - + + z y x z y x
Solution: The given equation of the sphere is
0 5 6 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + - + - + + z y x z y x
; 2
0
2
5
3 2
2 2 2
= + - + - + + z y x z y x
2
3
; 1 ;
2
1
2
5
; 3 2 ; 2 2 ; 1 2
-
= =
-
=
= - = = - =
w v u
d w v u

\Centre = (-u, - v, -w)

- =
2
3
, 1 ,
2
1

d w v u r - + + =
2 2 2

2
5
4
9
1
4
1
- + + =

2
5
1
2
5
- + =
1 = r unit.

Model 2: Equation of the sphere passing through four given points.

1. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (2,3,1), (5,-1,2) (4,3,-1) and
(2,5,3)
Solution: Let the equation of the sphere be
0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x ---(1)
(1) Passes through the point (2,3,1)
4+9+1+4u+6v+2w+d=0
4u+6v+2w+d=-14 ---(2)
(1) Passes through the point (5,-1,2)
147
25+1+4+10u-2v+4w+d=0
10u-2v+4w+d=-30 ---(3)
(1) Passes through the point (4,3,-1)
16+9+1+8u+6v-2w+d=0
8u+6v-2w+d=-26 ---(4)

4+25+9+4u+10v+6w+d=0
4u+10v+6w+d=-38 ---(5)
Step (2) (3) gives
4u + 6v + 2w + d = -14
10u 2v + 4w + d = -30

Sub -6u + 8v 2w = 16
; 2
-3u + 4v w = 8 ---(6)
(3) (4) gives
10u 2v + 4w + d = -30
8u + 6v 2w + d = -26

Sub 2u 8v + 6w = -4
; 2
u 4v + 3w = -2 ---(7)
(4) (5) gives
8u + 6v 2w + d = -26
4u + 10v + 6w + d = -38

Sub 4u 4v 8w = 8
; 4
or u v 2w = 2 ---(8)

148

Step 3: Solve (6). (7), (8) by cramers solution (or) by solving

-3u + 4v w = 8 ---(6)
u 4v + 3w =-2 ---(7)
u v 2w = 2 ---(8)
-3u + 4v w = 8
u 4v + 3w = -2

Add - 2u + 2w = 6
-u + w = 3 ---(9)

(7) is u 4v + 3w = -2
(8) x 4 ; 4u - 4v - 8w = 8

Sub -3u + 11w = -10 ---(10)
Solve (9) and (10)

3 x (9) -3u + 3w = -9
-3u + 11w = -10

Sub -8w = 19

8
19 -
= w
Using in (9)
3
8
19
= - - u

8
5
3
8
19
- = - = - u

8
5
= u
149
Put
8
5
= u ,
8
19 -
= w in (8) ,
8
27
= v
Substitute the values of u, v, w in (4)
d = - 56
using in (1)
0 56
8
38
8
54
8
10
2 2 2
= - + + + + + z y x z y x
0 448 38 54 10 ) ( 8
2 2 2
= - + + + + + z y x z y x

Which is the required sphere.

2. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (1,3,4), (1,-5,2), (1, -3, 0)
and having its centre on the plane x + y + z = 0.

0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x ---(1)
2u+6v+8w+d=-20 ---(2)
2u-10v+4w+d=-30 ---(3)
2u+6v+d=-10 ---(4)
The centre (- u, -v, -w ) lies on the plane
x + y + z = 0.
0 0 = + + \ = - - - \ w v u w v u ---(5)
Solve (2), (3), (4), (5)
u = -1, v = 3, w = -2, d = 10
we get the equation of the sphere is
0 10 4 6 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + z y x z y x .
3. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (1,1,-2), (-1,1,2) and having
its centre lies on the line
150
x + y z 1 = 0 = 2x y + z 2
Proof: Let the equation of the sphere be

0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x ---(1)
(1) Passes through the point (1,1,-2)
2u+2v-4w+d=-6 ---(2)
(1) Passes through the point (-1,1,2)
-2u+2v+4w+d=-6 ---(3)
The centre (- u, -v, -w ) lies on the plane
x + y - z -1= 0 = 2x y + z - 2
0 2 2 0 1 = - - + - = - + - - \ w v u w v u

0 2 2 1 = + + - = - + \ w v u or w v u ---(5)

Solve (2), (3), (4), (5)
5 ;
2
1
;
2
1
; 1 - = - = - = - = d w v u
Using in (1) Equation of the sphere is
0 5 2
2 2 2
= - - - - + + z y x z y x .
Equation of a sphere on the line joining the points (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) as diameter.
Let the points be A (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and B(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
)

Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the sphere join AP,PB, APB = 90
0

The d.rs of AP are
1 1 1
, , z z y y x x - - -
The d.rs of BP
2 2 2
, , z z y y x x - - -
P(x,y,z)
B A
151
\ AP perpendicular PB
0 ) )( ( ) )( ( ) ( ), (
2 1 2 2 2 1
= - - + - - + - - z z z z y y y y x x x x
Which is the required equation of the sphere.

Problems (1) Find the equation of the sphere described on the line joining the points
A(4,6,8) and B(-1,3,7) as diameter

Proof: Equation of the sphere is
0 ) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
2 1 2 1 2 1
= - - + - - + - - z z z z y y y y x x x x
) 8 , 6 , 4 ( ) , , (
1 1 1
= z y x
) 7 , 3 , 1 ( ) , , (
2 2 2
- = z y x
0 ) 7 )( 8 ( ) 3 )( 6 ( ) 1 )( 4 ( = - - + - - + + - \ z z y y x x
0 70 15 9 3
2 2 2
= + - - - + + z y x z y x
12.3 Tangent plane
The locus of all tangent lines drawn to a sphere at a point is called the tangent plane.
12.4.Examples: Find the condition for the plane lx+my+nz = p to be tangent plane to the
sphere 0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x

Proof:

The radius of the sphere r d w v u = - + +
2 2 2

P = The perpendicular from the centre of the sphere to the plane lx+my+nz = p

2 2 2
) (
n m l
p nw mv lu
+ +
- - - -
=
lx+my+nz=p
c (-u,-v,-w)
152

2 2 2
) (
n m l
p nw mv lu
+ +
+ + +
=
If the plane lx+my+nz = p is a tangent plane to the sphere,
Then r = p

2 2 2
2 2 2
) (
n m l
p nw mv lu
d w v u
+ +
+ + +
= - + +
) (
2 2 2 2 2 2
p nw mv lu n m l d w v u + + + = + + - + +

Squaring both sides
(u
2
+v
2
+w
2
-d) (l
2
+m
2
+n
2
) = (lu+mv+nw+p)
2
Which is required condition.

Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere
0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x at the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
Solution: Equation of the sphere is
0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x ---(1)
Equation of any line through (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
r
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
=
-
=
-
=
-
1 1 1
(say) ---(2)
Any point on the line (2) is ) , , (
1 1 1
nr z mr y lr x + + +
+ = + = + =
- = - = - = -
nr z z mr y y lr x x
nr z z mr y y lr x x
1 1 1
1 1 1
;
; 1 ; ;

\If this point lies on the sphere (1) then
0 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 2 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + + + + + + + + d nr z w mr y v lr x u nr z mr y lr x
[ ] 0 2 2 2 2 ) (
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x nw mv lu my lx r n m l r
) , , (
1 1 1
z y x \ lies on the sphere
0 2 2 2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x
[ ] 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + \ w l z n r y m n x l r n m l r
153
This is a quadratic in r, since the line is a tangent line to the sphere then
0 ) )( ( ) )( ( ) )( (
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + - + + - + + - w z z z v y y y u x x x
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + - + + + - + + + - + w z z w z z v y y v y y n x x n x x

0
1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1
= - - + + - - + + - - + w z z wz zz vy y vy y y ux x ux xx
0
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
= + + + + + = + + + + + wz vy ux z y x wz vy ux zz yy xx
Add d wz vy ux + + +
1 1 1
to both sides
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + + + + + + d z z w y y v x x u zz yy xx
Cor: Equation of the tangent plane at (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) to the sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= a
2

is

2
1 1 1
a zz yy xx = + +
Plane section of a sphere
Prove that the plane section of a sphere is a circle.

