Balcanica XXXVI 2005 PDF

BALCANICA XXXVI
BALCANICA XXXVI, Belgrade 2006, 1254

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2006

XXXVI

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BALCANICA
UDC 930.85(412) YU ISSN 03507653
SERBIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND ARTS
INSTITUTE FOR BALKAN STUDIES
BELGRADE
2006
Editor-in-Chief
DUAN T. BATAKOVI
Director of the Institute for Balkan Studies
XXXVI
ANNUAL OF THE INSTITUTE FOR BALKAN STUDIES
Editorial Board
FRANCIS CONTE (Paris), DIMITRIJE DJORDJEVI (Santa Barbara),
DJORDJE S. KOSTI, LJUBOMIR MAKSIMOVI, DANICA POPOVI,
BILJANA SIKIMI, ANTHONY-EMIL TACHIAOS (Tessaloniki),
NIKOLA TASI, SVETLANA M. TOLSTAJA (Moscow),
GABRIELLA SCHUBERT (Jena)
Volume XXXVI of the annual Balcanica is printed with fnancial support from
the Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection of the Republic of Serbia
CONTENTS
ARTICLES
ARCHAEOLOGY. CLASSICAL STUDIES
Nikola Tasi, Bronze and Iron Age Sites in Srem and the Stratigraphy
of Gomolava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ivan Jordovi, Did the Ancient Greeks Know of Collective Tyranny? . . . 17
Minna Skafe Jensen, Phoenix, Achilles and a Narrative Pattern . . . . . . 35
ANTHROPOLOGY. FOLKLORE
ivko Miki, Anthropological Traces of Slav Presence in Kosovo
and Metochia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Sonja Petrovi, Charity, Good Deeds and the Poor in Serbian
Epic Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Bojan Jovanovi, Te Challenge of Plural Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Helena Zdravkovi, Te Vernacular Discourses of Historical Victimage
of Kosovo Serbs and Albanians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
HISTORY
Duan T. Batakovi, A Balkan-Style French Revolution?
Te 1804 Serbian Uprising in European Perspective . . . . . . 113
Milan St. Proti, Te Serbian Radical Movement 18811903
A Historical Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
edomir Anti, Crisis and Armament: Economic Relations between
Great Britain and Serbia 19101912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Vojislav Pavlovi, Le confit franco-italien dans les Balkans 19151935.
Le rle de la Yougoslavie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Jovan Zametica, Sir Austen Chamberlain and the Italo-Yugoslav Crisis
over Albania, February-May 1927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Tanos Veremis, Western Amateurs in the Balkans and the End
of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Nikola Tasi
Bronze and Iron Age Sites in Srem
and the Stratigraphy of Gomolava
Continuity ol human occupation at Gomolava cvidcnccd by a succcssion ol
supcrposcd laycrs makcs it possiblc to cstablish a rcliablc rclativc chrono
logical lramcwork lor a largc numbcr ol cxcavatcd sitcs in thc arca bctwccn
thc Sava and anubc rivcrs or morc spccically in Srcm. Tc rcgion bc
ing invcstigatcd to an adcquatc dcgrcc, almost all 8ronzc and arly !ron
Agc sitcs may bc quitc rcliably ttcd into a systcm bascd on Gomolavas
stratigraphic scqucncc. Minor lacunac rcvcalcd in thc proccss rcsult morc
lrom thc synchronicity ol dicrcnt culturcs or thcir variants in thc Sava and
anubc vallcys than lrom intcrruptions to Gomolavas occupation. Tis is
particularly charactcristic ol thc arly 8ronzc Agc !! pcriod, whcn Srcm
witncsscd thc intrusion and mixing ol many culturcs ol dicrcnt origin,
abovc all thc \atin culturc lrom thc cast and thc carly ncrustcd Pottcry
culturc lrom thc Pannonian Plain. Tc occurrcncc ol dicrcnt stylcs in a
closcd contcxt (pit or gravc) at Gomolava or somc othcr sitc in Srcm con
rms thcir contcmporancousncss.
+
Tc accuracy ol Gomolavas stratigraphy lor thc chronology ol thc
8ronzc and !ron Agcs has bccn tcstcd on somc othcr sitcs in Srcm or its
immcdiatc ncighbourhood, most ol all Gradina (mcaning hilllort) on thc
8osut rivcr ncar id (!ron Agc rathcr than 8ronzc), aninc at 8clcgi,
and, most rcccntly, at Pctrovaradin Fortrcss, Fcudvar ncar Moorin (south
8aka), or \ucdol. Tis papcr makcs an attcmpt to t thcir horizons into
a slightly rcviscd chronological schcmc ol Gomolava.
:
Tc corrcctions sug
+
N. Tasi, 8ronzc und altcrc iscnzcit aul Gomolava, in Gomolava + (Chronologie
und Stratigraphie der Vorgeschichlichen und Antiken Kulturen der Donauniederung und S-
dosteuropas, Symposium, Ruma, +86, Novi Sad, +88), , J. Pctrovi, Grob ranog
bronzanog doba sa Golokuta kod \izia, Rad vojvodjanskih muzeja :6 (+8o), .
:
N. Tasi, Forcword, ibid., +o.
8alcanica XXX\! 8
gcstcd hcrc should makc it possiblc to prcscnt thc complctc dcvclopmcnt ol
thc 8ronzc and !ron Agcs in this arca.
A morc comprchcnsivc stratigraphy and pcriodization ol cultural dc
posits at Gomolava was rst proposcd in thc +8os. As a rcsult ol twcnty
ycars ol cxcavations, thc cultural laycr was graphically prcscntcd in thc in
troductory tcxt to Gomolava + (+86/88). !t was lurthcr dcvclopcd in +8.

Today, almost :o ycars latcr, it is possiblc to makc lurthcr amcndmcnts and
thus rcndcr thc picturc ol thc dcvclopmcnt ol culturcs in this part ol Srcm
clcarcr and morc complctc. Somc gaps in Gomolavas stratigraphy may pos
sibly bc llcd with cxcavation data obtaincd lrom othcr sitcs, particularly as
rcgards thc phascs that havc yicldcd insucicnt matcrial lor qucstions such
as thc rclationship bctwccn thc \inkovci, arly \atin and carly ncrustcd
Pottcry groups within thc arly 8ronzc Agc horizon, or thc problcm ol too
loosc a pcriodization ol thc arly !ron Agc as it is known lrom thc strati
graphic scqucncc ol Gradina on thc 8osut or, nally, thc problcm ol thc cnd
ol thc arly !ron Agc, i.c. ol thc rclationship bctwccn thc socallcd Srcm
group and thc Ccltic intrusion.
Final Eneolithic Early Bronze Age (Gomolava IIIc/IVa)

Although rcgistcrcd a long timc ago, and datcd to !!!c phasc, thc horizon
with \ucdol pottcry at Gomolava has only rcccntly bccn givcn its rst dc
tailcd study by J. Pctrovi and 8. Jovanovi.
Tc study has callcd attcntion to

thc scantincss ol dwclling structurcs, cvcn morc conspicuous as thc culturc
is wcllknown lor its dcvclopcd architccturc and lorticd scttlcmcnts (c.g.
aninc at 8clcgi, \ucdol). !n typological tcrms, two phascs ol this culturc
may bc distinguishcd with much ccrtainty: onc that maintains thc Kosto
lac tradition ol pottcry dccoration and is closc to thc nds lrom aninc
at 8clcgi, and thc othcr that is charactcrizcd by a wclldcvclopcd, oltcn
roughly pittcd, dccpcarvcd pottcry, assigncd by S. imitrijcvi to thc vcry
cnd ol this culturc, to its Mitrovica phasc.
6
Tc authors ol thc study havc
datcd thc \ucdol horizon at Gomolava to !!!c+ and !!!c: phascs. As lor
N. Tasi, Stratigralski i rclativnohronoloki odnos Gomolavc kod Hrtkovaca i Gra

dinc na 8osutu, Rad vojvodjanskih muzeja o (Novi Sad, +8), 8:.
M. Garaanin, Praistorija na tlu SR Srbije, vol. !! (8clgradc, +), +++, R. \asi,

Srcmska grupa zapadnobalkanskog komplcksa, in Praistorija jugoslavenskih zemalja,
vol. \ (Sarajcvo, +8), .
J. Pctrovi and 8. Jovanovi, Gomolava . Settlements of the Late Eneolithic (Novi Sad
8clgradc, :oo:), o .
6
S. imitrijcvi, \ucdolska kultura i vucdolski kulturni komplcks, in Praistorija
jugoslavenskih zemalja, vol. !!! (Sarajcvo, +), ::.
N. Tasi, 8ronzc and !ron Agc Sitcs in Srcm 9
othcr sitcs in Srcm, subphasc !!!c+ would includc \ucdol scttlcmcnts or
somc ol thcir horizons at 8clcgi (aninc), whilc \rdnik, Golokut and thc
burials in tumuli ncar 8atajnica and \ojka would lall within !!!c:.
Particu
larly charactcristic arc an urn and a largc lragmcntcd tcrrinc dccoratcd with
dccply cngravcd conccntric circlcs and rcd crustcd paint lrom thc tumulus
known as \clika humka (Grcat Mound) at 8atajnica. Tc nal phasc at Go
molava (!!!c:) corrcsponds to a lullblown mctallurgy phasc ol thc \ucdol
culturc (mctallurgical ccntrcs at \inkovciTrnica, or thc loundry workcrs
housc at \ucdol). Tis phasc inauguratcs thc arly 8ronzc Agc in thc arca
bctwccn thc Sava and anubc rivcrs.
8

Many stratigraphic data lrom Srcm show that thc nal \ucdol
phasc is ovcrlaid by thc carlicst truly arly 8ronzc Agc culturc, known
as \inkovci or \inkovciSomogyvr. Notwithstanding considcrablc dicr
cnccs in stylc, it may bc said that thcrc is a chronological and cvcn cthnic
continuity bctwccn thc two culturcs. Tc grcatcst dicrcncc is thc abrupt
disappcarancc ol dccpcarving and othcr baroquc tcchniqucs ol pottcry dcc
oration typical ol thc tcrminal \ucdol culturc. Somc ol thc carlicr shapcs,
howcvcr, wcrc rctaincd, givcn that thc two culturcs arc dircctly supcrim
poscd on most \ucdol scttlcmcnt sitcs in Srcm (Pctrovaradin Fortrcss,
8clcgiGradac, Golokut ncar \izi, Tvrdjava at !lok, Trnica at \inkovci
and othcr sitcs on thc north and wcst slopcs ol Fruka Gora). !n contrast
Pctrovi and Jovanovi, Gomolava, .

8
Ibid., . Pctrovi, Grob ranog bronzanog doba, and Pl. !.
8alcanica XXX\! 10
to \ucdol scttlcmcnts, substantial structurcs arc scarcc on \inkovci sitcs,
whcrc thc houscs arc scmipit dwcllings with two conncctcd rooms (Golo
kut, Pctrovaradin Fortrcss, ZcmunAslaltna baza ctc.).
Tc pit dwcllings
and pits as a rulc abound in pottcry nds, and oltcn contain wholc vcsscls
ol varicd shapcs, as cvidcnccd by cxcavation at Gradina on thc 8osut, !lok,
or in thc pcriphcry ol Zcmun (sitc ol Aslaltna baza).
Tc prcscncc ol thc \inkovci culturc at Gomolava amounts to a small
numbcr ol potshcrds. Considcring that morc than a hall ol thc sitc has bccn
crodcd by thc Sava rivcr, it is not unlikcly that somc scction ol this sizc
ablc platcau containcd a smallcr \inkovci scttlcmcnt. 8c that as it may, thc
culturcs placc in thc stratigraphy ol Gomolava has bccn rcliably cstablishcd:
bctwccn horizons !!!c: and !\a+ which mark thc bcginning ol thc arly
8ronzc Agc at this sitc.
Early Bronze Age (Gomolava IVa1, IVa2-b1)
!n thc lormativc pcriod ol thc \inkovci culturc dcrivcd lrom thc nal
\ucdol, thc Srcm arca witncsscd thc intrusion ol both thc carly \atin and
thc ncrustcd Pottcry culturc, thc lattcr bcing at rst ol Transdanubian and
latcr ol Szcrcmlc typc, as labcllcd by T. Kovacs.
+o
At Gomolava, this jum
blc ol culturcs is obscrvablc in horizons !\a+ and !\a:, and it was brought
to an cnd by thc intrusion ol thc ncrustcd Pottcry at thc cnd ol thc arly
8ronzc Agc (Gomolava !\b+). thcr sitcs in Srcm show a similar picturc.
At Gradina on thc 8osut thcrc is within horizon !!! a rathcr powcrlul laycr
with pit dwcllings and pits whcrc latc \inkovci, \atin and Transdanubian
ncrustcd Pottcry warcs occur in association. Tc samc laycr has also yicld
cd a hoard ol gold artclacts.
++
Tc matcrial ol thc thrcc culturcs ol dicrcnt
origins and stylcs has also bccn lound in association in an inhumation burial
and in thc occupation horizon at Golokut. 8cyond Srcm, contacts bctwccn
thc \atin and ncrustcd Pottcry culturcs havc bccn rcgistcrcd in thc arly
8ronzc Agc laycr at Popov Sala ncar Ka (thc Novi Sad arca),
+:
whcrc thc
Pctrovi, Grob ranog bronzanog doba, and T. !.

+o
T. Kovacs, ic topographischc und chronologischc Stcllc dcr SzcrcmlcKultur in
dcr 8ronzczcit dcs sudlichcn Karpatcnbcckcns, in Gomolava + (Chronologie und Strati-
graphie der Vorgeschichlichen und Antiken Kulturen der Donauniederung und Sdosteuropas,
Symposium, Ruma, +86 (Novi Sad, +88), ++6.
++
N. Tasi, ic \inkovci Kultur, in Kulturen der Frhbronzezeit des Karpatenbeckens
und Nordbalkans (8clgradc, +8), ::.
+:
P. Mcdovi, ic inkrustricrtc Kcramik dcr Mittclbronzczcit in dcr \ojvodina, in Te
Yugoslav Danube Basin and the Neighbouring Regions in the 2nd Millennium BC, Sympo
sium, \rac + (8clgradc\rac, +6), +6+8.
carly \atin laycr with houscs and pits has yicldcd pottcry lragmcnts dcco
ratcd in thc carly stylc ol Pannonian ncrustcd Pottcry. Most nds datc
lrom a timc immcdiatcly prcccding thc pcnctration ol thc Szcrcmlc culturc
towards anubian Scrbia, including thc south 8anat, whcrc this intrusion
somcwhat latcr gavc risc to a latcr ncrustcd Pottcry phasc ol Kovin, \rac
At typc. From thc lattcr originatcd in turn thc cxtcnsivc ncrustcd Pottcry
complcx ol thc typcs ubovac, uto 8rdo in Scrbia, Cirna and Girla Marc
in thc Romanian 8anat, or rsoja and 8alcj in anubian 8ulgaria.
+
Middle and Late Bronze Age (Gomolava IVb-IVc2)
A stabilization in Srcm and anubian Scrbia at largc is markcd by thc
8clcgi (8clcgi !Cruccni and 8clcgi !!8obda) culturc. At Gomolava, it
bclongs to thc lattcr hall ol thc 8ronzc Agc and, according to somc, contin
ucs into a ncw cpoch, arly !ron Agc. Horizon ! is charactcrizcd by cordcd
warcs and in horizon !! channcllcd pottcry appcars. Assuming that Srcm
was its corc arca, thc culturc sprcad rapidly and covcrcd cntirc Srcm, thc ccn
tral and south 8anat and, nally, parts ol wcstcrn Romania. !n Gomolavas
+
S. Morintz, Contributii archeologice la istoria Tracilor, vol. ! (8ucarcst, +8), :8o,
M. Guma, Te Bronze Age in Banat (Timisoara, +), +:6+:8, J. Uzclac, 8ronzc Agc
ol thc South Yugoslavian 8anat, in Te Yugoslav Danube Basin and the Neighbouring
Regions in the 2nd Millennium BC, Symposium, \rac, + (8clgradc\rac, +6),
::, and Map , N. Tasi, as Problcm dcr Fundc von Szcrcmlc im 8anat und ihrc
Chronologic, in Te Yugoslav Danube Basin and the Neighbouring Regions in the 2nd
Millennium BC, Symposium, \rac, + (8clgradc\rac, +6), ++6:.
8alcanica XXX\! 12
stratigraphic scqucncc thcsc arc: horizon !\b (8clcgi !) with cordcd warc,
!\c+, markcd by thc cmcrgcncc ol pottcry (urns in nccropoliscs) dccoratcd
with simplc channcls, and nally !\c:, whcrc pottcry bccomcs channcllcd
in a baroquc manncr (horizontal and vcrtical garlands, laccting and thc
likc). Tis nal phasc is assigncd to thc socallcd Gava horizon. Such pcri
odization has lound dircct or indircct conrmation at many othcr sitcs in
Srcm, in thc cnvirons ol 8clgradc and in thc south 8anat. Nccropoliscs ol
this culturc such as 8clcgi, Karaburma, Rospi uprija, \inogradiSurin,
or its scttlcmcnts such as konomija Sava (ncar Jakovo) conrm with much
ccrtainty thc pcriodization bascd on thc cxcavation ol Gomolava.
+
oz
cns ol cxcavatcd sitcs lrom this pcriod show that scttlcmcnts gcncrally arc
smallcr and singlclaycrcd, which prccludcs intcrnal pcriodization, by con
trast, nccropoliscs contain scvcral hundrcds ol burials, according to somc
cstimatcs as many as 6oo, most important bcing Surin, Karaburma, Stojia
Gumno at 8clcgi, and somc in thc 8anat (c.g. \ojlovica). Tis nal phasc ol
thc 8ronzc Agc is charactcrizcd by many hoards ol an Ha A+A: datc. !t is
intcrcsting that thcy arc particularly lrcqucnt in thc arcas whcrc latc 8clcgi
(or Gava in wcstcrn Romania) scttlcmcnts and nccropoliscs arc lound.
+
A
conncction bctwccn a hoard and thc scttlcmcnt with channcllcd pottcry has
bccn asccrtaincd at Jakovo (konomija Sava). Tc mapping ol Ha A+A:
hoards in thc south 8anat (R. Raajski and Lj. 8ukvi) suggcsts idcntical
+
Tasi, iscnzcit aul Gomolava, 8+.
+
M. Guma, Civilizatia primei epoci a erului in Sud-Vestul Romaniei (8ucharcst, +),
+8++.
rcsults. At Gomolava, thc modcst quantity ol bronzc artclacts in laycr !\c:,
which also containcd black burnishcd pottcry ol Gava typc, makcs it pos
siblc to lully tracc thc proccss ol 8ronzc to !ron Agc transition.
+6
Early Iron Age (Gomolava Va-c)
uc to thc abscncc ol structural rcmains, notably houscs, which would bc a
clcar indicator ol dicrcnt phascs ol thc sitcs occupation, thc cultural laycr
at Gomolava may bc morc clcarly undcrstood through data lrom othcr sitcs.
Somc inlormation is obtaincd lrom smallcr pits llcd with pottcry matcrial
or lrom two collcctivc tombs discovcrcd in + and ++ rcspcctivcly.
+

Tc abovcmcntioncd problcm ol transition lrom onc pcriod to anothcr may
bc solvcd only through comparativc studics ol thc cxcavatcd matcrial lrom
othcr sitcs in Srcm, notably Gradina on thc 8osut which illustratcs thc
complctc and unintcrruptcd cvolution ol thc arly !ron Agc in this arca.
Additional data lor thc carlicst !ron Agc phasc at Gomolava, dcsignatcd \a,
arc providcd by cxcavation at Kalakaa and, to a lcsscr cxtcnt, ljunkara ncar
Zcmun.
+8
A rcport ol thc latcst systcmatic cxcavation at Pctrovaradin For
trcss has not bccn publishcd yct but thc nds will ccrtainly bc vcry hclplul.
At Kalakaa, to thc carlicst 8osut horizon datc thc pits whcrc thc pottcry
typical ol this culturc (collcctivc Tomb + at Gomolava) has bccn lound in
association with black burnishcd warc with garlandcd or laccttcd dccora
tion. Tis pottcry, along with lcw rclatcd lragmcnts lrom Gomolava !\c:,
constitutcs a link bctwccn thc nal 8ronzc Agc and thc bcginning ol thc
arly !ron Agc. Similar conclusions may also bc drawn lor thc pottcry ma
tcrial discovcrcd at Gradina on thc 8osut, whcrc thc lowcst 8osut horizons
havc yicldcd picccs, though only sporadic, whosc tcchnology ol manulac
turc and mcthod ol dccoration draw thcir origin lrom thc tcrminal phascs
ol thc 8ronzc Agc. Gomolavas Horizon \a containing this pottcry, analo
gously to somc asscmblagcs (pits) at Kalakaa, prcccdcs thc cmcrgcncc ol
lavishly dccoratcd pottcry in thc socallcd 8asarabi stylc (Smotils, running
spirals, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic gurcs). Tcsc changcs raisc two
important qucstions:
a) whcthcr thcrc was an unintcrruptcd stylistic and cthnic cvolution,
as commonly suggcstcd by archacologists (both domcstic and Romanian),
+6
Uzclac, 8ronzc Agc, and Map 8.
+
N. Tasi, An arly !ron Agc Collcctivc Tomb at Gomolava, Archaeologia Iugoslavica
X!!! (8clgradc, +:), :.
+8
8. Pctrovi, Skclctni grob starijcg gvozdcnog doba sa lokalitcta Aslaltna baza u Zc
munu, Godinjak grada Beograda 8 (+:), +:, P. Mcdovi, Kalakaa, naselje ranog
gvozdenog doba (Novi Sad, +88).
8alcanica XXX\! 14
or thc changcs rcsultcd lrom thc intrusion ol thc protagonists ol a ncw
stylc,
b) whcthcr thcrc was a conncction bctwccn thc changcs and a lcw
hoards (most ol all Adacvci and arcngrad) containing artclacts in thc so
callcd TracoCimmcrian stylc. A lcw artclacts ol thc kind havc also bccn
discovcrcd in lcvcl \b at Gomolava (c.g. a crucilorm button or pcndant, a
piccc ol horsc tack).
Tcsc two qucstions lcad us to givc carclul considcration to thc is
suc ol thc continuous, thrccphasc cvolution ol thc 8osut culturc as it was
proposcd morc than thirty ycars ago.
+
First ol all, 8osut ! and !! warcs dil
lcr in many dctails. Tc carlicr pottcry is grcybrown, thc latcr is black and
burnishcd, thc carlicr bcars simplc lincar dccoration, thc latcr shows morc
claboratc ornamcnts such as Smotils cncrustcd in whitc, running spirals,
dcpictions ol birds, horscs or horscmcn. As lor architccturc, instcad ol pit
dwcllings as thc solc typc ol houscs at Kalakaa, thc latcr laycr at Gra
dina on thc 8osut shows abovcground structurcs with hcarths or cult placcs
adorncd with spirals.
Tc qucstion ol continuity may also bc poscd as rcgards dircct cultur
al and stylistic conncction bctwccn two 8osut phascs at Gradina, thc sccond
or 8osut8asarabi !! and thc youngcst, idcnticd as thc third and nal stagc
ol thc prcsumably unicd 8osut culturc and rcprcscntcd by black pat
tcrnburnishcd pottcry dccoratcd with sharpcdgcd channcls. !t has bccn
labcllcd 8osut !!!, but thcrc is not much cvidcncc to corroboratc thc labcl.
+
N. Tasi, 8ronzano doba, in Praistorija Vojvodine (Novi Sad, +), :8 .
At Gomolava it is rcprcscntcd by a rathcr small numbcr ol nds, mostly
channcllcd cups, and labcllcd Gomolava \c. Tc ncxt phasc \! bclongs
to a La Tnc scttlcmcnt rcprcscntcd by abundant pottcry nds, kilns, many
pits and hcarths, and lortications. 8. Jovanovi and M. Jovanovi (+88),
who studicd thc Latc !ron Agc lcvcls at Gomolava in dctail, datcd thcm to
thc sccond and rst ccnturics 8C. !t may bc inlcrrcd thcrclorc that thcrc is a
gap ol scvcral ccnturics bctwccn thc last arly !ron Agc phasc and thc car
licst Ccltic scttlcmcnt (Scordisci). Vhat was happcning during that timc,
ol which no tracc has bccn rcgistcrcd in thc stratication ol Gomolava, or
at Gradina on thc 8osut, Pctrovaradinska Fortrcss and othcr sitcs, is dil
cult to say with ccrtainty. !t is highly likcly that thc cnd ol thc 8osut cul
turc (8osut8asarabi !!!) mcant thc cnd ol occupation at Gomolava. Tis
chronological vacuum may bc llcd with thc socallcd Srcm group which
is known lrom many sitcs (Srcmska Mitrovica, Kuzmin, Sala Noajski),
and cspccially lrom a hoard lound at urug in thc southcast ol 8aka. M.
Garaanin, R. \asi and thc author ol this tcxt datc thcsc prcscntly only
sporadic nds to a pcriod bctwccn thc cnd ol thc 8osut culturc (8osut !!!)
and thc carlicst occurrcncc ol Ccltic nds in Slavonia and Srcm.
:o
!n abso
lutc datcs that is a pcriod bctwccn thc lourth and sccond ccnturics 8C, a
prcLa Tnc horizon ol which no tracc has bccn rccordcd at Gomolava.
Serbian Academy UDC 902.01:903](497.113 Gomolava)637/638
of Sciences and Arts
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:o.
8alcanica XXX\! 16
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\rani, S. :oo:. Belegi, Stojia gumnonekropola spaljenih pokojnika. 8clgradc, :oo:.
!van Jordovi
Did the Ancient Greeks Know of Collective Tyranny?*
Tc picturc ol tyranny as thc rulc ol a powcrlul individual prcdominatcs in
both ancicnt and modcrn writcrs.
+
Tus H. 8crvc dcncs thc tyrant as an
individual violating thc cxisting norms and laws, but not as a proponcnt ol
any particular social, political, national or quasircligious idca, bccausc to
him, powcr is an cnd in itscll.
:
A closcr look at particular tyrannical rcgimcs
in ancicnt Grcccc, both archaic and classical, rcvcals, howcvcr, that many ol
thcm wcrc not lcd by a solc dcspot wiclding absolutc powcr. !n lact, powcr
was oltcn sharcd among brothcrs, a numbcr ol cousins, or cvcn among un
rclatcd pcoplc. For cxamplc, Polycratcs and Clcisthcncs scizcd tyrannical
powcr, togcthcr with thcir cousins, in Samos and Sicyon rcspcctivcly.
!n thc
sccond hall ol thc sixth ccntury 8.C. Athcnagoras and Comas jointly rulcd
phcsus as dcspots.
!rus, rtygcs and charus, assistcd by a hetaireia, man

agcd to takc control ol thcir homctown, rctria.
Altcr thc dcath ol Jason

ol Phcrai, powcr in Tcssaly was at rst sharcd by his brothcrs Polydorus
and Polyphron. Collcctivc rulc in Phcrai took placc again whcn Jasons sons
Tis is an cnlargcd and dccpcncd vcrsion ol onc chaptcr ol my book Die Anfnge
der Jngeren Tyrannis. Vorlufer und erste Reprsentanten von Gewaltherrschaft im spten
5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (Franklurt am Main, :oo).
Tc namcs ol thc ancicnt authors and thcir works arc abbrcviatcd altcr NP (H. Can
cik and H. Schncidcr, cds., Der Neue Pauly. nzyklopadic dcr Antikc, \ol. ! (Stuttgart/
Vcimar +6), xxxixxlvii).
+
Cl. V. Pirchcr, as Gcsctz dcs Tyranncn, in V. Pirchcr and M. Trcml, cds., Tyran-
nis und Verfhrung (\icnna, :ooo), +:6+:, H. 8crvc, Die Tyrannis bei den Griechen
(Munich, +6), x.
:
Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, ixx.
For Polycratcs, cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +o+o8, L. dc Libcro, Die archaische Tyrannis
(Stuttgart, +6), :6+:6:. For Clcisthcncs, cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, :8, dc Libcro, Tyrannis,
+86+88.
Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +oo, dc Libcro, Tyrannis, +:.
Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, 6, dc Libcro, Tyrannis, 6.

8alcanica XXX\! 18
scizcd powcr altcr Alcxandcr had bccn assassinatcd.
6
Clcarchus son Timo
thcus appointcd his brothcr ionysius as his corcgcnt in Hcraclca Pontica,
and latcr ionysius sons also rulcd togcthcr.
Tat is why modcrn scholarship oltcn uscs thc tcrm collective or cor-
porative tyranny lor such cascs. Tc ancicnt Hcllcncs, howcvcr, did not know
thc tcrm. Tis poscd no problcms in thc casc ol dcspotic rcgimcs whosc
naturc was unambiguous such as thc Pisistratidcan in Athcns. n thc othcr
hand, morc complcx lorms ol collcctivc tyranny such as thc Tirty in Ath
cns and thc Tcban rcgimc ol 8: 8.C. arc illustrativc ol thc dicultics
ancicnt writcrs laccd whcn thcy tricd to givc an adcquatc conccptual dcni
tion ol this rcgimc typc.
8
Tat is why thc sourccs oltcn dcscribc such cascs
as tyranny, oligarchy and dynastic rcgimc (dynasteia) all at thc samc timc,
a
lact that lrcqucntly accts modcrn vicws on such systcms ol govcrnmcnt.
+o

Hcncc thc ncccssity ol cnquiring as to whcthcr thc ancicnt Grccks had an
6
Cl. H.J. Gchrkc, Stasis. Untersuchungen zu den inneren Kriegen in den griechischen
Staaten des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (Munich, +8), ++, 8crvc, Tyrannis, :8,
::.
Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +, :::.

8
For thc rcgimc ol thc Tirty as a collcctivc tyranny, cl. Jordovi, Anfnge, +6:+,
Gchrkc, Stasis, +8+, and csp. n. , P. Cartlcdgc, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta
(London, +8), o+, :8+, . Frolov, Tyrannis und Monarchic im balkanischcn
Gricchcnland. ic spatc Tyrannis im balkanischcn Gricchcnland, in . Ch. Vclsko
pl, cd., Hellenische Poleis (8crlin, +), \ol. !, :, 8crvc, Tyrannis, :++, R. sbornc,
Changing thc iscoursc, in K. A. Morgan, cd., Popular Tyranny: Sovereignty and Its
Discontents in Ancient Greece (Austin, :oo), :+, :6::66, H. Fricdcl, Der Tyrannen-
mord in Gesetzgebung und Volksmeinung der Griechen (Stuttgart, +), 6o. R. J. 8uck,
A History of Boeotia (dmonton +), 6+, Gchrkc (Stasis, ++8o, +8) and 8crvc
(Tyrannis, 6) contcnd that thc Tcban rcgimc was a collcctivc tyranny.
Tc Tirty: tyranny (Xcn. Hcll. :.,+6, 8, ,+, Lys. +:,, iod. +.:,+, , ,, ,6,
:,+:, ,:, , +.:,, Aristot. Ath. pol. +,:), oligarchy (Xcn. Hcll. :.,+:, ++8,
:, :6, o, :, +, iod. +.,, ,6, Aristot. Ath. pol. ,, ,+, 8,, ,+), dynas-
teia (iod. +.:,6, Aristot. Ath. pol. 6,+).
Tcbcs: dynasteia (Xcn. Hcll. .,6), tyranny (Xcn. Hcll. .,+:, , +, .,, Plut.
Pclop. 6,:, ), oligarchy (Plut. Pclop. ,:).
+o
8crvc, Tyrannis, :++, R. 8rock, Athcnian ligarchs: Tc Numbcr Gamc, JHS +o
(+8), 6:, . Vhitchcad, Sparta and thc Tirty Tyrants, AncSoc +/+ (+8:/), ++,
Frolov (Tyrannis und Monarchie, :), and Fricdcl (Tyrannenmord, 6o), considcr
thc bloody rcgimc ol thc Tirty a tyranny. !t is dcncd as oligarchy by V. Nippcl,
Mischverfassungstheorie und Verfassungsrealitt in Antike und frher Neuzeit (Stuttgart,
+8o), 8+, P. Krcntz, Te Tirty at Athens (!thaca/London), +, +, Xenophon Hellenika
!!..++!\.:.8, cd., introd., trans. and commcnt. P. Krcntz (Varminstcr +), +::,
M. stwald, From Popular Sovereignty to the Sovereignty of Law. Law, Society, and Poli-
tics in Fifth-Century Athens (8crkclcy/Los Angclcs/London), 6o6, H. 8cngtson,
!. Jordovi, id thc Ancicnt Grccks Know ol Collcctivc Tyranny: 19
awarcncss ol collcctivc tyranny in ordcr not only bcttcr to undcrstand thc
cvolution ol Grcck political thought, but also to avoid misundcrstandings
in asscssing thc charactcr ol ccrtain rcgimcs.
++
Dynasteia is a statcthcorctical notion that may hclp us lurthcr on.
ur cnquirics into this notion show that thc Hcllcncs wcrc vcry much
awarc ol thc spccic charactcr ol collcctivc tyranny and that thcy cvcn had
a tcrm lor it, not idcntical but still vcry closc to thc modcrn conccpt. Tis
study also throws somc light on thc lactors duc to which dynasteia did not
bccomc thc prcvailing tcrm lor collcctivc tyranny.
Tc complcxity ol thc tcrm dynasteia is rccctcd in thc lact that lrom
thc outsct it rclcrrcd to cxtrcmc oligarchy which was vcry similar to tyranny.
Tis is plain to scc lrom Tucydidcs dcscription ol thc Tcban rcgimc as it
was at thc timc ol thc wars against thc Pcrsians (Tuk. .6:,):
+:
For thc constitution ol our city at that timc was,
as it happcncd, ncithcr an oligarchy undcr cqual
laws (ligarcan snomon) nor yct a dcmocracy,
Griechische Geschichte von den Anfngen bis in die Rmische Kaiserzeit, :nd cd. (Munich,
+6o), :::, G. A. Lchmann, Oligarchische Herrschaft im klassischen Athen. Zu den
Krisen und Katastrophen der attischen Demokratie im 5. und 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (p
ladcn, +), +:8, G. A. Lchmann, bcrlcgungcn zur Krisc dcr attischcn cmokra
tic im Pcloponncsischcn Kricg: \om strakismos dcs Hypcrbolos zum Targclion ++
v. Chr., ZPE 6 (+8), , Ch. Tuplin, !mpcrial Tyranny: Somc Rccctions on a
Classical Grcck Political Mctaphor, in P. Cartlcdgc and F. . Harvcy, cds., Crux. Es-
says Presented to G. E. M. de Ste. Croix on His 75th Birthday (xctcr, +8), 68, ,
C. A. Powcll, Athens and Sparta. Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478
B.C. (London, +88), :, P. J. Rhodcs, ligarchs in Athcns, in R. 8rock and S. Hod
kinson, cds., Alternatives to Athens. Varieties of Political Organization and Community in
Ancient Greece (xlord, :ooo), +++6, and M. Munn, Te School of History: Athens
in the Age of Socrates (8crkclcy/Los Angclcs, :ooo), ::6, :. Somc authors usc
both tcrms, tyranny and oligarchy, lor thc rcgimc ol thc Tirty, cl. M. H. Hanscn,
Die athenische Demokratie im Zeitalter des Demosthenes. Struktur, Prinzipien und Selb-
stverstndnis (8crlin, +), +, G. A. Lchmann, ic rcvolutionarc Machtcrgrcilung
dcr rciig und dic staatlichc Tcilung Attikas (oo+/o v. Chr.), in R. Sticl and
G. A. Lchmann, cds., Antike und Universalgeschichte. Festschrift Hans Erich Stier zum
70. Geburtstag (Munstcr, +:), :o+:, :+8, n. , ::, Ch. Schubcrt, Die Macht des
Volkes und die Ohnmacht des Denkens. Studien zum Verhltnis von Mentalitt und Wissen-
schaft im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (Stuttgart, +), +6+.
++
Tis catcgory includcs thc rcgimcs in Chalcis, rcosHistiaca, rctria, and Mcsscnia,
about which thcrc is divcrgcncc ol opinions as to whcthcr thcy wcrc oligarchics or col
lcctivc tyrannics, cl. Gchrkc, Stasis, o+, 666, , 8crvc, Tyrannis, ooo, o8,
66.
+:
Cl. J. Martin, ynastcia. inc bcgris, vcrlassungs und sozialgcschichtlichc
Skizzc, in R. Koscllcck, cd., Historische Semantik und Begrisgeschichte (Stuttgart, +),
::8.
8alcanica XXX\! 20
but its aairs wcrc in thc hands ol a small group ol
powcrlul mcn (dynastea lgwn ndrn) thc
lorm which is most opposcd to law and thc bcst
rcgulatcd polity, and most allicd to tyranny.
+
Tucydidcs usc ol thc tcrm dynasteia has scvcral distinctivc charactcristics:
hc docs not usc it to dcscribc thc oligarchic ovcrthrow in Athcns in ++
8.C., it is conncctcd with tyranny only whcn rclcrring to thc intcrnal po
litical situation in dcvclopcd statcs such as Tcbcs and Syracusc (Tuk.
.6:,, 6.8,),
+
nally, hc uscs thc tcrm both lor archaic and lor prc
statc systcms such as thosc in Tcssaly and among thc !llyrians (Tuk.
.8,:, +:6,:).
+
!t is worthy ol notc that, asidc lrom pointing out that
dynasteia is thc traditional lorm ol govcrnmcnt in Tcssaly, Tucydidcs also
points out its oppositcncss to isonomia (Tuk. .8,).
+6
Namcly, thc tcrm
isonomia originatcd in thc contcxt ol aristocratic strugglcs against tyrannical
autocracy.
+
+
Tucydides, vol. !!, trans., cd. and introd. C. F. Smith (Cambridgc, Mass/London,
+:, rcprint +).
+
!n his spccch Athcnagoras connccts thc thrcat ol tyranny with dynasteia (Tuk.
6.8,). Cl. Alcibiadcs spccch in Sparta (Tuk. 6.8,), cl. also HCT !\, 6:, 8crvc,
Tyrannis, 6:, H. Lcppin, Tukydides und die Verfassung der Polis. Ein Beitrag zur poli-
tischen Ideengeschichte des 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (8crlin, +), 686.
+
Cl. also Plat. lcg. 68obc, 68+d, cmosth. or. ,. According to J. Martin (Dynas-
teia, :::o), such usc ol thc tcrm dynasteia is an cxpansion ol Aristotlcs notion. Tis
usc, howcvcr, is not ncccssarily in collision with thc vicw that dynasteia and tyranny
sharc somc important charactcristics. Plato is a good cxamplc bccausc in his works
this carlicst systcm ol rulc and tyranny havc a lot in common: instcad ol asscmblics
and laws, thcrc only rulcs thc dcspotism ol individuals. !n 8rasidas spccch, dynasteia
rclcrs to barbarians and not to Pcloponncsians (Tuk. .+:6,:), cl. HCT !!!, 6+6+,
S. Hornblowcr, A Commentary on Tucydides, vol. !! (xlord, +6), 8.
+6
Plato also contrasts dynasteia with isonomia (Plat. rcp. :+cd). For thc tyranny
cgalitarianism contrast in sourccs, cl. c.g. Hcrodotus Constitutional dcbatc (Hdt.
.8o,6). Tc adjcctivc isonomos appcars in two scholia writtcn in honour ol Harmo
dius and Aristogiton, thc tyrantslaycrs (Athcn. 6ab).
+
G. \lastos, !sonomia, AJPh (+), 66, \. J. Rosivach, Tc Tyrant in Athc
nian cmocracy, Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica o, (+88), , P. Spahn,
!ndividualisicrung und politischcs 8cwutscin im archaischcn Gricchcnland, in K.
Raaaub and . MullcrLuckncr, cds., Anfnge des politischen Denkens in der Antike.
Die nahstlichen Kulturen und die Griechen (Munich, +), 6o, Chr. Mcicr, Die
Entstehung des Politischen bei den Griechen, rd cd. (Franklurt am Main, +), ::,
::, V. Lcngaucr, ic politischc 8cdcutung dcr Glcichhcitsidcc im . und .
Jahrhundcrt v. Chr. inigc 8cmcrkungcn ubcr isonomia, in V. Vill and J. Hcin
richs, cds., Zu Alexander d. Gr. Festschrift G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag (Amstcrdam,
Tc most important charactcristics ol Tucydidcs usc ol thc tcrm dynas-
teia corrcspond to Aristotlcs attitudcs prcscntcd in his Politics. !n Aristo
tlc, this tcrm rclcrs to thc lourth and nal lorm ol oligarchy (Aristot. pol.
+::a +::b +o, +:a +:). Tc rst typc ol oligarchy occurs whcn
thc cxcrcisc ol public dutics is acccssiblc to a largcr numbcr ol citizcns.
Tc sccond typc takcs placc whcn thc numbcr ol citizcns cnjoying political
rights bccomcs smallcr and thcir lortunc proportionally largcr. ntry into
public scrvicc is by cooptation. As thc occholdcrs arc not yct inucntial
cnough, thc law rcmains suprcmc authority. Tc third lorm ol oligarchy
dcpcnds on an cvcn smallcr numbcr ol aucnt lullright citizcns. Sons
now lcgally succccd thcir lathcrs in govcrnmcnt occs. !n thc lourth and
thc last typc, thc powcr ol occholdcrs, backcd by thcir wcalth and sup
portcrs, gocs bcyond cvcry mcasurc. !ndividuals now rulc instcad ol thc law.
Aristotlc dcncs this typc ol oligarchy as dynasteia and nds it to bc vcry
similar to tyranny.
+8
Tat dynasteia as a lorm ol govcrnmcnt has many charactcristics in
common with tyranny is obscrvablc in scvcral placcs in his Politics. Tus, a
dynasteia camc into bcing in Crctc whcn thc powcrlul, intcnt on cvading
thc courts, oustcd cosmic, thc highcst ocials, lrom powcr. !n such a casc thc
statc ccascs to bc a statc and loscs its control lunction (Aristot. pol. +::b
++). !n that rcspcct it is similar to tyranny which, according to Aristotlc,
is thc worst possiblc systcm and rcmotcst lrom constitutional govcrnmcnt
(Aristot. pol. +:8b +, +:b :o). Furthcr similaritics can bc inlcrrcd
lrom Aristotlcs vicw that no systcm is constitutional unlcss it is govcrncd by
thc law (Aristot. pol. +::a o), which, in his opinion, gocs not only lor
+8), 8, J. 8lcickcn, Die athenische Demokratie, th cd. (Padcrborn/Munich/\i
cnna/Zurich, +), 666, 8+, Lcppin, Tukydides, :::, Martin, Dynasteia,
:::, M. stwald, Nomos and the Beginnings of the Athenian Democracy (xlord,
+6), 6+:o, +8o+8:, Nippcl, Mischverfassungstheorie, , K. Raaaub, inlcitung
und 8ilanz: Klcisthcncs, phialtcs und dic 8cgrundung dcr cmokratic, in K. H.
Kinzl, cd., Demokratia. Der Weg zur Demokratie bei den Griechen (armstadt, +),
+, K. Raaaub, Die Entdeckung der Freiheit. Zur historischen Semantik und Gesellschafts-
geschichte eines politischen Grundbegris der Griechen (Munich +8), ++++8, P. 8arccl,
Tukydidcs und dic Tyrannis, Historia (+o), ++6, K.V. Vclwci, Das klas-
sische Athen. Demokratie und Machtpolitik im 5. und 4. Jahrhundert (armstadt, +),
8, 8, n. , Schubcrt, Macht des Volkes, ++.
+8
At onc point Aristotlc says that dynasteia is similar to tyranny, and at anothcr hc com
parcs it to monarchy (Aristot. pol. +::b +o, +:a o). As Aristotlc clscwhcrc
statcs cxplicitly that thc main dicrcncc bctwccn tyranny and monarchy is that thc
lattcr is bascd on thc rulc ol law and is bcnccial to thc subjccts, it sccms probablc that
hcrc hc rclcrs to thc illcgal dcspotic rulc ol a singlc pcrson rathcr than to lcgal kingship
(Aristot. pol. +:8a ++:8b , +:a :, ++ob o+++a ).
8alcanica XXX\! 22
tyranny, but also lor dynasteia and cxtrcmc dcmocracy (Aristot. pol. +:8b
+, +::a +, +::b +o).
+
An important critcrion in cvaluating a
systcm ol govcrnmcnt is whcthcr it is bcnccial to all citizcns or only to
powcrholdcrs (Aristot. pol. +:a +:). According to Aristotlc, tyranny
and dynasteia arc comparablc in this rcspcct, too (Aristot. pol. ++ob o
+++a ++, +:b +o).
:o
Tyranny has morc in common with oligarchy:
wcalth as an cnd in itscll,
:+
thc disarmamcnt, opprcssion and cxpulsion ol
thc masscs lrom thc city to rcmotc arcas (Aristot. pol. +++a 8+).
::
!n his
Politics, thc similarity bctwccn dynasteia and tyranny is additionally con
rmcd by his thcsis that tyranny oltcn dcvclops lrom an cxtrcmc oligarchy
or a dynastic rcgimc.
:
Tis thcsis also appcars in his pattcrn ol succcssivc
constitutional systcms. Namcly, kingly rulc is succccdcd by a systcm whcrc
at rst aairs ol statc arc managcd by thc citizcns, and thcn thc systcm
turns into an oligarchy.
:
From thc oligarchy dcvclops a tyranny, which is
cvcntually succccdcd by a dcmocracy (Aristot. pol. +:86b :o). Listing thc
advantagcs ol thc systcm bascd on mesoi, Aristotlc nds that it hardly cvcr
lcads to tyranny, by contrast to cxtrcmc dcmocracy and oligarchy (Aristot.
pol. +:b o +:6a 8). ynastic rcgimc may also turn into tyranny whcn
dynasts (powcrwicldcrs) rulc lor a long timc (Aristot. pol. +o8a +:).
Finally, Aristotlc sccs tyranny as a combination ol thc last lorm ol oligarchy
and dcmocracy (Aristot. pol. ++ob +8). Most important lor thc problcms
analyzcd hcrcin is Aristotlcs claim that dicrcnccs bctwccn cxtrcmc oligar
+
Acschincs has a similar attitudc. According to him, tyrannical and oligarchic systcms
arc rulcd by powcrholdcrs and not by laws, by contrast, in dcmocracics rulcs thc au
thority ol thc law (Aischin. lcg. ).
:o
Tis can also bc sccn in thc cxamplc ol thc dcvclopmcnt ol dynasteia in Crctc, cl.
abovc.
:+
Cl. . Schutrumpl and H.J. Gchrkc, Aristotclcs, Politik !\\!, bcrsctzt und cingc
lcitct von . Schutrumpl, rlautcrt von . Schutrumpl und H.J. Gchrkc, in Aristoteles
Werke in Deutscher bersetzung, 8d. , Tcil (8crlin, +6), .
::
Tc lact that hcrc and clscwhcrc Aristotlc uscs thc tcrm oligarchy and not dynasteia,
is not so important. Dynasteia bcing thc last lorm ol oligarchy, charactcristics common
to oligarchy and tyranny arc cvcn morc applicablc to dynasteia.
:
!t is worthy ol notc that, according to Hcrodotus Constitutional cbatc, arius
givcs vcry similar argumcnts against oligarchy in lavour ol oncman rulc (Hdt. .8:,),
cl. also Tuk. 8.8,. For thc Constitutional cbatc, scc J. 8lcickcn, Zur ntstchung
dcr \crlassungstypologic im . Jahrhundcrt v. Chr., Historia 8 (+), +8+:.
:
Sincc a changc ol thc lorm ol govcrnmcnt rcsults lrom dctcriorations in thc cxisting
systcm, thc assumption sccms plausiblc that thc worst lorm ol oligarchy hcrc rclcrs to
dynasteia.
chy and tyranny arc quantitativc rathcr than qualitativc (Aristot. pol. ++:b
8):
:
And to spcak summarily, all thc things
that wc havc mcntioncd as causing thc downlall
ol unmixcd and cxtrcmc oligarchy and ol thc last
lorm ol dcmocracy must bc countcd as dcstructivc
ol tyranny as wcll, sincc cxtrcmc oligarchy and
dcmocracy arc in rcality dividcd tyrannics.
:6
Tat thc numbcr ol powcrholdcrs usually appcars to bc Aristotlcs solc
critcrion lor dicrcntiating bctwccn tyranny and dynasteia is inlcrablc lrom
his account ol thc translormation oligarchy undcrgocs in timcs ol war.
:

According to him, oligarchy bccomcs tyranny whcn a gcncral takcs ovcr
powcr supportcd by mcrccnarics. Howcvcr, whcn scvcral commandcrs scizc
powcr togcthcr, thcn it is dynasteia (Aristot. pol. +o6a :o:). Tc ccntral
importancc Aristotlc attachcs to thc numbcr ol powcrholdcrs in his Politics
can also bc rccognizcd in his commcnt on thc oligarchy in lis. Listing thc
ways in which oligarchics may dcclinc, Aristotlc takcs lis as an cxamplc
lor oligarchy within oligarchy, bccausc lis was lcd by an aristocratic council
ol only o mcmbcrs (Aristot. pol. +o6a ++).
:8
Symptomatically, hc
:
!t is notcworthy that Xcnophon ascribcs a similar thinking to Critias and his sup
portcrs. Critias (Xcn. Hcll. :.,+6): Ten Critias (for he still treated Teramenes as a friend)
replied that it was impossible for people who wanted to gain power not to put out of the way
those who were best able to thwart them. But if, he said, merely because we are thirty and
not one, you imagine that it is any the less necessary for us to keep a close watch over this gov-
ernment, just as one would if it were an absolute monarchy, you are foolish. Tcramcncs says
somcthing comparablc in his spccch (Xcn. Hcll. :.,8): But I, Critias, am forever at war
with the men who do not think there could be a good democracy until the slaves and those who
would sell the state for lack of a shilling should share in the government, and on the other hand
I am forever an enemy to those who do not think that a good oligarchy could be established until
they should bring the state to the point of being ruled absolutely by a few.
:6
Aristotle. Politics, cd., transl. and introd. H. Rackham (Cambridgc, Mass/London,
+:, rcprint +8).
:
Tc rcason that thc sourccs gcncrally associatc tyranny with oncman rulc may bc
twolold. Firstly, it was in accordancc with tradition, sccondly, thc contrast statcpowcr
lul individual was, bcyond any doubt, lascinating. Tc notion ol a powcrlul individual
ruthlcssly imposing his will upon thc wholc community providcs a lar morc spcctacular
and sharpcr contrast than that bctwccn thc community and a group ol pcoplc. Tis is
obscrvablc in thc ancicnt sourccs which arc mainly intcrcstcd in grcat tyrants, whcrcas
thc rcgimcs lcd jointly by a group ol tyrants arc usually givcn much lcss attcntion.
:8
!t is signicant that Aristotlc comparcs this council with thc Spartan gerousia. Namc
ly, it has oltcn bccn suggcstcd that thc committcc ol thc Athcnian Tirty was shapcd
on thc modcl ol thc gerousia, cl. Krcntz, Tirty, 668, Vhitchcad, Tirty Tyrants, +:o.
8alcanica XXX\! 24
dcscribcs thc sclcction ol council mcmbcrs as dynastic.
:
Tc signicancc ol
this cxamplc bccomcs clcarcr whcn onc bcars in mind that, lor instancc, thc
Athcnian govcrning body in o/o 8.C. consistcd ol only thirty mcmbcrs,
and that an cvcn smallcr group rulcd in Tcbcs lrom 8: to 8.C. !n
addition to Politics, Aristotlc connccts dynasteia and tyranny in his Nicoma-
chean Ethics (Aristot. cth. Nic. ++6b ). So, whcn hc spcaks ol thc hap
pincss, plcasurc and amuscmcnt ol tyrants hc also uscs thc tcrm dynasteia.
!t is important to cmphasizc that happincss, plcasurc and amuscmcnt ol thc
tyrant arc among thc ccntral clcmcnts ol thc tyrant typology.
o
Tc most prccisc and dctailcd dcscription ol dynasteia and its similari
tics to tyranny is givcn by Tucydidcs and cspccially Aristotlc. 8ut thc rclat
cdncss ol this notion to autocracy is also obscrvablc in othcr ancicnt writcrs,
such as Plato, Xcnophon, Lysias, !socratcs, cmosthcncs and iodorus. !n
this rcgard, it sccms ncccssary to notc that, with thc cxccption ol iodorus,
all thcsc authors, including Tucydidcs and Aristotlc, wcrc undcr thc strong
imprcssion ol lth and lourthccntury8.C. dcvclopmcnts in Athcns, and
that somc ol thcm bclongcd to thc socallcd critical community.
+
At onc point Plato says that dynasteia bclongs to intcrmcdiatc con
stitutions, but lails to givc a clcar dcnition ol its charactcristics (Plat. rcp.
d).
:
And yct, lrom what hc says clscwhcrc wc can concludc that this
tcrm implics a typc ol rcgimc that is morc similar to tyranny than to oli
garchy. nly oncc docs Plato usc thc tcrm dynasteia to dcscribc oligarchy
(Plat. polit. :+d). n thc othcr hand, in his dialoguc Gorgias, Calliclcs
advocatcs thc right ol thc strongcr spcaking about thc individuals capablc ol
lounding an cmpirc, dynasteia or tyranny by virtuc ol thcir natural strcngth
(Plat. Gorg. :b). !n his Republic Plato uscs thc tcrms dynasteia and basileia
cxpounding thc vicw that philosophcrs should takc chargc ol thc statc or
clsc cithcr thc sons ol rulcrs or rulcrs thcmsclvcs inspircd with thc lovc ol
truc philosophy by divinc providcncc (Plat. rcp. bc).
!n vicw ol Platos
cxpcricncc with ionysius !!, it sccms that thc tcrm dynasteia hcrc rclcrs to
:
Cl. Schutrumpl and Gchrkc, Politik, o+.
o
Jordovi, Anfnge, +o+8.
+
For thc socallcd critical community, cl. J. bcr, Political Dissent in Democratic Ath-
ens. Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule (Princcton, +8), +:, +, :8, +, :o,
:86:88.
:
Cl. J. Adam, Te Republic of Plato, with critic. notcs, commcntary and app., \ol. !!!
(Cambridgc, +o:), +:oo.
Cl. Adam, Republic, 8, J. Hirmcr, ntstchung und Komposition dcr platonischcn

Politcia, Jahrbcher fr classische Philologie, Suppl. :,8 (Lcipzig +8), 668, V. K. C.
Guthric, A History of Greek Philosophy, \ol. !\ (Cambridgc, +), ::, K. Tram
pcdach, Platon, die Akademie und die zeitgenssische Politik (Stuttgart +), :++:+,
:6o:6, cl. also Plat. rcp. cc, cp. ,:6ab. For Plato and ionysius !!, cl. Plat.
tyranny.
Namcly, it is not vcry likcly that Plato would havc uscd thc tcrm
basileia lor thc most notorious tyranny ol his timc.
Tc rulcrs ol a dynas-
teia arc listcd alongsidc with dcspots and tyrants in thc Laws whcrc Plato
comparcs thcir attitudc to thc wcakcr than thcmsclvcs with thc attitudc ol
a mastcr to his slavc (Plat. lcg. c). Tcrc is yct anothcr placc in thc Laws
showing that dynasteia has a lot in common with tyranny, bccausc thcrc
rulcs thc whim ol an individual instcad ol thc law and thc asscmbly. Tis
usc ol thc tcrm shows, howcvcr, that Plato, just likc Tucydidcs, rclatcs it to
thc carlicst, or most primitivc, lorm ol govcrnmcnt as wcll. !n his words, dy-
nasteia still cxists with many Hcllcncs and barbarians, and that it is cxactly
what Homcr rclcrrcd to whcn spcaking ol thc scttlcmcnts ol thc Cyclopcs
(Plat. lcg. 68obc, 68+d).
!t is not only in his account ol thc Athcnian Tirty that iodorus
cquatcs dynasteia with tyranny (iod. +.:,6, +.:,+, , ,, ,6, :,+:,
,:, , +.:,).
6
Hc oltcn uscs this tcrm rathcr than tyranny to dcscribc
thc rulc ol ionysius ! ol Syracusc (iod. +.6,, +.8,, ,, +o,:, +,:,
+8,+). Clcarchus shortlivcd administration as thc harmost ol 8yzantium in
o/o: 8.C. is also dcncd as a tyranny and dynastic rcgimc (iod. +.+:,:
). Tc lact that iodorus makcs no distinction bctwccn tyranny and dy-
nasteia in thrcc scparatc cascs thc Tirty, ionysius ! and Clcarchus
cp. ,:6aa, b, lor thc signicancc ol his Scvcnth Lcttcr as a sourcc, cl.
Trampcdach, Platon, ::8.
Cl. . Apclt, Platons Staat, in . Apclt, Platon. Smtliche Werke, 8d. , Hcrausgc
gcbcn und mit inlcitungcn, Litcraturubcrsichtcn, Anmcrkungcn und Rcgistcrn vcrsc
hcn von . Apclt (Hamburg, +:o+::, rcprint Hamburg +8), , n. 6:, Tram
pcdach, Platon, +o:+:, :6o:6, csp. :++:+, Guthric, Philosophy, +8+, :+, A.
\ilhar and 8. Pavlovi, Platon. Drava, th cd. (8clgradc, +), 6, n. :.
Tc lact must bc bornc in mind that Platos vicw ol tyranny was powcrlully (il not
dccisivcly) inucnccd by thc rulc ol ionysius !, cl. A. Hcuss, Aristotclcs als Tcorc
tikcr dcs Totalitarismus, A&A + (++), :, , , o, K. F. Strohckcr, Dionysios I.
Gestalt und Geschichte des Tyrannen von Syrakus (Vicsbadcn, +8), , A. Lintott, Vio-
lence, Civil Strife and Revolution in the Classical City (London/Canbcrra, +8:), +8
+86, :o, :6, :, H.J. Gchrkc, ic klassischc Polisgcscllschalt in dcr Pcrspcktivc
gricchischcr Philosophcn, Saeculum 6 (+8), +o, Schutrumpl Gchrkc, Politik, 8,
cl. also 8crvc, Tyrannis, , J. v. UngcrnStcrnbcrg, Zur 8curtcilung ionysios !. von
Syrakus, in V. Vill and J. Hcinrichs, cds., Zu Alexander d. Gr. Festschrift G. Wirth
(Amstcrdam, +88), ++++6, +++. As a rcsult, it is lcss likcly that hc would havc
uscd thc tcrms such as kings, royal and monarchy lor thc tyrants ol Syracusc. !ndccd,
cvcn carlicr, spcaking about kings and powcrholdcrs who should bccomc philosophcrs,
Plato thought ol powcrholdcrs as tyrants (Plat. rcp. cc), cl. Adam, Republic, ad
loc.
6
Tis is cvcn morc signicant bccausc iodorus always charactcrizcs thc rcgimc ol thc
Four Hundrcd as oligarchic (iod. +.6,:, 8,+).
8alcanica XXX\! 26
is vcry signicant bccausc hc draws inlormation lrom dicrcnt writcrs.
Tc assumption that thc usc ol thc tcrm dynasteia originally comcs lrom
Philistus, a supportcr ol ionysius !, is cspccially tcmpting.
Tc notion ol dynasteia is givcn tyrannical connotations by !socratcs,

too. An cxamplc is his lcttcr to Timothcus, whosc lathcr Clcarchus, a dis
ciplc ol his, had cstablishcd tyrannical rulc in his homctown Hcraclca Pon
tica. !t is indicativc that !socratcs dcncs as dynastic not only thc rulc ol
Timothcus, but also his lathcrs rcgimc, notorious lor ruthlcssncss and bru
tality (!sokr. cp. ,+). Hc spcaks in thc samc manncr ol thc tyrant Clcommis
ol Mcthymna (!sokr. cp. ,8).
8
!n his rst lcttcr to king Philip ol Maccdon,
!socratcs tcrms thc rulc ol thc Grcat King as dynasteia (!sokr. cp. :.o8,8).

!n his Panathenaicus hc dcncs thc Pisistratidcan autocracy as a dynastic rc
gimc, pointing out that thc tyrant actcd both against thc oligarchs and thc
dcmos (!sokr. or. +:,+8). Hc also sccs thc tyranny ol ionysius ! as dynas-
!t rclics abovc all on thc lact that thc tcrm dynasteia is lar morc ncutral than tyranny,
and thus may havc bccn morc suitablc to Philistus. !t should also bc notcd that iodor
us classics thc rcgimc ol ionysius ! as dynasteia in his account ol thc lortication ol
Syracusc (iod. +.+8,+). Tis rcport comcs most probably lrom Philistus, cl. Strohckcr,
Dionysios I., 6, K. Mcistcr, Die sizilische Geschichte bei Diodor. Von den Anfngen bis zum
Tod des Agathokles (Munich +6), 86.
8
Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, .
For thc lact that thc ancicnt sourccs mostly saw thc rulc ol Pcrsian kings as tyrannical,
cl. U. Valtcr, a sah cr das \olk ganz in scincr Hand. ciokcs und dic ntstchung
monarchischcr Hcrrschalt im Gcschichtswcrk Hcrodots, in M. Mcicr, 8. Patzck, U.
Valtcr and J. Vicschlcr, cds., Deiokes, Knig der Meder. Eine Herodot-Episode in ihren
Kontexten (Stuttgart, :oo), 86:, M. Mcicr, ic ciokcspisodc im Vcrk Hcrodots
bcrlcgungcn zu dcn ntstchungsbcdingungcn gricchischcr Gcschichtsschrcibung,
in M. Mcicr, 8. Patzck, U. Valtcr and J. Vicschlcr, cds., Deiokes, Knig der Meder. Eine
Herodot-Episode in ihren Kontexten (Stuttgart, :oo), :, H. Sonnabcnd, Geschichte der
antiken Biographie. Von Isokrates bis zur Historia Augusta (armstadt :oo), :, 8crvc,
Tyrannis, +, 6:6:6, R. 8ichlcr, Herodots Welt. Der Aufbau der Historie am Bild der
fremden Lnder und Vlker, ihrer Zivilisation und ihrer Geschichte (8crlin, :ooo), :
:, :8::8, K. F. Strohckcr, Zu dcn Anlangcn dcr monarchischcn Tcoric in dcr
Sophistik, Historia : (+/), 8:, J. M. AlonsoNncz, ic \crlassungsdcbattc
bci Hcrodot, in V. Schullcr, cd., Politische Teorie und Praxis im Altertum (armstadt,
+8), + with n. :, :, ::, . Latcincr, Te Historical Method of Herodotus (Toronto,
+8), +6+86, K. Raaaub, Athcns ~!dcologic dcr Macht und dic Frcihcit dcs Tyr
anncn, in J. M. 8alccr, H.J. Gchrkc, K. Raaaub and V. Schullcr, cds., Studien zum
attischem Seebund (Konstanz, +8), , Raaaub, Entdeckung, 6, +:+:, :, Hcuss,
Aristoteles, :, S. 8orzsk, Pcrscrtum und gricchischrmischc Antikc. Zur Ausgcstalt
ung dcs klassischcn Tyranncnbildcs, Gymnasium (+8), :8:, G. Valscr, Zum
gricchischpcrsischcn \crhaltnis vor dcm Hcllcnismus, HZ ::o (+), ::,
H. rcxlcr, Tukydides-Studien (armstadt, +6), ::, 666, 8. Sncll, Aischylos
und das Handcln im rama, Philologus Suppl. :o,+ (Lcipzig, +:8), 66.
teia (!sokr. or. 6,). Tc tcrm dynasteia is uscd lor both kingly and tyranni
cal rulcs that violatc thc law and carc only about thcir own advantagc (!sokr.
or. +:,:::). Tc tyrannical connotation ol thc tcrm dynasteia can also
bc rccognizcd in !socratcs vicw ol thc lorcign policy ol Athcns and Sparta.
Tus hc calls upon thc Athcnians to rcnouncc thcir tyranny and dynasteia
(!sokr. or. 8,+:), whilc thc Spartan dynasteia is rclcrrcd to in thc contcxt
ol thc advantagcs ol thc prcvious Athcnian hcgcmony by comparison with
thc bad cxpcricnccs undcr Spartan dominancc (!sokr. or. +:,68). Tc domi
nancc (dynasteia) ol Athcns is dircctly comparcd with tyranny in !socratcs
spccch Antidosis (!sokr. or. +,6). His Panegyricus commcnds thc Athcnian
hcgcmony lor lrccing many Grccks lrom lawlcssncss and dynasteia (!sokr.
or. ,).
!n his Hellenica, Xcnophon uscs thc tcrm dynasteia only lor thc Tc
ban rcgimc ol 8: 8.C., but hc also charactcrizcs it as a tyranny (Xcn.
Hcll. .,+:, , +, 6, .,).
o
Lysias uscs thc tcrm dynasteia in his Fu-
neral oration to dcnc thc rulc ol thc Pisistratids (Lys. :,+8). Andocidcs
dcncs thc oligarchy ol thc Four Hundrcd both as tyranny and as dynastic
rcgimc (Andok. +,, :,:).
+
!n Acschincs spccch On the Embassy thc tcrm
dynasteia rclcrs to Philips rulc and thc rulc ol Maccdonian kings in gcncral
(Aischin. lcg. :,:).
A link bctwccn dynasteia and tyranny can bc lound in cmosthcncs
too. !n his spccch On the Crown, cmosthcncs says that thc Maccdonian
rulcr imposcd his arch and tyranns on thc Grccks (cmosth. or. +8,66),
:

but immcdiatcly adds that Philip has madc many pcrsonal sacriccs lor thc
sakc ol his arch and dynasteia (cmosth. or. +8,6).
Hc rclcrs to thc Athc

nian and Spartan hcgcmonics as dynasteia whcn spcaking about thc Grccks
dcclaring war on thc Athcnians and thc Spartans bccausc thc lattcrs abusc
ol thcir hcgcmony in Hcllas (cmosth. or. ,:). Vhcn commcnting only
on Spartan political dominancc and lorcign policy, cmosthcncs uscs thc
o
For othcr sourccs, cl. Gchrkc, Stasis, +. Tis rcgimc in Tcbcs is intcrcsting bccausc
ol its similarity to that ol thc Tirty in Athcns. As in Athcns, it was a rathcr violcnt
rulc ol a small group lcd by Lcontiadcs, Philip, Hypatcs, Archias and thcir hetaireiai,
and thcy scizcd powcr only through Spartan intcrvcntion. Just as in Athcns, a Spar
tan garrison was stationcd on thc Tcban Cadmca. Modcrn scholarship mostly sccs
this rcgimc as a collcctivc tyranny, cl. H.J. Gchrkc, Jenseits von Athen und Sparta. Das
Dritte Griechenland und seine Staatenwelt (Munich, +86), 66, Gchrkc, Stasis, +68
+8o, ++, 8crvc, Tyrannis, :oo, 6.
+
H. 8crvc, Tyrannis, 6: thinks that thc tcrm dynasteia rclcrs to thc rulc ol thc Tir
ty.
:
Cl. also cmosth. or. ++,.
!n +8,:o cmosthcncs dcncs Philips intcrnational political domination as dynas-

teia.
8alcanica XXX\! 28
tcrm tyranny (cmosth. or. :o,o). As lor Athcns, it should bc notcd that
othcrwisc thc widcsprcad tcrm lor its arch was tyranny.
!n thc Fourth
Philippic cmosthcncs dcscribcs Philips lollowcrs as ycarning lor tyranny
and dynasteia (cmosth. or. +o,). !t is hard to bclicvc that hcrc cmos
thcncs wantcd dynasteia to mcan oligarchy, sincc thc rcst ol his spccchcs
condcmn Philip lor cstablishing tyrannics in Grcck statcs (Chalcis, rc
osHistiaca, rctria, Mcsscnia), although thcsc wcrc govcrncd by scvcral
powcrholdcrs (cmosth. or. 6,:+, 8,6, ,+, :, , 6:, +o,8, +,, ,
+o++, :, +8,+, , 8+8:, :).
cmosthcncs statcmcnt that Philip

installcd thrcc tyrants to rulc togcthcr in rctria is cspccially rcmarkablc in
this rcspcct (cmosth. or. ,8).
As thc tcrm dynasteia had ncvcr bccn as widcsprcad as tyranny or
oligarchy, thc rcasons lor that nccd to bc lookcd at.
Tc lact that thc tcrm dynasteia is ol a latcr datc than tyranny and
oligarchy may havc bccn onc ol thc rcasons.
6
According to Chr. Mcicr, it
camc into usc at about thc samc timc as politeia about o 8.C.
Tc
carlicst writtcn cvidcncc lor thc tcrm dynasteia can bc lound in Sophoclcs
tragcdy Oedipus Tyrannus (Soph. id. T. ). Although Chr. Mcicr right
lully concludcs that its mcaning in thc drama is rulc in thc gcncral scnsc,
it should bc pointcd out that it unambiguously rclcrs to thc rulc ol an in
dividual, which is at thc samc timc tcrmcd tyranny.
8
Tc tcrm dynasteia
docs not occur in Hcrodotus Constitutional cbatc (Hdt. .8o8:). Hc
uscs only thc vcrb dynastew to dcscribc thc powcrlul position ol ccrtain
aristocrats or statcs (Hdt. .66,+, ,+, 6.,+, 66,:, .:,:). !n Tucydidcs
Cl. K. Raaaub, Polis Tyrannos. Zur ntstchung cincr politischcn Mctaphcr, in

G. 8owcrsock, V. 8urckcrt and M. C. J. Putnam, cds., Arktouros, Hellenic Studies Pre-
sented to Bernard M. W. Knox on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday (8crlin/Ncw York,
+), :, Raaaub, Ideologie der Macht, 68. K. Raaaub, Stick and Gluc: Tc
Function ol Tyranny in FilthCcntury Athcnian cmocracy, in K. A. Morgan, cd.,
Popular Tyranny: Sovereignty and Its Discontents in Ancient Greece (Austin, :oo), ,
Tuplin, Imperial Tyranny, 8, T. Morawctz, Der Demos als Tyrann und Banause. As-
pekte antidemokratischer Polemik im Athen des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (Franklurt am
Main, :ooo), +:. For idcntication ol Athcnian arch with tyranny cl. also 8arccl,
Tukydides, +6, +:.
n thc qucstion as to whcthcr thcsc rcgimcs wcrc or wcrc not collcctivc tyrannics, cl.
Gchrkc, Stasis, o+, 666, , 8crvc, Tyrannis, ooo, o8, 66.
6
Mcicr, Entstehung, :86, :o:, oo.
Cl. Chr. Mcicr, cr Vandcl dcr politischsozialcn 8cgriswclt im . Jahrhundcrt v.