Let the centre of the sphere be C. Whose radius is r units
Let be the plane.
Draw CN perpendicular to the plane
Let P be any point on the section of the sphere by a plane
Then OP = radius of the sphere
In
0
90 = D CNP CNP
2 2 2
NP CN CP - = \
2 2 2
CN CP NP - =
2 2
p r - = where CN = P
C
P
H

154
a p r NP = - = \
2 2
constant
\ The focus of P is a circle and N is the centre of the circle.
\ The plane section of a sphere is a circle. Such a circle is called a small circle.

Note:
1) If S=0, P=0 represent the equation of a sphere and the plane respectively, then the
equation of the circle is S=0, P=0
2) If the plane passes through the centre of the sphere, then the circle is called a
great circle.
3) Equation of any sphere passing through the circle S=0, P=0 is
0 = + P S l where l is a constant to be determined.

1) Find the centre and radius of the circle
15 2 2 , 0 11 4 2
2 2 2
= + + = - - - + + z y x z y z y x
Proof: The equation of the sphere is 0 11 4 2
2 2 2
= - - - + + z y z y x
This is of the form
0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + d wz vy ux z y x
11 , 2 , 1 , 0
11 ; 4 2 ; 2 2 , 0 2
- = - = - = =
- = - = - = =
d w v u
d w v u

\Centre = C(0,1,2)
d w v u r - + + =
2 2 2

4 16 11 4 1 0 = = + + + =
4 = r
p = The length of perpendicular distance from the centre (0,1,2) of the sphere to the plane
x+2y+2z-15=0,

9
) 9 (
4 4 1
) 15 4 2 0 ( -
=
+ +
- + +
=

3
) 9 (-
=
p=3
155
\Radius of the circle

2 2
p r - =

2 2
3 4 - =
9 16 - =
7 =
Step 2: To find the centre of the circle.
The equation of the plane is
x+2y+2z=15
The d.rs of the normal are 1,2,2
l , m, n
\The d.rs of CN are 1, 2, 2
The line CN passes through ( 0, 1, 2 )
x
1,
y
1,
z
1
\Equation of CN is
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
-
=
-
=
-

R
z y x
=
-
=
-
=
-
\
2
2
2
1
1
0
(say)
Any point on this line is (R, 2R+1, 2R+2) ---(A)
Let this be the point N.
If this point lies on the plane
x+2y+2z=15, then
R+2(2R+1)+2(2R+2)-15=0
R+4R+2+4R+4-15=0
9R-9=0
9R=9
R=1
Put R = 1 in (A)
The centre if the circle is (1, 3, 4)
2. Find the equation of the sphere for which the circle
8 4 3 2 , 0 2 2 7
2 2 2
= + + = + - + + + z y x z y z y x
156
Solution : 0 2 2 7
2 2 2
= + - + + + = z y z y x S
0 8 4 3 2 = - + + = z y x P
Equation of any sphere through the circle

S=0, P = 0 is 0 = + P S l
0 ) 8 4 3 2 ( 2 2 7
2 2 2
= - + + + + - + + + z y x z y z y x l ---(1)
0 8 2 ) 2 4 ( ) 3 7 ( 2
2 2 2
= - + - + + + + + + l l l l z y x z y x
Centre =
- - + -
-
2
) 2 4 (
,
2
) 3 7 (
,
l l
l
This lies on the plane 2x+3y+4z-8=0
\Put ) 2 4 (
2
1
: ) 3 7 (
2
1
; - - = + - = - = l l l z y n
0 8 ) 2 4 (
2
1
. 4 ) 3 7 (
2
3
2 = - - - + - - \ l l l
0 16 ) 2 4 .( 4 ) 3 7 ( 3 4 = - - - + - - l l l
0 16 8 16 9 21 4 = - + - - - - l l l
0 29 29 = - - l
1 - = \ l
Put 1 - = l in (1)
0 ) 8 4 3 2 ( 1 2 2 7
2 2 2
= - + + - + - + + + z y x z y z y x
0 8 4 3 2 2 2 7
2 2 2
= + - - - + - + + + z y x z y z y x
0 10 6 4 2
2 2 2
= + - + - + + z y x z y x
3. Prove that the circles
0 1 6 5 , 0 5 4 3 2
2 2 2
= + + = - + + - + + z y z y x z y x
0 7 2 , 0 6 5 4 3
2 2 2
= - + = - + - - + + z y x z y x z y x
lie on the same sphere. Find its equation?
Step 1: Equation of the sphere through the first circle
0 ) 1 6 5 ( 5 4 3 2
2 2 2
= + + + - + + - + + z y z y x z y x l
0 6 5 5 4 3 2
2 2 2
= + + + - + + - + + l l l z y z y x z y x
157
0 5 ) 6 4 ( ) 5 3 ( 2
2 2 2
= + - + + + + - + + l l l z y x z y x ---(1)
Equation of the sphere through the second circle is
0 ) 7 2 ( 6 5 4 3
2 2 2
= - + + - + - - + + z y x z y x z y x m

0 7 2 6 5 4 3
2 2 2
= - + + - + - - + + z y x z y x z y x m m m
0 6 ) 7 5 ( ) 4 2 ( ) 3 (
2 2 2
= - - + - + - + + + m m m z y x z y x ---(2)
The two circles lie on the same sphere if (1) and (2) represent the same sphere
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
6
5
7 5
6 4
4 2
5 3
3
2
iv iii ii i
-
+ -
=
-
+
=
-
+
=
-
-
\
l
m
l
m
l
m
From (i) and (ii),
) 5 3 )( 3 ( 8 4 l m m + - = + -
l lm m m 15 9 5 3 8 4 - - + = + -
0 17 5 7 15 = - + + - \ lm m l ---(3)
From (i) and (ii)
6
5
3
2
-
+ -
=
-
- l
m

) 3 )( 5 ( 12 - + - = m l
l lm m 3 15 5 12 - + + - =
0 3 5 3 = - - + \ lm m l ---(4)
0 17 5 7 15 = - + + - lm m l
(4) x 5: 0 15 5 25 15 = - - + lm m l
Add 0 32 32 = - m
32 32 = m
1 = m
Put 1 = m in (i) and (ii)
4 2
5 3
2
2
-
+
=
-
- l

l 5 3 2 + = -
158
5 5 - = l
1 - = l

Using (iii) and (iv)

1
2
2
7 5
6 4
7 5
6 4
=
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
+
m
l

\ The two circles lie on the same sphere
To find its equation
Step 2: Put 1 = m in (2)
0 6 2 2 2
2 2 2
= - - - - + + z y x z y x
4. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere
35 4 2 6
2 2 2
= - - + + + z y x z y x at the point (3,4,4)
Solution:
2
4 2
1
2 2
3
6 2
- =
- =
- =
- =
=
=
w
w
v
v
u
x

Equation of the tangent at (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
0 35 2 2 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= - - - - - + + + + z z y y x x zz yy xx
\ Equation of the tangent plane at (3,4,4) is
0 35 8 2 4 9 3 4 4 3 = - - - - - + + + + z y x z y x
0 28 2 3 6 = - + + z y x
5. Find the tangent planes to the sphere 0 5 6 2 4
2 2 2
= + - - - + + z y x z y x which are
parallel to the plane x+4y+8z=0 and find the point of contact.
Solution: Equation of any plane parallel to the plane x+4y+8z=0 is x+4y+8z+R=0 ---(1)
The centre of the sphere is (2,1,3)
3 9 5 9 1 4 = = - + + = r
\ P = the length perpendicular from (2,1,3) on the plane x+4y+8z+R=0

64 16 1
24 4 2
+ +
+ + +
=
R

159
3
9
) 30 (
=
+
=
R
(radius)
57 3
27 30 27 30
27 ) 30 ( 27 ) 30 (
- = - =
- = + = +
= + - = + =
R R
R R
R R

Using in (1) the equations of tangent planes are 0 3 8 4 = - + + z y x and
0 57 8 4 = - + + z y x
Step 2: To find the point of contact
Let P be the point of contact of the plane and the sphere

The d.rs of CP are 1,4,8
The line CP passes through C(2,1,3)
Equation of CP is R
z y x
=
-
=
-
=
-
8
3
4
1
1
2
(say)
Any point on CP is ( R+2, 4R+1, 8R+3) ---(A)
If this lies on the plane x+4y+8z=57
\ R+2+4(4R+1)+8(8R+3)-57=0
R+2+16R+4+64R+24-57=0
8R-27=0
8R = 27

3
1
81
27
= = R
Put
3
1
= R in (A), the point of conduct is
+ + + 3
3
8
, 1
3
4
, 2
3
1

c
P
160
=
3
17
,
3
7
,
3
7

Step 3: The other tangent plane is x+4y+8z-3=0
To find the point of contact.

If the point (A) lies on this plane
x+4y+8z-3=0, then
R+2+4(4R+1)+8(8R+3)-3=0
R+2+16R+4+64R+24-3=0
81R+27=0
81R = -27

3
1 +
== R
Put
3
1
- = R in (A), the point of conduct is
-
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
5

6. Find the equation of the spheres which pass through the circle x
2
+y
2
+z
2
=5, x+2y+3z=3
and touch the plane 4x+3y=15.
Solution: Equation of any sphere through the given circle is

x
2
+y
2
+z
2
-5+l (x+2y+3z-3)=0 ---(1)
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
+l x+2 l y+3 l z-3 l -5=0
Centre =
-
-
-
2
3
, ,
2
l
l
l

5 3
4
9
4
2
2
2
+ + + + = l
l
l
l
r
5 3
4
14
2
+ + = l
l

4
20 12 14
2
+ +
=
l l

161
P = Perpendicular from
-
-
-
2
3
, ,
2
l
l
l
to the plane 4x+3y-15=0

9 16
15 3
2
4
+
- - -
=
l
l

( )
5
15 3 2 - - -
=
l l

( )
5
15 5 - -
=
l

p r =
) 3 (
4
20 12 14
2
+ =
+ +
l
l l

2 2
) 3 ( 4 20 12 14 + = + + l l l

On simplification
5
4
1
2
- = l
Using in (1) the equations of the spheres are 0 11 6 4 2
2 2 2
= - + + + + + z y x z y x and
0 13 12 8 4 5 5 5
2 2 2
= - - - - + + z y x z y x

12.5 Let us sum up
So far we have studied and learnt about equations of a sphere in different forms,
the equation of the tangent plane to a sphere and in finding the radium centre of the circle
which is the intersection of the plane and the sphere.
(1) Find the centre of the sphere
x
2
+y
2
+i
2
-2x+4y-6z-11=0
(2) Find the equation of the sphere having (1,2,3) and (3,2,1) as diameter.

162
1. Find the center and radius of the sphere 0 10 10 8 12 3 3 3
2 2 2
= + - - + + + z y x z y x

- = =
3
5
,
3
4
, 2 ;
3
47
C r
2. Find the equation of the sphere through the points (1,1,1) (1,2,1), (1,1,2) and (2,1,1)
Ans: 0 6 3 3 3
2 2 2
= + - - - + + z y x z y x
3. Find the equation of the sphere which passes through (0,7,7),(1,8,11), (-3,10,7) and
centre lies on the plane 2x+2y-z-7=0
Ans: 0 154 18 18 2
2 2 2
= + - - + + + z y x z y x
4. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (2,1,1) and (0,3,2) and
centre lies on the line z y x z y x 2 2 0 3 2 + + = = + +
Ans: 0 96 21 7 28 ) ( 9
2 2 2
= - - + + + + z y x z y x
5. Find the equation of the sphere through the points (0,0,0) (a,0,0) (0,b,0) and (0,0,c)
Ans: 0
2 2 2
= - - - + + cz by ax z y x

6. Find the centre and radius of the circle
0 14 2 2 ; 0 11 4 2
2 2 2
= - + + = - - - + + z y x y x z y x
Ans: ) 2 , 4 , 2 ( ; 7 = = C r
7. Find the equation of the sphere in which the circle
0 6 3 2 , 0 8 3 6
2 2 2
= + - + = - - + - + + z y x z y x z y x is a great circle
Ans: 0 2 2 6 4
2 2 2
= - + + - + + z y x z y x
12.8. Points for discussion.
1. Show that the two circles 0 2 , 0 2
2 2 2
= - + - = + - + + z y x z y z y x and
0 1 4 2 , 0 5 3
2 2 2
= - + - = - + - + + + z y x z y x z y x lie on the same plane.
2. Find the equations of the spheres which pass through the circle
0 7 3 2 , 0 12 3 4
2 2 2
= - + = + + - - + + z y x z y x z y x and find the plane x-2y+2z=1
Ans: 2 4 2 2
2 2 2
= - + - + + z y x z y x
22 10 4 6
2 2 2
= - + - + + z y x z y x
163
3. Find the condition for the plane lx+my+nz=P to be a tangent plane to
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + +
4. Find the equation of the tangent plane at(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) on the sphere
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + +
12.9. References
1. Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions by N.P. Bali.
164
Unit V

Lesson - 13

Contents
13.1 Cone
13.2 Examples
13.3 Enveloping cone of a sphere.
13.4 Examples
13.5 Right circular cone
13.6 Examples
13.7 Cylinder
13.8 Examples
13.9 Right circular cylinder
13.10 Examples
13.11 Let us sum up.
13.15 References

Our Aim is to learn lesson, the concept of a cone, right, circular cone, cylinder and
conicoids.

13.1. Cone
Definition:
A cone is a surface generated by a line through a fixed point, (the fixed point is
called the vertex of the cone) which satisfies one more condition is intersecting a given
curve or founding a given surface.

The given curve is called the base curve or the guiding curve and the variable line
is called a generator of the cone.
13.2. Examples
165
Book work 1: Find the equation of a cone with a given vertex and given base
Solution : Let the vertex of the cone be ) , , ( g b a .