Chr., in R. Koscllcck, cd., Historische Semantik und Begrisgeschichte (Stuttgart, +),
:++, :+, Mcicr, Entstehung, :oo, oo.
8
Mcicr, Entstehung, oo.
this tcrm is in thc shadow ol thc tcrm oligarchia, although his notion ol
dynasteia is consistcnt and prccisc. Tus thc lormcr tcrm occurs twcntysix
and thc lattcr only lour timcs.
!n othcr writcrs this contrast is cvcn morc

conspicuous.
o
Anothcr lactor hindcring thc sprcad ol thc tcrm dynasteia was a
tcndcncy ol dicrcnt authors to ascribc it dicrcnt mcanings. Apart lrom
rclcrring to a narrow and violcnt oligarchy, thc tcrm also implicd politi
cal control in gcncral, dominancc, hcgcmony, vassal principality. !socratcs
is an cspccially good cxamplc ol this tcndcncy, sincc an cntirc spcctrum ol
dicrcnt mcanings ol thc tcrm dynasteia can bc lound in his works which,
duc to thcir convcntionality, providc an cxccllcnt insight into thc intcllcc
tual tcndcncics ol thc timc.
+
Hc cquatcs thc Spartan hcgcmony until thc
8attlc ol Lcuctra with dynasteia (!sokr. or. ,).
:
Using this tcrm, hc oltcn
mcans powcr in gcncral (!sokr. or. ,+, +). Dynasteia also rclcrs both
to thc dominancc ol sclsh Athcnian orators causing damagc to thcir own
polis, and to thc powcr ol thc statcsmcn who madc Athcns grcat (!sokr. or.
8,+:+, +,+6).
Furthcrmorc, this tcrm can bc a synonym lor oligarchy or

kingship (!sokr. or. ,+o, +:,+:6).
!t is oltcn synonymous with thc word

hcgcmony (!sokr. or. 6,++o).
So many dicrcnt mcanings ol thc tcrm must

havc hindcrcd its usc and diusion. Tat and thc widcsprcad usc ol thc tcrm
oligarchy probably madc dynasteia unsuitablc lor spccchcs bclorc a largcr
audicncc. And nally, thc conccpt ol dynasteia is alrcady containcd in thc
conccpt ol oligarchy.
l that numbcr, it oncc rclcrs to Tcssaly and oncc to barbarians.

o
Lysias uscs thc tcrm dynasteia twicc, and oligarchia morc than twcnty timcs.
+
Cl. bcr, Political Dissent, :o.
:
Cl. also cmosth. or. ,:, +8,::, although cmosthcncs charactcrizcs thc Spartan
hcgcmony as tyranny whcn spcaking ol it scparatcly (cmosth. or. :o,o).
Cl. also Aischin. Ctcs. , +, cmosth. or. :,, cp. :,+, 6.
!sokr. or. ,+o: On the contrary, we regarded harmony among our allies as the common
boon of all, and therefore we governed all the cities under the same laws, deliberating about
them in the spirit of allies, not of masters; guarding the interests of the whole confederacy but
leaving each member of it free to direct its own aairs; supporting the people making war on
despotic powers (tav dinasteaiv), considering it an outrage that the many should be sub-
ject to the few, that those who were poorer in fortune but not inferior in other respects should
be banished from the oces, that, furthermore, in a fatherland which belongs to all in common
some should hold the place of masters, others of aliens, and that men who are citizens by birth
should be robbed by law of their share in the government. Isocrates, \ol. !, cd. and transl. G.
Norlin (Cambridgc, Mass/London, +:8, rcprint ++).
Cl. also cmosth. or. ,:, +8,6, :o, :o,o.

8alcanica XXX\! 30
Yct anothcr lactor is that tyranny was onc ol thc oldcst Grcck political
conccpts, which assumcd markcdly ncgativc and pcjorativc connotations.
6

Couplcd with thc contcmporarics lascination with tyranny as a political
and historical phcnomcnon, this was thc main rcason why thc tcrm tyranny
was givcn prclcrcncc ovcr thc tcrm dynasteia in ancicnt cvaluations ol col
lcctivc tyrannics. Tis is supportcd by thc lact that thc notion ol tyranny
includcs all typcs ol rcgimcs that modcrn scholarship dcncs as collcctivc
tyrannics.
Tc last important lactor is that most ol thc rclcvant sourccs wcrc
powcrlully inucnccd by thc Athcnian political dcvclopmcnts ol thc lth
and lourth ccnturics 8.C., as wcll as by thc cvolution ol political thought in
that pcriod. Tc cxpcricnccs ol ++ and o/o 8.C. wcrc lundamcntal in
this scnsc, bccausc cach ovcrthrow was carricd out by a group thc Four
Hundrcd, thc Tirty which aspircd to oligarchy.
l somc signicancc
must also havc bccn thc lact that, lrom thc Pcloponncsian Var at thc lat
cst, thc Spartans wcrc considcrcd as champions ol oligarchy, whcrcas thc
Athcnians saw thcmsclvcs as dclcndcrs ol dcmocracy. All this hclpcd thc
dichotomy oligarchydcmocracy bccomc dominant in thc political lilc ol
Athcns.
8
Tc importancc and scopc ol this inucncc can bc dcduccd lrom
thc lact thc bloody rcgimc ol thc Tirty was sccn as an oligarchy by most
citizcns and contcmporarics, although it was rcally a collcctivc tyranny.

6
Cl. J. Cobct, Knig, Anluhrcr, Hcrr, Monarch, Tyrann, in . Ch. Vclskopl, cd.,
Soziale Typenbegrie im alten Griechenland und ihr Fortleben in den Sprachen der Welt,
\ol. !!! (8crlin, +8+), , 8crvc, Tyrannis, +o:o6, dc Libcro, Tyrannis, :8,
\. Parkcr, Trannov. Tc Scmantics ol a Political Conccpt lrom Archilochus to Aris
totlc, Hermes +:6 (+8), ++:.
As lor thc Tirty, this turncd out to bc thc casc with only a part ol ncw powcr hold
crs, whcrcas thc othcr part wantcd it only nominally, cl. Jordovi, Anfnge, +8:+.
8
Tis proccss has bccn madc much casicr by thc lact that thc ovcrthrows showcd clcar
lcaturcs ol a tyranny, such as arbitrarincss and violcncc, which applics cspccially to thc
Tirty, cl. Jordovi, Anfnge, +:o:, Raaaub, Entdeckung, o+o:. As a rcsult,
thc dicrcncc bctwccn thcsc rcgimcs and tyranny lcsscncd, whilc thcir dicrcncc lrom
dcmocracy bccamc morc promincnt. Anothcr rcason why oligarchy as a countcrmodcl
to thc rulc ol thc pcoplc gaincd appcal was that thc Tirty had riscn to powcr with
thc hclp ol thc Spartans. Tc Spartans had alrcady bccn known as opponcnts ol tyran
nical rcgimcs, and by thc outbrcak ol thc Pcloponncsian Var had bccomc considcrcd
champions ol oligarchy (Tuk +.+8,+, 6.,, ,, Aristoph. Lys. ++++6, Aristot.
pol. ++:b , !sokr. or. ,+:), cl. R. 8crnhardt, ic ntstchung dcr Lcgcndc von dcr
tyranncnlcindlichcn Aucnpolitik Spartas im scchstcn und lunltcn Jahrhundcrt, His-
toria 6 (+8), ::8, 8arccl, Tukydides, o+o, P. 8arccl, Basileia, Monarchia,
Tyrannis. Untersuchungen zu Entwicklung und Beurteilung von Alleinherrschaft im vorhel-
lenistischen Griechenland (Stuttgart, +), +88+8.
Jordovic, Anfnge, +6:+.

Vhat contributcd to thcir misconccption is thc sclcctivc charactcr ol col
lcctivc mcmory, whcrc somc circumstanccs arc rctaincd and othcrs pushcd
asidc or cvcn lorgottcn.
6o
Rhctoric playcd an important rolc in that proccss.
Namcly, spccchcs as a rulc wcrc givcn immcdiatcly or soon altcr thc cvcnts
thcy rclcrrcd to, and wcrc givcn in lront ol thc masscs. As a rcsult, a clcarcr
and nuanccd distinction bctwccn rcgimcs or thc usc ol rclativcly complcx
notions such as dynasteia bccamc incrcasingly impracticablc, which in turn
cncouragcd thc sprcad ol stcrcotypcs and phrascs.
6+
Tis is clcarly noticc
ablc lrom dicrcnt labcls dcsignating thc Tirty in spccchcs (Lysias, c
mosthcncs, Acschincs), and in historical and thcorctical works (Xcnophon,
iodorus, Aristotlc).
6:
!t is not surprising thcn that, duc to thc oligar
chydcmocracy dichotomy, contrasting oligarchy and dcmocracy bccamc a
common rhctorical turn, as noticcd alrcady by G. Kaibcl (Lys. +:,8, :,+,
Andok. +,, !sokr. or. +,:, Aristot. Ath. pol. 8,).
6
Tat thc inucncc ol this dichotomy on thc sprcad ol thc tcrm dy-
nasteia cannot bc undcrcstimatcd may bc sccn lrom thc cxamplc ol thc
tyrannydcmocracy dichotomy that had prcccdcd it. !n thc lth ccntury
8.C. tyranny was rcpcatcdly dcnounccd as thc main thrcat to thc rulc ol thc
pcoplc. vcn altcr oligarchy had appcarcd as an altcrnativc to dcmocracy,
tyranny continucd to gurc as an important contrast.
6
Tis statc ol aairs is
clcarly rccctcd in Aristophancs and Tucydidcs.
6
Fcar ol tyranny among
thc masscs was imprcssivcly caricaturcd in Aristophancs comcdy Wasps
6o
\gl. J. Assmann, Das kulturelle Gedchtnis. Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identitt
in frhen Hochkulturen, rd cd. (Munich, :ooo), 8, A. Volpcrt, Remembering De-
feat. Civil War and Civic Memory in Ancient Athens (8altimorc, :oo:), xivxv, 68.
6+
An cspccially good rcvicw ol this problcm can bc lound in A. Volpcrt, Remembering,
++, +6 n. 8. !t should bc notcd that A. Volpcrt locuscs on spccchcs and thus his
ndings mostly rclcr to thcm, Volpcrt, Remembering, X!!X\.
6:
!t is not mcrcly a coincidcncc that historical and thcorctical works usc dicrcnt statc
thcorctical tcrms.
6
G. Kaibcl, Stil und Text der POLITEIA AQHNAIWN des Aristoteles (8crlin, +8),
+6, cl. also P. J. Rhodcs, A Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenaion Politeia (xlord,
+8+), 6+6:.
6
Cl. . Ruschcnbusch, Athenische Innenpolitik im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (8ambcrg,
+), +6o+6, Rosivach, Tyrant, , +, Mcicr, Entstehung, :8:86, Raaaub,
Stick and Glue, , Raaaub, Entdeckung, :8:, H. Hcltncr, Der oligarchische Um-
sturz des Jahres 411 v. Chr. und die Herrschaft der Vierhundert in Athen. Quellenkritische
und historische Untersuchungen (Franklurt am Main, :oo+), +::, A. Rubcl, Stadt in Angst.
Religion und Politik in Athen whrend des Peloponnesischen Krieges (armstadt, :ooo),
+:oo and n. 6.
6
For conrmations in thc sourccs, cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +:o6, 6:6:, K.V. Vcl
wci, cmos und Plcthos in athcnischcn \olksbcschlusscn um o v. Chr., Historia
8alcanica XXX\! 32
(Aristoph. \csp. +, 6o), and parodicd in his othcr comcdics (Aris
toph. qu. :, , :, , Av. 8, +o:+o, +6o, Lys. 6+66,
Tcsm. +, ++6++). Tc cnormous lcar ol tyranny in Athcns on
thc cvc ol thc Sicilian campaign is clcarly sccn in Tucydidcs as wcll (Tuk.
6.+,, :,, ,, 6o,+).
66
8ut cmophantus dccrcc is cspccially intcrcst
ing. Tis pscphism lorcing pcoplc to takc thc oath that thcy would pitilcssly
pursuc thc cncmics ol dcmocracy was issucd altcr thc downlall ol thc Four
Hundrcd (Andok. +.68).
6
!t is indicativc that this oath saw tyranny as
thc main thrcat to thc dcmocratic systcm cvcn altcr an obviously oligarchic
rcvolution. !ndccd, twcnty or thirty ycars bclorc ++ 8.C. thcrc had alrcady
bcgun to circulatc oligarchic vicws or conccpts that wcrc a lar morc rcalistic
altcrnativc to dcmocracy than tyranny.
68
Tc lact that tyranny was still sccn
as thc main thrcat to dcmocracy shows that lormcr oppositions oltcn prc
vailcd cvcn whcn thcy no longcr had support in rcality.
6
Aristophancs and
Andocidcs commcnts show that cvcn thc contcmporarics wcrc awarc ol thc
lact (Aristoph. \csp. 88o, Andok. ,:).
o
8ascd on thc Grcck sourccs, this study has shown that thc Hcllcncs
uscd thc tcrm dynasteia lor thc typc ol rcgimc that modcrn scholarship dc
ncs as collcctivc tyranny. Tc tcrm rclcrrcd to thc dcspotic rulc ol a small
cliquc that wicldcd absolutc powcr and ignorcd thc law and thc rights ol
citizcns. !t should bc addcd that thc highcst govcrnmcnt occs wcrc hc
rcditary.
+
Tcsc charactcristics, as wcll as thc inlormation providcd by thc
(+86), ++8o, +o, 8rock, Athenian Oligarchs, +6o+6, Ruschcnbusch, Innenpoli-
tik, o, 8arccl, Tukydides, +:+.
66
Cl. Jordovi, Anfnge, +++68.
6
Vclwci, Athen, o n. o, ++, 8. 8lcckmann, Athens Weg in die Niederlage. Die letz-
ten Jahre des Peloponnesischen Krieges (Stuttgart/Lcipzig, +8), ::, A. sscl, Die
Beilegung innerstaatlicher Konikte in den griechischen Poleis vom 5.-3. Jahrhundert v. Chr.
(Franklurt am Main, :oo), 66.
68
Cl. Raaaub, Entdeckung, :8:, :o:, M. stwald, Oligarchia: Te Development
of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece (Stuttgart, :ooo), :+o, Vclwci, Demos und
Plethos, +o, H. Hcltncr, ligarchcn, Mcsoi, Autokratcn: 8cmcrkungcn zur anti
dcmokratischcn 8cwcgung dcs spatcn . Jh. v. Chr. in Athcn, Chiron (:oo), ++.
6
nc ol thc rcasons lor prclcrring tyranny as a contrast to modcratc oligarchy is that
its dicrcnccs lrom dcmocracy arc morc conspicuous and thus casicr to pcrccivc. As
modcratc oligarchics oltcn involvc a considcrablc part ol citizcns and arc rarcly associ
atcd with dcspotism and tcrror, thcir divcrgcncc lrom dcmocracy is lcss obscrvablc. Cl.
Mcicr, Entstehung, :8:86, Raaaub, Entdeckung, :.
o
For Andocidcs, cl. 8rock, Athenian Oligarchs, +6+, n. .
+
Tis is not ncccssarily ol crucial importancc to this study, bccausc dynastic rcgimcs,
collcctivc tyrannics and tyrannics wcrc usually shortlivcd, and thcrclorc could not lully
dcvclop all thcir lorms and clcmcnts, cl. a bricl rcvicw ol thc mcaning ol thc tcrm in
sourccs, dcmonstratc similaritics bctwccn dynasteia and collcctivc tyranny.
:

Tis study has also shcd light on thc rcasons why this tcrm noncthclcss
lailcd to bccomc thc prcvailing labcl lor this typc ol tyranny. Tc rcsults ol
this rcscarch havc lcd us to concludc, rstly, that thc picturc ol tyranny is
not as simplc as it is oltcn thought to bc, and sccondly, thcy suggcst that in
asscssing thc charactcr ol ancicnt Grcck opprcssivc rcgimcs whosc naturc
was opcn to controvcrsy onc should not rcducc oncscll to thinking in tcrms
ol oligarchy and tyranny, sincc thc ancicnt cvaluations ol such rcgimcs oltcn
conlormcd to thcsc convcntional idcas.
Institute for Balkan Studies UDC 316.3(38)
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art 94:316.462](38)
Belgrade
Martin, Dynasteia, :+, L. Vhiblcy, Greek Oligarchies: Teir Character and Organisation
(London +86, rcpr. Romc +68), +:.
:
Cl. Gchrkc, Stasis, +8+, Gchrkc, Jenseits von Athen und Sparta, 6, 6.
Minna Skaltc Jcnscn
Phoenix, Achilles and a Narrative Pattern
!n transmittcd Grcck litcraturc, thc lcgcnd ol Mclcagcr and thc Calydonian
boar is rst told as a part ol onc ol thc grcat spccchcs in 8ook ol thc Iliad.
+

Tis book has always bccn considcrcd onc ol thc most marvcllous passagcs
in thc pocm. Hcrc Agamcmnon rccognizcs his lault in having ocndcd
Achillcs, and cnvoys arc scnt to thc angry hcro, cntrustcd with thc mission
ol ocring him rich gilts and pcrsuading him to rcturn to battlc. Achillcs
rcmains stubborn, but during thc argumcntation hcroic standards and valucs
arc laid opcn to scrutiny in a highly dramatic and cmotional lashion. !t is
onc ol thc Homcric passagcs that Plato discusscd.
:
Ccdric Vhitman madc
this sccnc thc ccntrc ol thc ring composition hc lound in thc Iliad.
Adam
Parry analyscd Achillcs languagc, maintaining that his vcry qucstioning ol
traditional hcroic morals was a brcach with lormulaic diction, a vicwpoint
that lcd to a long and subtlc discussion ol thc scopc and potcntialitics ol
traditional languagc.
And thc sccnc is at thc hcart ol thc Homcric study by

thc grcat Swcdish novclist Svcn clblanc, writtcn whcn hc was dying lrom
canccr, in which hc lorcclully argucd that whcn Achillcs says that hc will
lcavc thc war and rcturn to his homc, cvcn il this mcans losing his claim to
hcroic lamc, hc is proloundly scrious: whcn dcath is thrcatcning, a long, un
cvcntlul lilc sccms much morc attractivc than any kind ol hcroic valour.
+
Somc ol it is also told in Hcsiod, Ehoeae lr. : (Mcrkclbach & Vcst), vv. +.
:
Hippias Minor, csp. 6c6d and 6a+c.
Ccdric H. Vhitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridgc, Mass.: Harvard
Univcrsity Prcss, +8).
Adam Parry, Tc languagc ol Achillcs, TAPA 8, +. A summary ol thc discussion,

with rclcrcnccs, is to bc lound in G. S. Kirk, cd., Te !liad: A Commentary (+), vol. ,
by 8ryan Hainsworth (Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +), +o++o:.
Svcn clblanc, Homerisk hemkomst. Tv esser om Iliaden och Odyssen (Stockholm:

8onnicrs, +:), csp. 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 36
8ook has also bccn a bonc ol contcntion in thc old battlc bctwccn analysts
and unitarians, with a qucstion ol vcrbal lorms as its local point: Ncstor
dispatchcs thc cmbassy using dual vcrbs, cvcn though thrcc hcrocs arc scnt
along, dysscus, Ajax and Phocnix. For instancc, . L. Pagcs argumcnta
tion that Phocnix is a ncwcomcr in thc book, addcd as onc ol thc latcst
laycrs ol thc tcxt, still makcs cnjoyablc rcading.
6
And onc ol thc lounding
lathcrs ol ncoanalysis, J. T. Kakridis, opcncd up ncw pcrspcctivcs with
his intcrprctation ol thc way Mclcagcrs story is uscd by Phocnix in his
spccch.
!n thc lollowing ! shall arguc that an important aspcct ol Phocnix

words has ncvcrthclcss bccn ovcrlookcd. Scholars havc mostly takcn thc
sidc ol thc cnvoys. For instancc, in thc authoritativc modcrn commcntary by
8ryan Hainsworth Achillcs is said to bc unrcccptivc bccausc ol ovcrwhclm
ing scllpity.
8
8ut ! think that thc tcxt invitcs us to sharc our sympathics
bctwccn thc charactcrs, sincc Achillcs has much bcttcr rcasons lor dcclining
thc cmbassy than usually acccptcd.
Vhcn thc cnvoys arrivc, Achillcs undcrlincs that thc thrcc ol thcm
arc his bcst lricnds among thc Achacans (+8, :o), and latcr on Phocnix
rcpcats this (:+:). Tc wholc ol thc lattcrs long spccch (6o) cx
ploits thc lact that thcy arc rclatcd by bonds ol closc lricndship, and that
bctwccn himscll and Achillcs thc rclationship is cvcn that ol a lathcr to
his son. !n thc bcginning hc twicc addrcsscs him as philon tekos, my dcar
child, and hc givcs a touching dcscription ol how whcn Achillcs was a baby,
hc uscd to hold him on his kncc and acccptcd having his clothcs soilcd at
mcals. Phocnix concludcs thc rst part ol his spccch, thc talc ol his own lilc,
with thc statcmcnt that sincc hc kncw that hc would ncvcr havc sons ol his
own, hc gavc Achillcs this placc in his world.
Also, it is noticcablc that thc rclationship bctwccn parcnts and chil
drcn is thc dominant thcmc ol thc spccch: not only arc thc two main storics,
ol Phocnix himscll and ol Mclcagcr, both conccrncd with this rclationship,
but it also comcs up in othcr passagcs. Phocnix opcns his spccch by rcmind
ing Achillcs ol his lathcr Pclcus and thc commands hc gavc him at thcir
dcparturc. !n Phocnix autobiography, whcn Pclcus rcccivcs him kindly, it is
6
. L. Pagc, History and the Homeric !liad (8crkclcy, Los Angclcs: Univcrsity ol Cali
lornia Prcss, +, Sather Classical Lectures +), csp. :+. For a qualicd answcr to
Pagcs argumcnts, scc Michacl N. Naglcr, Spontaneity and Tradition. A Study in the Oral
Art of Homer. 8crkclcy, Los Angclcs, London: Calilornia Univcrsity Prcss, +), 6
+++, csp. n. on p. .
J. T. Kakridis, Homeric Researches (+, Skrifter utgivna av Kungliga Humanistiska

Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund , +), ++:.
8
Kirk, Te !liad, ++.
M. Skaltc Jcnscn, Phocnix, Achillcs and a Narrativc Pattcrn 37
said that hc lovcd him as a lathcr, though Pclcus, ol coursc, was in no nccd
ol a son. And whcn it comcs to Mclcagcrs wilc Clcopatra, both hcr parcnts
and hcr mothcrs parcnts arc brought into thc talc in a bricl and cnigmatic
digrcssion, that sccms ol no rclcvancc to thc story told, cxccpt that it dirccts
thc attcntion to how parcnts and childrcn rclatc to onc anothcr. So in this
spccch wc nd thc lollowing parcntchild rclations: Phocnix Achillcs,
Pclcus Achillcs, Amyntor and his wilc Phocnix, Pclcus Phocnix, c
ncus and Althaca Mclcagcr, !das and Marpcssa Clcopatra, and Marpcs
sas parcnts Marpcssa.
Tcsc lastmcntioncd parcnts wcrc known as unhappy bccausc thcir
daughtcr was carricd o by Apollo. 8ut what is rcally disturbing in thc
spccch is thc way in which thc main charactcrs, Phocnix and Mclcagcr, arc
trcatcd by thcir parcnts. 8oth talcs arc about parcnts who cursc thcir sons:
Phocnix lathcr makcs his son childlcss, whcrcas Mclcagcrs mothcr cvcn
calls lorth hcr sons dcath. So lor all thc warmth and cmotion ol Phocnix
spccch, thcrc runs just undcr thc surlacc an oppositc story ol parcnts hating
thcir sons and ruining thcir livcs. And thcrc is cvcn an cxplicitly cgoistic
clcmcnt in Phocnix appcal: in thc samc brcath as hc rcminds Achillcs that
hc considcrs him as his son, hc also says that hc thcrclorc cxpccts him to
savc his lilc ().
Tcrc is in thc Iliad a narrativc pattcrn that is ol rclcvancc hcrc. Vhcn
a hcro prcparcs himscll to join battlc, his closcst rclativcs may try to kccp
him back in ordcr to savc his lilc. As with othcr Homcric pattcrns, it may
occur in morc or lcss dctail. !n its briclcst lorm, it is just barcly mcntioncd,
such as in ++.::6 and ::: a lostcrlathcr trics to rctain a young war
rior and cvcn arrangcs lor him to marry his daughtcr so as to kccp him
at homc, and a prophct lorcsccs thc dcath ol his sons and will not allow
thcm to participatc in thc war. At lull scalc, thc most dcvclopcd cxamplc is
Andromachcs attcmpt at convincing Hcctor not to rcturn to thc battlccld
in 8ook 6 (vv. 6o:). 8ut also towards thc cnd ol thc Iliad thc pattcrn
rccurs in highly moving ways: whcn lrom thc top ol thc walls ol Troy Priam
and Hccuba arguc with Hcctor that hc should scck rclugc insidc thc gatcs
rathcr than takc up battlc with Achillcs (::.::), and whcn latcr Hccuba
scolds hcr old husband and suggcsts that hc has grown scnilc, all in ordcr
to makc him givc up his dangcrous plan ol going into thc cncmys camp to
lctch his sons corpsc (:.++::).
! rcad this pattcrn as onc ol thc ways in which thc poct rcvcals thc
lovc bctwccn thc involvcd partics. Tcy may cxprcss thcmsclvcs dircctly, as
docs Andromachc, but dccds arc morc convincing than words, and cvcn
whcn thc words arc insulting, as arc Hccubas in 8ook :, wc arc lclt in no
doubt about hcr lovc lor Priam, rcvcalcd in hcr vcry lcar ol thc tcrriblc risk
hc is lacing. !l wc comparc with thc lollowing sccnc bctwccn Hclcn and
8alcanica XXX\! 38
Paris in 8ook 6 (vv. +68), thc signicancc ol thc pattcrn bccomcs cvcn
clcarcr: Hcctor has comc to pcrsuadc his brothcr to join his comradcs on thc
battlccld, and Hclcn nds it absolutcly shamclul that hc is staying salcly
at homc whilc Grccks and Trojans arc killing cach othcr lor his and hcr
sakc. Tc implicit mcssagc is that shc docs not carc all that much whcthcr
hc survivcs or not.
!l wc rcturn to Phocnix spccch with this pattcrn in mind, his appcal
to Achillcs bccomcs ambiguous. Hc knows wcll cnough that Achillcs risks
his lilc il hc gocs back into battlc, sincc hc has just hcard lrom Achillcs
himscll ol thc warning Tctis oncc gavc hcr son (+o+6). 8y wanting him
to join thc battlc in spitc ol this, hc rcvcals his lack ol truc lovc lor thc young
hcro.
Tat this is actually how hc is undcrstood by Achillcs also cmcrgcs
lrom thc answcr hc is givcn (6o+). Tc rarc word atta with which Achil
lcs addrcsscs him convcys acctionatc rcgard, according to Hainsworth.

!t is lound oncc morc in thc Iliad, in anothcr addrcss to Phocnix (+.6+,
Mcnclaus spcaking), and six timcs in thc Odyssey (+6.+, , +o, +.6, ,
:+.6), whcrc in all cascs Tclcmachus is spcaking to thc swinchcrd u
maios. 8csidcs thc acction, ! also hcar a condcsccnding tonc in thcsc ad
drcsscs. !t is clcarcst in :+.6 ol thc Odyssey, whcrc Tclcmachus is actually
irritatcd with thc swinchcrd, but in gcncral, it sccms to bc an approach to a
pcrson who is old and closc, but ol lowcr standing than thc spcakcr. Achillcs
spccch is ccrtainly acctionatc and rcspcctlul, but strikingly bricl comparcd
to Phocnix loquacity. Tc only part ol thc lostcrlathcrs argumcntation
to which Achillcs givcs an answcr is thc nal appcal that hc should acccpt
thc honourablc gilts that hc is ocrcd now, sincc latcr hc will havc to ght
anyway, but thcn without gilts. Tis is dismisscd: Achillcs lccls in no nccd
ol this kind ol honour. Tc rcst ol his answcr boils down to: ld man, you
ought to lovc mc rathcr than my cncmics.
For all his rclcrcnccs to patcrnal lovc, Phocnix is primarily conccrncd
with his own lilc and thc salcty ol thc Grcck army. His spccch makcs thc
tragcdy ol Achillcs stand out in shocking clarity: Not only will his lilc bc
short, but his closcst kinsman givcs priority to his dutics as a warrior rathcr
than to his survival.
+o
Professor Emeritus UDC 821.1402-13.091
University of Southern Denmark
Odense
Ibid., +o.
+o
! thank John . Kcndal lor rcvising my nglish.
ivko Miki
Anthropological Traces of Slav Presence in Kosovo and Metochia
Tc anthropological history ol thc population ol Kosovo and Mctochia is
littlc known. Tc rcasons lor that arc wcll known, cspccially with rcgard to
thc last ccntury. Anthropology has not yct bccn sucicntly institutionaliscd
in our cnvironmcnt, and throughout thc sccond hall ol thc twcnticth ccn
tury statc idcology was not intcrcstcd in promoting scicntic clds apt to
stand in thc way ol its doctrinc. As a rcsult, lor instancc, only lcw mcdicval
nccropoliscs lrom Kosovo and Mctochia wcrc anthropologically analyzcd
and publishcd: Matianc ncar Pritina, jonaj ncar Prizrcn, Kulinc and
Rczala ncar Kosovska Mitrovica, and, to a lcsscr cxtcnt, Novo 8rdo not lar
lrom Pritina. l coursc, thc numbcr ol archcologically invcstigatcd nc
cropoliscs is signicantly largcr, but thcir anthropological matcrial has bccn
lost in thc mcantimc. Lct us look into this in morc dctail.
Not so long ago, in +88, \. S. Jovanovi, in his lucid and systcm
atic study Archacological Rcscarch ol Mcdicval Monumcnts and Sitcs in
Kosovo, quotcd a total ol +: nccropoliscs, not including almost onc thou
sand gravcs rcscarchcd in Novo 8rdo cathcdral and its gravcyard. Tcsc +:
nccropoliscs, in thc ordcr spccicd by \. S. Jovanovi, arc thc lollowing:
+
RG\ thc sitc ol Fuc ncar jakovica. !n +66, during thc
cxcavations ol prchistoric mounds, mcdicval gravcs ol thc cighth and ninth
ccnturics wcrc lound.
:
Tc anthropological matcrial was not analyzcd.
N ncar thc villagc ol ubovac in thc vicinity ol \uitrn. Tc
archacological matcrial, part ol which is kcpt in thc National Muscum in
8clgradc, indicatcs a mcdicval nccropolis roughly datcd to thc ninth ccn
tury (carrings ctc.).
As it was not archcologically cxcavatcd, thc anthropo

+
\. S. Jovanovi, Arhcoloka istraivanja srcdnjovckovnih spomcnika i nalazita na
Kosovu, in Nauni skupovi SANU vol. XL!! (8clgradc, +88), +.
:
M. Garaanin, Rogovo Fuc jakovica praistorijska nckropola sa humkama,
Arheoloki pregled 8 (8clgradc, +66/6), o+.
\. Jovanovi, bcr dcn lruhmittclaltcrlichcn Schuck von ccn aul Kosovo, Bal-
kanoslavica (Prilcp, +), +:+.
8alcanica XXX\! 40
logical matcrial cannot bc discusscd. Tcrc is only a rccord about thc sitc
bcing strippcd ol thc matcrial by thc villagcrs.
MAT!AN a mcdicval nccropolis ncar thc villagc ol thc samc
namc in thc vicinity ol Pritina, archcologically cxcavatcd bctwccn +6
and +. nc hundrcd and twclvc gravcs wcrc invcstigatcd and datcd to
thc tcnth and clcvcnth ccnturics.
Tc anthropological matcrial was ana

lyzcd and thc analysis submittcd lor publication to thc Glasnik Muzeja
Kosova (Kosovo Muscum Hcrald) by thc author ol this papcr somc thirty
ycars ago, but thc papcr has not bccn publishcd to datc, so on this occasion
morc will bc said about this mcdicval nccropolis lrom thc anthropological
pcrspcctivc.
8A\AC a villagc ncar thc monastcry ol Graanica. !n +6 a
smallscalc rcscuc cxcavation discovcrcd somc tcn gravcs. n thc basis ol
gravc goods, thc nccropolis was roughly datcd to thc tcnth and clcvcnth
ccnturics.
Anthropological analysis was not pcrlormcd.

!RK thc sitc ol U8AK ncar Suva Rcka. !n +6 a mc
dicval nccropolis buricd in prchistoric mounds was invcstigatcd. Tcrc is no
rccord ol thc cxact numbcr ol gravcs and skclctons, and thc nccropolis was
roughly datcd to thc tcnth and clcvcnth ccnturics.
6
Anthropological analy
sis was oncc again skippcd ovcr.
\R8N!CA a villagc on thc bank ol thc rim in thc vicinity ol
Prizrcn. !n + about o gravcs wcrc invcstigatcd and datcd, lcw to thc
lth and sixth ccnturics, and most to a pcriod bctwccn thc tcnth and thir
tccnth ccnturics.
Tc ostcological matcrial was submittcd lor analysis to

thc Hungarian archacologist J. Ncmcskri who, in thc latc +os, also ana
lyzcd thc skclctons ol allcgcdly cxccutcd lcadcrs ol thc Lcaguc ol Prizrcn.
Howcvcr, no rclcvant anthropological rcport has appcarcd to datc.
JNAJ or thc sitc ol Ploc ncar Prizrcn. !n +8, :+ gravcs ol
a mcdicval nccropolis wcrc invcstigatcd and datcd to a pcriod bctwccn thc
tcnth and thirtccnth ccnturics.
8
Anthropological analysis ol thc skclctons
was carricd out by . Miki.
PR\ or thc sitc ol 8oka ncar thc villagc ol thc samc namc. !n
+ cxcavations ol thc prchistoric tumuli wcrc carricd out, and somc o
\. S. Jovanovi, Arheoloka istraivanja, ::.
\. S. Jovanovi, Arheoloka istraivanja, :6.