Let the equation of the base be
0 , 0 2 2 2
2 2
= = + + + + + z c fy gx by hxy ax ---(1)
Any generator through ) , , ( g b a is
n
z
m
y
l
x 0 -
=
-
=
- b a
---(2)
This line meets the plane z = 0
\Put z = 0 in (2)

n m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-

n m
y
n l
x g b g a -
=
- -
=
-
;
g b g a
n
m
y
n
l
x
-
= -
-
= - ;
g b g a
n
m
y
n
l
x
-
=
-
= ;
Using in (1)

0 2 2 2
2 2
= +
- +
- +
- +
- +
- c r
n
m
f r
n
l
g r
n
m
b r
n
m
r
n
l
h r
n
l
b a b b a a

Eliminate l,m,n between (2) and (3)

0 2 2
2
2 2
= +
-
-
- +
-
-
- +
-
-
- +
-
-
-
-
-
- +
-
-
-
c r
z
y
f r
z
x
g
r
z
y
b r
z
y
r
z
x
h r
z
x
a
g
b
b
g
a
a
g
b
b
g
b
b
g
a
a
g
a
a

0
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
) (
) )( (
2
) (
) (
2
2
2 2
2
= +
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
- -
+
-
-
c
r z
y z
f
r z
x z
g
r z
y z
b
r z
y z x z
h
r z
x z g b g a g b g b g a g a

166

2
) ( r z -
0 ) ( ) )( ( 2
) )( ( 2 ) ( ) )( ( 2 ) (
2
2 2
= - + - -
+ - - + - + - - + -
r z c r z y z f
r z x z g y z b y z x z h x z
g b
g a g b g b g a g a

Which is the required equation of the cone.

2) Prove that the equation of a cone with its vertex at the origin is a homogeneous
equation
Proof: Consider the equation
0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
= + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux hxy gzx fyz by hxy ax ---(1)
Let P (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) be any point, on the cone
\Equation of OP is
1 1 1
z
z
y
y
x
x
= = where (1) = (0,0,0)
r
z
z
y
y
x
x
= = = \
1 1 1
(say)
r z z r y y r x x
1 1 1
; ; = = =
\Any point on OP is ) , , (
1 1 1
rz ry rx
If this point lies on the cone (1)

Then
0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2 2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
= + + + + + + + + + d wrz vry urx y x hr x z gr z y fr y br ry hrx x ar
0 ) ( 2 ) 2 2 2 2 2 (
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
= + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux r y hx x gz z fy by y hx ax r
Treating the above as an identify.
0 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
= + + + + + y hx x gz z fy by y hx ax ---(2)
0
1 1 1
= + + wz vy ux ---(3)
d = 0 ---(4)

If u,v,w be not all zero, then (3) represents a plane.
\u = v = w = 0.
167
\(2) becomes

0 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
= + + + + + y hx x gz z fy by y hx ax
\The locus of (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) is
0 2 2 2 2
2 2
= + + + + + fxy gzx fyz by hxy ax

Which is a homogeneous equation second degree 2 in x, y, and z.
Bookwork 3: A homogenous equation of second degree in x, y and z always represents a
cone with the vertex at the origin.
Solution: Let the homogenous equation of second degree in x, y and z be
0 2 2 2 2
2 2
= + + + + + hxy gzx fyz by hxy ax ---(1)
Let P (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) be any point on the surface represented by (1)
0 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
= + + + + + \ y hx x gz z fy by y hx ax ---(2)
Let O be the point (0,0,0)
\The equation of OP is r
z
z
y
y
x
x
= = =
1 1 1
(say)
\ Any point on OP =(x
1
r, y
1
r, z
1
r)
This point lies on (1) , using (2)
\(1) represents a cone whose vertex is at the origin.

13.3. Enveloping cone of a sphere.

Definition:
The locus of the tangent lines to a sphere drawn from a given point is a cone
called the enveloping cone of the sphere having the given point as its vertex.

13.4. Examples

Bookwork 4: Find the equation of the enveloping cone of the sphere
2 2 2 2
a z y x = + +
with its vertex at (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
168

2 2 2 2
a z y x = + + ---(1)
Let the given point be A (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
Let P (x,y,z) be any point on a tangent drawn from A to the sphere
The coordinates of a point dividing AP in the ratio m=1 is

+
+
+
+
+
+
1
,
1
,
1
1 1 1
m
z mz
m
y my
m
x mx

If this lies on (1)
Then
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
) (
a
m
z mz
m
y my
m
x mx
=
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

2 2 2
1
2
1
2
1
) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( + = + + + + + m a z mz y my x mx
0 ) ( 2 ) (
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
= - + + + - + + + - + + a z y x a zz yy xx m a z y x m ---(2)
The line AP is a tangent line to (1)
\ The roots are equal.
\ 0 ) ( ) ( 4 ) ( 4
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= - + + - + + = - + + a z y x a z y x a zz yy xx
\ 0 ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= - + + - + + = - + + a z y x a z y x a zz yy xx
Which is the required equation.
Problems (1) Find equation of the line whose vertex is at ) , , ( g b a and base
0 , 4
2
= = Z ax y
Solution: Any line through ) , , ( g b a is

n
z
m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-
(---1)
Equation of the base is 0 , 4
2
= = Z ax y (---2)
The line (1) meets the plane Z =0
\Put Z =0 in (1)

n m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-

g b g a
n
m
y
n
l
x
-
= -
-
= - ;
169
g b g a
n
m
y
n
l
x
-
=
-
= ;
Using in (1)

- +
- r
n
l
a r
n
m
a b 4
2
(---3)

-
-
- +
-
-
- r
z
x
a r
z
y
g
a
a
g
b
b 4
2

) (
) (
4
) (
) (
2
2
r z
x z
a
r z
y z
-
-
+
-
- g a g b

2
) ( r z -
) )( ( 4 ) (
2
r z x z a y z - - + = - \ g a g b
2. Find the enveloping cone of the sphere 0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= - - + + + y x z y x with its vertex
(1,1,1)
Solution:
2 2 2
2 2 2
- - + + + = y x z y x S
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
- - - - - + + + + = z z y y x x zz yy xx T

Here (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) = (1,1,1)
= x + y + z + x + 1 y 1 z 1 2
= 2x + z 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 2 2
1
- - + + + = S
= 1
FORMULA
1
2
SS T =
2 2 2 ) 2 2 (
2 2 2 2
- - + + + = - + y x z y x z x
0 2 2 2 8 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2
= + + - - - - - - + + + \ y x z y x x z xz z x
0 6 4 2 10 4 3
2 2
= + - + - + - \ z y x xz y x

170
13.5. Right circular cone
Definition:

A right circular cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes through
a fixed point and makes a constant angle with a fixed line. The fixed point is called the
vertex of the cone. The constant angle is called the semivertical angle of the cone. The
fixed line is called the axis of the cone.

13.6. Examples
1) Standard Equation of a right circular cylinder.

Let P ) , , ( g m l be any point on the cone
Given that a = Z O P
.

Draw PM perpendicular to OZ in OPM D

OM
PM
= a tan
a
2 2 2
tan OM PM = \ ---(1)
But
2 2 2
OM OP PM - =
P ) , , ( g m l
X
Y
Z
M

0
M
P

171

q g m l - + + =
2 2 2
projection of OP on OZ

2 2 2 2
g g m l - + + =

2 2 2
m l + = PM
Using in (1)
a g m l
2 2 2 2
tan = +
\The locus ) , , ( g m l is a
2 2 2 2
tan z y x = +
(2) Find the equation of a right circular cone with its vertex at ) , , ( g b a , its axis the line
n
z
m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-
and its semivertical angle n m l , , , q being d.rs of the axis.