6
Ibid.
A. 8akalov, \rbnica kod Prizrcna nckropola XX!!! vcka, Nakit na tlu Srbije od IX
do XV veka, xhibition cataloguc (8clgradc: National Muscum, +8:).
8
8akalov, \rbnica kod Prizrcna, 6.
. Miki, Antropolokc karaktcristikc srcdnjovckovnc nckropolc jonaj kod Prizrc

na, Glasnik Muzeja Kosova X!!!/X!\ (Pristina, +8), +++::.
. Miki, Anthropological Traccs ol Slav Prcscncc 41
mcdicval gravcs discovcrcd. Tc nccropolis was roughly datcd to thc pcriod
bctwccn thc tcnth and twcllth ccnturics.
+o
Analysis ol thc anthropological
matcrial was not pcrlormcd.
8LA CRK\A or thc sitc ol Ki or Poig, in thc villagc ol thc
samc namc ncar jakovica. !n +66, +:o gravcs ol a mcdicval nccropolis
wcrc invcstigatcd and datcd to thc turn ol thc twcllth and thirtccnth ccntu
rics on thc basis ol archacological nds.
++
Tc anthropological matcrial was
not analyzcd.
KUL!N on thc lclt bank ol thc rivcr !bar, ncar thc villagc ol
8anjc in !barski Kolain. !n +8 a mcdicval church and its ccmctcry with
about +oo gravcs wcrc archcologically invcstigatcd. n thc basis ol thc in
scriptions and gravc goods, thc nccropolis was datcd to thc pcriod bctwccn
thc thirtccnth and cightccnth ccnturics.
+:
Tc anthropological matcrial was
analyzcd by . Miki.
+
GRK CMTRY (GRKO GROBLJE) / RZALA in thc
villagc ol thc samc namc in !barski Kolain. !n +8 archacological cxca
vations wcrc pcrlormcd, and : gravcs invcstigatcd. n thc basis ol gravc
goods, thc nccropolis was datcd to thc pcriod bctwccn thc thirtccnth and
scvcntccnth ccnturics.
+
Tc skclctons wcrc anthropologically analyzcd and
publishcd by . Miki.
+
ZASKK or thc sitc ol Kamcna ncar thc villagc ol thc samc namc
in thc vicinity ol Urocvac. !n +8o and +8+ a mcdicval ccmctcry with
about +o gravcs was invcstigatcd. n thc basis ol thc jcwcllcry ol mctal
and glass, it was prcliminarily datcd to thc ltccnth and sixtccnth ccntu
rics.
+6
Anthropological analysis was not carricd out.
N\ 8R on Mala Planina cast ol Pritina. Archacological
cxcavations wcrc carricd out intcrmittcntly bctwccn +: and +o.
+
Sincc
+o
8akalov, \rbnica kod Prizrcna, 6.
++
J. Kovacvi, 8cla Crkva u Mctohiji arhitcktonski objckti \! vcka i nckropola sa
kraja X!! vcka, Arheoloki pregled 8 (8clgradc, +66), +o++.
+:
A. 8akalov, Kulinc ostaci crkvc i nckropolc, Glasnik Muzeja Kosova X!!!/X!\
(Pristina, +8), 8+8.
+
. Miki, 8citrag zur Antropologic spatrmischcr bis zum spatmittclaltcrichcr
8cvlkcrungcn Jugoslawicns, Godinjak Centra za balkanoloka ispitivanja ANU BiH
XX!!/:o (Sarajcvo, +8), o.
+
Z. Ncdcljkovi, Srcdnjovckovna nckropola Grko grobljc u Rczalama, Glasnik
Muzeja Kosova X!!!/X!\ (Pristina, +8), 88.
+
Miki, 8citrag zur Antropologic, .
+6
\. S. Jovanovi, Arheoloka istraivanja, :o.
+
M. oroviLjubinkovi, Arhcoloka iskopavanja na Novom 8rdu u toku +. go
dinc, Starinar !XX (8clgradc, +8/), ::6.
8alcanica XXX\! 42
this is a largc urban complcx, it should bc notcd that about oo individual
gravcs and lamily tombs in thc cathcdral church and its churchyard wcrc
invcstigatcd, including gravc :6, adjaccnt to thc altar tablc, containing thc
skclctons ol two bishops. Part ol thc anthropological matcrial (o skclc
tons) was studicd and publishcd by . Gavrilovi,
+8
whilc thc rcst cannot
bc traccd.
!L!J!NA GLA\!CA a sizcablc hill wcst ol thc villagc ol \clcknica,
ncar Gnjilanc. !n +8 thc Kosovo Muscum opcncd an cxcavation arca ol
about 8oo sq m. A total ol :o6 gravcs, somc ol thcm Roman and most ol a
mcdicval datc, wcrc cxcavatcd. n thc basis ol gravc goods it was datcd to
thc thirtccnth and lourtccnth ccnturics.
+
Tc ostcological matcrial was not
anthropologically analyzcd.
!n short, mcdicval skclctons wcrc cxcavatcd or lound dcvastatcd (c.g.
at ccn) on + sitcs in thc arca ol Kosovo and Mctochia. Howcvcr, duc
to thc insucicnt dcvclopmcnt and inucncc ol anthropology in thc study
ol thc past, thcrc is a total ol vc skclcton scrics availablc. Tcy will bc dis
cusscd in thc lollowing part ol this contribution.
Lct us rcitcratc that thc vc anthropological scrics availablc arc:
Matianc ncar Pritina, jonaj, +o km northcast ol Prizrcn, Rczala, also
known as Grcck Ccmctcry, in thc villagc ol thc samc namc, and Ku
linc ncar thc villagc ol 8anjc, both in !barski Kolain, and Novo 8rdo, also
known as thc Cathcdral, about o km cast ol Pritina.
MAT!AN, or thc sitc ol 8rcg, is situatcd in thc immcdiatc vi
cinity ol Pritina. Tc abovcmcntioncd tcxt submittcd lor publication in thc
Glasnik Muzeja Kosova somc thirty ycars ago was not ocially rcluscd by its
cditorial board, but it has bccn ncithcr publishcd nor rcturncd to its author.
Sincc thc titlc ol this papcr implics a synthctic ovcrvicw, thc rcproduction ol
thc cntirc tcxt would not bc appropriatc on this occasion, so only thc most
important anthropological obscrvations will bc rcpcatcd on thc basis ol thc
prcscrvcd copy.
Archacological cxcavations ol thc nccropolis 8rcgMatianc wcrc
lcd by \. S. Jovanovi, at that timc assistant prolcssor at thc cpartmcnt ol
Archacology ol thc Faculty ol Philosophy in 8clgradc. Tc author ol this
contribution was a mcmbcr ol his tcam in thc ++ and +: campaigns.
Sincc thc ostcological matcrial was in a poor statc ol prcscrvation (highly
acidic soil, shallowburicd gravcs), thc anthropological obscrvations madc in
situ arc ol particular signicancc. !n thc coursc ol thc cxcavation campaigns,
+8
. Gavrilovi, Kraniomctrijska ispitivanja srcdnjcvckovnog ovcka sa Novog 8rda u
Srbiji, Glasnik Antropolokog drutva Jugoslavije + (8clgradc, +6), ++.
+
S. Fidanovski, !lijina glavica, \clcknica, Gnjilanc rimska i srcdnjovckovna nckropo
la, Arheoloki pregled : (8clgradcLjubljana, +86), 8.
8 scpulchral contcnts with individual skclctons wcrc anthropologically
analyzcd: thc gravcs/skclctons numbcrcd to :, numbcr 6 bcing a dou
blc burial. Howcvcr, duc to thcir rathcr poor statc ol prcscrvation, only :
scpulchral contcnts with o individual skclctons could bc anthropologically
trcatcd in dctail ( and 6, :, doublc burial no 6, :, :).
Gcndcr and agc ol thc skclctons lrom this scrics wcrc dctcrmincd
according to thc mcthod agrccd upon by a group ol uropcan anthropolo
gists, including thc author ol this papcr.
:o
vcry anthropological analysis
is primarily conccrncd with dcmographic clcmcnts such as gcndcr and agc
(at thc timc ol dcath). !n thc Matianc scrics, gcndcr was positivcly idcnti
cd lor : individuals, with thc cxccption ol thc skclcton lrom gravc 8:,
most probably malc. So this scrics consistcd ol +: mcn, 6 womcn, and +:
childrcn up to + ycars ol agc (agc groups infans I and II). 8oth gcndcrs
wcrc lound to havc bccn rcprcscntcd by both modcratc and signicantly
dcvclopcd constitutional lorms, indicating a notablc scxual dimorphism.
Howcvcr, a signicant gcndcr dicrcncc cannot bc discusscd, sincc this part
ol thc anthropological matcrial could not bc studicd in dctail duc to its poor
and incomplctc prcscrvation.
As rcgards agc distribution, it was shown that nonc bclongcd to thc
senilis catcgory, which mcans that thc lilc span ol thc mcmbcrs ol this com
munity did not cxcccd 6o ycars. Furthcrmorc, mortality was highcst in thc
youngcst agc group. Namcly, out ol o individuals covcrcd by this analysis
dicd bclorc turning scvcn (infant I). Tcrc lollowcd thc adultus group with
8 cascs, juvenilis and maturus with cascs cach, and nally infans II (+
ycars ol agc) with cascs.
Staturc could bc calculatcd lor ++ malc skclctons, according to thc
mcthod ol . 8rcitingcr.
:+
!t was +68 cm on avcragc, ranging bctwccn +:
and + cm. According to H. 8achs mcthod, thc avcragc hcight ol lcmalc
skclctons was about + cm, ranging bctwccn +: and +6 cm.
::
!n accor
dancc with thc classication ol thc mcdicval uropcan population givcn
by R. Martin,
:
thc valucs obtaincd lor both scxcs arc abovc avcragc lor
thc pcriod. No traccs ol pathological changcs could bc lound in thc cranial
:o
mplchlungcn lur dic Altcrsund Gcschlcchtsdiagnosc am Skclctt, lormulatcd by
. Fcrcmbach (Paris), !. Schwidctzky (Mainz), and M. Stloukal (Praguc), cosigncd by
6 lcading world anthropologists, HOMO o/: (MainzGttingcn, +), + :.
:+
. 8rcitingcr, Zur 8crcchnung dcr Krpcrhhc aus dcn langcn Glicdmasscnkno
chcn, Anthrop. Anz. X!\ (+), ::.
::
H. 8ach, Zur 8crcchnung dcr Krpcrhhc aus dcn langcn Glicdmasscnknochcn
wciblichcr Skclcttc, Anthrop. Anz. XX!X (+6), +::+.
:
R. Martin and K. Sallcr, Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, vol. ! (Stuttgart: G. Fischcr \cr
lag, +), :.
8alcanica XXX\! 44
and postcranial skclctons ol this mcdicval scrics, doubtlcssly as a rcsult ol
thcir poor and incomplctc prcscrvation. As rcgards dcntal pathology, how
cvcr, cavitics (Caries) in molars and prcmolars wcrc lound in 6 adults. A
dcntal cyst (Peridontalis periapicalis cronica granulomatosa) was lound only
in onc casc (mandiblc lrom gravc ). Vhcn considcring thcsc obscrva
tions it should bc pointcd out that thc numbcr ol ndings must havc bccn
inucnccd by thc incomplctc prcscrvation ol thc skclctons, so thc rcsults
obtaincd arc not quitc rcliablc (in vicw ol a largcr numbcr ol pathological
changcs cxpcctcd, both in tccth and boncs).
n thc basis ol thc indicators obtaincd, rclcvant palcodcmographic
conclusions can bc drawn. Tus, lor instancc, thc rcsults suggcst that thc
avcragc lilc span ol thc mcdicval inhabitants ol Kosovo buricd in this nc
cropolis was about o ycars, thc avcragc lilc span ol thc individuals surviving
childhood agc (infans II, up to + ycars ol agc) bcing 6 lor womcn or about
o lor mcn. Such a short lilcspan ol thc population buricd in thc nccropolis
Matianc can only partly bc disputcd by thc lact that thc data rclcr to no
morc than o out ol about +oo archcologically cxcavatcd individual skcl
ctons. Howcvcr, whcn intcrprcting palcodcmographic data, dclivcry tcch
niquc and postdclivcry prcvcntion nccd to bc takcn into account, as wcll as
thc rcasonablc assumption that this mcdicval population group was char
actcrizcd by a poorly dcvclopcd sociocconomic componcnt (in addition to
diculty in providing thc ncccssary mcans lor lilc sustcnancc).
And, nally, a lcw morc words conccrning thc anthropological clas
sication ol thc skclctons lrom thc mcdicval nccropolis ol Matianc ncar
Pritina.
As has alrcady bccn said, thcir poor and incomplctc statc ol prcscrva
tion did not allow lor thc ncccssary anthropological mcasurcmcnts. Tcrc
lorc, in this casc morphological obscrvations wcrc ol primary importancc.
Sincc thc author ol this papcr was a mcmbcr ol thc tcam conducting thc
abovcmcntioncd archacological cxcavations, rclcvant onsitc obscrvations
carry particular wcight. Tc paramctcr monitorcd was thc prcscncc ol plan
occipitaly (at back part ol thc skull) as thc primary morphological charac
tcristic ol thc inarid anthropological typc, which in lact is a substratc typc
ol thc inarid mountain rangc as its primary distribution zonc.
:
Howcvcr,
sincc planoccipitaly was not lound in any ol thc cranial skclctons lrom this
scrics, quitc thc contrary, thcy wcrc curvoccipital (curvaccously clongatcd
back part ol thc hcad), it may bc maintaincd with ccrtainty that this nc
cropolis is not rclatcd to thc autochthonous brachycranial planoccipital i
:
P. cnikcr, Lcs Raccs dc luropc , LAnthropologie !X (Paris, +88), ++ , C. S.
Coon, Te Races of Europe (:nd Grccnwood Rcprinting, +, +st cd. Ncw York: Tc
Macmillan Company, +), Pl. .
narid anthropological typc,
:
but rathcr to a curvoccipital and doubtlcssly
dolichocranial typc. At Matianc, this anthropological typc was charactcr
izcd by a lcptodolichomorph componcnt ol a prcvailingly robust variant.
As rcgards its cthnic origin and rclation to othcr 8alkan populations, thc
lollowing should bc undcrlincd: in vicw ol thc pcriod to which this mcdi
cval nccropolis was datcd using thc archacological critcria, and considcr
ing cthnic movcmcnts in thc 8alkans during this pcriod, a dolichocranial
anthropological typc may bc primarily linkcd with thc cxpansion ol Slavs
or thc ncwlyarrivcd Slav cthnic groups as yct unacctcd by assimilation
and mctisation proccsscs incorporating thcm into thc autochthonous ld
8alkan substratum.
JNAJ, a mcdicval nccropolis locatcd about + km northcast ol
Prizrcn. !ts anthropological trcatmcnt was carricd out in April +8o. Tc
scrics includcd :+ skclctons, numbcrcd + to :+ in thc coursc ol archaco
logical cxcavations. !t should bc lurthcr cmphasiscd that thc skclcton lrom
gravc +8 had not bccn prcscrvcd lor anthropological analysis, and that gravc
containcd a doublc burial.
Gcndcr could bc dctcrmincd with ccrtainty in + individual skcl
ctons: +o malcs, lcmalcs, and : childrcn. !ndividual agc analysis involvcd
:o skclctons: infans I and II with onc casc cach, juvenilis or subadultus agc
group with : cascs, adultus and maturus groups with cascs cach, and :
skclctons bclonging to thc senilis agc group (ovcr 6o ycars ol agc).
Tc avcragc lilc span ol this mcdicval population group was about
ycars, with thc individuals surviving thc childhood agc ol about + ycars
living ovcr o on avcragc. As lor gcndcr, it should bc addcd that mcn and
womcn wcrc cqually rcprcscntcd in thc adultus group, whilc thc maturus agc
group showcd morc dcaths ol mcn than ol womcn.
Complctc anthropological mcasurcmcnt was possiblc lor 6 skulls
(numbcrs , , , +, :o and :+), ol which numbcr was bcst prcscrvcd. !t
was obvious that modcratcly long and long skulls with promincnt curvoc
cipitaly and narrow lacc prcvailcd.
Postcranial mcasurcmcnts wcrc obtaincd lor ++ adult skclctons (num
bcrs :, , , , , +o, +, +, +, :o and :+) and thcy showcd an avcragc body
hcight ol about + cm in mcn, and about +6o cm in womcn.
Vith rcgard to palcopathological analysis, thc lollowing was lound:
wclltrcatcd lracturcs ol long boncs (status post fracturam), tubcrcular chang
cs in thc spinc, as wcll as ostcomiclitis (trcponcma inlcction) in somc lowcr
lcg boncs. Howcvcr, by lar thc grcatcst numbcr ol pathological changcs was
rccordcd in thc jaw apparatus and tccth. Tcsc includcd all typcs ol carics,
:
. Miki, Antropoloka struktura stanovnitva Srbijc , in Catena mundi !! (8cl
gradcKraljcvo, +:), 8o8o.
8alcanica XXX\! 46
dcntal cysts and gum boils, as wcll as tooth loss during lilc (intra vitam), thc
total numbcr ol which in thc scrics cxcccds o in adult individuals.
From thc corrclation bctwccn thc obtaincd anthropological indica
tors and archacological data (chronological lramcwork, thc naturc ol gravc
goods), thcrc is no doubt that what wc havc hcrc is a robust lcptodolicho
morph typc which is associatcd with thc Slavs in cthnocultural tcrms.
:6

Morcovcr, according to thc availablc inlormation, idcntical anthropologi
cal scrics arc lound on thc banks ol Lakc hrid, i.c. in thc nccropoliscs ol
Radolitc and Svcti razmo.
:

RZALA, or Grcck Ccmctcry as it is namcd by thc local pcoplc,
is a mcdicval nccropolis in usc lor scvcral ccnturics, bcginning with thc
thirtccnth ccntury. Filty skclctons wcrc archacologically cxcavatcd and +
wcrc suitablc lor possiblc anthropological proccssing. ut ol this numbcr,
+ wcrc malc and + wcrc lcmalc. !t was impossiblc to dctcrminc thc gcn
dcr ol two skclctons ol adult individuals, and thc rcmaining two wcrc ol a
childhood agc.
Agc distribution rcvcals that nonc ol thc pcrsons buricd in this nc
cropolis had livcd to a vcry old agc, namcly nonc ol thc skclctons was as
signcd to thc senilis agc group (ovcr 6o ycars ol agc). Tc grcatcst numbcr ol
adult individuals was placcd in thc group maturus (8) which, howcvcr, docs
not mcan that thc avcragc lilc span cxcccdcd o ycars (lor both gcndcrs).
As shown by anthropological indiccs, thc avcragc malc skull ol this
scrics was brachycranial, hypsicranic, mctriocranic, hypsiccphalic, with
modcratcly tall lacc and modcratcly widc nasal opcning. 8ody hcight in
mcn rangcd bctwccn +o cm and +: cm, ctc.
n avcragc thc lcmalc cranial skclctons lrom thc Rczala nccropo
lis arc brachycranial, hypsicranic, ortocranic, hypsiccphalic, mctriomctopic,
with modcratcly high uppcr lacc but narrow nasal opcning, ctc. Tcir avcr
agc hcight rangcd bctwccn +6: cm and +6 cm. Howcvcr, as rcgards thc
intcrnal structurc ol this mcdicval population group, in addition to brachy
cranial, thcrc wcrc also dolichocranial skulls. Tc lormcr conrm thc prcs
cncc ol thc autochthonous inarid typc, and thc lattcr, in thc givcn contcxt
ol nd, may only bc associatcd with a lurthcr stagc ol Slav prcscncc, namcly
with thc proccss ol mixing ol indigcnous and Slav populations.
:8
:6
. Miki, Mcdicval nccropolis onaj ncar Prizrcn and its anthropological rclation
to thc corrcsponding ncighbouring scrics, God. zbornik Medic. fak. :/: (Skopjc, +8),
++:.
:
. Miki, bcr Anthropologic dcr historischcn Pcriodcn aul dcm 8odcn Jugoslaw
icns, Colleg. Anthropol. 6/: (Zagrcb, +8:), :o::+.
:8
. Miki, 8citrag zur Anthropologic dcr Slawcn aug dcm mittlcrcn und wcstlichcn
8alkan, Balcanica XX\+ (8clgradc: !nstitutc lor 8alkan Studics, +), +o.
Tc nccropolis ol KUL!N is adjaccnt to a singlcnavc church and was
in usc lrom thc thirtccnth ccntury. !n thc invcstigatcd arca o gravcs wcrc
archcologically cxcavatcd in +8, and 8 individual skclctons wcrc cligiblc
lor anthropological analysis. ut ol this numbcr, + skclctons wcrc malc, +
lcmalc and ++ childrcn. Gcndcr was impossiblc to positivcly dctcrminc lor
thrcc poorly prcscrvcd adult skclctons.
Tc lollowing indiccs wcrc obtaincd lor thc malc skulls: brachycra
nial, hypsicranic, acrocranic, hypsiccphalic, mctriomctopic, low uppcr lacc,
modcratcly high cyc sockcts, widc nasal opcning. Tc avcragc body hcight
ol mcn rangcd bctwccn +o cm and +: cm. !n thc casc ol lcmalc gcndcr,
anthropological mcasurcmcnts could bc collcctcd lor onc cranial skclcton
only (numbcr +6), which was brachycranial, whilc thc body hcight ol this
individual was about +6+ cm.
Statistical analysis ol thc intcrnal structurc ol this mcdicval popula
tion group showcd signicant individual dicrcntiation. Tus, lor cxamplc,
among thc bcttcr prcscrvcd malc skclctons two vcry dicrcnt skull shapcs
wcrc clcarly distinguishablc brachycrany and dolichocrany. For this rcason
thc anthropological composition ol this population group can bc dcncd
as mixcd indigcnous and Slav, but mctisation lcvcls cannot bc dccidcdly
dctcrmincd.
:

For thcsc two mcdicval Kosovo nccropoliscs Rczala and Kulinc
only a lcw kilomctrcs apart in !barski Kolain, whcrc burials commcnccd
at approximatcly thc samc timc (thirtccnth ccntury), and which arc idcnti
cal in thcir anthropological composition, thc palcopathological ndings arc
almost idcntical as wcll: boncs most oltcn showcd arthritic changcs (thrcc
cascs in Rczala, and +o cascs in Kulinc), and a singlc trcatcd long bonc
lracturc (Kulinc). Howcvcr, thc jaw apparatuscs and tccth wcrc signicantly
compromiscd in pathological tcrms. At Rczala, tooth dccay (carics) was
lound in two cascs, and paradontosis and tooth loss during lilctimc in thrcc
cascs cach. Vith a largcr numbcr ol skclctons, thc nccropolis ol Kulinc had
a largcr numbcr ol thc samc catcgorics ol dcntopathological ndings: car
ics in cascs, paradontosis in 8, with 8 cascs ol tooth loss during lilctimc
and dcntal cysts. xccssivc dcposition ol callus on thc tccth ol both jaws
was rccordcd in : cascs. Tis indicatcs a vcry low lcvcl ol dcntal and buc
cal cavity hygicnc, which thcn implics a low social status ol this mcdicval
population.
N\ 8R is thc lth nccropolis in this scrics. !ts anthro
pological contcnt was studicd and publishcd in thc mcantimc, although
:
. Miki, Slovcni na 8alkanu Uporcdna antropoloka analiza, in Antidoron -
Uzdarje D. Srejoviu (8clgradc: Ccntar za arhcoloka istraivanja Filozolskog lakultcta,
vol. +, +), oo.
8alcanica XXX\! 48
only in part. !t has alrcady bccn said that in +:+o almost a thousand
gravcs and tombs wcrc archcologically invcstigatcd in thc cathcdral and its
churchyard alonc. . Gavrilovi
o
anthropologically proccsscd o individual
skclctons in dctail, probably dcpcndcnt on thc dcgrcc ol thcir prcscrvation,
whilc skulls wcrc proccsscd in +: cascs. Howcvcr, cvcn though brachycra
nial skulls prcvailcd, onc typical dolichocranial skull (gravc no 6+) was
also prcscnt. Considcring thc small numbcr ol samplcs lrom a largc an
thropological scrics, thc conclusions rcachcd cannot bc lully conscqucntial
but thc hctcrogcncous composition ol thc Novo 8rdo population cannot bc
disputcd.

l all thc scicntic disciplincs, physical anthropology has lcast participatcd
in thc cxploration ol thc past ol Kosovo and Mctochia. Vith rcgard to thc
mcdicval pcriod, whcn doubtlcssly thc most important clcmcnts lor thc
gcncsis ol cach cthnos in thc 8alkans wcrc crcatcd, anthropology in gcncral
is oncc again insucicntly involvcd.
As it has bccn shown in this papcr, in thc tcrritory ol Kosovo and
Mctochia + nccropoliscs wcrc archcologically cxcavatcd, as wcll as churchcs
or cathcdrals also containing mcdicval burials. Howcvcr, duc to thc alrcady
mcntioncd rcasons, thc anthropological matcrial lrom vc sitcs was studicd
and publishcd: Matianc, jonaj, Rczala, Kulinc and Novo 8rdo, but thc
skclctons lrom Novo 8rdo cathcdral and its gravcyard cannot bc takcn into
account givcn thc insignicancc ol thc samplc. Namcly, thc archacologically
cxcavatcd and anthropologically analyzcd skclctons account lor only vc
pcrccnt ol thc matcrial lrom Novo 8rdo! Ncvcrthclcss, thc obtaincd ag
grcgatc anthropological rcsults arc quitc signicant and doubtlcssly play an
important rolc in anthropogcnctical studics ol thc mcdicval pcriod.
Tis is what this should mcan in morc concrctc tcrms.
Tc anthropological contcnts ol thc nccropoliscs ol Matianc and
jonaj arc attributcd to thc Slavs. 8urial bcgan in thc tcnth ccntury and
wcnt on lor scvcral ccnturics but not latcr than thc thirtccnth ccntury. n
thc othcr hand, burial in thc nccropoliscs ol Rczala and Kulinc, as wcll as in
and around Novo 8rdo cathcdral, bcgan in thc thirtccnth ccntury and wcnt
on lor thc ncxt lcw ccnturics. !n anthropological tcrms, thc prcscncc ol
thc brachycranial indigcnous population ol thc inarid typc and ol robust
lcptodolichomorph Slavs has bccn idcnticd thcrc, or thc rst clcmcnts ol
thc proccss ol mctisation/mixing ol mcdicval populations. !t is intcrcsting
that this proccss took placc so long altcr thc Slavs had scttlcd in thc rcgion.
o
Gavrilovi, Kraniomctrijska ispitivanja, + .
Howcvcr, thcrc sccm to havc bccn ccrtain marital barricrs, idcnticd also in
thc largc mcdicval nccropolis at \ina.
+
Tis would mcan that thc proccss
ol Slavization did not run simultancously in all clds: cultural and linguis
tic, social and historical, and bioanthropological.
r, to put it bricy, in thc tcnth and clcvcnth ccnturics Slav commu
nitics in Kosovo and Mctochia livcd scparatcly lrom thc indigcnous com
munitics, and wcrc buricd in thc samc way. !n thc thirtccnth ccntury, thc
proccss ol population mctisation/mixing bcgan, which is bcst shown by thc
anthropological contcnt ol thc invcstigatcd nccropoliscs. !t is charactcriscd
by mixcd Slav and indigcnous burials both in standard nccropoliscs and
around rthodox churchcs and cathcdrals, in which casc thcrc is no nccd
lor thcir cthnic origin to bc additionally vcricd or cmphasiscd.
Faculty of Philosophy UDC 904(497.115):572.7(=163)(497.11)
University of Belgrade
+
. Miki, Hciratsgrcnzcn und 8cvlkcrungmischung zwischcn inhcimischcn und
slawischcn Zuwandcrcrn in Jugoslawicn, HOMO XXX!!! (MainzGttingcn, +8:),
++.
Sonja Pctrovi
Charity, Good Deeds and the Poor in Serbian Epic Poetry
1
Charity, almsgiving, charitablc bcqucsts and various lorms ol poor rclicl arc
lasting and univcrsal cultural and social thcmcs. Charity is dcncd as bc
ncvolcnt goodwill toward or lovc ol humanity, gcncrosity and hclplulncss
csp. toward thc nccdy or sucring (Mcrriam Vcbstcr ictionary). Moti
vatcd by charity, good dccds arc oltcn aimcd at thc poor. Tc catcgory ol
poor pcoplc is at thc samc timc concrctc and abstract, dcpcnding on thc lo
cus and mcthodological approach. Social historians analyzc thc poor within
thc scopc ol subcultural marginal groups, both as a compositc individual
within a group, and as a hctcrogcncous group ol individuals sccn as a wholc.
Tcrclorc manilold aspccts ol thc lilc, social involvcmcnt and intcractions
ol thc poor arc cxplorcd: social status, wcllarc, hcalth carc, hospitals, ccclc
siastical and parish institutions, gcndcr, social and cthnic minoritics, and so
on. Morc spccically, poor rclicl and charitablc activitics dircctcd towards
thc poor arc discusscd as social modcls, but also as a complcx way ol social
intcraction bctwccn thc clitcs and thc poor. Charity is discusscd as a strat
cgy lor thc clitcs to rcgulatc thc labour markct and stabilizc social ordcr, but
also as a mcans ol acquiring social capital in ordcr to upgradc oncs status
and carccr. As a common lorm ol charity, poor rclicl was a manysidcd lit
mus tcst: visavis oncs pccrs, apropos subordinatc mcmbcrs ol socicty, and,
in lact, toward God and oncs own conscicncc.
:
+
An carlicr vcrsion ol this articlc was awardcd thc Congrcss Travcl Award to partcipatc
in thc +st !ntcrnational Congrcss on Mcdicval Studics, sponsorcd by thc Mcdicval
!nstitutc, Vcstcrn Michigan Univcrsity, Kalamazoo, USA, May, :oo6, but rcgrct
tably thc papcr could not bc prcscntcd at thc Congrcss. ! would likc to thank Prol. Larry
Syndcrgaard ol Vcstcrn Michigan Univcrsity and r Mirjana ctcli ol thc !nstitutc
lor 8alkan Studics, Scrbian Acadcmy ol Scicnccs and Arts, lor thcir commcnts and
suggcstions.
:
M. H. . van Lccuwcn, Logic ol Charity: Poor Rclicl in Prcindustrial uropc, Jour-
nal of Interdisciplinary History XX!\/ (Spring +), 8.
8alcanica XXX\! 52
Social aspccts ol charity arc strongly conncctcd with its rcligious aspcct
which prcvailcd in thc past, whcn spiritual connotations ol charity wcrc
dominant not only in thc sacral world but in thc sccular, too. !n Scrbia
in thc mcdicval pcriod and undcr Turkish rulc, until thc bcginning ol thc
ninctccnth ccntury, thc cmphasis was laid on thc rcligious and spiritual con
ccpt ol charity, which had an ccct on oral poctry and lolklorc in gcncral.
Charity, good dccds and thc poor wcrc transposcd to oral poctry in a way
that to a ccrtain cxtcnt rccctcd thcir status in rcality, at thc samc timc,
howcvcr, thcy wcrc translormcd in accordancc with thc convcntions ol thc
oral poctic systcm.
Carc lor thc poor, almsgiving and charitablc dccds wcrc a rcligious
obligation, but sincc thcy, likc many othcr lorms ol charity, promotcd com
mon good in thc broad scnsc ol thc word, in timc thcy bccamc a humanistic
and philanthropic standard. Although thcy may bc discusscd as carly lorms
ol social and cthical awarcncss, as ncighbourly charity that cmcrgcs lrom
thc lcclings ol human sympathy, compassion and solidarity, it is likcly that
thcy had initially bccn motivatcd by thc lcar ol punishmcnt lor violating
pagan rcligious and customary laws. Giving and gilts wcrc obligatory with
in sacricial and othcr ritcs, and in mcmorial lcasts, as a tributc to thc dcad.
8clicving that thc spirits ol thc dcad (cithcr lamiliar or unlamiliar) could
harm or hclp thc living, pcoplc tricd to inducc mcrcy in thcm. Tcrclorc,
giving to thc dcad is not only a sacricc, but also an apprcciativc cxchangc.
Tc popular motil ol thc Gratclul cad is bascd on such bclicls. A com
mon practicc in anccstor worship, gilts to thc dcad havc bccn prcscrvcd up
to thc prcscnt. !n Scrbia and many Slavic countrics, thc widcsprcad custom
ol almsgiving is dircctly associatcd with thc cult ol thc dcad. Almsgiving
and charitablc dccds at Christmas and slava (lamily lcast, uniquc to thc
Scrbs, in honour ol thc patron saint) arc conncctcd with thc bclicl that
thc dcad can, with our hclp, lcad a comlortablc altcrlilc, and thc living arc
obligcd to show rcspcct lor thc anccstors in this way.
!n this proccss, thc

poor, likc somc othcr spccic typcs with spccial attributcs, symbolizc a mc
diator bctwccn this and thc othcr world, and thcrclorc arc grantcd privi
lcgcs in communication with thc rcprcscntativcs ol both. Charitablc giving
to thc poor, bcggars, cripplcd, ctc. is considcrcd a spiritual crcdit which
will bc translcrrcd to oncs actual anccstors and othcr nccdy dwcllcrs ol thc
othcrworld. vcntually, thc dcad will rcmcmbcr such kind and gcncrous
gcsturcs, good dccds, and takc thcm into account whcn thc timc comcs lor
thc givcrs to join thcm in thc othcrworld.
For anccstor worship and cult, scc \. ajkanovi, Stara srpska religija i mitologija |Old
Serbian Religion and Mythology|, vol. ol Te Collected Works (8clgradc, +).
S. Pctrovi, Charity, Good ccds and thc Poor 53
As a common and rccurring clcmcnt in ritual, rcligious and cvcryday prac
ticcs, charitablc giving bccamc typicd and univcrsal. Tcsc charactcristics
contributcd to thc lorming ol cultural pattcrns which wcrc intcgratcd into
thc philosophical and cthical doctrincs ol dicrcnt rcligious systcms, and
in that way thcy gaincd thcir idcological and humanistic strcngth. Charity,
mcrcy, compassion, pity arc built into thc loundations ol univcrsal rcligious
thought as rcgards thc rolc ol individual acts ol charity and good works in
human salvation. Tc most important distinction lor undcrstanding this
problcm conccrns thc way in which charity and almsgiving arc rcgardcd as
a pcrsonal virtuc or as a rcligious duty. !n 8uddhism, lor cxamplc, libcrality
or gcncrosity (dana) is onc ol thc primc virtucs and mcans ol gaining thc
mcrit (punna) nccdcd to obtain a bcttcr rcbirth in thc luturc. Gcncrosity is
cultivatcd through hospitality and gilt giving. !n thc Hindu scripturcs, on
thc othcr hand, almsgiving is an impcrativc duty. !n thc tcachings ol Gau
tama, giving is sanctioncd as a pcrsonal virtuc and associatcd with scll
rcstraint as an cvidcncc ol rcctitudc.
!n Judaism, charity is a ccntral and

impcrativc duty lor cach bclicvcr, sincc contributing to charity is onc ol thc
most important commandmcnts. 8ut in making charity to all nccdy Jcws
an obligation (howcvcr gladly it was cxccutcd), Judaism idcnticd charity
and justicc (zcdakah).
!n !slam, charity is lcgally organizcd in thc lorm ol

zakat, rcligious charity tax, considcrcd to bc onc ol thc pillars ol !slam, and
in thc lorm ol waql, pious cndowmcnt, i.c. a gilt ol propcrty or moncy
placcd in trust so that thc incomc can bc uscd lor a charitablc or cducational
purposc.
6
!n Christianity, almsgiving is an cxprcssion and cnlargcmcnt ol
laith, and charity, as thc highcst lorm ol lovc, is thc crucial conccpt in
Christian cthical and philosophical thought.
As an aspcct ol charity, poor rclicl constitutcs a spccial thcmc with a
long history in Christian churchcs.
!t was lulllcd in scvcral lorms ccclc

siastical, institutional, public and privatc. !n thc coursc ol timc, thc rcpctitivc
and habitual charactcr ol poor rclicl bccamc an important issuc in structur
ing cultural pattcrns. thical, cducativc and humanistic potcntial ol charity,
and its lounding on cascs conrmcd or witncsscd in rcal lilc, dircctly con
ncct charity with thc shaping ol poctic narrativc modcls. Tc poctic mod
clling ol cultural pattcrns and thcir lusion with concrctc lilc storics (oral
M. Curti, Philantropy, in Te Dictionary of the History of Ideas, lcctronic Tcxt Ccntcr

at thc Univcrsity ol \irginia Library :oo thc Galc Group, vol. , 8.
Ibid.
6
Te Penguin Dictionary of Religions, cd. J. R. Hinncls (Pcnguin 8ooks, +8), :6o,
.
Carc ol thc Poor by thc Church, in Te Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. X!!, nlinc di
tion, Copyright :oo by K. Knight.
8alcanica XXX\! 54
historics, casc studics) about charitablc giving and poor rclicl rcsultcd in thc
crcation ol poctic narrativc structurcs. lcmcnts ol charity and poor rclicl
as cultural cvcnts and symbols cntcrcd oral tradition and bccamc its poctic
matcrial, which was trcatcd in dicrcnt oral gcnrcs. Tc main carricrs in
thc proccss in which cultural pattcrns dcvclop into narrativc structurcs arc
lormulations and syntagmas which rccur in many writtcn documcnts in thc
samc manncr as oral lormulas rccur in oral lormulaic tcxts. Tc naturc and
contcnt ol this poctic matcrial inclincd it mostly to thc rcligious, lcgcndary
and miraculous domain and gcnrcs. Howcvcr, oncc adaptcd to thc systcm ol
traditional oral gcnrcs and lolklorizcd, thc thcmcs ol charity and poor rclicl
wcrc acccptcd and translormcd according to thc convcntions spccic to thc
poctic world ol thc oral gcnrc in qucstion.
!n Scrbian cpic poctry, charity and poor rclicl arc rcprcscntcd in a
rangc ol structural lorms. !t should bc notcd that thc word lor thc poor
(sirotinja) in thc Scrbian languagc signics both thc indigcnt and orphans.
!n thc cpic idiom, thc syntagma poor pcoplc (sirotinja raja) is a gcncral,
lormulaic tcrm lor thc common poor pcoplc, nonMuslim subjccts undcr
Turkish rulc. Howcvcr, in oral tradition thc poor rcprcscnt a cultural, so
cial and cthical catcgory. n this occasion only thc indigcnt componcnt
is takcn into account, sincc orphans constitutc a scparatc topic. Anothcr
tcrminological clarication involvcs thc tcrms lolk cpic songs and cpic
ballads, which arc to a ccrtain cxtcnt synonymous, cspccially in nglish
translations, whcrc Scrbian lolk cpic songs arc oltcn translatcd as ballads.
8

!n Scrbian oral litcraturc, howcvcr, thc tcrm cpic ballad implics ballads
and cpic songs ol various subtypcs that havc a balladic scnsibility. Tc prob
lcm is partly thcorctical, givcn that thc gcncric boundarics bctwccn thc cpic
(hcroic) song and thc ballad arc quitc cxiblc, and partly tcrminological and
typological, bccausc thcrc arc many inconsistcncics in thc dcscription and
classication ol oral cpic poctry.
!n this papcr attcntion is paid primarily to thc qucstion as to how
thc conccpts and administration ol almsgiving and charity acct thc rcla
tions bctwccn cpic rulcrs and hcrocs on onc sidc and thc poor and common
pcoplc on thc othcr. Tosc rclations will bc considcrcd in thc historical and
sociocultural as wcll as poctic contcxts. Assuming that cpic modcls can
rcprcscnt translormcd and modicd cultural pattcrns, and that cpic charac
tcrs can rccct ccrtain philosophical and rcligious conccpts, somc parallcls
in lormulas and motils bctwccn cpic ballads and mcdicval and postmc
8
. Suboti, Yugoslav Popular Ballads. Teir Origin and Development (Cambridgc: Cam
bridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +:), G. N. V. Lockc, Te Serbian Epic Ballads: An Anthol-
ogy (8clgradc: Nolit, +, :nd cd., lorcword by Muricl Hcppcll, London8clgradc:
ASVA, :oo:).
dicval documcntary sourccs arc discusscd. Undcr thc inucncc ol practicc,
convcntions and rcgulations, cpic tradition adoptcd ccrtain lormulas, at
tributcs, stock charactcrs and pattcrns, and adaptcd thcm to its own po
ctic systcm. Hopclully, thc cxamination ol such parallcls will add to our
undcrstanding ol cultural and traditional proccsscs in thc past. 8caring in
mind \ladimir Propps morphological study ol narrativc structurc, as wcll as
studics ol thc hcros journcy pattcrn and monomyth, wc shall try to show
that thc cpic pocms build on ancicnt cultural pattcrns. Charity and almsgiv
ing arc a univcrsal cultural pattcrn, as thc poor arc a univcrsal sociocultural
constitucnt.
Scrbian history providcs numcrous cxamplcs that can illustratc thc
popularity and continuity ol charitablc activitics. Many cascs ol bcncccnt
activitics ol thc mcdicval Scrbian rulcrs may havc lormcd a cultural pat
tcrn ol charity in a broadcr scnsc. Vc shall mcntion only a lcw rccords ol
thc Scrbian rulcrs bcncccnt work to illustratc concrctc acts ol poor rclicl
and social wcllarc.
8iographcrs praiscd thc Scrbian Grand Zupan Stclan

Ncmanja (c. ++:+:oo) and his son Archbishop Sava (c. +++:6) lor
protccting thc poor, blind, disablcd, dumb, orphans, and lor paying rcdcmp
tion moncy lor dcbtors and slavcs. Quccn Jclcna ! ol Anjou (d. ++) cs
tablishcd an institution lor poor and orphan girls and pcrsonally distributcd
lood and clothcs. Tc courts ol kings ragutin (d. ++6) and Milutin (c.
+:+:+) wcrc thc most popular shcltcrs lor thc poor and disablcd com
ing lrom distant lands, islands, and cvcn lrom Jcrusalcm. King Milutin and,
latcr, cspot Stclan Lazarcvi (c. ++:), wcrc said to visit, in disguisc
and at night, thc quartcrs ol thc poor in ordcr to donatc lood and clothcs.
All thcsc and many othcr similar charitablc dccds cntcrcd cpic poctry to
bccomc typicd, stcrcotypical lunctions ol cpic rulcrs. icrcnt, and yct in
many ways similar charitablc activitics had mcrgcd into stcrcotypical lca
turcs to bccomc cpic structural lunctions in corrcsponding narrativc com
positions. Tc actual Scrbian rulcrs lrom dicrcnt historical pcriods mcrgcd
into thc cpic stcrcotypc ol a gcncrous and considcratc rulcr who carcs lor
thc poor and protccts thcm.
Anothcr cultural pattcrn rcgarding charity and conccrn lor thc poor,
in lact a common thcmc in Scrbian cpics, is thc building ol churchcs and
monastcrics lor thc salvation ol thc soul. !n rcality, cvcry rulcr or lcudal
lord who loundcd or rcnovatcd a church or a monastcry had an obligation
toward thc poor, which was rcgulatcd by chartcrs and monastic loundation

Many rccords arc mcntioncd by J. K. Jirccck, Geschichte der Serben (Gotha, ++8) - K.
Jircck, Istorija Srba, :. vols. (8clgradc, +:, rd cd., +88). Cl. also Selected Charters
of Serbian Rulers (X!!X\ ccntury), vol. !, cd. and trans. T. ivkovi, S. 8ojanin and \.
Pctrovi (Athcns: Ccntrc lor Studics ol 8yzantinc Civilization, :ooo).
8alcanica XXX\! 56
documcnts. According to thc Typikon ol Saint Sava,
+o
nobody was to walk
out thc monastcry gatc cmptyhandcd. Tc monks had to supply thc poor
with brcad, winc, vcgctablcs, worn clothcs and lootwcar. !n many Scrbian
monastcrics thc poor had shcltcr, hospital and rclcctory, and cvcn thcir own
gravcyard. According to thc Code of Emperor Duan (+), in all churchcs
thc poor shall bc lcd, as is writtcn by thc church loundcrs. Should any mct
ropolitan, or bishop, or prior lail to lccd thcm, hc shall bc dcprivcd ol his
rank ( :8).
++
Tc rights ol thc poor wcrc protcctcd by law and thcy could
bc rcprcscntcd in court lrcc ol costs: A poor pcrson who is not ablc to
litigatc or dclcnd himscll, lct him providc a rcprcscntativc to litigatc lor
him ( ), Lct thc judgcs go through thc land within thcir jurisdiction to
supcrvisc and do justicc to thc poor and thc nccdy ( +). Tc Code also
rcgulatcd thc status ol poor womcn: A poor spinncr woman shall bc lrcc,
likc a pricst ( 6). Tc lattcr articlc is associatcd with a lragmcnt ol an
cpic ballad publishcd by \uk Karadi in +8:. Spcaking about thc unjustly
hcavy tax ol tcn ducats, thc cpic bard dcscribcs thc sucrings ol a poor
widowcd spinncr with a spinning whccl as hcr only posscssion and cvcn thc
hcmp prcparcd lor spinning bclonging to somcbody clsc.
+:
Lcgal protcction
ol poor widows and thc poor in gcncral continucd stcadily cvcn in timcs ol
hardship lor thc Scrbian mcdicval statc. !n cspot Stclan Lazarcvis Novo
Brdo Legal Codes (++:) thc salc ol brcad, salt and lruit is an occupation
rcscrvcd lor thc poor so that thcy would bc ablc to support thcmsclvcs and
thcir lamilics.
+
Chartcrs and tcstamcnts ol Scrbian rulcrs and lords arc a rich sourcc
lor thc analysis ol our thcmc bccausc thcy contain charactcristic lormu
las which pcrlcctly rccct thc csscntial idca ol charity. For mcdicval man,
charity and almsgiving wcrc a way to kccp thcir inncr pcacc and rcach thc
+o
Svcti Sava, Sabrani spisi |Saint Sava, Collected Writings|, cd. . 8ogdanovi (8clgradc,
+86), 8 (p. 8+) my translation lrom thc Typikon lor thc monastcry ol Hilandar on
Mount Athos (+:oo+:o). Tc samc rcgulation in thc Typikon lor thc monastcry ol
Studcnica in Scrbia (+:o8). Cl. Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents. A Complete
Translation of the Surviving Founders Typika and Testaments, cd. J. Tomas and A. Con
stantinidcs Hcro (Vashington .C.: umbarton aks Rcscarch Library and Collcc
tion, :ooo), No. . Karyes: Typikon ol Sabbas thc Scrbian lor thc Kellion ol St. Sabbas
at Karycs on Mount Athos.
++
Dushans Code. Te Bistritza Transcript, introd. and trans. jurica Krsti (8clgradc,
+).
+:
\uk Stclanovi Karadi, Narodne srpske pjesme, vol. ! (Lcipzig, +8:, :nd cd., \icnna,
+8+), !ntroduction |Serbian Folk Poems, vol. ! ol Collected works of V. S. Karadi, 8cl
gradc +, 6|.
+
\. Jovanovi ct al., Novo Brdo, Studics and Monographs + (8clgradc: Tc !nstitutc
lor thc Protcction ol Cultural Monumcnts ol thc Rcpublic ol Scrbia, :oo).
idcal ol Christ. Mcdicval documcnts lrcqucntly contain lormulations such
as: to donatc lor thc souls sakc, to contributc to thc church lor thc sakc
ol thc soul salvation, to bcqucath oncs patrimony to thc poor |i.c. chil
drcn bccausc thcy arc lclt without a parcnt|, to thc wilc, scrvants and lor
soul salvation. Tosc and similar lormulations rccurrcd oltcn, and in timc
wcrc adoptcd into alrcady lormcd cpic narrativc structurcs, whcrc thcy wcrc
uscd in dicrcnt ways, dcpcnding on how dccply thcy wcrc assimilatcd to
thc ncw lolk pattcrn. 8cing transmittcd orally, thc mcdicval lormulas and
motils wcrc prcscrvcd in cpic poctry rccordcd lrom thc scvcntccnth to thc
bcginning ol thc ninctccnth ccntury.
Tc rccurrcncc ol lormulaic phrascs and pattcrns was notcd in Scr
bian mcdicval chartcrs, tcstamcnts and lcgal documcnts, but also in mcdi
cval litcrary and liturgical tcxts ol various gcnrcs. Tc Scrbian rthodox
Church considcrcd it onc ol its vital dutics to constantly rcmind actual and
optional sinncrs ol thcir obligations toward thc poor. Tis moral rcmindcr
was practiscd cagcrly by thc clcrgy in oral scrmons, and in a rangc ol litcr
ary lorms, cspccially in apocrypha. Although thc apocryphal writings wcrc
ocially rcjcctcd lrom thc Canon, thcy satiscd thc pcoplcs curiosity rc
garding thc issucs ignorcd in thc 8iblc. Tc salvation ol thc soul bcing onc
ol thc most intcrcsting topics sincc ancicnt timcs, many apocrypha tricd to
takc thc advantagc ol thc lact by prcscnting thc exempla ol corrcct moral
bchaviour in ordcr to prcvcnt pcoplc lrom sinning. Tis undcrtaking was
conductcd in a rathcr thrcatcning and moralizing way, by narrating about
thc Last Judgmcnt, apocalyptical visions and imprcssions ol thc apostlcs and
thc Holy Mothcr lrom thcir journcys to hcll and hcavcn. !n Scrbian cop
ics ol apocryphal tcxts, such as thc Apocalypse of the Teotokos (similar to thc
Apocalypse of Paul and Revelation of Paul), thc Apocalypse of Anastasia, and thc
Acts of Tomas, sins against thc poor, widows and orphans arc rcgardcd as
vcry scrious oncs. Tc sixth placc in thc list ol sins is rcscrvcd lor thosc who
makc no donations to thc poor and bcggars in thc namc ol thc Lord. Scvcrc
pcnalty awaits cvcn thc rightcous whosc ncxt ol kin do not act according to
thc Christian norms: as thc wilc and childrcn lail to lull thc dcathbcd wish
ol a man bcqucathing his propcrty lor his souls sakc, hc is scntcnccd to thc
damnation ol hcll and thc samc dcstiny is to bclall his wilc and childrcn. A
sinncr who committcd unpardonablc sins (carth and sca yicld up his csh,
and God rcjccts his soul) rcpcnts and asks Anastasia to convcy thc mcssagc
to his wilc and childrcn in ordcr to admonish thcm to pray lor him and do
natc charity lor his soul and thus savc thcmsclvcs lrom ctcrnal tormcnts.
+

+
Cl. Apokri novozavetni |New Testament Apocrypha, cd. and trans. into thc contcm
porary Scrbian languagc T. Jovanovi|, book :, vol. !! ol Stara srpska knjievnost (8cl
gradc, :oo).
8alcanica XXX\! 58
Tc constant rcmindcr ol thc Last Judgmcnt inucnccd lolk ballads not
only through litcrary lorms, but also by mcans ol mcdicval paintings. Tc
Last Judgmcnt was dcpictcd on thc walls ol many Scrbian churchcs and
monastcrics, which may havc inspircd cpic bards dircctly or indircctly.
+

Rcgardlcss ol spccic conditions (timc, placc, school ol painting, ctc.), thc
main thcmc was dcpictcd in cpisodcs a scrics ol iconographical sccncs
illustrating wcllknown motils such as thc wcighing ol souls, symbols ol
thc scvcn dcadly sins, various tormcnts ol thc damncd, punishmcnts in hcll,
an angcl taking thc sinncrs into thc rivcr ol rc, ctc. Tc motils common
to mcdicval painting and litcraturc complcmcntcd onc anothcr and in thc
lantasy ol an ordinary man crcatcd an intcgral cultural symbol, a sort ol an
artistic and mcntal pattcrn ol this thcmc.
Tc rccurrcncc ol similar lormulations, motils and thcmcs, and thc
prcscncc ol common and corrcsponding symbols in dicrcnt historical, lc
gal and litcrary documcnts, and art lorms ol thc Middlc Agcs, pcrmit us to
considcr thcm all as variants ol a singlc cultural tcxt, in thc scnsc dcncd by
Y. M. Lotman. !n this way thc symbol, as a spccic idca ol cultural valuc and
contcnt, acts as thc guardian ol cultural mcmory. !t is a prolound coding
mcchanism, a spccial kind ol tcxtual gcnc that dcrivcs lrom archaic signs
which rcprcscntcd condcnscd mncmonic programmc ol tcxts and pattcrns
prcscrvcd in oral collcctivc mcmory.
+6

Vithin thc scopc ol thcir scmiosphcrc, Scrbian cpic ballads trans
lormcd and rcconstructcd thcir structural principlcs according to thc prin
ciplcs ol othcr oral gcnrcs or cultural sphcrcs. Tc othcr gcnrc or sphcrc
prcscrvcd a rccollcction ol its prcvious coding mcchanism, and that rcsultcd
in thc crcation ol ncw structurcs cpic modcls bascd on thc proccss ol
rccognition and translation. Tcrc lollow somc illustrations ol scmantic and
structural intcrwcavcmcnts ol cpic ballads with othcr cultural tcxts.
ur rst cxamplc comcs lrom thc ballad Te Miracle of Lazars Head
publishcd by \uk Karadi in +8:.
+
Vhcn thc hcad ol Princc Lazar (c.
+
n somc motils common to Scrbian lolk songs and paintings, scc S. Radoji, Tek-
stovi i freske |Texts and frescoes|, (Novi Sad, +6), +o8. !n Radojis opinion, somc
motils in thc lrcscocs ol thc Last Judgmcnt may havc inucnccd cpic ballads in thc way
that ccrtain songs wcrc composcd by mcmbcrs ol thc Scrbian clcrgy.
+6
J. M. Lotman, Semiosfera (Novi Sad, :oo), +8+ (cl. thc Russian original: O semi-
osfere. Trudy po znakovym sistemam (+8), +, :, and thc nglish translation: Uni-
verse of the Mind: A Semiotic Teory of Culture (London: !. 8. Tauris, +o).
+
Karadi, Narodne srpske pjesme, vol. !! (Lcipzig, +8:), no. + - Srpske narodne pjesme,
vol. !! (\icnna, +86), no. 6 |Serbian Folk Poems, vol. !! ol thc Collected works of V. S.
Karadi, 8clgradc, +88, no. 6|, notcd down lrom a blind lady bard lrom thc villagc
ol Grgurcvci in Srcm. Tc song has bccn intcrprctcd dicrcntly. Somc rcscarchcrs
considcr it part ol thc mcdicval and latcr lolk tradition about thc historical lact ol
+:+8), lound on a Kosovo cld, is miraculously rcunitcd with thc
body, hc tclls thc asscmblcd clcrgy that hc should not bc translatcd to any
ol thc cight grcat monastcrics thcy suggcst lor burial, but that hc prclcrs his
own loundation to thcm all:
Hc prclcrrcd his splcndid Ravanitza
At thc loot ol thc high mountain Kuchaj,
For Lazar built thcrc a tcmplc to God
Vhilc hc livcd and rulcd amongst his pcoplc,
Built a church for his own soul s salvation,
Built it on his own bread and with his own treasure,
Not with tears of widows and of orphans.
+8
Tc blind lady bard cmphasizcs that Princc Lazar did not build his mcmo
rial loundation at thc cxpcnsc ol thc poor, but with his own nancial mcans,
so in that way hc sparcd thc poor lrom taxcs, or, in cpic tcrms, lrom tcars
and miscry. Tis typc ol gcncrous rulcr bccamc a distinctivc stock charactcr
in cpic ballads, in which thc clichd static cpic rulcr was amalgamatcd with
thc mcntal lramcwork ol sacrcd kingship.
+
Noncthclcss, Princc Lazars
charitablc dccds arc authcntic, so thc motil in thc ballad is bascd on his
torical lact. !n thc Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Ravanica (+8+),
Princc Lazar indicatcs that thc land that hc is giving to thc monastcry is his
own propcrty cithcr purchascd lrom thc noblcs who owncd it or cxchangcd
translating Princc Lazars rclics lrom thc battlccld ol Kosovo to his mcmorial church,
Ravanica, in +o. Tc monastcry ol Ravanica was a cultural ccntrc whcrc both oral
and writtcn litcraturc was lostcrcd. At thc samc timc, with Princc Lazars rclics rcsting
in thc monastcry, Ravanica bccamc a ccntrc ol pilgrimagc and thc local point around
which dcvclopcd thc cult ol thc martyr princc and thc hcrocs ol Kosovo who had lought
with him, cl. M. Ljubinkovi, Ravanica (8clgradc, +66), ii. Somc othcr rcscarchcrs
bclicvc thc song grcw lrom thc Christian lcgcnd ol St. John thc 8aptist and othcr saints
ccphalophorcs, hcadcarricrs, such as St. ionysius or St. cnis ol Paris who carricd
his scvcrcd hcad to thc placc ol his burial.
+8
Kossovo. Heroic songs of the Serbs, trans. Hclcn Rootham, introd. Mauricc 8aring, hist.
prclacc Janko Lavrin (xlord, +:o).
+
!n mcdicval 8yzantinc and Scrbian political philosophy, thc cmpcror is thc optimus
princeps and hc is choscn by God, so his moral duty is to imitatc God. !n this proccss ol
imitatio Christi, thc cmpcror bccomcs Gods cmanation and, conscqucntly, thc cmbodi
mcnt ol all virtucs hc is an cxcmplary, orthodox Christian, cxtraordinarily bravc (sem-
per victor) and pious. !n thc words ol HansGcorg 8cck (Das Byzantinische Jahrtausend,
Munich: C. H. 8ccksschc \crlagsbuchhandlung, +8): Sublimity and cxccllcncc ol
his charactcr manilcst in scllrcstraint, justncss and wisdom, and rst ol all in charitablc
dccds intcndcd lor all mankind. Tis cmpcror cmbodics thc law bccausc it is intcgratcd
in him (my translation lrom thc Scrbian translation: H. G. 8ck, Vizantijski milenijum,
8clgradc, +8, 8).
8alcanica XXX\! 60
it lor somc parts ol his cstatc.
:o
!n this song, thc motil scrvcs as poctic praisc
ol thc holy Princc and tcnds to crcatc a spccial psychological bond and a
sort ol intimacy bctwccn thc bard and thc audicncc on onc sidc, and thc
martyr saint and rulcr on thc othcr. Tc ballad is mcant to posscss thc samc
complctcncss ol cxpcricncc that mcdicval man uscd to havc in an cncountcr
with Lazars miraclc and cult, lor cvcry divinc miraclc has a symbolic lorm
ol rcvclation and ncw alliancc with God that rcpcats its mission ol salvation
in concrctc, historical timc.
Tc motil ol thc carc lor thc poor on thcir dcathbcd, prcscntcd in two
bugartica
:+
songs, shows grcat rcscmblancc to authcntic tcstamcnts ol thc
noblcs in structural pattcrn and lormulas. Tc bugartica songs spcak about
thc dcath ol Scrbian cspot \uk Grgurcvi.
::
Tcir pattcrn corrcsponds to
thc standard schcmc ol a mcdicval tcstamcnt: as cspot \uk brcathcs his
last, his wilc 8arbara asks him, in bittcr tcars, to whom hc intcnds to lcavc
his lands and towns and his rich trcasury. !n thc oldcr vcrsion (rccordcd c.
+6o), cspot \uk, abiding by thc lcudal rulcs ol inhcritancc and allcgiancc,
rcplics that hc rcvcrts his lands and towns to his patron, King Matija. As
lor his trcasurc, \uk rcqucsts lrom his sworn brothcr Mitar Jaki to dividc
it in thrcc:
Youll makc part onc Mount Athos sharc,
Part onc youll givc Mount Athos monks,
My Mitar Jaksic,
And lct thcm pray lor thc dcspots soul,
Part two youll make the orphans share,
Wretched maidens,
Tat they too may remember him;
Part thrcc youll makc my 8arbaras sharc,
My brothcr in God!
:
:o
Princc Lazars loundation chartcr lor thc monastcry Ravanica (+8+) was cditcd by
J. Suboti (Srbsky ltopis !\, +8, 6), F. Miklosich (Monumenta serbica, \icnna, +88,
+6), S. Novakovi (Zakonski spomenici srpskih drava srednjega veka, 8clgradc, ++:,
6o) and A. Mladcnovi (Povelje kneza Lazara, 8clgradc, :oo), cl. . Trilunovi,
Autobiographical dctails about king Lazar, in Kosovo 13891989, Serbian Literary
Quarterly + (+8), :oo:o:.
:+
Bugartica (pron. bougarshtitsa) is a distinct typc ol cpic ballad in lincs ol ltccn to
sixtccn syllablcs, unlikc morc common dccasyllabic cpic ballads, cl. John S. Milctich,
Te Bugartica. A Bilingual Anthology of the Earliest Extant South Slavic Folk Nar-
rative Song, cd., trans., introd. and bibl. John S. Milctich, lorcword Albcrt 8. Lord,
altcrword Samucl G. Armistcad, !llinois Mcdicval monographs !!! (Urana and
Chicago: Univcrsity ol !llinois Prcss, +o).
::
\uk Grgurcvi (c. ++8), Scrbian cspot in Hungary +6+8, rcmcmbcrcd
by his cpic namc Zmaj gnjcni \uk (litcrally Voll thc Ficry ragon).
:
Milctich, Bugartica, +6+.
Tc vcrsion ol this bugartica rccordcd in thc rst hall ol thc cightccnth
ccntury is slightly dicrcnt, but carc lor thc poor rcmains a stablc motil:
My trcasurc youll dividc in thrcc:
Tc rst part lor my sinlul soul,
istributc it to pricsts and monks,
Tereof small portion to the poor,
Tcyll pray to God lor my sinlul soul,
Tc sccond part lor my agcd mothcr,
Tc third part lor my own truc wilc.
:
!n thc authcntic tcstamcnt ol \oyvoda Milo 8clmucvi (+oo), thc lor
mulation is almost thc samc, cxccpt lor its prosc lorm. !n conlcssing his
sins a Scrbian noblcman dividcd his lands among his lamily and noblcs,
and donatcd somc ol his trcasurc to thc church lor charity and salvation ol
thc soul.
:
Many lcgal documcnts lrom thc mcdicval pcriod conrm that
contributions ol moncy, winc and lood to thc poor and thc Church, lor thc
sakc ol thc souls salvation, wcrc usual both among aristocrats and in middlc
and lowcr social ranks.
:6

Tc motils rclatcd to thc poor and charity in cpic ballads prcscntcd so
lar havc bccn linkcd to thc corrcsponding lcgal documcnts and actual acts
ol charity in latc mcdicval Scrbia. !t sccms that customs, lcudal ctiqucttc
and thc rcality ol daily lilc lound a way to inucncc cpic ballads in wording
and composition. Tc ballads mcntioncd givc an imprcssion ol bcing morc
gcnuinc in thc scnsc that thcy havc prcscrvcd thc actual lacts, namcs, placcs
and spirit ol thc cpoch to which thcy rclatc.
Howcvcr, thcrc arc othcr songs that assimilatcd motils ol thc poor
and charity into alrcady lormcd, timctcstcd thcmatic and structural mod
cls, which can vary in subgcnrc and thcmc. Motils ol thc poor and char
ity
:
arc not ncccssarily involvcd in thc ccntral conict but may still bc vcry
lunctional in dcvcloping thc plot, in dcscribing rclations bctwccn charactcrs
or as a poctic ornamcnt. ltcn stylizcd as contrast, antithcsis or parallclism,
thcsc motils conlorm to thc cpic convcntion ol blackandwhitc portrayal,
:
Milctich, Bugartica, ++.
:
A. !vi, Nckoliko irilskih spomcnika iz X\! i X\!! vcka, Vjesnik Kr. Hrvatsko-
slavensko-dalmatinskog zemaljskog arhiva X\ (++), |Scvcral Cyrillic docu
mcnts ol thc +6th and +th ccnturics, Bulletin of Royal Croatian-Slavonic-Dalmatian
general archive X\|.
:6
Odabrani spomenici srpskog prava (od kraja XII do kraja XV veka), prikupio i urcdio A.
\. Solovjcv (8clgradc, +:6), |Selected monuments of Serbian law, from the end of the 12th
until the end of the 15th century, coll. and cd. A. \. Solovjcv|.
:
Somc notcs about thc conccpt ol charity lrom thc cthical aspcct arc prcscntcd by J.
8rki, Moral Concepts in Traditional Serbian Epic Poetry, Slavistic printings and rcprint
ings : (Gravcnhagc: Mouton +6+), +6+6.
8alcanica XXX\! 62
cspccially whcn cthical issucs arc involvcd. Tis is why thc poor arc rcprc
scntcd as a countcrbalancc to thc rich, powcrlul and arrogant, and thus may
stand lor conscicncc, justicc and moral rightncss, as shown by thc lollowing
cxamplcs.
!n thc ballad Duan Wants to Marry His Sister a typical charitablc
gcsturc, although part ol thc poctic dcor, is uscd structurally as thc culmina
tion ol a scrics ol impossiblc tasks.
:8
Stclans sistcr rcsists his wish to marry
hcr by rcqucsting thc impossiblc:
! will not bc your wilc
Until you nd thrcc hundrcd buildcrs,
And scnd thcm to Mountain ara
To nd thrcc hundrcd springs,
And until thcy join all springs in onc pipclinc,
And conduct it to thc land ol Misir,
And until you make three cups of gold
For the poor to drink water from them.
:
Tc building ol a mcmorial drinking lountain lor thc poor is a univcrsally
sprcad custom, oltcn practiscd in Scrbia. Apart lrom thc charitablc contcxt,
thc mcaning ol such an act is vcry archaic and symbolic. According to thc
widcsprcad bclicl ol Scmitic and !ndouropcan pcoplcs, thcrc is constant
thirst in thc othcrworld. nc ol thc most important dutics ol thc living is to
providc watcr lor thc dcad. Tus building a drinking lountain lor thc soul
is dircctly rclatcd to thc cult ol thc dcad and thc cult ol anccstors. Tcrc arc
many rccords showing inscriptions and dcdications on thc lountains.
o