Solution:

Let A ) , , ( g m l be the vertex of the curve
Let P ) , , ( g m l be any point on the cone
Let AP wake an angle q with the axis AO of the cone.
The d.rs of AP are g g b m a l - - - , ,
The d.rs of OA are l,m,n

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
cos
g g b m a l
g g b m a l
q
- + - + - + +
- + - + -
=
n m l
n m l

P ) , , ( g m l
A ) , , ( g b a
0

172
( ) ( ) ( )

- + - + - + + = - + - + - \
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos ) ( ) ( ) ( g g b m a l q g g b m a l n m l n m l

Squaring both sides
[ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos ) ( ) ( ) ( g g b m a l q g g b m a l - + - + - + + = - + - + - n m l n m l
\The focus ) , , ( g m l is
[ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos ) ( ) ( ) ( g g b m a l q g g b m a l - + - + - + + = - + - + - n m l n m l

Which is the required equation of the cylinder

(3) Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is the point (1,1,1) the axis is
the line
3
1
2
1
1
1 -
=
-
=
-
- z y x
and semi vertical angle is 30
0

Solution: Let P ) , , ( g m l be any point on the cone the vertex of the cone is A(1,1,1)
\The d.rs of AP are 1 , 1 , 1 - - - g m l
The d.rs of the axis are -1,2,3

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 9 4 1
) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1
cos
- + - + - + +
- + - + - -
=
g m l
g m l
q

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 14
) 3 3 ) 2 2 1
2
3
- + - + -
- + - + + -
=
g m l
g m l

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 14
4 3 2
- + - + -
- + + -
=
g m l
g m l

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 4 3 2 1 1 1 14 3
2 2 2
- + + - = - + - + - \ g m l g m l

Squaring both sides
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
2 2 2 2
4 3 2 1 1 1 42 - + + - = - + - + - g m l g m l

The focus of ) , , ( g m l is
173
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
2 2 2 2
4 3 2 1 1 1 42 - + + - = - + - + - z y x z y x

On simplification, the equation of the right circular cone is
0 31 6 10 58 24 12 8 3 13 19
2 2 2
= + + - - - + + + + z y x yz xz xy z y x

(4) Find the condition that the general equation of the second degree may represent a
cone
Solution:
0 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux hxy gzx fyz cz by ax ---(1)

Represent a cone with vertex at the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
Shifting the origin to the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) (1) becomes

0 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) )( ( 2
) )( ( 2 ) )( ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
d z z w y y v x x a y y x x h
x x z z g z z y y f z z c y y b x x a

[ ]
0 2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
d wz vy ux y hx x gz z fy cz by ax
w cz fy gx z v fz by hx y u gz hy ax x
hxy gzx fyz cz by ax

This equation is referred to (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) which is the new origin
0
1 1 1
= + + + \ u gz hy ax ---(2)
0
1 1 1
= + + + v fz by hx ---(3)
0
1 1 1
= + + + w cz fy gx ---(4)
0 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux y hx x gz z fy cz by ax ---(5)

This can be written as
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux w cz fy gx z v fz by hx y u gz hy ax x

\using (2), (3), (4); 0
1 1 1
= + + + d wz vy ux ---(6)
174
Eliminate x
1
,y
1
,z
1
between (2), (3), (4),(6)

0 =
d w v u
w c f g
v f b h
u g h a

Which is the required condition.
(5) Prove that the equation
0 17 2 2 26 10 10 2 2 7
2 2 2
= - + - + + + + + z y x xy zx z y x represents a cone/
Proof: The given equation is of the form
0 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + + d wz vy ux hxy gzx fyz cz by ax

5 5 0
10 2 10 2 0 2 ; 2 ; 2 ; 7
= - = =
= - = = = = =
h g f
h g f c b a

1 1 13
17 2 2 2 2 26 2
- = - = =
- = = - = =
w v u
d w v u

17 1 1 13
1 2 0 5
1 0 2 5
13 5 5 7
- -
-
-
-
=
d w v u
w c f g
v f b h
u g h a

1 1 13
2 0 5
0 2 5
13
17 1 13
1 0 5
1 2 5
5
17 1 13
1 2 5
1 0 5
5
17 1 1
1 2 0
1 0 2
7
-
- +
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
=
0 = (on simplification)
\The given expression represents cone.

175
Method 2: To find the vertex of a cone where f(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) as a homogenous function of
degree in variable x,y,z,t find
t
f
z
f
y
f
x
f
, , , and square to zero after substituting t = 1.

Solve fx = 0, fy = 0, fz = 0, ft = 0 and t = 1, if the equations are consistent, then the given
equation represents a cone and the value of (x,y,z) denote the vertex of the cone.
(1) Prove that the equation
0 17 26 2 2 2 10 10 7 2 2
2 2 2
= - + + + + + - + + z y y x zx yz z y x represents a cone with
vertex at (2,2,1)

Solution:
Let f(x,y,z) = 0 17 26 2 2 2 10 10 7 2 2
2 2 2
= - + + + + + - + + z y y x zx yz z y x
f (x,y,z,t) =
2 2 2 2
17 26 2 2 10 10 2 2 2 t zt yt xt zx yz z y x - + + + - - + +

t z y x
t
f
x t y z
z
f
t z y
y
f
t z x
x
f
34 26 2 2
10 26 10 14
; 2 10 4 ; 2 10 4
- + + =
- + - =
+ - =
+ - =

Put t = 1, in the above partial derivation and equate these to Zero.

0 1 5 2 0 2 10 4 = + - = + - \ z x ie z x ---(1)
0 1 5 2 0 2 10 4 = + - \ = + - z y z y ---(2)
0 13 7 5 5 0 26 14 10 10 = + + - - = + + - - z y x ie z y x ---(3)
0 34 26 2 2 = - + + t z y x
0 17 13 = - + + \ z y x ---(4)

Solve (1), (2) , (3)
2x 5z + 1 = 0
2y 5z + 1 = 0
176

Sub 2x 2y = 0
y x = \ ---(5)

Put x = y in (3) -5y 5y + 7z + 13 = 0
0 13 7 10 = + + - \ z y ---(6)
But (2) is 2y 5z + 1 = 0 ---(2)
Solve (2) and (6); (2) x 5; 10 y 25 z + 5 = 0
(6) is -10y + 7z + 13 = 0

Add -18z + 18 = 0
1 = \ z

Put 1 = z in (2) 2y 5 + 1 = 0
2y 4 = 0
2y = 4
y = 2

2 = \ x
Hence x = 2 , y = 2, z = 1
Using in (4)
LHS = x + y + 13z 17
= 2 + 2 + 13 17
= 0 = RHS
\ Equations (1), (2), (3), (4) are consistent
\ The given equation represents a sphere with the vertex (2,2,1)

177
13.7. Cylinder
The Cylinder is the surface generated by a variable straight line which remains
parallel to a fixed straight line and satisfies one more condition, ie. It may intersect a
given curve or it may touch a given surface.

13.8. Examples
(1) To find the equation of a cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
n
z
m
y
l
x
= = and base the conic 0 , 0 2 2 2 2
2 2
= = + + + + + + z c fy gx hxy fyz by ax
Solution: The equation of the base is 0 , 0 2 2 2 2
2 2
= = + + + + + + z c fy gx hxy fyz by ax
--(1)
Let (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) be any point on the generator, which is parallel to the line
n
z
m
y
l
x
= =
\ Equation of the generator is
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
-
=
-
=
-
---(2)
This meets the plane z = 0
Put 1 = z in (2)

n
z
m
y y
l
x x
1 1 1
=
-
=
-
\
1 1
1 1
; z
n
m
y y
n
z
l
x x -
= - =
-
\
1 1 1 1
; z
n
m
y y x z
n
l
x - = +
-
=

Using in (1)
0 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
= +
- +
- +
- +
- c z
n
m
y f z
n
l
x g z
n
m
y z
n
l
x h z
n
m
y b z
n
l
x a