!n thc samc song, howcvcr, thc poor havc onc morc rolc to pcrlorm
thc stcrcotypical charactcr ol thc poor sclltaught child (ae samoue)
symbolizing a morally supcrior pcrson who spcaks thc truth without lcaring
thc authority. Altcr hcr brothcr managcs to accomplish his othcr dicult
tasks, his dcspcratc sistcr turns to pricsts. Tc corruptcd pricsts conscnt to
thc sinlul marriagc. Tc outcomc is dramatic and lrightcning: thc sistcr
puts a hcavy cursc on thc pricsts, but only a lowcrranking onc, who rcprc
scnts thc poor sclltaught child typc, darcs to spcak out against thc cmpcror
and, lor his honcsty, gcts condcmncd to thc stakc. Soon altcr thc rc is sct,
Roxandas cursc is activatcd, bringing awlul punishmcnt on thc corruptcd
:8
Tc plot in thc pocm sharcs somc common lcaturcs with lolktalc typcs AaT +
and +o8, scc: S. Tompson, Te Types of the Folktale. A Classication and Bibliography.
Antti Aarnes Verzeichnis der Mrchentypen (FFC No. 3) translated and enlarged, :nd rcv.,
Folklorc Fcllows Communications, vol. LXX\ (Hclsinki: Acadcmia Scicntiarum Fcn
nica, +6+).
:
Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !!, no. : (my translation).
o
ajkanovi, Stara srpska religija, 8:.
pricsts and consccration on thc rightcous onc. Vitncss to thc intcrvcntion
ol cvinc Justicc, hcr brothcr cmpcror is compcllcd to rctrcat, and thc social
and cthical ordcr is rcstorcd.
Tc poor play multiplc rolcs in thc ballad Emperor Constantine and
the Poor Self-taught Child.
+
uring thc cclcbration ol his patron saints
lcastday (slava), thc cmpcror puts to thc tcst thc wholc clcrgy, lrom high
cst to lowcst ranks, by asking to bc assigncd a pcnancc and ocrcd absolu
tion lrom thc sin ol bcating up his parcnts. Tc highcr clcrgy absolvc thc
cmpcror in cxchangc lor matcrial posscssions (silvcr and gold crowns lor
thc patriarchs), and nancial support lor building ncw monastcrics and cclls
(lor bishops and holy lathcrs). Howcvcr, thc poor sclltaught child, as a rcp
rcscntativc ol thc novicc and lowcst saccrdotal rank, rcluscs to lawn upon
thc cmpcror. n thc contrary, hc suggcsts that thc cmpcrors rcpcntancc bc
tcstcd by rc: thc cmpcror should build a ccll ol pinc wood, grcasc it with
tallow and tar, cntcr thc ccll and sct it on rc, lctting it burn lrom cvcning
till dawn, il hc survivcs till morning, it will mcan Gods pardon and provc
his bcing purgcd lrom his sins. Tc cmpcror agrccs to thc tcst, but instcad ol
doing it pcrsonally, hc puts thc poor novicc in thc woodcn ccll. Tc lollow
ing morning hc nds thc novicc alivc, sitting in thc pilc ol ashcs and praying
to God with thc Psaltcr in his hands. Tis sccnc cncouragcs thc cmpcror to
try thc samc, but as hc is sinlul, his csh burns complctcly, cxccpt lor his
right hand that is savcd bccausc ol his charitablc acts:
Tc mpcrors right hand was consccratcd
8ccausc ol many good dccds that hc had donc:
Hc lcd a lot ol hungry pcoplc,
Hc supplicd watcr to many thirsty pcoplc,
Hc providcd clothing lor many nakcd and barcloot pcoplc,
He supported the poor and the miserable people
And lor thosc dccds his hand bccamc holy.
!n thc ballads about thc cmpcrors Stclan and Constantinc, thc poor arc an
important constitucnt ol thc thcmc ol charitablc dccds, but thcy arc also
rcprcscntcd as thc symbolic gurc ol thc poor sclltaught child. Tc struc
turc ol thc songs is simplc and bascd on thc opposition bctwccn rcward
and punishmcnt. As a rcsult ol succcsslul adaptation to Scrbian tradition, a
high lcvcl ol concrctization can bc obscrvcd in both songs: distinguishing
bctwccn hcrocs by namcs and titlcs, spatial localization, usc ol national tra
ditional customs and bclicls as clcmcnts ol cpic ambiancc and charactcriza
tion, prcscncc ol dctails rcccting thc actual church hicrarchy ol mcdicval
and postmcdicval Scrbia, rccognizablc allusions to historical gurcs such
+
Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !!, no. + (my translation).
8alcanica XXX\! 64
as thc Scrbian cmpcror Stclan uan
:
(+++) and thc 8yzantinc
cmpcror Constantinc \ Copronymus
(+). !n spitc ol a prcdomi

nantly ncgativc charactcrization ol thcsc cpic rulcrs, thc cmphasis is on thcir
convcrsion according to Christian virtucs. From this aspcct, thc motil ol
conccrn lor thc poor and thc poor sclltaught child typc a novicc in thc
monastcry who is not alraid to spcak thc truth no mattcr how dangcrous
it may bc constitutc ncccssary clcmcnts lor dcvcloping thc story plot and
building thc charactcrs. !n both cascs thc poor symbolizc thc moral idcals
chcrishcd and clcvatcd to univcrsal valucs in dicrcnt cpochs and cultural
rcgions. Tat givcs thcm both thc narrativc and symbolic capacity to rcp
rcscnt thc idcals worth to bc promotcd in cpic poctry and oral tradition.
From thc aspcct ol artistic structurc, thc poor novicc, conccrn lor thc poor
and charitablc dccds may bc said to act as dominant and crcativc narrativc
lorccs that lorm a plot, to nally ovcrcomc rcgrcssivc structural clcmcnts
ol thc poctic world dcpictcd. Furthcrmorc, it may bc notcd that thc cm
pcrors uan and Constantinc cxcmplily quitc an oppositc cpic stcrcotypc
to Princc Lazar. Tcy symbolizc sinlul, taintcd rulcrs who nccd to rcpcnt
in ordcr to bc savcd. Tc most signicant rolc in thcir moral convcrsion is
givcn to thc poor, who clcarly rcprcscnt cthical purity and dcmonstrativc
instrumcnt in thc hands ol ivinc Justicc.
Tc poor may bc activcly cngagcd in narrativc pattcrn, and inucncc
cvcn morc dircctly thc dccisions ol cpic charactcrs and luturc cvcnts in gcn
:
!n Scrbian cpic tradition, thc royal namc Stefan (as part ol thc hcrcditary royal titlc,
lrom thc Grcck stephanos crown, wrcath) is uscd as a stcrcotypcd namc lor all rulcrs
ol thc Ncmanji dynasty. Tc cpic charactcr ol cmpcror Stclan pcrsonics typicd traits
ol mcdicval rulcrs and thcrclorc is casily idcnticd with thc authcntic Scrbian king and
cmpcror Stclan Uro !\ uan Silni (thc Mighty). !ntroducing thc namc cmpcror
Stclan instcad ol cmpcror uan into thc titlcs ol scvcral cpic songs hc collcctcd and
publishcd, \uk Karadi clcarly suggcstcd that thosc namcs should bc undcrstood as
cquivalcnts. !t has bccn pointcd out that thc historical lacts ol uans proclamation as
tsar and autocrat in +, and thc clcvation ol thc Scrbian rthodox Church lrom
archbishopric to patriarchatc, lcd to gravc conicts ovcr thc ccclcsiastical authority and
political domination in thc 8alkans, which provokcd thc anathcma ol thc Patriarchatc
ol Constantinoplc and thc 8yzantinc (Grcck) rthodox Church. Tcsc incidcnts must
havc acctcd thc traditional conccpt ol cpic rulcr and cspccially thc imagc ol thc cm
pcror uan.
8yzantinc cmpcror Constantinc \ Copronymus was rcmcmbcrcd primarily as a lcr

vcnt iconoclast. Tc historian G. strogorski wrotc that Constantincs cxtrcmc cruclty
in pcrsccuting thc iconophilcs was not duc to his primitivc roughncss, but to a statc ol
psychotic ovcrstrain. Hc cntcrcd thc tradition as thc typical grcatcr sinncr. Church lcg
cnds considcr his dcath a divinc punishmcnt hc dicd at sca, yclling in lcvcr: !ll burn
alivc! !n timc, hc camc to bc known as Copronymus, mcaning Tc ungnamcd.
Latcr on, in thc th ccntury, hc was disintcrrcd and his rcmains thrown into thc sca.
cral. Tc truc cpic hcro acts upon thc codc ol cthics and always considcrs thc
nccds ol thc poor. Tis is thc casc ol 8anovi Strahinja, pcrhaps onc ol thc
most popular noblcs in Scrbian cpic poctry. From thc many vcrsions ol his
wilcs bctrayal, wc citc lrom thc bugartica rccordcd in thc rst hall ol thc
cightccnth ccntury. Altcr his court was lootcd and his wilc capturcd by thc
Turkish outlaw cnalija, Strahinja sits illtcmpcrcd at dinncr with his kin.
His brothcrinlaw Stjcpan Ugovi asks him:
Vhat ails my sistcrs husband so
o you bcwail your lootcd court,
o you bcwail your captivc wilc:
!l you bcwail your lootcd court,
Vcll lcvy tax among thc \lachs,
So wc may build your court ancw.
!l you bcwail your captivc wilc,
Abductcd by cnalija,
Vcll havc lor you anothcr wilc.
8ut Strahinj madc to him rcply:
h lcavc mc bc, lor thc good Lords sakc!
Vhy spcak to mc ol my whitc court,
l lcvying tax among thc \lachs,
l building my whitc court ancw
Of others tears I have no need,
Nor curses of the sad, poor Vlachs.
Vhy spcak to mc ol Jclica,
l having mc anothcr wilc
Nccr Jclica !ll havc again!
Tc rcsponsc ol 8anovi Strahinja is lormulaic and can bc lound in othcr

pocms, such as thc onc about thc abduction ol Marko Kraljcvis wilc. At
thc momcnt ol his wilcs abduction, Marko is winning a war lor thc Turkish
sultan. Sincc his participation in thc battlc has bccn vital lor thc Turkish
victory, thc sultan ocrs him a largcr palacc, morc trcasurc, a highcr position
and a ncw wilc, but Marko rcluscs bccausc ol hcroic honour:
Tank you, my Sultan, my dcar lord!
Vhcn you start to build my court,
Te poor will curse me with words:
Look at bastard Marko Kraljcvic!
His old court was burncd in amc,
And may this ncw court ncvcr prospcr!
!l you makc mc a chicl tax collcctor,
! could not collcct tax lrom thc pcoplc
Until ! arrcst thc nccdy and thc poor,
So the poor will curse me with words:
Milctich, Bugartica, .
8alcanica XXX\! 66
Look at bastard Marko Kraljcvi!
His old trcasurc was robbcd,
May this ncw onc bc unlortunatc!
And as lor your promisc to nd mc a bridc,
! dont wish anothcr wilc whilc minc is still alivc!
!n both pocms, thc opinion ol thc poor is highly apprcciatcd and accts
thc action ol thc hcrocs. Tc poor pcrsonily thc social and cthical norms
that cpic hcrocs must rcspcct in ordcr to maintain thcir position in thc cpic
world. n poctic lcvcl, thc motil ol thc poor prcparcs and motivatcs a turn
in thc narrativc scqucncing ol cvcnts. Tc poor lunction as a warning to thc
hcro to amcnd or consolidatc his actions and principlcs according to thc
traditional hcroic codc.
8cing supcrior to thc common pcoplc, thc cpic hcro is obligcd to
protcct thc poor and nccdy, and to salcguard social ordcr and moral valucs.
As thc cpic hcros protcctivc lunction, or thc protcctors rolc (in Propps
tcrms), oltcn ovcrlaps with thc cpic libcrators rolc, thc notion ol protcctcd
subjccts widcns in ordcr to cncompass all catcgorics ol thc poor, nccdy and
unprotcctcd pcoplc ol a nation. Tis idca is wcll rcprcscntcd in thc cultural
pattcrns ol thc dragonslaycr, such as thc song Marko Kraljevi Repealing
Marriage Tax.
6
8y killing an Arab who opprcsscd
thc pcoplc ol Kosovo,

lcvicd a marriagc tax on bridcs and grooms, and cvcn dcmandcd to havc a
ncw girl brought to him cvcry night, Marko libcratcs all thc Christians ol
Kosovo and carns thcir blcssings and gratitudc.
Tc lcclings ol compassion and mcrcy, as wcll as charitablc activitics
ol cpic hcrocs, put thc audicncc into cpic cxploits ol grcatcr national or so
cial signicancc. Hcrocs arc cxpcctcd to show conccrn not only lor thc poor,
but lor thc pcoplc unablc to ght lor thcmsclvcs in gcncral. Rcspcct lor thc
common pcoplc is part ol thc univcrsal hcroic codc, not only thc codc ol
Scrbian cpic hcrocs. As thcir cpic advcrsarics, thc Turks, il honourablc and
rightcous, somctimcs trcat thc poor rcspcctlully and may bc mcrcilul to thc
Christian poor, cvcn though opprcssion against thc nonMuslim popula
tion was not considcrcd a sin against God.
8
!n thc song Te Start of the
Revolt against the Dahiyas thcrc is a sharp contrast bctwccn thc old Turkish
Marko Kraljcvi i Mina od Kostura |Marko Kraljcvi and Mina ol Kastoria|, in

Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !!, no. 6: (my translation).
6
Marko Kraljcvi ukida svadbarinu |Marko Kraljcvi Rcpcaling Marriagc Tax|,
in Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !!, no. 68, notcd down lrom a blind lady bard lrom
Grgurcvci.
!n Scrbian: zulum, lrom Turkish zulm and Arabic zulm, mcaning injusticc, tyranny,
cruclty.
8
Cl. 8rki, Moral Concepts, :.
timcs (rcprcscntcd by a stablc rcgimc and rcgard lor thc common pcoplc)
and modcrn timcs (rcprcscntcd by dahiyas, mutinous Turkish commandcrs).
Tc modcrn ttoman rcgimc is dcpictcd in thc words ol thc old Foo, a
vcncrablc Turkish noblc, who adviscd thc Turks to bcwarc ol thc poor Scr
bian pcoplc (sirotinja raja):
Vc laid upon thc lolk a crushing tax,
Vc rodc roughshod upon thcir dignity,
Vc drovc thcm into pcnury most dirc,
Vc prcsscd upon thcm ncs and pcnaltics,
cspoilcd thcir churchcs, tramplcd on thcir pridc.
Now, oncc again, thc portcnts havc appcarcd:
Tosc signs that tcll an cmpirc is to cnd.
!t is not any king that you nccd lcar.
Against an cmpcror no king prcvails
No kingdom can an cmpirc ovcrthrow,
For God has madc thc world in such way.
8ut now bcwarc thc starving Scrbian lolk!
For whcn thc hocs and mattocks risc and lall,
Tcn Turks as lar as Mcdina shall quakc,
And Turkish womcn wccp in Syria
Tc common lolk shall bring thcm grcat distrcss.
!n thcsc vcrscs thc common pcoplc arc translormcd lrom a passivc into an
activc collcctivc charactcr, who was to play a historical rolc in thc First Scr
bian Uprising in +8o. !n anothcr ballad by thc bard Filip \inji, thc poor
sound a notc ol warning to thc Scrbian commandcrs as wcll. !n Te Battle
of Sala thc Scrbian rcbcls rcst in thcir camp, whilc thc local pcoplc sucr
Turkish rctaliation. A mcsscngcr a poor, barclootcd boy runs into thc
Scrbian camp and crics out:
Voc to you, thrcc Scrbian voyvodas!
Voc to your lood and your winc!
You sit, drink winc and sing,
And thc poor pcoplc whinc in miscry!
o
Altcr this rcbukc, thc ashamcd commandcrs start prcparations lor battlc. !t
is clcar hcrc that thc poor act as social and moral critics ol thc lcadcrs, and
as initiators ol cpic action.
As thc last cxamplcs dcmonstratc, Scrbian cpic hcrocs and rulcrs arc
undcr constant social and moral cvaluation by thc common pcoplc. Tc
Poctak bunc protiv dahija |Tc Start ol thc Rcvolt against thc ahiyas|, in
Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !\, no. :, rccordcd lrom thc blind bard Filip \inji
(trans. G. N. V. Lockc, ++8).
o
8oj na Salau |Tc 8attlc ol Sala|, in Karadi, Srpske narodne pjesme !\, no. :8
(my translation).
8alcanica XXX\! 68
poor criticizc thc actions ol cpic hcrocs that do not mcasurc up to thc tradi
tional valucs. Tc voicc ol thc poor (vox populi), with thcir judgmcnts about
social and moral issucs, urgcs othcr charactcrs to changc thcir conduct and
harmonizc with thc horizon ol cxpcctations (H. R. Jauss) ol thc audicncc.
Following that gcncral idca, thc rolc ol thc poor in Scrbian cpic poctry is
comparablc to thc rolc ol thc chorus in Grcck tragcdy. Tc chorus is rcprc
scntcd by a group ol actors symbolizing thc pcoplc. !t can takc part in thc
action or commcnt on thc cvcnts and dcstinics ol charactcrs, but its major
lunction is to sct thc lramcwork ol cthical problcms rclatcd to thc charactcr.
!n Scrbian cpic pocms thc poor likcwisc takc part in thc action and acct
othcr charactcrs, bccausc ol that contact, thc status ol thc charactcr can
changc.
Tc rolc ol thc poor is not ncccssarily cxplicit, or cmbodicd in an cpic
charactcr. Somctimcs thc narrator givcs himscll thc privilcgc ol cvaluat
ing and commcnting thc actions ol his protagonists, and cvcn ol labclling
thcm as poor, morc prcciscly: as paupcrs. Tcrc is onc particularly pocticizcd
cxamplc in thc bugartica Marko the Prince and His Dear Brother Andrija,
notcd down in + lrom two shcrmcn lrom thc Adriatic island ol Hvar.
Tis ballad tclls how Marko murdcrcd his brothcr Andrija ovcr a lootcd
horsc, and how his dying brothcr lorgavc him. !n a highly rcncd tropc,
a gurc ol spccch known as Slavic antithcsis, thc narrator comparcs thc
wrctchcd brothcrs with poor mcn, paupcrs:
Two paupcrs had lor long bccn lricnds,
Closc lricnds wcrc thcy and dcarly lovcd,
ividcd booty chccrlully,
And did takc lcavc as chccrlully,
And altcr having takcn lcavc,
id mcct cach othcr oncc again.
Tcy took thrcc nc, hcroic stccds,
Two paupcrs did,
Most chccrlully dividcd two,
8ut on thc third could not agrcc,
And in grcat ragc cach othcr curscd.
Tcy wcrcnt two paupcrs, no, my lricnds,
8ut rathcr Marko, knight and princc,
Marko thc knight and princc it was
And Andrija his brothcr dcar,
Knights so young.
+
Tc tragic dcstiny ol thc brothcrs who oncc wcrc lricnds and companions
in arms is intcrprctcd by thc narrator as spiritual miscry and povcrty. Hc
takcs pity on thcir illlortunc, but docs not judgc thcm (at lcast not opcnly,
+
Milctich, Bugartica, .
or pcrhaps just as a lccblc hint). Tc motivc lor thc murdcr is simplc, and
thc lcclings ol thc killcr and his victim arc hcld back. Tc rcduction ol back
ground dctails docs not rcducc thc imprcssion ol a collapsing hcroic world,
thc world crushcd not only lrom thc outsidc, by thc Turks, but also lrom
thc insidc, in thc lamily circlc. Tc dying brothcr is triumphant in his sym
pathctic lorgivcncss, rcmaining supcrior in hcroic, moral, and human scnsc.
Ncvcrthclcss, hc is namcd paupcr, and so is his brothcr. For thc cpic bard
and his sixtccnthccntury audicncc, thc dcstinics ol thc brothcrs arc poor,
unlortunatc, and yct pitiablc, thcir occurrcncc bcing common and ordinary
in cvcryday lilc.
Although thc limitcd spacc makcs it impossiblc to cxhaust thc rolc
ol thc poor in Scrbian cpic poctry, somc gcncral rcmarks can bc madc. Tc
poor should bc considcrcd as a sociohistorical and cultural catcgory that
has its own dcvclopmcnt in thc history ol thc Scrbian pcoplc. !t sccms
likcly that this catcgory, originally conncctcd with thc prcrogativcs ol rulcrs
and lcudal lords, intcgratcd into thc Scrbian cpic through thc conccpt ol
charity. Tc lrcqucncy and ccrtain unilormity ol almsgiving and charitablc
dccds in practicc, and thc rcpctitivcncss ol lormulaic pattcrns and cxprcs
sions cmploycd in litcrary, lcgal, monastic and othcr documcnts, lcd to thc
crcation ol corrcsponding cpic modcls and lormulas. ncc thcy cntcrcd thc
oral cpic, thc motils ol thc poor and charity wcrc structuralizcd within thc
traditional cpic systcm, and altcr that various proccsscs ol adaptation and
mcrging with thc pool ol tradition (Honko) bcgan. Tc poor grcw to bc
lunctional charactcrs, both individual and collcctivc, and to a grcat cxtcnt
stcrcotypical, rcprcscntativc ol ccrtain social and cthical valucs.
Faculty of Philology UDC 821.163.41-13.09:177
University of Belgrade 398.8:316.7
8ojan Jovanovi
Te Challenge of Plural Identity
vcry aspcct ol a pcrsons lilc is accompanicd by a corrcsponding scnsc and
awarcncss ol his or hcr cultural, social and spiritual cxistcncc. Tc com
plcxity and authcnticity ol that cxistcncc is rccctcd both in highlighting
distinction lrom othcrs, and in sccking to cstablish communication and
achicvc togcthcrncss with othcrs. Tc awarcncss that onc bclongs to a com
munity implics thc awarcncss ol bcing dicrcnt lrom othcr communitics. !l
thc proloundly antinomic human nccd lor both distinctivcncss and togcth
crncss is considcrcd lrom scvcral pcrspcctivcs, thc issuc ol idcntity bccomcs
placcd in a broadcr contcxt, which thcn rcquircs an appropriatc approach to
thc undcrstanding and dcnition ol idcntity as a complcx dctcrminant ol a
pcrsons individual and collcctivc cxistcncc. Tus, to idcntily crucial aspccts
ol that complcxity within thc scopc ol a dynamic thcorctical modcl sccms
to bc cspccially rclcvant to undcrstanding and solving thc problcm ol cach
particular idcntity in a multicthnic and multinational cultural spacc.
Although individuals or communitics tcnd to ocr an cmbcllishcd
scllimagc, thc rcality ol that imagc is always somcwhat dicrcnt. ur scll
imagc clcarly cxprcsscs our idcntity, but what wc truly arc is cxprcssivc not
only ol what wc think ol oursclvcs, but also ol how wc arc pcrccivcd by
othcrs. Tc importancc ol othcrs lor a rcalistic scllimagc has its historical
and anthropological dimcnsions. vcr sincc his appcarancc on thc histori
cal stagc, by bcing what hc is, man has shown thc capacity lor bcing somc
thing clsc. Howcvcr, what man is, and thc possibility ol bccoming somc
thing morc by cxpanding thc boundarics ol his own potcntials, has bccn
ovcrshadowcd by rcgrcssivc pcriods ol his cxistcncc which warn that hc can
also bc lcss than himscll. Tc dynamic thcorctical modcl ol idcntity involvcs
thc cxamination ol thc intcractional aspcct ol its major constitucnts which
indicatc a complcx rcality dicrcnt lrom thc onc shown by idcalizcd scll
imagcs.
+
!n ordcr to rccognizc thc rcality ol any idcntity, it is ncccssary to
+
Cl. \. Popovi, Zlo i strcpnja u kulturi in Tamna strana ljudske prirode, cd. 8. Jovanovi
(8clgradc: om kulturc Studcntski grad, +:), .
8alcanica XXX\! 72
takc into considcration thc implicit divcrsity ol its cxtant but lrcqucntly
unacknowlcdgcd clcmcnts. As gcndcr idcntity always involvcs thc prcscncc
ol thc anima in masculinc, or thc animus in lcmalc idcntity, so do rcligious,
cthnic and national idcntitics involvc thc cxistcncc ol an unacknowlcdgcd
inncr othcrncss.
Sccn as a communitys awarcncss ol itscll and a scnsc ol samcncss
that it constantly cxprcsscs as continuous mcmory in spitc ol all changc it
may bc subjcct to,
:
idcntity involvcs idcntication, and thus may bc dcncd
as a dynamic proccss rathcr than as a xcd and unchangcablc catcgory.
For
this rcason, our inhcritancc is only a starting point lor acquiring charactcris
tics that makc us what wc arc, and lor rcndcring it possiblc lor us to achicvc
dctcrmincd goals in our lilctimc. Lilcs rcsponsc to cxistcntial qualms is
our idcntity which cntails our pcrsonal rcsponsibility lor what wc arc. Tc
vicw ol thc proccss ol idcntity lormation as an incrcasing dicrcntiation,
thc cxtcnt ol which dcpcnds on thc proccss ol gaining awarcncss ol rcl
cvant social, spiritual and cultural lactors,
shows that idcntity prcsupposcs

a considcrably broadcr and dccpcr psychosocial rcality associatcd with thc
cxistcncc ol inncr othcrncss. Tat rcality is rclatcd to thc lact that a com
munity is not only what it assumcs to bc, but also what it docs not admit,
which is part ol thc ncgativc aspcct ol its prcscnt and past cxpcricnccs. Tc
bright and dark sidcs ol its bcing manilcst thcmsclvcs as thc conscious and
unconscious sidcs ol its cxistcncc. Sincc thc consciousncss ol contcmporary
man implics his prcvious cxpcricncc in shcdding light on thc unconscious,
thc traditional contcnts ol culturc oltcn rcprcscnt thc supprcsscd part ol his
actual cultural bchaviour.
!l somc ndings about individual idcntity wcrc applicd to collcctivc
idcntity within thc outlincd thcorctical modcl, thcn it would bc possiblc to
dclincatc its hiddcn, supprcsscd and unacknowlcdgcd aspcct morc prcciscly.
Jungs unconscious idcntity
or Ronald Laings complcmcntary idcntity

or idcntity ol thc othcr
6
highlight thc ncccssity lor a morc thorough un
dcrstanding ol idcntity which, in addition to its cgo aspcct and its ratio
nal dimcnsion, also involvcs thc othcr, insucicntly known sidc. Hcncc,
:
anMari omcnak, Evropa: kulturni izazov | JcanMaric omcnaquc, uropc: Cul
tural Challcngc|, (8clgradc: Prosvcta, ++), +.
McMillan Dictionary of Anthropology, cd. C. ScymourSmith (London: McMillan

+86), +.
. rikson, Omladina, kriza, identikacija |!dcntityYouth & Crisis| (Titograd:

Graki zavod, +6), +8o, +8.
K. G. Jung, Psiholoki tipovi |Psychological Typcs|, vol. ol Selected Works (Novi Sad,
Matica srpska, +), 8+.
6
R. . Laing, Jastvo i drugi |Self and Others| (Novi Sad: Svctovi, +8), 8o8+.
8. Jovanovi, Tc Challcngc ol Plural !dcntity 73
what wc bclicvc wc arc is not idcntical with our rcal idcntity, thc lattcr also
comprising somcthing wc arc unwilling to admit. Tis dicrcncc rcprcscnts
oncs potcntial lor coming closcr to oncscll, and thc coursc ol that proccss is
charactcrizcd by a growing awarcncss ol oncscll and ol conncctions cstab
lishcd with othcrs. Although idcntity has no powcr to gcncratc dicrcnccs,
thc contrast bctwccn thc abovcmcntioncd aspccts ol idcntity is displaycd
in a potcntial which can bc cithcr positivc or ncgativc. !l accompanicd by
a growing scllawarcncss, thc ncgativity is manilcstcd as a translormation
lactor. !l supprcsscd, howcvcr, this ncgativity bccomcs a lactor ol its own
unaccomplishmcnt, and may turn into an impcdimcnt to a lull scllconr
mation.
ccprootcd dctcrminants ol idcntity may bc distinguishcd in thc
intcgral asscssmcnt ol a collcctivc bcing, which, apart lrom its manilcst, idc
alizcd sidc, also compriscs a hiddcn, insucicntly cxprcsscd contcnt. Vhilc
taking lor grantcd various markcrs ol idcntity, onc should not losc sight ol its
conccalcd traits dctcrmining thc rcality ol a community. Tcrclorc a pcoplc,
a nation or a statc can bc vicwcd lrom a broadcr anthropological pcrspcctivc
ocring an insight into thc signicancc ol rcal idcntity. Constructcd on thc
principlc ol dcmarcation lrom othcrs, idcntity, or its construct, is rclativizcd
by thc discovcry ol othcrncss within thc scll. iscovcring and acknowlcdg
ing oncs own ncgativity and radical othcrncss is manilcstcd in thc nccd
lor a broadcr conccpt ol idcntity, and in that scnsc its manilcstcd rcality
displays only onc important dimcnsion.
!l thc complcx imagc ol collcctivc idcntity is to bc adcquatcly com
prchcndcd in thc contcxt ol rcalistic lacts, thcn thc possibility ol pcrcciving
its covcrt csscncc dctcrmincs thc wholcncss and truthlulncss ol thc imagc
onc is attcmpting to crcatc. Although thc acknowlcdgcmcnt ol oncs own
othcrncss brings onc closcr to thc thcr at thc lcvcl ol plural idcntity, thc
supprcsscd and unacknowlcdgcd rcsiduc ol historical and cultural cxpcricncc
lrcqucntly givcs risc to anachronistic and rcactionary occurrcnccs. Ncgativc
cxpcricncc, as our othcrncss, unconsciously conrms thc lormcr idcntity ol
a community constructcd within thc lramc ol a culturc pattcrn, which is to
bc distinguishcd lrom thc conccpt ol cultural pattcrn.
Raising this blind

lorcc ol othcrncss to consciousncss mcans taking control ol it in thc contcxt
ol a particular cultural pattcrn in which thc attitudc towards thc historical
past is dcvclopcd lrom thc standpoint ol thc prcscnt. Vhcn that attitudc is
cxprcsscd by mcans ol an inappropriatc cult, thcn it bccomcs a vchiclc lor
vcncrating thc past, and thc lattcr incvitably turns into an obstaclc to thc
luturc. 8cing what you arc also mcans bccoming that through constant scll
conrmation undcr changcablc circumstanccs. 8cing thc samc in thc samc
8. Jovanovi, Karakter kao sudbina (8clgradc: Narodna knjiga, :oo), 8.

8alcanica XXX\! 74
manncr in thc coursc ol constant changc throughout lilctimc amounts to
bcing mummicd, or dcad. Sincc cach ncw contcxt brings into qucstion thc
lormcr mcaning ol idcntity markcrs, undcr ncw circumstanccs idcntity lac
tors lacc thc challcngc ol conlormation and conrmation.
Although an implicit principlc ol human idcntity, plurality has bc
comc thc cvidcnt basis ol contcmporary civilization. n that basis, cvcryonc
is acknowlcdgcd authcnticity, or thc possibility to cxist in thcir own uniquc
manncr distinguishing thcm lrom othcrs, in thc samc lashion as thc cxis
tcncc ol othcrs conrms mutual dicrcnccs. icring lrom us, othcrs bc
comc complcmcntary to our common human cxpcricncc displaying its rcal
signicancc in thc proccss ol individuation ol a pcrson and a community.
Sccn as a lactor ol supplcmcntation and complctcncss, thc complcmcntari
ncss ol idcntity involvcs thc thcr as a constitucnt ol thc Scll. Acknowl
cdging thc thcr in oncs own Scll is thc basis lor rcspccting thc thcr
who is dicrcnt lrom us. Tc importancc ol pcrcciving othcr signicant
lactors ol scllidcntity is rccctcd in thc crcation ol a tolcrant attitudc to
wards othcrs that wc sharc our living spacc with but who arc dicrcnt lrom
us. !n that scnsc, it is important to shcd light on, or raisc awarcncss ol, thc
unacknowlcdgcd, unknown aspcct ol idcntity. Tc conscqucnccs ol ncga
tivc historical cxpcricnccs in thc multicthnic 8alkan rcgion undoubtcdly
incrcasc thc diculty ol adcquatcly dctcrmining collcctivc idcntity within
thc contcxt ol currcnt uropcan and global intcgration proccsscs. Tc out
lincd thcorctical tcncts bcaring on thc conrmation ol collcctivc idcntity, on
thc basis ol which this problcm is approachcd, can provc thcir ccctivcncss
on thc cxamplc ol thc 8alkans.
Te depth of the blurred Balkans
Givcn that cvcry cpoch cstablishcs its own valuc systcm, thc lormation ol
a uropcan idcntity in prcscnt timcs is a rcsponsc to thc issuc ol dcning
thc prolc ol thc ld Vorlds civilization. Tat rcsponsc is at thc samc
timc a solution to contradictions lacing thc uropcan statcs in thc global
contcxt, and a way ol going bcyond thcir ncgativc historical hcritagcs dat
ing back lrom thc pcriods ol wars and intolcrancc. !n intcgration proccsscs,
prcscntday uropc is consolidating in tcrms ol civilization, and distancing
itscll lrom thc ncgativc past cxpcricnccs. conomic stability rcsts upon rcal
rclations bctwccn thc mcmbcr statcs ol thc Union. Howcvcr, in somc parts
ol uropc, such as thc 8alkans or Southastcrn uropc, thc past lingcrs
on in a ncgativc scnsc. As a rcsult ol cthnic cnmitics, this rclativcly small
gcographic rcgion saw thc crcation ol a largc numbcr ol small statcs, latcnt
ly in conict with cach othcr. Tcrclorc, dcrivcd lrom thc tcrm 8alkans,
thc notion ol balkanization acquircd a ncgativc connotation at thc cnd ol
Vorld Var nc dcnoting thc lragmcntation ol gcographic and political
cntitics along cthnic boundarics and thc rcsultant cmcrgcncc ol small and
potcntially lcuding statcs. 8urdcncd by thc ttoman historical lcgacy,
8
and
ghts ovcr it, thc rcality ol thc twcnticthccntury 8alkans was markcd by
a tcndcncy towards national hcgcmonics or thc unication ol kindrcd na
tions.
Scllconrmation ol nationally homogcnizcd cntitics through thc

achicvcmcnt ol statc indcpcndcncc rcvcalcd limitations as rcgards thc at
titudc towards thc construction ol a morc gcncral idcntity. Tc attcmpt at
crcating a Yugoslav idcntity is vcry tclling in many rcspccts. Tc pcriod lrom
thc proclamation ol thc Kingdom ol Yugoslavia to thc socallcd A\NJ
Yugoslavia to thc socallcd third Yugoslavia, has shown that thc statc uni
cation was not sucicnt to ccct a rcal unication and lorm a common
idcntity which could prcvcnt ncgativc scparatist and nationalist proccsscs.
Tosc who saw thc common statc as a transhistorical lormation or, morc
prcciscly, as a transitional statc structurc on thcir path towards thcir own
national sovcrcignty, had sucicnt initial motivation to dismantlc it. Tcrc
lorc, it was not rcalistic to cxpcct that thcy would sinccrcly participatc in thc
ovcrcoming ol sharcd dicultics in thc pcriod ol transition.
+o
Although thc
notion ol balkanization rclcrrcd to rcgrcssivc sociocultural proccsscs, it was
also cmploycd to dcnotc a potcntial thrcat ol disintcgration that a rcgion
or a statc might lacc. Howcvcr, this tcrm has bccomc thc most adcquatc
dcsignation ol thc proccsscs which took placc in thc 8alkans in thc +os.
Vith rcgard to thc intcgration proccsscs simultancously cvolving in u
ropc, thc dismcmbcrmcnt ol Yugoslavia and thc crcation ol scvcral smallcr
statcs can thcrclorc bc idcnticd with cvcnts in a historical camera obscura.
!n vicw ol this lundamcntal antithcsis bctwccn uropc and thc 8alkans, thc
contrasting imagc could bc supplcmcntcd by othcr oppositc notions, such as
ordcr and chaos, organizcd and disorganizcd, rational and irrational. !n or
dcr to ovcrcomc thcsc contrasts and prcvcnt thc balkanization ol uropc, it
is ncccssary to makc thc 8alkans uropcan, that is, to implcmcnt uropcan
standards and critcria in this rcgion.
From thc pcrspcctivc ol historical cxpcricncc as cxprcsscd in thc lor
mation ol scparatc cthnic and national idcntitics, uropc is dcncd as a sort
8
M. Todorova, Imaginarni Balkan |!magining thc 8alkans| (8clgradc: 8ibliotcka XX
vck, +), :8.
T. Stojanovi, Balkanska civilizacija (8clgradc: Gcopoctika, +), +o8.