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
= + - + - + - - + - + - cn mz ny fn lz nx gn mz ny lz nx h mz ny b lz nx a
Which is the equation of the cylinder.
178
(1) Find the equation of a cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
3 2
z y
x = - =
and whose guiding curve is the ellipse 3 , 1 2
2 2
= = + z y x
Solution: The equation of the guiding curve is 3 , 1 2
2 2
= = + z y x ---(1)
Let (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) be any point on the generator. Since the generator is parallel to the
line ,
3 2 1
z y x
=
-
=
Equation of the generator is
3 2 1
1 1 1
z z y y x x -
=
-
-
=
-

This meets the plane z =3
3
3
2 1
1 1 1
z y y x x -
=
-
-
=
-
\
) 3 (
3
2
,
3
3
1 1
1
1
z y y
z
x x - - =
-
+ = \
3
2 6 3
;
3
3 3
1 1 1 1
z y
y
z x + -
=
- +

Using in (1) , 1 2
2 2
= + y x we get
1
3
2 6 3
2
3
3 3
2
1 1
2
1 1
=
+ -
+
- + z y z x

( ) ( ) 9 2 6 3 2 3 3
2
1 1
2
1 1
= + - + - + z y z x
On simplification
The focus of (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is 0 24 18 24 6 2 8 3 6 3
2 2 2
= + - - + - + + + z y x zx yz z y x

13.9 Right circular cylinder

The right circular cylinder is the surface generated by a straight line which is
parallel to a fixed line and is at a constant distance from it.
The variable line is called the generator of the cylinder. The fixed line is called
the axis of the cylinder. The constant distance is called the radius of the cylinder.

179
13.10. Examples
(1) Find the equation of a right circular cylinder whose axis is the line
n
z
m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-
and where radius is R units.

The equation of the axis are
n
z
m
y
l
x g b a -
=
-
=
-
----(1)
Let P ) , , ( g m l be any point on the cylinder

Draw PM perpendicular to the axis.
PM = R
Join PA where A = ) , , ( g b a
AM = The projection of AP on the axis of the cylinder

2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
n m l
n m l
+ +
- + - + -
=
g g b m a l

From
2 2 2
, PM AM AP APM + + D

[ ]
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
n m l
n m l
+ +
- + - + -
= - + - + -
g g b m a l
g g b m a l
( ) [ ] [ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( R n m l n m l + - + - + - = - + - + - + + \ g g b m a l g g b m a l

[ ] ( )
2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( n m l R n m l + + + - + - + - = g g b m a l
\The focus of ) , , ( g m l is [ ]( ) = + + - + - + -
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( n m l g g b m a l
[ ] ( )
2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( n m l R n m l + + + - + - + - = g g b m a l
which is the required equation.
P ) , , ( g m l
R
M
A

) , , ( g b a
180

(1) The radius of a normal section of a right circular cylinder is 2 units, the axis lie along
the line
5
2
1
3
1
1 -
=
-
+
=
- z y x
. Find its equation
Solution: The equation of the axis is

5
2
1
3
1
1 -
=
-
+
=
- z y x

The d.rs are 1, -1, 5
\Its d.rs are
27
5
,
27
1
,
27
1 -

Let P(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) be any point on the cylinder

2
1
2
1
2
1
) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( - + + + - = z y x AP
R= 2 = Radius of the cylinder
AM = The projection of AP on the axis

[ ] ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 (
27
1
1 1 1
- + + + - = z y x
[ ]
1 1 1
27
1
z y x + + =
[ ]
2
1 1 1
2
27
1
z y x AM + + =
In
2 2 2
, PM AM AP APM + + D
P (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
2
M

A(1,-3,2)
181
( )
2 2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
27
1
) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ( + + + = - + + + - z y x z y x
[ ] ( ) 108 ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ( 27
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ + + = - + + + - z y x z y x
Simplifying, the focus of (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
0 75 93 150 30 2 2 2 29 29 29
2 2 2
= + - + - + - + + + z y x yz xz xy z y x
2. Find the equation of the right circular cylinder whose guiding circle is
3 ; 29
2 2 2
= + - = + + z y x z y x

Solution:
The circle is nothing but the plane section of the sphere 9
2 2 2
= + + z y x , by the plane
3 = + - z y x

NP = Radius of the circle.
2 2
) tan ( ) ( plane the to sphere the of centre the from ce dis lar perpendicu sphere the of radius - =
2 2
p r - = ---(1)
Radius of the sphere = 3
Centre of the sphere = (0,0,0)
p = perpendicular distance from the centre (0,0,0) to the plane x y + z -3 =0
3
3
3 3
3
3
1 1 1
) 3 (
2 2 2
= = =
+ +
-
=
\ using in (1)

6 ) 3 ( 3
2 2
= - = R

M is the centre of the circle.
The d.rs of the normal to the plane are (1,-1,1).
Equation of PMB
1
0
1
0
1
0 -
=
-
+
=
- z y x

l = =
-
=
1 1 1
z y x
(say)
182
l l l = - = = z y x , ,
Any point on PM = ( ) M = - l l l , , (say)
This lies on the plane x y + z = 3.
3 = + + \ l l l
3 3 = l
1 = l
\Centre of the circle is (1,1,1)
Step 2: Let P (x,y,z) be any point on the cylinder

A(0,0,0) P (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)

2
1
2
1
2
1
2
z y x AP + + =
6 6
2
= \ = NP NP
AN = The projection of AP on AN

) (
3
1
1 1 1
z y x + + =
In , APN D

2 2 2
NP AN AP + =
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (
3
1
6

+ + + = + + z y x z y x
=6+
2
1 1 1
) (
3
1
z y x + +
P (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
b

N

A
183
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 18 3 3 3 x z z y y x z y x z y x + + + + + + = + +
0 18 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= - - - - + + x z z y y x z y x
; 2
0 9
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= - - - - + + x z z y y x z y x
The focus of (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
0 9
2 2 2
= - - - - + + zx yz xy z y x
13.11. Let us sum up.
We have leant the different types of cone, cylinder and the dimension their
equations in different forms.
(1) Find the equation of a right circular cylinder of radius 2 and which axis is x
(2) What is the general equating a give passing through the axis
Cone:
1. Find the equation to the cone whose vertex is the origin and which passes through
the curve of intersection of

(i) p nz my lx cz by ax = + + = + + , 1
2 2 2

Ans:
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( nz my lx cz by ax p + + = + +
(ii) p nz my lx z by ax = + + = + ; 2
2 2

Ans: ) ( 2 ) (
2 2
nz my lx z by ax p + + = +
2. If
n
z
m
y
l
x
= = is a generator of the cone, represented by f(x,y,z) = 0, then prove
that f(l,m,n) = 0
3. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is the point ) , , ( g b a and whose
generating line pass through the conic 0 , 1
2
2
2
2
= = + z
b
y
a
x

Ans: ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
2
) (
1 1
v z yv z
b
xr z
a
- = - + - b a
4. Prove that the equation of the cone whose vertex is the point (1,1,0) and whose
generating curve 0 4 8 2 3 4 , 0
2 2 2 2 2
= - + - + + = + + = y xy z y x is z x y
184
5. Find the equation of a right circular cone whose vertex is at the origin, whose axis
is the line
3 2 1
z y x
= = and which has a semivertical angle of 60
0