+o
Tc survival ol thc most rcccnt statc union Scrbia and Montcncgro, crcatcd undcr
thc inucncc ol uropcan Union, is challcngcd by thc aspirations ol onc mcmbcrstatc
lor indcpcndcncc. Tc Montcncgrin scparatist tcndcncics arc instigatcd by pscudosci
cntic argumcnts lor cthnic distinctivcncss, dcnying and annulling thc common tradi
tion, languagc, culturc, history and rcligion.
8alcanica XXX\! 76
ol a collcction ol idcntitics. Claiming that laycrs ol past and prcscnt culturcs
arc dcpositcd in a constant ux bctwccn pcriods ol crisis and tragic sublim
ity, rik Kluitcnbcrg strcsscs that in timcs ol transition dilcmmas about
idcntity can turn into drama, cspccially in thc rcgions whcrc uropc is at
its dccpcst, that is whcrc most idcntitics ovcrlap and collidc.
++
!n thc cx
prcssion dccp uropc, borrowcd lrom Luchczar 8oyadjicv, dcpth dcnotcs
thc points ol conicting claims ovcr a historical pcriod, an cvcnt, a gurc,
a tcrritory, cultural hcritagc, languagc or alphabct. For this rcason, thc ld
Vorld is dccpcst whcrc scvcral idcntitics ovcrlap.
+:
!t is, in lact, thc spacc
ol thcr uropc, as Czcslaw Milosz dcncd thc cntirc asturopcan
postcommunist world,
+
whcrc thc strugglc lor thc uropcan hcritagc has
bccomc cspccially promincnt in thc 8alkans. According to thcsc critcria,
uropc is undoubtcdly at its dccpcst in thc 8alkans. Howcvcr, this dcpth
is markcd by a charactcristic which, rathcr, crcatcs an illusion ol dcpth, or
lalsc dcpth.
Tc 8alkans arc a part ol uropc markcd by tragic national conicts
thc conscqucncc ol which is a blurrcd rcality. Although it is dicult to
disccrn thc bottom ol that rcality, its opacity is not an indicator ol dcpth,
but ol thc shallow watcrs ol civilization in which anachronistic occurrcnccs,
such as scccssions, wars and nationstatcs, cmcrgcd. Tcrclorc, uropcan
civilization is at its shallowcst in thc 8alkans, lor it turns out that thc 8alkan
blurrcdncss is an obstaclc to broadcr intcgration proccsscs. Tc trauma ol
pcrsonal historical cxpcricncc is highlightcd as thc lundamcntal lactor in
mutual dicrcntiation, but not in ordcr to ovcrcomc it by building a suc
ccsslul modcl ol cocxistcncc and multicthnic socicty, on thc contrary, it is
rcproduccd according to thc pattcrn ol mutual rctribution.
Tc idcntity conlusion causcd by thc changc in, or dismantling ol, thc
lormcr statc lramcwork, has also contributcd to thc opacity ol this rcgion.
Tc cxamplc ol thc dcstroycd Yugoslavia shows thc conscqucnccs ol thc
rcsulting conlusion at thc lcvcl ol idcntity.
+
Tc dcstruction ol thc original
lramcwork which gavc mcaning to both pcrsonal and collcctivc idcntity,
givcs risc to conlusion dominatcd by a scnsc ol loss, apathy, diminishcd
tolcrancc and incrcascd aggrcssivcncss. Attcmpting to nd a way out ol
thc statc ol indctcrminacy as cxistcntial unccrtainty, thc individual or thc
++
. Kluitcnbcrg, Politika kulturnog pamcnja |Tc Politics ol Cultural Mcmory|,
Kulturtreger : (8clgradc, :oo+), .
+:
Ibid.
+
C. Milosz, Druga Evropa |Tc thcr uropc| (Gornji Milanovac: cjc novinc,
+8:), .
+
. Kccmanovi, Masovna psihologija nacionalizma (8clgradc: \rcmc knjigc, +),
::.
community will acccpt thc ocrcd provisional national idcntity. Howcvcr,
sccking to lound thcmsclvcs cthnically as wcll, nations cmcrging within thc
ncw statc lramcworks arc doing it on thc oblivion ol thc cultural past ol
thc population whosc culturc and tradition thcy havc inhcritcd. As a rcsult,
thc conluscd idcntity cmcrgcs whcn in thc proccss ol a ncw statc lormation
corts arc madc to construct national cntity as wcll as a conrmation ol
prcsumcd cthnic roots.
Tc dcpictcd opacity ol thc 8alkans can bc pcrccivcd as an uncman
cipatcd dark lorcc marring thc complction ol rational plans. Although in
thc contcxt ol prcscntday intcgration proccsscs cvcry singlc particular
ity is anachronistic, obstaclcs slowing down and blocking thc proccss arc
cxprcsscd in thc ncgativc aspcct ol unacknowlcdgcd idcntity. 8cyond any
doubt, in this day and agc cvcry community can survivc by bcing opcn to
wards othcrs and towards thc world. !n linc with thc intcgrativc principlc
which is bccoming dominant in uropc and thc world, thc undcrstanding
ol collcctivc idcntity cntails that dimcnsion. 8cing uropcan amounts to
assuming, not cmphasizing, oncs own uniqucncss and divcrsity which is
implicd in a civilizcd community. Tc spirit ol uropcan tolcrancc is rc
cctcd in thc harmonization ol mutual rclations, and thc construction ol a
ncw prolc ol uropc.
!n thc proccss ol common idcntity construction, spccial importancc
is attachcd to thc synchronization ol pcrsonal and common intcrcsts at thc
lcvcl ol pcrcciving thc idcntity ol cach part in rclation to thc othcrs. As
a mattcr ol lact, in thc prcsupposcd hicrarchy, or vcrtical structurc, cvcry
aspcct ol idcntity is distinguishcd by its own dicrcnt dcgrcc ol gcncrality.
Vithin such an idcntity structurc, lcss gcncral lactors do not qucstion thosc
morc gcncral,
+
and lor this rcason thc parallcl, complcmcntary cxistcncc ol
local, rcgional, national, rcligious, social, class, statc, uropcan and global
idcntitics is madc possiblc. !dcntitics at a highcr lcvcl ol gcncrality arc most
acccptablc lor thosc who havc conrmcd thcir idcntity at a lowcr lcvcl. For
idcntitics not groundcd and sccurc at a lowcr lcvcl, a vcry gcncral idcntity
can bc a void conccpt. Transccnding and crasing thc lormcr national and
statc lronticrs rcst on thcir voluntary rcjcction. Howcvcr, thc crcation ol a
multicultural community can bc accompanicd by dicultics associatcd with
thc ncgativc aspccts ol that proccss. Unlikc thc idcntitics which on thc as
sumcd scalc ol gcncrality havc a morc concrctc scnsc, such as pcoplc, tribal
unions, tribcs, lratcrnitics and clans, nations rcprcscnt imagincd commu
nitics, or thc idcal typical construct dcrivcd lrom cthnic loundations or
loundcd on thc statc rcality. !n contrast with thc cthnic modcl in which a
+
M. Proivorni, Modcli rctradicionalizacijc: put u budunost vraanjcm u
prolost, Glasnik Etnografskog instituta SANU XL!\ (8clgradc, +), o6.
8alcanica XXX\! 78
nation is a community whosc mcmbcrs sharc thc samc languagc, customs
and tradition, thc statc modcl dcncs a nation as a community ol all in
habitants rcgardlcss ol thcir dicrcnt national origins. Tc alorcmcntioncd
modcls dicr with rcgard to thc prcvailing dominant: thc natural or thc
cultural within a nation as an imagincd community by mcans ol which
thc wholcncss ol a community as a historical subjcct is rcalizcd. From thc
aspcct ol idcntity, a nation is not a complctcd community in thc contcxt ol
its scllconrmation at a highcr lcvcl ol gcncrality.
Sincc thc lilc ol cach nation is dctcrmincd by its rclationship with
othcr nations, it is within thcsc rclations that a nation conrms its idcntity.
!n that scnsc, complcmcntary nations contributc to thc distinctivcncss ol
thc uropcan way ol lilc, bccausc living in his/hcr nation a uropcan citi
zcn livcs within thc ordcr ol nations.
+6
Aspiring to bc a gcnuinc part ol a
largcr wholc, thc plurality ol idcntitics bccomcs a principlc lor cstablishing
commonality. Tc latcnt, still uncstablishcd and uncmancipatcd unity has
bccn manilcstcd in history in a ncgativc manncr, through intolcrancc and
conicts. !n thc wakc ol thc world wars it bccamc cvidcnt that thc collcc
tivc display ol oncs ncgativity, aggrcssivcncss and dcstruction in a grcat
armcd conict ol nations can casily lcad to joint dcstruction. Hcncc, thc
possibility ol survival was rccognizcd in thc projcct ol unication and joint
lilc rcsting on thc plural idcntity principlc. Tc unity ol thc unitcd uropc
has bccomc a way ol ovcrcoming mutual cnmitics and hatrcds, and prcscrv
ing oncs national and statc particularitics. Howcvcr, laccd with a challcngc
such as conrming a highcr lcvcl ol thcir idcntity, collcctivcs arc cxposcd to
thc tcmptation to rcgrcss downwards, towards lowcr lcvcls.
Temptations of nationalism
Sincc thc cthnic and thc national arc convcycd in distinction lrom othcrs
and in thc capacity to conncct with othcrs, a truc rclation bctwccn various
idcntity markcrs lics in thcir harmonization. Tc cxisting hicrarchy and ac
cord arc challcngcd by incrcascd inncr conicts. Tcir manilcstcd aspccts
rcvcal thc importancc ol oncs own idcntity and thc ambition to dominatc
othcrs. Problcms arisc whcn a community is closcr to thc common idcntity
ol a highcr dcgrcc ol gcncrality than anothcr community which has a nccd
to conrm its idcntity at a lowcr lcvcl, and disputcs thc common idcntity on
a highcr and morc gcncral planc.
Although narrowcr than thc conccpt ol thc cultural, thc notion ol
thc national bccomcs prcdominant in critical conditions ol its armation
+6
A. Tibaudct, Ka jcdnoj dcniciji vropc in ovek Evrope, cd. T. Gavri (Novi Sad:
Promctcj, +), , +:.
and cxprcssion: lrom cultural hcritagc to natural and gcographic spacc. Pri
marily idcnticd as a political rathcr than an cthnic catcgory, thc national
is a mcans ol mobilizing thc population lor goals surpassing thc immcdi
atc national horizons. !n that scnsc, thc ovcrcmphasizcd importancc ol thc
national opcns thc issuc ol a nationalistic rcsponsc as an indicator ol thc
dcpth ol thc idcntity crisis and its inadcquatc solution. !n ordcr that a scnsc
ol national unity can bc rcinlorccd, idcntity is rcduccd to only onc aspcct
thc cmphasis ol which supprcsscs all othcr laccts ol thc collcctivc dctcr
mination. Tc conscqucnccs ol such rcduction arc cvidcnt at thc lcvcl ol
spccic pscudorcligious phcnomcna. Vhcn an idca, idcology or doctrinc is
ovcrcmphasizcd, so that it acquircs a highcr, indisputablc mcaning, thcn its
supportcrs and advocatcs bccomc its worshippcrs. Vith a tcndcncy to ovcr
compcnsatc national nonarmation, nationalism is primarily an indicator
ol a communitys unccrtainty about its own idcntity.
Aspirations lor thc armation ol a nation and thc policy ol national
cmancipation producc nationalism as a rcligion ol such ambitions. Nation
alists arc thc bclicvcrs in such national idcas. Nationalism may bc conrmcd
by rcligious idcas, but its main locus is cnchantmcnt with itscll. Foundcd
only on itscll, thc sancticd nationalistic idcology bccomcs harmlul and
cvil. Supcrcially libcrating, nationalism imprisons and binds any commu
nity. Narrowmindcdncss accompanicd by a dcsirc lor thc armation ol
oncs own nationality at rst displays its bcnign sidc, but incvitably cnds
in chauvinism. !n thc pcriod ol thc awakcning ol national consciousncss
and cultural rcvival, thc armation ol national was imbucd with a positivc
mcaning. Howcvcr, that mcaning rcmaincd positivc only lor a short pcriod
during which thc national qucstion was raiscd in ordcr to bc solvcd. Tcrc
lorc, a Hcrdcrian typc ol nationalism dicrs lrom its malignant lorms im
buing this notion with a primarily ncgativc scnsc in prcscnt timcs. Tcrc is
no doubt that thc conscqucnccs ol both cultural and political nationalisms
arc ncgativc, but somc ol thcm bccomc obvious sooncr, whilc othcrs gct to
promincncc latcr. Nationalism is a trap lor thc collcctivc spirit which bcgins
as an illusion ol lrccdom, and locks up thc nation within itscll. !n linc with
thc dcnition as thc armcd pcoplc, a nation cxprcsscs its aspirations in
rclation to anothcr nation in a militant manncr, pcrcciving it as a thrcat and
impcdimcnt to its own scllconrmation. !n nationalism, this rcadincss lor
ght is rccctcd in national homogcnization which crcatcs a strikc lorcc lor
libcration that cnds up as an illusion ol lrccdom.
An ovcrcmphasis on thc national can also bc a rcaction to a pcriod ol
idcntity supprcssion and dcnial. Tc proccss ol cocxistcncc bctwccn mcm
bcrs ol two cthnic communitics is accompanicd by thc crcation ol a dual
idcntity, just as thc dominancc ol onc componcnt has as its conscqucncc thc
supprcssion, mclting and disappcarancc ol thc othcr. !n that scnsc, idcn
8alcanica XXX\! 80
tity complcxity is rccctcd in an inncr split which cmcrgcd bccausc at onc
point ccrtain idcntity aspccts wcrc considcrcd mutually cxclusivc. Tus, lor
instancc, to bc a communist and a Yugoslav cntailcd thc supprcssion ol
oncs Scrbian national componcnt ol idcntity. Such oblivion was idcologi
cally or rcligiously programmcd, so that cvcn mcmbcrs ol ncw nations, such
as Muslims or 8osniaks, supprcsscd thcir cthnic roots and thus lalsicd
history.
Hcncc, starting lrom this pluralistic conccpt ol idcntity, it is possiblc
to obtain a much clcarcr pcrspcctivc ol thc conscqucnccs rcsulting lrom thc
rcjcction ol thc principlc ol complcmcntarincss and opcnncss to thc thcr.
Tc acccptancc ol an idcntity ol a highcr lcvcl ol gcncrality bccomcs dil
cult il thc uniqucncss ol oncs own idcntity is cmphasizcd, cxaggcratcd and
ovcrcstimatcd. Sincc thc rcality ol pcrsonal idcntity is manilcstcd through
attitudcs towards thc thcr, thc dcgrcc ol opcnncss towards thc thcr dc
pcnds on thc cxtcnt to which onc is groundcd in oncs own idcntity. Tosc
insucicntly groundcd in thcir national and cultural idcntity lccl insccurc
and cndangcrcd in contact with othcrs. cpcndcncc on othcrs, a possibil
ity ol mclting into othcrs and thus annulling oncs own bcing, is cxprcsscd
by thc lcar ol idcntity loss, manilcstcd through anxicty and aggrcssion. !n
prccarious timcs markcd by singlcmindcdncss and cocrcion, whcn unica
tion and acccptancc ol a singlc idca is rcquircd lrom community mcmbcrs,
tolcrancc ol othcrs is diminishcd. Tc shallowcr and narrowcr thc scnsc
ol idcntity, thc strongcr intolcrancc ol othcrs. Tcrclorc, communitics and
individuals with a poorlygroundcd and disturbcd idcntity havc grcat dil
cultics in cstablishing and maintaining gcnuinc communication with oth
crs. Tc communitys lcars ol losing scll, ol bcing uscd as cthnic matcrial
and mcltcd into a dicrcnt national cntity, cnhanccs thc cmphasis on local
charactcristics situatcd at a lowcr lcvcl ol gcncrality. thnoccntrism is cn
hanccd in rclation to lcar ol global proccsscs. Such lcar is cspccially widc
sprcad among small nations. Howcvcr, bclonging to a common structurc
at a highcr lcvcl ol gcncrality docs not cxcludc a potcntial lor rivalrics and
conicts bctwccn somc mcmbcrs at a lowcr lcvcl. !n this contcxt, pcrscvcr
ancc and armation ol minoritics within largcr cthnic and national wholcs
is ol grcat importancc. Vhilc pcoplc, nations and statcs cstablish mutual
rclations and managc to protcct thcir intcgrity, smallcr cthnic and national
communitics within thcsc wholcs arc cxposcd to idcntity loss. !n contrast
with national majoritics who cxprcss thcir idcntity in thcir own statcs, na
tional minoritics tcnd to hidc thcir idcntity.
+
Tis is that othcr, supprcsscd
+
Ch. Promitzcr, (!n)\isibility ol Hiddcn Minoritics in thc 8alkans. Somc Tcorcti
cal Rcmarks in Hidden Minorities in the Balkans, cd. 8. Sikimi (8clgradc: !nstitutc lor
8alkan Studics, Spcc. ds. 8:, :oo), +.
and unacknowlcdgcd idcntity which prcscrvcs thc particularity ol an cthnic
community. Tc thcr, as hiddcn and unacknowlcdgcd, is a potcntial objcct
ol assimilation and disappcarancc. Losing thcir idcntity, many nations, or
thcir considcrablc portions, havc mcltcd into othcr nations.
Tc awarcncss ol oncs own particularity and dicrcncc lrom othcrs
is an important lactor in prcscrving cthnic and national distinctivcncss. An
ovcrcmphasis on thc assumcd particularity, howcvcr, cannot pass without
harmlul conscqucnccs. !n contrast with thc consciousncss pcrcciving its own
idcntity as complcmcntary to othcr idcntitics, thc consciousncss cmphasiz
ing its own idcntity in ordcr to put it in opposition to othcrs, is a sourcc ol
conict. Although a nccd lor communication and togcthcrncss is vital lor
thc survival ol individuals and communitics, attcmpts to lull thc illusion ol
scparation lrom othcrs and a lilc livcd in isolation always havc a high pricc.
Tc illusion bccomcs strongcr il obstaclcs on thc path ol idcntity conrma
tion appcar to bc largcr. !l, in this proccss, morc than possiblc is donc, morc
than can bc cndurcd, going bcyond thc limit ol oncs own abilitics rcsults in
hybris and brings on rctribution in thc lorm ol lorccd conlrontation with
thc rcality that onc has attcmptcd to cscapc.
As divcrsity may bc thc causc both ol accord, harmonization and in
tcgration, and ol division and scparation, plurality manilcsts itscll as cithcr
complcmcntarincss or conict. At thc lcvcl ol plural idcntity, it is thc thcr,
thc potcntial, what will bc or might bc, that sccms to bc ol spccial signi
cancc. !nstcad ol answcring thc qucstion whcrc wc comc lrom, it is much
morc important to nd out whcrc wc arc going to. From thc standpoint
ol partial dctcrmination, thc community is somcthing much broadcr than
what it asscrts to bc.
icrcnt culturcs in thc 8alkans constitutc thc rcality ol cultural di
vcrsity. cpictcd as a sourcc ol dangcr to uropcan civilization, thc 8alkans
has lrcqucntly bccn a victim ol thc Grcat Powcrs aspirations lor dominancc
in thc rcgion. Causcs ol conict in thc 8alkans partly rcsidc in thc opposcd
intcrcsts ol thc Grcat Powcrs and thcir ambition to prcscrvc suprcmacy
in this part ol thc world. !n that scnsc, thc important issuc ol thc idcntity
ol nations and national minoritics living in this part ol uropc may bc
approachcd in a manncr that cntails complcmcntarincss in a dcmocratic,
tolcrant and multicthnic socicty. !n thc postmodcrn agc, cvcry prcmodcrn
solution aggravatcs thc situation and closcs up pcrspcctivcs. Tc intcgration
ol parts ocrs a rcal insight into thcir intcrconncction and complcmcn
tarincss. \icwcd as parts ol a broadcr rcality, thcy cxist in a cocxistcncc
ol divcrsitics, alongsidc cach othcr, unitcd on thc path to unication on a
multicultural civilization lcvcl. !n a projcctcd common civilization cntity,
cthnic accord and social harmony will not bc possiblc unlcss thc principlc
ol thc complcmcntarincss ol idcntitics is rcspcctcd. According to 8ubcr, Us,
8alcanica XXX\! 82
always prcccding Mc,
+8
is not a natural and spontancous basis ol idcntity
any longcr, but thc aim dcmocratic lrccdom and tolcrancc. Sccking lor
thc indispcnsablc Us lor oncs own Mc is not subsuming individual into
gcncral, but thc prcscrvation ol individuality as a mcasurc and critcrion ol
thc human univcrsc in a broadcr scnsc which can bc lound in thc harmo
nization ol divcrsity. Arming thc rcality ol oncs own idcntity amounts to
building up thc world togcthcr with othcrs. !n thc proccss ol intcgration
cvcry individual statc or cthnic cntity bccomcs part ol thc uropcan lcgal,
social, cconomic and civilization milicu that cnablcs gcnuinc bclonging to
thc idcntity at a highcr gcncral lcvcl.
Tc complcmcntarincss ol thcsc dicrcnt idcntitics is clcarly mani
lcstcd on a vcrtical planc. As natural dicrcnccs bccomc rcconcilcd ovcr a
long pcriod ol timc, thcir cultural harmonization cvolvcs in a shortcr timc
span. Tcrclorc, thc awarcncss ol plurality is manilcstcd in thc powcr to in
tcgratc divcrsitics and ovcrcomc tcndcncics towards division and scparation.
Sincc thc harmonization ol divcrsity is thc aim ol individual and collcctivc
dcvclopmcnt, thc awarcncss ol thc complcmcntarincss ol individual idcnti
tics laccs thc challcngc ol conrmation as a univcrsal principlc ol human
cxistcncc. !ts lruitlul inucncc is rccctcd today in thc lormation ol a modcl
dissolving inncr contradictions. 8y crcating a largcr wholc, lormcr cthnic,
statc and rcgional parts, awarc ol mutual dicrcnccs, arc givcn an opportu
nity to achicvc a grcatcr intcgration, thc objcctivc ol which is bringing somc
rcgions, such as thc 8alkans, into thc statc ol optimal civilization clarity.
Institute for Balkan Studies UDC 159.923.2:316.6
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Belgrade
+8
M. 8ubcr, Ja i ti |!ch und u| (8clgradc: \uk Karadi, +).
Hclcna Zdravkovi
Te Vernacular Discourses of Historical Victimage
of Kosovo Serbs and Albanians
Tis cssay uscs idcological criticism to cxaminc how and why victimagc,
idcntity and nationalism arc produccd through cvcryday discursivc practiccs
ol Scrbs and Albanians in Kosovo. Vandcr
+
contcnds that thc idcologi
cal turn in criticism conlronts and studics what is prolcsscd and obscurc,
and Grccnc
:
argucs that part ol this criticism involvcs unmasking lorms
ol domination. xamining cultural or rhctorical narrativcs is part ol idco
logical criticism.
Tc narrativcs in this study can bc rcgardcd as compcting

vcrnacular mcmorics
rcprcscntativc ol Scrbs and Albanians in Kosovo. Tc

participants invokc pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmorics with ocial national
historics to cxplain contcmporary victimization as a continuancc ol histori
cal victimagc. Tis usc ol thc past can scrvc to lcgitimizc thcir national and
political claims, as wcll as to justily violcncc against thc othcr group, sincc
historical victimagc providcs a rationalc lor hating thc othcr group and pcr
pctuating a vicious cyclc ol violcncc.
!t is impcrativc to look at how pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmorics in
tcract with ocial national historics as mutually rcinlorccd and cntanglcd to
producc cohcrcnt victimization narrativcs. Trough constant rcproduction
ol historical victimagc in vcrnacular discoursc, participants rcarm thcir
+
Philip Vandcr, Tc idcological turn in modcrn criticism, Central States Speech Journal
, no. : (+8), ++8.
:
Ronald V. Grccnc, Tc acsthctic turn and thc rhctorical pcrspcctivc on argumcnta
tion, Argumentation & Advocacy , no. + (+8), +:.
Cclcstc Condit, cmocracy and civil rights: Tc univcrsalizing inucncc ol public

argumcntation, Communication Monographs , no. + (+8), ++8.
Gcrard A. Hauscr, Vernacular voices: Te rhetorics of publics and public spheres (Colum
bia, S.C.: Univcrsity ol South Carolina Prcss, +), Gcrard A. Hauscr, \crnacular
dialoguc and thc rhctoricality ol public opinion, Communication Monograph 6, no. :
(+8), 8+o8.
8alcanica XXX\! 84
rcspcctivc idcntitics, rcalitics, claims, and rightcousncss. Somc rcscarchcrs
havc documcntcd thc positivc aspccts ol victimagc narrativcs and idcntity,

but unlortunatcly thc narrativcs that arc cxamincd hcrc lostcr hatrcd toward
thc thcr. Howcvcr, this cxtrcmc lccling docs not arisc out ol primordial
tcndcncics, but out ol lcar lrom thc thcr
6
and a dcsirc to climinatc thc
pcrccivcd thrcat.
Vhilc onc purposc ol this cssay is to cxplorc victimagc narrativcs,
anothcr goal is to critiquc objcctivist approachcs to thc study ol history and
collcctivc mcmory. Tis rclationship bctwccn history and collcctivc mcmory
has bccn a hcatcd and ongoing intcrdisciplinary disputc.
!dcological criti
cism can bc considcrcd part ol this dcbatc.
8
Considcring collcctivc mcmory
to bc mythical, whilc history is objcctivc, posits a dichotomous vicw, which
is cspccially dangcrous whcn history and collcctivc mcmory arc invokcd to
support or disprovc victimagc.
Traditionally, work on Kosovo and thc lormcr Yugoslavia has tcndcd
to lollow this kind ol rcasoning, dwclling on thc notions ol lactual truth,
objcctivc history and victimagc, and how thcsc gct distortcd and uscd lor
political purposcs. Tcrcin, collcctivc mcmorics ol thc groups within Kosovo
and lormcr Yugoslavia arc contrastcd with objcctivc history, and truc vic
tims arc clcarly distinguishcd lrom provcn villains. ! will claboratc on this
lurthcr in thc cssay. Many authors writc about thc dcstructivc powcr ol
collcctivc mcmorics in Kosovo and thc rcst ol lormcr Yugoslavia, and how
activating somc ol thcm has bccn causc lor war. For cxamplc, somc authors
havc argucd lor a monolithic Scrbian culturc that is somchow pathologi
cal.
Howcvcr, most ol thc studics on Kosovo and lormcr Yugoslavia havc

lookcd only at ocial discourscs, such as clitc political spccchcs, mcdia cov
Marita Sturkcn, Tc rcmcmbcring ol lorgctting: Rccovcrcd mcmory and thc qucs

tion ol cxpcricncc, Social Text (+8), +o+:, 8arbic Zclizcr, Finding aids to thc
past: 8caring pcrsonal witncss to traumatic public cvcnts, Media, Culture & Society :
(:oo:), 6+.
6
\cljko \ujacic, Historical lcgacics, nationalist mobilization, and political outcomcs in
Russia and Scrbia: A Vcbcrian vicw, Teory and Society :, no. 6 (+6), 68o+.
Marita Sturkcn, Tangled memories: Te Vietnam war, the AIDS epidemic, and the politics
of remembering (Los Angclcs: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, +).
8
Maroul Hasian Jr., \crnacular lcgal discoursc: Rcvisiting thc public acccptancc ol thc
Right to Privacy in thc +6os, Political Communication +8 (+), 8+o.
8ranimir Anzulovic, Heavenly Serbia (Ncw York: Ncw York Univcrsity Prcss, +),
Robcrt . Kaplan, Balkan ghosts: A journey through history (Ncw York: St. Martins Prcss,
+), Matthcw McAllistcr, Beyond the Mountains of the Damned: Te war inside Kosovo
(Ncw York: Ncw York Univcrsity Prcss, :oo:), Michacl Sclls, Te bridge betrayed: Reli-
gion and genocide in Bosnia (8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, +6).
H. Zdravkovi, \crnacular iscourscs ol Historical \ictimagc 85
cragc and history books, and havc uscd thcsc as rcprcscntativc ol all groups
and voiccs. To my knowlcdgc thcrc havc bccn lcw studics ol Kosovo,
+o
and
thc lormcr Yugoslavia, which locus on thc analysis ol daily discursivc prac
ticcs through which idcologics ol historical victimagc arc rcproduccd. vcn
lcss attcntion has bccn dcvotcd to how pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmorics
intcract and amalgamatc with ocial historical narrativcs in vcrnacular
rhctoric to crcatc thc historical victim idcntity. Scvcral scholars in thc cld
ol communication havc rccognizcd thc prcvalcnt locus on powcrlul dis
coursc with historical signicancc, and thc corrcsponding ncglcct ol vcr
nacular communitics.
++
Tcy havc callcd lor morc studics that givc voicc
to prcviously silcnccd discourscs
+:
and havc acknowlcdgcd thc illuminating
insight
+
that ariscs out ol taking vcrnacular discoursc scriously.
From an idcological pcrspcctivc thc issucs outlincd abovc arc prob
lcmatic, bccausc thcy not only silcncc and dclcgitimizc ccrtain voiccs, whilc
ratilying othcrs, but also providc lor simplistic undcrstandings ol how vcr
nacular mcmorics intcract with ocial historics to producc conictsus
taining narrativcs. Tis lcads to inccctivc conict rcsolution, ol thc kind
wc arc witncssing in Kosovo and 8osnia,
+
and hclps pcrpctuatc thc cyclc
ol violcncc.
Tcrclorc, this critical study analyzcs vcrnacular discursivc practiccs
ol historical victimagc instcad ol locusing on privilcgcd and dominant dis
courscs. Rathcr than judgc thc truth valuc ol thc participants narrativcs,
it aims to illustratc how thcir claims arc constructcd in discoursc and thc
pragmatic aspcct ol thc historical victim idcntity, in tcrms ol aording sym
+o
Scc Julic A. Mcrtus, Kosovo: How myths and truths started a war (8crklcy: Univcrsity
ol Calilornia Prcss, +).
++
Scc amongst othcrs, 8crnadcttc M. Calalcll and Fcrnando P. clgado, Rcading Lati
na/o imagcs: !ntcrrogating Amcricanos, Critical Studies in Media Communication :+,
no. + (:oo), Kcnt A. no and John M. Sloop, Tc critiquc ol vcrnacular discoursc,
Communication Monographs 6:, no. + (+), +6.
+:
!n Vernacular voices Hauscr suggcsts that thcrc is a nccd to conccptualizc discoursc
in ways that account lor rhctorical proccsscs by thosc without ocial status actual
mcmbcrs ol publics communicatc to onc anothcr.
+
Allcn Fcldman, Political tcrror and thc tcchnologics ol mcmory: xcusc, sacricc,
commodication, and actual moralitics, Radical History Review 8 (:oo), 8, L.
A. Vood and H. Rcnnic, Formulating rapc: Tc discursivc construction ol victims and
villains, Discourse and Society , no. + (+), +:+8.
+
Scc Noam Chomsky, A new generation draws the line: Kosovo, East Timor and the stand-
ards of the West (Ncw York: \crso, :ooo), C. Clcrmont, How not to solvc a conict: Tc
Kosovo qucstion, Online Journal of Peace and Conict Resolution :, no. (+), Lcnard
J. Cohcn, Kosovo: Nobodys country, Current History (March :ooo).
8alcanica XXX\! 86
bolic, cmotional and political rcsourccs on a pcrsonal, collcctivc and na
tional lcvcl.
Tis idcological cssay is dividcd into scvcral scctions. Tc rst scg
mcnt cngagcs thc dcbatc ovcr thc rclationship ol history and mcmory, as it
rclatcs to victimagc. Tc ncxt part analyzcs thc Scrb and Albanian vcrnacu
lar rhctoric in tcrms ol discursivc stratcgics uscd in crcating thc historical
victim idcntity. Tc third scction cxplorcs thc lunctions ol thcsc historical
victimagc narrativcs, and attcmpts to dcmonstratc why cxamining thcm is
important in undcrstanding not only thc intractablc conict in Kosovo, but
also othcr conicts around thc world. 8y thc cnd ol this cssay ! hopc to
dcmonstratc thc importancc ol problcmatizing cxplanations that posit sin
gular, prclcrcntial, and objcctivc victimagc in rclation to conict intcrvcn
tion and rcsolution.
Te relationship of history and collective memory to victimage
History and collcctivc mcmory arc oltcn thought ol as bcing in opposition
to cach othcr in tcrms ol objcctivity/subjcctivity, and prcscnt/past oricnta
tion and conccrn. Such a vicw lollows Halbwachs, who, in thc rst work
on collcctivc mcmory, dicrcntiatcs proloundly bctwccn history and col
lcctivc mcmory.
+
Hc sccs history as an objcctivc proccss, which sccks to
rccord thc past, to know it and undcrstand it. Collcctivc mcmory, on thc
othcr hand, Halbwachs cxplains, is not compriscd ol objcctivc lacts, but
ol tradition. Following Halbwachs, many thcorists makc a clcar distinc
tion bctwccn history as objcctivc, systcmatic and scicntic, and collcctivc
mcmory as mythical, constructcd and distortcd.
+6
!n contrast to history, it
is particularistic and timcbound, conccrncd with cxpcricncc and lccling
instcad ol cognition and knowlcdgc. Markovits and Rcich say that it is
most dcnitcly a phcnomcnon ol thc prcscnt, whilc history is a mattcr ol
thc past.
+
Vhilc history rccords thc past, collcctivc mcmory rcintcrprcts
it lor prcscntist goals.
+8