Ans : 0 8 12 24 3 13 19
2 2 2
= - - - + + xy zx yz z y x
6. Prove that the
equation 0 17 2 2 26 10 10 2 2 7
2 2 2
= - + - + + - + + z y x xy zx z y x represents a cone
whose vertex is at (1, -2, 2)
7. Find the equation of a right circular cone whose axis is the line x = y = z and the
generator is 2x = y = -3z ( APRIL 2004; Bharathiyar)
(Hint: To find semi vertical angle: The d.rs of the axis are 1 , 1, 1
a
1
, b
1
, c
1
The d.rs of the generator are
3
1
, 1 ,
2
1 -

a
2
, b
2
, c
2
The semivertical angle is given by
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
cos
c b a c b a
c c b b a a
+ + + +
+ +
= q
8. Find the general equation of the cone which touches the coordinate planes (NOV
2000, Bharathiyar)
1. Find the equation of the right circular cone with vertex at the origin semi
vertical angle 30
0
and the line
3 2 1
z y x
= = being the axis of the conic (April
2004, Bharathiar)
2. Find the equation of the cone with the vertex at (1,1,1) and base curve
0 , 1 2
2 2
= = + z y x (April 2004; Bharathiar)
3. The plane 1 = + +
c
z
b
y
a
x
meets the coordinates axes in A,B,C. Prove that the
equation to the cone generated by lines drawn from 0 to meet the circle ABC
is 0 =
b
c
c
b
yz .
185
4. Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line x =
y = z and whose guiding curve is the circle.
0 2 2 , 0 3 2
2 2 2
= + + = - - + + z y x x z y x
Ans: 0 75 20 10 40 18 16 18 17 18 17
2 2 2
= - + + - - - - + + z y x yz zx zy z y x
5. Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius 2 whose axis passes
through (1,2,3) and has direction cosines proportional to 2, -3, 6
Ans: 0 294 126 280 42 24 36 12 13 40 45
2 2 2
= + - - - - + + + + z y x zx yz xy z y x
6. Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
3 2 1
z y x
=
-
= and whose guiding curve is 3 , 1 2
2 2
= = + z y x
Ans: 0 24 18 24 6 2 8 3 6 3
2 2 2
= + - - + - + + + z y x zx yz z y x
7. Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius 3 whose axis passes
through (2,3,4) and has direction cosines proportional to (2,1,-2)
Ans: 0 179 68 56 40 8 4 4 5 8 5
2 2 2
= + - - - + + - + + z y x xz yz xy z y x
8. Find the equation of a right circular cylinder of radius 3 with axis
2
1
6
4
3
2 -
=
-
=
+ z y x
(April 2005, Bharathiar)
13.15 References
Analytical Geometry of Three Dimension by N.P. Bali
186
Lesson 14
Contents
14.1 Concicoids
14.2 Nature of a conicoid
14.3 Enveloping cone
14.4 Examples
14.5 Director Sphere
14.6 Examples
14.7 Let us sum up
14.11 References

In this lesson we are going to study about use definition coin cord which is a new
concept, the standard equation of coin cord, tangent plane, enveloping cone, director
sphere.
14.1 Concicoids
The general equation of second degree in x,y,z ie.
0 2 2 2 2 2 2 ) , , (
2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + + = d wz vy ux hxy gzx fyz cz by ax z y x f
represents a locus called a coincoid or a quadric.
Note: (1) The equation of a conicoid contains only line disposable constants
(2) We can reduce this equation to some standard form by the suitable change of the
axes.
In other words, we know a conic is intersected by a straight line at two points.
\The curve of intersection of a plane and a quadric surface is a conic.
\Quadric surfaces are called coincoids
187
Centre of the coincoid: If every chord of the conicoid passes through the origin , it is
called the centre of the coincoid central conicoid. The conic having a centre is called a
central conicoid.

14.2. Nature of a conicoid:
The standard equation of a central conicoid is 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax
This represents i) an ellipsoid if a,b,c are all positive ii) a hyperboloid of one sheet if two
are positive and the one is negative. (iii)a hyperboloid two sheets if two are negative and
one positive. (iv) a virtual ellipsoid if all are negative.
Note (1). The conicoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax has origin as centre
(2). The equation 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax is called the standard equation of the conicoid.
14.3. Enveloping cone
The locus of the tangent lines drawn from a given point to a given conicoid is a
cone called the enveloping cone of the conicoid or tangent cone of the concoid having the
given point as its vertex.
14.4. Examples
(1) Find the equation of the enveloping cone of the conic coid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax
with its vertex at A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
Solution: The equation of the conicoid is
1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax ---(1)
Let A be the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
Equation of any line through A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
R
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
=
-
=
-
=
-
1 1 1
(say) ---(2)
Any point on (2) is ) , ), (
1 1 1
Rn z Rm y Rl x + + +
If this point lies on (1), then
1 ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + Rn z c Rm y b Rl x a
0 ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + + + + cz by ax cnz bmy alx R cn bm al R
The line (2) is a tangent line to (1)
\The above quadratic equation has equal roots.
188
\ ) 1 ( ) ( 4 ) ( 4
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
- + + + + = + + cz by ax cn bm al cnz bmy alx l ---(3)

[ ] [ ] ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
- + + - + - + - = - + - + - cz by ax z z c y y b x x a z z z c y y y b x x x a
( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) 1
1 1 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
- + +
- + + + - + + - + +
= - + + - - + +
cz by ax
cz by ax czz byy axx cz by ax
cz by ax czz byy axx
--(4)
Let T = 1
1 1 1
- + + czz byy axx
S =
2 2 2
cz by ax + + -1
S
1
= 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
- + + cz by ax
Using in (4)
(T-S
1
)
2
=[S-2T+S
1
]S
1

T
2
-2TS
1
+S
1
2
=SS
1
-2TS
1
+S
1
2

T
2
=SS
1

[ ] ( ) ( ) 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
- + + - + + = - + + cz by ax cz by ax czz byy axx
Which is the required equation.
Tangent plane
(2) Find the equation of the tangent plane at (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) of the conicoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax
Solution:
The equation of the central conicoid is 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax ---(1)
Equations of any line through (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is
R
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
=
-
=
-
=
-
1 1 1
(say)
Any point on the line is
Rn z z Rm y y Rl x x + = + = + =
1 1 1
; ,
i.e ( ) Rn z Rm y Rl x + + +
1 1 1
; ,
If this lies on (1) then
( ) ( ) ( ) 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + + + + Rn z c Rm y b Rl x a
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 2 2
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
1
= + + + + + + + + R n nR y z c R m mR y y b l R n Rl x a
189
( ) 0 1 2 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
= - + + + + + + + + cz by ax nz my lx R cn bm al R
But (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) lies in (1)
0 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= - + + \ cz by ax
( ) 0 2 ) (
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + \ nz my lx R cn bm al R
This is a quadratic equation in R.
Whose roots are R
1
and R
2
Since the line (2) is a tangent line in quadratic equation
, 0
2
= + + c by ax
0 4
2
= - ac b
But c = 0
0
0
2
=
= \
b
b

The roots are equal
\ coefficient of R = 0
0
1 1 1
= + + \ nz my lx ---(3)
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
= - + - + - z z z y y y x x x

2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
cz by ax zz yy xx + + = + +
1
1 1 1
= + + zz yy xx
Which is the required equation of the tangent plane at (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
Condition for tangency
(3) Find the condition for the plane lx+my+nz = P to be a tangent plane to the conicoid
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + cz by ax
Solution: Let the line lx+my+nz = P ---(1) touch the conicoid of (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
\ Equation of the tangent plane at (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) is 1
1 1 1
= + + czz byy axx ---(2)
But equations (1) and (2) represent the same tangent plane
\ their corresponding coefficients are proportional
190
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 1 1
iv iii ii i
p n
cz
m
by
l
ax
= = = \

From (i) and (iv)
ap
x
p
n
z
bp
m
y
p l
ax 1
; ; ,
1
1 1 1
1
= = = = \ ;
But (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) lies on 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + cz by ax
1 . . .
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
= + + \
p c
n
c
p b
m
b
p a
l
a
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +
cp
n
bp
m
ap
l

1
1
2 2 2
2
=
+ +
c
n
b
m
a
l
p

2
2 2 2
p
c
n
b
m
a
l
= + + \
Which is the required condition.
Cor 1: The point of contact is
cp
n
bp
m
ap
l
, ,
Cor 2: Find the equation of two tangent planes to the central conicoid
1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax which are parallel to the plane lx+my+nz = 0
Solution: Equation of the plane parallel to the plane lx+my+nz = 0 is
lx+my+nz = P --- (1)
(1) touches the conicoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax

c
n
b
m
a
l
p
2 2 2
2
+ + = \

c
n
b
m
a
l
p
2 2 2
+ + = \
Using in (1), Equations two tangent planes are
lx+my+nz
c
n
b
m
a
l
2 2 2
+ + =
191
14.5. Director Sphere
The locus of the point of intersection of three mutually perpendicular tangent
planes to a conicoid is called a director sphere.
Find the equation of the director sphere of the coincoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax (April
2006, Bharathiyar)
Proof: The equation of the central conicoid is 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax
Let the three mutually perpendicular planes be
1
l
x+m
1
y+n
1
z
c
n
b
m
a
l
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ + = ---(2)
1
2
x+m
2
y+n
2
z
c
n
b
m
a
l
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ + = ---(3)
1
3
x+m
3
y+n
3
z
c
n
b
m
a
l
2
3
2
3
2
3
+ + = ---(4)
Where li,mi,ni, i = 1,2,3 are d.cs of the normals to these planes
; 1 ; 1 ; 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= = = \

n m l
0 1 ; 0
2
1 2 1
= =

m l l
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= + + n m l etc.
\ By eliminating 1
l
,m
1,
n
1;
1
2,
m
2,
n
2,;
1
3
,m
3,
n
3

Between (2), (3), (4)
We get
c b a
z y x
1 1 1
2 2 2
+ + = + +
Which is the equation of the director sphere of the conicoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax
14.6. Examples
1. Prove that equation of two tangent planes to the conicoid 1
2 2 2
= + + cz by ax --(1)
which pass through the line 0 = - + + = p nz my lx u ,
0 ' ' ' ' ' = - + + = p z n y m x l u is
0 ' '
' ' '
' 2 '
' ' '
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
=
- + + +
- + + -
- + + p
c
n
b
m
a
l
u pp
c
nn
b
mm
a
ll
uu p
c
n
b
m
a
l
u
Solution: Equation of any polar through the given line is 0 ' = + u u l ---(A)
192
( ) ( ) 0 ' ' ' ' = - + + + - + + p z n y m x l p nz my lx l
0 ' ) ' ( ) ' ( ) ' ( = - - + + + + + p p n n z m m y l l x l l l l
' ) ' ( ) ' ( ) ' ( p p n n z m m y l l x l l l l + = + + + + + \ ---(2)
This is of the for Lx+My+Nz =P
' ; ' ; ' ; ' p p P n n N m m M l l L l l l l + = + = + = + = \
The plane (2) touches the coni coid (1)
2
2 2 2
P
c
N
b
M
a
L
= + + \
( ) ( ) ( ) ' '
1
'
1
'
1
2 2 2
p p n n
c
m m
b
l l
a
l l l l + = + + + + + ---(B)
\These are two roots
Hence there are two tangent planes to the conicoid (1)
Eliminate l between (A) and (B)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
) ' ' (
' ' ' ' ' '
up p u
c
un n u
b
um m u
a
ul l u
- =
-
+
-
+
-

ie 0 ' '
' ' '
' 2 '
' ' '
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
=
- + + +
- + + -
- + + p
c
n
b
m
a
l
u pp
c
nn
b
mm
a
ll
uu p
c
n
b
m
a
l
u
which is the required equation.
2. Find the equations of two tangent plane to the coincoid 5 3 6 2
2 2 2
= + - z y x which pass
through the line x + 9y 3z = 0, 3x 3y + 6z 5 =0 (April 2006, Bharathiyar, November
2005, April 2004)
Proof: Equation of the conicoid is 5 3 6 2
2 2 2
= + - z y x
; 5
1
5
3
5
6
5
2
2 2 2
= + - z y x
5
3
;
5
6
;
5
2
= - = = \ c b a
Equation of any plane through the given line is
0 ) 5 6 3 3 ( 3 9 = - + - + - + z y x z y x l
0 5 ) 3 6 ( ) 3 9 ( ) 3 1 ( = - - + - + + l l l l z y x
193
l l l l 5 ) 3 6 ( ) 3 9 ( ) 3 1 ( - - + - + + z y x ---(1)
This is of the form p nz my lx = + +
l l l l 5 ; 3 6 ; 3 9 ; 3 1 = - = - = + = \ P n m l
Formula

c
n
b
m
a
l
P
2 2 2
2
+ + = \
2 2 2
) 3 6 (
3
5
) 3 9 (
6
5
) 3 1 (
2
5
25 - + - - + = l l l l
On simplification, 1 = l
Using in (1), the two tangent planes are
4x + 6y + 3z 5 = 0; 2x 12y + 9z 5 = 0

14.7. Let us sum up
So far we have studied the new concept of the conicord, tangent plane, enveloping
cone and director sphere.
1) What is the director sphere of the conicord 2x
2
-by
2
+3y
2
=5
2) Write down the equation of the tangent plant at (1,1,1) to the conicord
x
2
+y
2
-z
2
=1
1. Find the equations of the tangent planes to the conicoid 1 4
2 2 2
= + + z y x which
intersect the line 12x-3y- z=0, z = 1 (April 2006 Bharathiyar)
2. Find the equations of two tangent planes to the conicoid 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + y y x which
pass through the line z = 0, x + y =0. (April 2005, Bharathiyar)
3. Find the equations of the tangent plane to the coincoid 60 3 5 7
2 2 2
= + + z y x which
pass through the line 7x + 10y 30 = 0, 5y 3z = 0 (April 2005, November
2004,Bharathiyar)
4. Find the point of contact of the plane x + 2y + z 2 = 0 which touches the
conicoid 0 2 2
2 2 2
= - - + z y x (April 2004, Bharathiyar)
194
a. Find the equations of two planes that can be drawn through the line x = 4, 3y + 4z
= 0 to touch the conicoid 4 6 3
2 2 2
= - + z y x .
b. (Ans: x + 9y + 12z = 4, x 9y 12z = 4)
c. Show that the plane 9x + 8y 5z = 38 touches the conicoid
38 5 4 3
2 2 2
= - + z y x and find the point of contact (November 2002 Bharathiar)
d. Find the equations of the tangent planes to 1 4
2 2 2
= + + z y x which intersect in the
line whose equations are 12x 3y 5 = 0, z = 1. (November 2005 Bharathiar).

14.11 References
Analytical Geometry of Three Dimension by N.P. Bali


Text Book of Trigonometry, Vector Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Text Book of Trigonometry, Vector Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

TEXT BOOK OF TRIGONOMETRY, VECTOR CALCULUS

(cos (2n+) +i sin (2n+)) n=1,2,3,..

+ + + = ..... .......... ..........

+ + + = ..... .......... ..........

- = .... .......... ..........

- .... .......... ..........

and is written as curl f .

if it exists, is called the directional derivative of f at A

, , are the directional derivatives of f at A in the directions of the

, , are the directional derivatives of f at A in the directional derivatives of

- ydx xdy around the circle 1

where C is the closed curve

dr f . where j x i y x f cos ) (sin - - = and C is

, , , and square to zero after substituting t = 1.

You might also like