+
Mauricc Halbwachs, Te Collective Memory (Ncw York: Harpcr and Row, +8o).
+6
Scc, among othcrs, Hauscr, Vernacular voices, Andrcas Huysscn, Monumcnt and
mcmory in a postmodcrn cyc, Yale Journal of Criticism 6, no. : (+), Andrci Marko
vits and Simon Rcich, Tc contcmporary powcr ol mcmory: Tc dilcmmas lor Gcr
man Forcign Policy, Te Communication Review :, no. + (+), 8++.
+
Markovits and Rcich, Powcr ol mcmory, .
+8
8rucc . Gronbcck, Tc rhctorics ol thc past: History, argumcnt, and collcctivc
mcmory, in Doing rhetorical history: Concepts and cases, cd. Kathlccn J. Turncr (Tusca
loosa: Univcrsity ol Alabama Prcss, +8), Picrrc Nora, Realms of memory: Rethinking
the French past, \olumc !: Conicts and divisions (Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss,
+6).
How collcctivc mcmory is vicwcd within this position is not contcstcd, but
its oppositional rclationship to history as objcctivc is problcmatic. Tis vicw
scts up a lalsc dichotomy, whcrcin vcrnacular mcmorics, narrativcs and cx
pcricnccs arc mcasurcd against a truth standard. Tis providcs lor objcc
tivc dicrcntiations bctwccn thc truly opprcsscd and thc gcnuinc tyrants.
Howcvcr, wc must not lorgct that victims and pcrpctrators arc scllascribcd
and shilting catcgorics. As Fcldman
+
rcmarks, rarcly docs a purc victim
lacc o with a purc aggrcssor on thc world historical stagc. Tc dyad ag
grcssor/victim mcrcly signics two lorms ol victimagc or victims turncd ag
grcssors, conlronting cach othcr in symbiotic gradations ol a gcncric subjcct
position.
Ncvcrthclcss, it can bc argucd that rcasoning ol thc typc outlincd
abovc has lcd not only to blackandwhitc cxplanations ol thc conict in
Kosovo and thc lormcr Yugoslavia, but has had signicant implications in
intcrnational diplomacy, NAT intcrvcntion and conict rcsolution cl
lorts in thc rcgion. !t has hclpcd solidily and lcgitimizc ccrtain narrativcs ol
victimization, whilc silcncing and dclcgitimizing othcrs. As Montalbano
Phclps
:o
cxplains, narrativcs ol victimization arc judgcd according to so
cictal standards ol who can bc thc victim and what victimization is likc,
narrativcs and victims that do not conlorm to thc norm arc discardcd as
bcing labricatcd and lakc. A clcar cxamplc, il wc look at both mcdia covcr
agc and acadcmic intcrcst conccrning Kosovo, is thc prolic and widcsprcad
writing about thc victimization ol Albanians at thc hands ol thc Scrbs, in
stark contrast to thc scant and unpopular, cvcn contcstcd, writing about thc
victimization ol Scrbs at thc hands ol thc Albanians.
Traditional scholarship on Kosovo and thc lormcr Yugoslavia,
:+

tcnds to pay signicant attcntion to thc powcr ol collcctivc mcmorics, and
+
Fcldman, Political tcrror, 6.
:o
Lori MontalbanoPhclps, iscoursc ol survival: 8uilding lamilics lrcc ol unhcalthy
rclationships, Te Journal of Family Communication , no. (:oo), ++.
:+
Scc among othcrs, John 8. Allcock, Explaining Yugoslavia (Ncw York: Columbia Uni
vcrsity Prcss, :ooo), Payam Akhavam and Robcrt Howsc, cds., Yugoslavia, the former and
future: Reections by scholars from the region (Vashington: 8rookings !nstitution, +),
!vo 8anac, Forcword, in Sabrina Ramct, Balkan Babel: Te disintegration of Yugoslavia
from the death of Tito to the fall of Milosevic (8ouldcr, C: Vcstvicw Prcss, :oo:), \ic
toria Clark, Why angels fall: A journey through Orthodox Europe from Byzantium to Kos-
ovo (Ncw York: St. Martins Prcss, :ooo), 8ogdan cnitch, ismcmbcring Yugoslavia:
Nationalist idcologics and thc symbolic rcvival ol gcnocidc, American Ethnologist :+
(+), 6o, Andrc Gcrolymatos, Te Balkan wars: Conquest, revolution, and retri-
bution from the Ottoman era to the twentieth century and beyond (Ncw York: 8asic 8ooks,
:oo:), Misha Glcnny, Te Balkans: Nationalism, war and the Great Powers 1804-1999
(Ncw York: \iking, +), P. Gowan, Te twisted road to Kosovo (xlord: Labour Fo
8alcanica XXX\! 88
activating thcm lor political purposcs. Yct, in a gcncral attcmpt to disprovc
ccrtain vcrsions and lcgitimizc othcrs, thcy point out thc validity/invalidity
ol claims and narrativcs in rclation to an objcctivc and unbiascd history.
Formcr Yugoslav historians havc bccn accuscd ol playing a signicant rolc
in thc wars, bccausc thcir writings cngagcd thcm, and thcir rcspcctivc na
tionalist political clitcs, in powcr strugglcs ovcr rcnditions ol history.
::
As
cus on astcrn uropc, +), Michacl !gnatic, Virtual war: Kosovo and beyond (Ncw
York: Mctropolitan 8ooks, :ooo), Charlcs Jclavich and 8arbara Jclavich, Te Balkans
(nglcwood Clis, NJ: PrcnticcHall, +6), Tim Judah, Te Serbs. History, myth and
the destruction of Yugoslavia (London: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +), Tim Judah, Kosovo.
War and revenge (London: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo), Karl Kascr and Jocl M. Halp
crn, Historical myth and thc invcntion ol political lolklorc in contcmporary Scrbia,
Te Anthropology of Eastern Europe Review +6 (+8), 8ranka Magas, Te destruction
of Yugoslavia: Tracking the break-up 1980-92 (Ncw York: \crso, +), Nocl Malcolm,
Kosovo. A short history (London: Macmillan, +8), \iktor Mcicr, Yugoslavia: A history
of its demise (Ncw York: Routlcdgc, +), Paul Mojzcs, Yugoslavian inferno: Ethnoreli-
gious warfare in the Balkans (Ncw York: Continuum, +), . Norris, In the wake of the
Balkan myth. Questions about identity and modernity (London: Macmillan, :ooo), Jamcs
Pcttilcr, Albania & Kosovo (Ncw York: VV Norton, :oo+), Sabrina Ramct, Balkan Ba-
bel: Te disintegration of Yugoslavia from the death of Tito to the fall of Milosevic (8ouldcr,
C: Vcstvicw Prcss, :oo:), Laslo Sckclj, Yugoslavia: Te process of disintegration (8oul
dcr, C: Social Scicncc Monographs, +), Laura Silbcr and Allan Littlc, Yugoslavia:
Death of a Nation (Ncw York: T\ 8ooks/Pcnguin, USA, +), Jasminka Udovicki
and Jamcs Ridgcway, Burn this house: Te making and unmaking of Yugoslavia (urham,
North Carolina: ukc Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo), Miranda \ickcrs, Between Serb and Al-
banian: A history of Kosovo (London: Hurst, +8), Miranda \ickcrs, Te Albanians:
A modern history (Ncw York: !. 8. Tauris, +), Susan L. Voodward, Balkan tragedy:
Chaos and dissolution after the Cold War (Vashington: 8rookings !nstitution, +).
::
uan T. 8atakovi, Kosovo i Metohija u srpsko-arbanaskim odnosima |Kosovo and
Mctohija in ScrbAlbanian rclations|, (Gornji MilanovacPristina: cjc Novinc
Jcdinstvo, +:), uan T. 8atakovi, Te Kosovo chronicles (8clgradc: Plato, +:b),
uan T. 8atakovi, La spirale de la haine |Tc spiral ol hatrcd|, (Lausannc: LAgc
dHommc, +), uan T. 8atakovi, Kosovo i Metohija: Istorija i ideologija |Kosovo
and Mctohija: History and idcology|, (8clgradc: 8ibliotcka Svccanik Hrianska Mi
sao, +8), imitrijc 8ogdanovi, Knjiga o Kosovu |8ook about Kosovo|, (8clgradc:
Srpska akadcmija nauka i umctnosti, +8), \csclin jurcti, Razaranje srpstva u XX
veku: Ideoloka upotreba istorije |Tc dcstruction ol Scrbianity in thc :oth ccntury: Tc
idcological usc ol history|, (8clgradc: Srpska akadcmija nauka i umctnosti, 8alkanoloki
institut, +:), Alcx N. ragnich and Slavko Todorovich, Te saga of Kosovo. Focus on
Serbian-Albanian relations (8ouldcr, C: ast uropcan Monographs, +8), 8ranislav
Krsti, Kosovo: Izmedju istorijskog i etnikog prava |Kosovo: 8ctwccn historical and cth
nic rights|, (8clgradc: Kua \id, +), Andrcj Mitrovi, Te Serbs and the Albanians in
the 20th century (8clgradc: SANU, +:), Radovan Samardi, Kosovo-Metohija dans
l histoire serbe |Kosovo and Mctohija in Scrbian history|, (Lausannc: LAgc dHommc,
+o), Radovan Samardi ct al., Kosovo i Metohija u srpskoj istoriji |Kosovo and Mcto
history is vital to thc cxistcncc ol a nation,
:
disproving thc thcrs history
is tantamount to dcnying thc thcrs national idcntity.
:
Yct, most ol thc
writing by outsidcrs (primarily Vcstcrn authors) on lormcr Yugoslavia has
bccn plagucd by thc samc contcstations ovcr who is tclling thc truth and
who is not.
Tc conncction bctwccn collcctivc mcmory and ocial national his
torics has bccn cxamincd in a topdown manncr cxclusivcly, looking at ol
cial political discourscs, mcdia covcragc and history books as rcprcscnta
tivc.
:
Tc asscrtion is that political clitcs wcrc thc oncs who tailorcd thc
chia in Scrbian history|, (8clgradc: SKZ, +8), \ladimir Stojancvi, Srbi i Arbanasi
|Scrbs and Arbanas|, (Novi Sad: Promctcj, +), Atanasijc Urocvi, Etniki procesi na
Kosovu tokom turske vladavine |thnic proccsscs in Kosovo undcr Turkish rulc|, (8cl
gradc: Srpska akadcmija nauka i umctnosti, +8).
:
8cncdict Andcrson. Imagined communities: Reections of the origin and spread of na-
tionalism (London: \crso, ++), Florian 8icbcr, Nationalist mobilization and storics
ol Scrb sucring: Tc Kosovo myth lrom 6ooth annivcrsary to thc prcscnt, Rethinking
History 6, no. + (:oo:), ++o, Stcphcn H. 8rownc, Rcading, rhctoric and thc tcxturc
ol public mcmory, Quarterly Journal of Speech 8+, no. : (+), John 8odnar, Remaking
America: Public memory, commemoration, and patriotism in the twentieth century (Princ
cton, Ncw Jcrscy: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, +:), dward C. Clark and Raymic .
McKcrrow, Tc rhctorical construction ol history, in Kathlccn J. Turncr, cd., Doing
rhetorical history: Concepts and cases (Tuscaloosa: Univcrsity ol Alabama Prcss, +8),
milc urkhcim, Te Division of Labor in Society (Ncw York: Tc Frcc Prcss, +:),
Patrick Finncy, n mcmory, idcntity and war, Rethinking history 6, no. + (:oo:), ++,
8rian S. sbornc, Landscapcs, mcmory, monumcnts, and commcmoration: Putting
idcntity in its placc, Canadian Ethnic Studies , no. (:oo+).
:
Hcrbcrt C. Kclman, Tc intcrdcpcndcncc ol !sracli and Palcstinian national idcn
titics: Tc rolc ol thc thcr in cxistcntial conicts, Journal of Social Issues , no.
(+).
:
Scc L. J. Cohcn, Te socialist pyramid, elite and power in Yugoslavia (ntario: Triscrv
icc Prcss, +8), Christianc ildcrs and Albrccht Lutcr, Gcrmany at war: Compcting
lraming stratcgics in Gcrman public discoursc, European Journal of Communication +,
no. (:ooo), +o, Rcincr Grundmann, cnnis Smith, and Suc Vright, National
clitcs and transnational discourscs in thc 8alkan Var, European Journal of Communica-
tion +, no. (:ooo), ::o, G. C. Hcrring, Analogics at war: thc Unitcd Statcs, thc
conict in Kosovo, and thc uscs ol history, in Albrccht Schnabcl & Ramcsh Takur,
cds., Kosovo and the challenge of humanitarian intervention (Tokyo: Unitcd Nations Uni
vcrsity Prcss, :ooo), Philip Hammond and dward S. Hcrman, cds., Degraded capabil-
ity: Te media and the Kosovo crisis (London: Pluto, :ooo), Roland Paris, Kosovo and thc
mctaphor war, Political Science Quarterly ++, no. (:oo:), :o, Picrs Robinson,
Rcscarch notc: Tc ncws mcdia and intcrvcntion: Triggcring thc usc ol air powcr dur
ing humanitarian criscs, European Journal of Communication +, no. (:ooo), o+,
Rossclla Savarcsc, !nlosuasion in uropcan ncwspapcrs: A casc study on thc war in
Kosovo, European Journal of Communication +, no. (:ooo), 68+, Gordon Stablcs,
8alcanica XXX\! 90
nationalist historical discoursc, which pcoplc bought into. Tis prcscnts
collcctivc mcmory as static, and dcnics agcncy to thc pcoplc who crcatc,
rcproducc, ncgotiatc and contcst ocial discourscs through narrativcs ol
vcrnacular mcmorics. Fcw studics havc analyzcd vcrnacular discourscs in
Kosovo and lormcr Yugoslavia, whcrcin pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmory
lusc with ocial historical discourscs.
Tc importancc ol such an analysis is crucial, bccausc, as Judah points
out, in Kosovo history is war by othcr mcans.
:6
History is not a subjcct
that is conncd to books, thc classroom, and acadcmic dcbatcs it is a
livc, and wild crcaturc, that is both shapcd according to prcscnt rcalitics
and inucnccs thcir intcrprctations. Vhilc thc boundary bctwccn collcctivc
mcmory and history is blurrcd, both Scrbs and Albanians makc a distinc
tion, which rcccts thcir acccptancc ol history as objcctivc and mcmory
as labricatcd, and thcir prcoccupation with dcnying validity to thc thcrs
history, nation and idcntity. Vhcn rclcrring to thcir own vcrsion ol cvcnts,
participants call it history, whilc whcn cxplaining thc thcrs sidc, thcy
tcrm it mcmory, cmphasizing its constructcd, and thcrclorc lalsc, aspcct.
Tis cxcmplics thc point that thc vcry notion ol what constitutcs history
and what compriscs collcctivc mcmory is dctcrmincd politically, that it is
indicativc ol powcr strugglcs in socicty
:
and that it has signicant political
implications.
:8
As Conway
:
rcmarks, thc battlc ovcr thc validity ol mcmory
is actually a strugglc lor thc lcgitimacy ol idcntity.
8ccausc ol thc problcms arising out ol thc lalsc dichotomy bctwccn
history and collcctivc mcmory and its rclation to conict and victimagc, !
rathcr agrcc with Sturkcn who proposcs that mcmory and history should bc
Justilying Kosovo: Rcprcscntations ol gcndcrcd violcncc and US military intcrvcn
tion, Critical Studies in Media Communication :o, no. + (:oo), :++, aya K. Tussu,
Lcgitimizing humanitarian intcrvcntion: European Journal of Communication +, no.
(:ooo), 6+, Richard C. \inccnt, A narrativc analysis ol US prcss covcragc ol
Slobodan Miloscvic and thc Scrbs in Kosovo, European Journal of Communication +,
no. (:ooo), :+.
:6
Judah, Kosovo, .
:
\ictoria J. Gallaghcr, Rcmcmbcring togcthcr: Rhctorical intcgration and thc casc
ol Martin Luthcr King, Jr. mcmorial, Te Southern Communication Journal 6o (+),
+o++.
:8
nc ol thc kcy lactors in such powcr strugglcs in Kosovo has bccn thc dcstruction ol
rthodox hcritagc, as a mcans ol disputing thc Scrbian claim to thc land.
:
8rian Conway, Activc rcmcmbcring, sclcctivc lorgctting, and collcctivc idcntity: Tc
casc ol 8loody Sunday, Identity: An International Journal of Teory and Research , no.
(:oo), o:.
rcgardcd as entangled.
o
As Katricl dcmonstratcs, thc analytical catcgorics
ol history and mcmory can bc vicwcd as dialcctically rclatcd: a historical
oricntation both builds on and transccnds individual mcmory, and a mcm
ory oricntation both incorporatcs and rclashions historical knowlcdgc in
making it part ol an cncompassing, commcmorativc projcct.
+
Tus, mcm
ory and history cxist in rclation to and not apart lrom cach othcr. History
and mcmory arc both highly sclcctivc, impartial and constructcd. Tcy arc
social, rhctorical constructs, changcablc in rclation to timc and placc, which
makc thc past cohcrcnt and usablc in thc prcscnt.
:
Moving away from epistemology
!nstcad ol cxamining ocial narrativcs and asccrtaining thc truth valuc ol
collcctivc mcmorics and national historics, this idcological study looks at
vcrnacular discoursc as a sitc whcrc historical victimagc is crcatcd and rc
produccd. !t rcjccts thc notion that objcctivity is thc propcrty ol history,
whcrcas collcctivc mcmory is ladcn with mythical, labricatcd and distortcd
clcmcnts. !t aims to dcmonstratc how truth and mcaning arc accomplishcd
in vcrnacular rhctoric, and what kind ol truth thc participants want to bc
associatcd with.
As Sturkcn acknowlcdgcs, thc dcbatc ovcr truth and lal

sity is irrcsolvablc,
instcad ol ascribing lalschood, narrativcs should bc

cxamincd lor thc lcars and dcsircs thcy cxprcss.
Tc lollowing cxccrpts ol Scrb and Albanian vcrnacular narrativcs arc
takcn lrom a largcr corpus ol +oo cthnographic intcrvicws that ! collcctcd
in Kosovo, lrom Junc to August :oo:. Tcy arc a purposivc samplc, choscn
lor thc brcvity and cohcrcncc ol thc narrativcs, and bccausc thcy arc rcprc
scntativc ol thc vcrnacular rhctoric ol Kosovo Scrbs and Albanians in thc
largcr corpus. Vhilc this idcological criticism uscs sclcctcd passagcs, thcsc
may bc considcrcd charactcristic lragmcnts ol largcr historical victimagc
narrativcs in Kosovo.
! vicw thcsc sclcctions as rcprcscntativc bccausc thc

o
Sturkcn, Tangled memories, (cmphasis in original).
+
Tamar Katricl, Sitcs ol mcmory: iscourscs ol thc past in !sracli pionccring scttlc
mcnt muscums, Quarterly Journal of Speech 8o, no. +(+), +:o, +:.
:
Clark and McKcrrow, Rhctorical construction ol history, Gronbcck, Rhctorics ol
thc past, Sturkcn, Tangled memories.
Lainc 8crman, Surviving on thc strccts ol Java: homclcss childrcns narrativcs ol

violcncc, Discourse & Society ++, no. : (:ooo), ++.
Sturkcn, Rcmcmbcring ol lorgctting, +o.
! rcalizc that this claim invitcs criticisms ol ignoring multiplc voiccs, pcrspcctivcs,
idcntications, and thc cxistcncc ol various vcrnacular mcmorics, but in thc intcrcst ol
spacc and brcvity ! could not includc thcm.
8alcanica XXX\! 92
participants idcnticd thcmsclvcs and spokc as mcmbcrs ol thcir rcspcctivc
cthnic and national groups, cxprcssing ocial national history and Kosovos
collcctivc mcmory.
! suggcst that thc narrativcs in thc lollowing scction arisc out ol a
daily rcpctition or rchcarsal ol our vcrsion ol cvcnts. Tis is a crucial dis
cursivc practicc, bccausc thc habitus has to bc painstakingly rcinlorccd in
thc lacc ol lilcworlds that arc lrcqucntly in ux,
6
and quitc litcrary so
in an arca likc Kosovo. Tc cvcryday discoursc about sucring can thus bc
rcgardcd as a commcmoration ritual, or as 8urkc
has tcrmcd it a victi

magc ritual, which scrvcs not only to cxprcss and rclcasc trauma, but to
crystallizc, rcconrm and solidily it. Tis vcrnacular discoursc is impcrativc
bccausc it bccomcs thc placc, or as Kcnny
8
suggcsts milicu, whcrc victim
ization is rcpositcd thc placc whcrc tclling about victimization not only
makcs it vivid, prcscnt and mcaninglul, but also whcrc it bccomcs largcr
than lilc, indccd it bccomcs historical. 8urkcs conccpt ol victimagc rhctoric
posits that such narrativcs arc ncccssarily mclodramatic. Tcy scrvc to instil
hatrcd and lcar ol thc thcr, justily violcnt actions, bccausc thc dcsirc that
ariscs out ol thc narrativcs ultimatcly aims, as 8lain says, to dcstroy thc
dcstroycr,
cithcr physically or symbolically. Tc mclodramatic aspcct ol

thc victimagc rhctoric in thcsc narrativcs is cxcmplicd in thc claim to thc
absolutc historical victim status and thc usc ol grcat national tragcdics to
support this. Tc national tragcdics arc incrcdibly complcx idcological con
gurations, and arc vcry oltcn associatcd with thc notion ol moral victory.
Tc narrativcs ol sucring cxcmplily thc amalgamation ol pcrsonal
and collcctivc mcmorics with ocial national historics. Pcrsonal mcmory
bccomcs collcctivizcd and collcctivc mcmory is instantiatcd through auto
biographical rccollcction, which is lurthcr rcinlorccd through ocial dis
courscs.
o
Tc polyscmic naturc ol mcmorializing works additivcly, bring
ing togcthcr both particular and univcrsal mcmorics. Tus, thc participants
mirror to a ccrtain cxtcnt thc ocial history, but do not rcproducc it cxactly,
rathcr thcy appropriatc and cmbcllish it, making it contcmporary and pcr
sonal. Accordingly, thc victimagc rhctoric ol thcsc narrativcs is not mono
6
Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at large (Minncapolis: Univcrsity ol Minncsota Prcss,
+), .
Kcnncth 8urkc, A rhetoric of motives (8crklcy, CA: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss,

+6).
8
M.G. Kcnny, A placc lor mcmory: Tc intcrlacc bctwccn individual and collcctivc
history, Comparative Studies in Society and History +, no. (+), :o.
M. 8lain, Rhctorical practicc in an antinuclcar wcapons campaign, Peace & Change

+6, no. (++), , 6.
o
Kcnny, Placc lor mcmory, :o.
lithic, but can bc vicwcd as combining thrcc dicrcnt lcvcls: thc pcrsonal or
lamilial, thc rcgional or Kosovar, and thc national, i.c. Scrb and Albanian.
!t is important to cxplain hcrc thc signicancc ol rcgional collcctivc
mcmorics, bccausc thc vcrnacular narrativcs in this study makc usc ol col
lcctivc mcmorics spccic to Kosovo, which Scrbs and Albanians lrom othcr
rcgions do not ncccssarily know or sharc in. Tc variation is not only duc
to divcrgcnt historical cxpcricnccs, but also bccausc collcctivc mcmorics, as
notably narrativcs ol who wc arc and who wc wcrc, arc not just about our
sclvcs, but ncccssarily includc thc thcr. Tcsc mcmorics arc thus rcgion
ally dicrcnt, bccausc thc thcr is not ncccssarily thc samc lor thc cntirc
national group. Tc ow ol history lorms and rclorms groups and brings
thcm into contact with a shilting rangc ol signicant thcrs. Tus rcgional,
as wcll as othcr,
+
variations arc signicant.
:

!n Kosovo, as \altchinova
and Kostovicova
suggcst, thc Albanian

national idcntity was, and is, clcarly dclincatcd in opposition to thc Scrbs as
thc cthnic thcr. n thc othcr hand, lor Albanians living in thc southcrn
part ol Albania, thc othcrs arc both thc Grccks and thc northcrn Albanian
Ghcgs.
Likcwisc, lor Scrbs living in 8osnia, thc othcrs arc Croats and
8osnian Muslims 8osniaks,
6
whilc thc Scrbs living in Kosovo havc con
stitutcd thcir idcntity in opposition to thc Albanians. As thcrc is no unitary,
national idcntity that is idcntical and variationlcss across groups, so thcrc
+
For cxamplc, lor thc urban 8clgradc class thc thcrs during thc 8osnian war wcrc not
thc 8osnian Muslims or thc Croats, but rathcr thc 8osnian Scrb rclugccs, in rclation
to whom thc 8clgradc population dicrcntiatcd thcmsclvcs. 8clorc that, thc pcoplc ol
8clgradc constructcd thcir idcntity in opposition to thc rural population. Tis is just onc
cxamplc, but thcrc arc many, sincc idcntications arc multiplc and uid, and thc thcr
anchoring thcm is likcwisc variablc.
:
Somc cxamplcs arc discusscd in \. Y. Mudimbc, Nations, identities and cultures (ur
ham: ukc Univcrsity Prcss, +).
Galia \altchinova, !smail Kadarcs Te H-File and thc making ol thc Homcric vcrsc:
\ariations on thc works and livcs ol Milman Parry and Albcrt Lord, in Stcphanic
SchwadncrSicvcrs and 8crnd J. Fischcr, cds., Albanian identities: Myth and history
(London: Hurst & Company, :oo:).
cnisa Kostovicova, Shkolla Shqipe and nationhood: Albanians in pursuit ol cduca

tion in thc nativc languagc in intcrwar (++8+) and postautonomy (+88) Ko
sovo, in Stcphanic SchwadncrSicvcrs and 8crnd J. Fischcr, cds., Albanian identities:
Myth and history, (London: Hurst & Company, :oo:).
Gillcs dc Rappcr, Culturc and thc rcinvcntion ol myths in a bordcr arca, in Stcph
anic SchwadncrSicvcrs and 8crnd J. Fischcr, cds., Albanian identities: Myth and history
(London: Hurst & Company, :oo:).
6
Tonc 8ringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian way (Princcton, NJ: Princcton Univcrsity
Prcss, +).
8alcanica XXX\! 94
is no singlc thcr. And as idcntications and thcir anchoring thcrs arc
divcrsc, so arc collcctivc mcmorics. Tcrclorc, thc narrativcs in this study arc
not rcprcscntativc ol Scrb and Albanian argumcnts in gcncral, but ol thc
Kosovo Scrb and Albanian claims.
Fears and desires in competing narratives of historical victimage
!n thc lollowing cxccrpts participants cxprcss thcir lcar ol thc thcr and a
dcsirc lor symbolic or physical annihilation through constructing compct
ing and oppositional narrativcs ol historical victimagc. All thc, somctimcs
rcal and somctimcs imagincd, injusticcs and troublcs arc blamcd on thc
thcr. uijzings
rcmarks that thc Scrbs and Albanians in Kosovo, as oth

cr groups in lormcr Yugoslavia and clscwhcrc in thc world, cach havc thcir
own cataloguc ol victims, atrocitics, dcstruction and cndurcd injusticcs, al
though not capacity to admit and gricvc lor thc hurts ol othcrs. And Silbcr
and Littlc cxplain:
To work in lormcr Yugoslavia is to cntcr a world ol parallcl truths.
Vhcrcvcr you go, you cncountcr thc samc rcsolutc conviction that
cvcrything that had bclallcn thc rcgion is always somconc clscs lault,
cxccpt oncs own sidc ach nation has cmbraccd a scparatc ortho
doxy in which it is uniqucly thc victim and ncvcr thc pcrpctrator.
8

Tc narrativcs in this study cmbody this rigidity, as thcy arc accounts ol
total and absolutc historical opprcssion.
8ccausc this idcological study looks at vcrnacular mcmory, it is not
conccrncd with dctcrmining thc vcracity ol claims, or rcproducing prcvious
work on thc lormcr Yugoslavia. ! will not try to givc an objcctivc historical
account lor thc rcadcr, but will allow lor thc multivocality ol Kosovo Scrb
and Albanian voiccs in thc lollowing analysis.
!n thc rst subscction ol this sccond scgmcnt ! prcscnt thc narra
tivc ol an Albanian intcrvicwcc, and in thc sccond subscction a dialoguc
bctwccn two Scrb spcakcrs. ! havc not includcd thcir namcs, not only lor
condcntiality purposcs, but also bccausc thc participants arc spcaking hcrc
not only as individuals, but as mcmbcrs ol thcir rcspcctivc cthnic groups.
Tcy arc thcrclorc idcnticd as such.
Victimization of the Albanians as an historical injustice
!n thc lollowing cxccrpt thc spcakcr summarizcs, using vcry strong lan
guagc, thc main points ol thc gcncral and ocial Albanian argumcnt ol
Gcr uijzings, Religion and the politics of identity in Kosovo (London: Hurst, :ooo).
8
Silbcr and Littlc, Death of a nation, o+.
ccnturicslong opprcssion.
Hc cmphasizcs that thcrc arc two sourccs lrom

which hc draws his claims, and thosc arc pcrsonal cxpcricncc and what hc
calls history. Albanian history lor him is thc ocially raticd vcrsion ol
cvcnts, which connotcs and implics lcgitimacy and authcnticity.
Albanian speaker:
Tc Albanians havc always bccn humiliatcd, opprcsscd, victimizcd
and discriminatcd against. ! mcan cvcryonc has dircct cxpcricncc
with that. And thcn thcrcs history. ur history tcachcs us that, too.
Tc Scrbs havc always bccn our cncmics. Tcy arc aggrcssivc, and
you cant trust thcm. Tcy always, throughout thc ccnturics, thcy
always hatcd us. Tcy colonizcd Kosovo, and thcy opprcsscd us. Tcy
havc bccn opprcssing us lor ccnturics. ! know that lor a lact. ! know
it both lrom my cxpcricncc and lrom our history.
!n support ol his claim, thc spcakcr thcn continucs to givc spccic cxamplcs.
Hc rclcrs to thc victimization ol Albanians as common knowlcdgc, whcn hc
says wc all know, cvcryonc knows.
Vc know what thc etniks
o
did to us during Vorld Var !!, and bclorc
that. Tcy killcd and burncd and lootcd. Nothing was lclt. And thcn
altcr thc war, wc all know, cvcryonc knows what Rankovic did. His
policy was to kill as many Albanians as hc can, and morc than that.
Scc !. 8crisha, Serbian colonization and ethnic cleansing of Kosova: Documents and evi-
dence (Pristina, +), !sa 8lumi, Tc rolc ol cducation in thc lormation ol Albanian
idcntity and its myths, in Stcphanic SchwadncrSicvcrs and 8crnd J. Fischcr, cds., Al-
banian identities: Myth and history (London: Hurst & Company, :oo:), Nicolas J. Costa,
Albania: A European enigma (8ouldcr, C: astcrn uropcan Monographs, +),
Kristo Frashcri, Te history of Albania: A brief survey (Tirana, +6), Hasan Kalci, Ko
sovo pod turskom vlascu |Kosovo undcr Turkish rulc|, in M. Malcti, cd., Kosovo nekad
i sad (Kosova dikur e sot) |Kosovo oncc and now|, (8clgradc: Plato, +), M. Krasniqi,
Tc rolc ol thc Scrbian rthodox Church in antiAlbanian policics in Kosova, in
J. 8ajraktari, cd., Te Kosova issue A historic and current problem (Tirana, +6), An
ton Logorcci, A clash bctwccn two nationalisms in Kosova, in Arshi Pipa & Sami
Rcpishti, cds., Studies on Kosova (8ouldcr, C: ast uropcan Monographs, +8),
Shkclzcn Maliqi, Kosova: Separate worlds, reections and analyses 1989-1998 (Pristina,
+8), Sami Rcpishti, Tc cvolution ol Kosovas autonomy within thc Yugoslav consti
tutional lramcwork, in Arshi Pipa & Sami Rcpishti, cds., Studies on Kosova (8ouldcr,
C: ast uropcan Monographs, +8), Stavro Skcndi, Albania (Princcton, NJ: Prin
ccton Univcrsity Prcss, +6), Stavro Skcndi. Te Albanian national awakening, 1878-
1912 (Princcton, NJ: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss, +6).
o
Tcsc wcrc monarchists who wcrc loyal to thc cxilcd King Pctcr, and who lought
against thc Nazi occupicrs. 8ccausc thc Albanians joincd thc Nazis in Vorld Var !!,
thcsc troops lought against thcm. !t is dcrivcd lrom eta, a tcrm uscd lor thc gucrilla
groups who lought against thc Turkish cmpirc in thc +th and bcginning ol thc :oth
ccntury.
8alcanica XXX\! 96
Tc sclcctivc mcmorics that hc is invoking arc not vcry dctailcd, and arc
considcrcd to bc tacit knowlcdgc, in no nccd ol lurthcr cxplication. Yct, thcy
arc thc most politically volatilc. Tc namc etniks, cvcn though it is not ol rc
ccnt origin, was uscd during thc +os Yugoslav wars, both by radical Scrbs
to charactcrizc thcmsclvcs in a hcroic light, as thc kccpcrs ol thc Scrbian
nationalist tradition, and by othcr groups to labcl thcir brutal and primitivc
bchaviour. Tcrclorc, whilc lor thc Scrbs, thc word etnik is positivc, bccausc
its rcminds ol Scrbian opposition to Nazism, lor othcr cthnic groups in
thc lormcr Yugoslavia it is vcry ncgativc, and has strong connotations ol
irrational, aggrcssivc and cvcn gcnocidal bchaviour. Similarly, thc Albanian
spcakcr mcntions Rankovi, thc hatcd hcad ol U8 (thc sccrct policc), in
tcrior ministcr (until +6) and viccprcsidcnt, until +66, accusing him ol
conducting a campaign ol cxtcrmination.
+
Hc is cast as a Hitlcrlikc gurc,
and hc comcs to cmbody thc Scrb pcoplc and thcir intcntions throughout
thc ccnturics.
Tc spcakcr thcn continucs to maintain that thc Albanians wcrc not
victimizcd only during thc Milocvi pcriod, and asscrts that Scrbs and Al
banians had ncvcr livcd togcthcr pcacclully and had ncvcr likcd cach othcr.
Hc givcs a bricl disclaimcr though, saying that thcrc wcrc somc individual
cxcmptions, although hc points out that thcy wcrc not vcry common. Such
narrativcs tap into what both Scrb and Albanian ocial historics say, but
thcy also acknowlcdgc thc polyscmic vcrnacular mcmorics. Most ol thc
participants in thc largcr study, Scrb and Albanian, avow that whilc group
rclations wcrc ncvcr amicablc or pcacclul, thcrc wcrc individual intcractions
that wcrc.
:
Howcvcr, thcy arc carclul to strcss that thcsc arc cxccptions.
! mcan, so its not just thc Milocvi pcriod. No, no. 8clorc that,
long bclorc that. For a long timc, a vcry long timc. ! mcan, ! think !
can say that thc only goldcn ycars lor thc Albanians in Kosovo wcrc
maybc bctwccn and 8o. Maybc. Tats whcn thc local Scrbs sup
poscdly lclt that thc Albanians got morc rights and morc privilcgcs,
but cvcrything clsc, ! mcan pcoplc lccl and rcmcmbcr only bad
+
Howcvcr, Rankovi imprisoncd pcoplc and conductcd sccrct invcstigations to prc
vcnt countcrrcvolutionarics and Albanian irrcdcntists lrom opcrating in Yugoslavia,
as Albania at that timc was strictly aligncd with thc Sovict bloc. Rankovis mcasurcs
wcrc as much dircctcd against and lclt by Scrbs and othcr groups in Yugoslavia, as thc
Albanians. Tc ycars altcr thc war in Yugoslavia wcrc markcd by lrcqucnt and brutal
purgcs within thc Communist Party and its lcadcrship, so that all groups wcrc cqually
thc victims ol a paranoid and dictatorial rcgimc, which aimcd to pacily all its subjccts.
Tc spcakcrs claim is rcprcscntativc ol thc collcctivc mcmory ol Albanians, who claim
that altcr Tito rcd Rankovi thcy startcd gctting thcir lrccdom ( Judah, Kosovo).
:
Milan uaj, Srbi i Arbanasi: njihova simbioza u srednjem vijeku |Scrbs and Arbanas:
Tcir symbiosis in thc Middlc Agcs|, (Sarajcvo: Knjicvna zajcdnica Kultura, +o).
things, only bad mcmorics. Tcrc arc somc pcoplc who talk about
lricndships and mixcd marriagcs, but it wasnt likc in 8osnia, or
othcr rcpublics. Hcrc, no, ! mcan thc distancc was always vcry big,
vcry big, bccausc thcrc was always so much injusticc. Always. For
ccnturics thc Scrbs opprcsscd us as thc colonizcrs, as thc occupicrs
ol Kosovo. Tcy cvcn changcd our namcs and tricd to convcrt us. !
mcan, thats how it was. Tc Scrbs wcrcnt thc opprcsscd raya
in
thc Turkish cmpirc. ont bclicvc that. ont bclicvc anything thcy
say, bccausc Scrbian history is a big lic. ur lolk poctry says that thc
Scrbs occupicd Kosovo, that thcy wcrc always thc aggrcssors, thc cvil
pcoplc. Kosovo is Albanian land. ! mcan, Albania was rccognizcd
only in ++: as an indcpcndcnt statc, but Kosovo always had a ma
jority Albanian population. Always. And thc Scrbs always opprcsscd
thcm, subjugatcd and cxploitcd thcm. Vc rcmcmbcr cvcrything thc
Scrbs did to us, through thc ccnturics, in this ccntury, in this rcccnt
pcriod. vcrything.
Tc spcakcr contcnds, as hc did bclorc, that thc Scrbs always hatcd thc
Albanians. n thc othcr hand, hc docs not say that thc Albanians hatcd thc
Scrbs, but simply that thcrc was a vcry big distancc, lor which thc causc was
thc injusticc donc to thc Albanians. Hc thcn progrcsscs lurthcr along thc
timclinc, going back ccnturics and rcpcating his main argumcnt about Scr
bian colonizcrs and occupicrs ol Kosovo, which hc dcrivcs lrom Albanian
history books.
Tc spcakcr countcrs thc standard Scrb claim ol victimization by thc
ttomans and thc Albanians, and accuscs Scrbian history ol bcing a big
lic. Hc thus tclls a polarizing and totalizing victimagc narrativc, without
thc possibility ol cvcn partial truth or validity to Scrbian claims ol vic
timization. Hc is implicitly disputing not only Scrbian historiography, but
gcncral historiography about thc ttoman cmpirc and thc conditions ol
Christians within it.
Hc allows only lor singular sucring, whcrcin hc

rclics, as hc says, on national history, lolk poctry, and both collcctivc and
pcrsonal mcmorics. Hc says pcoplc lccl and rcmcmbcr only bad things,
only bad mcmorics, which is cxcmplary ol what Nictzschc
has pointcd
out as onc ol thc primary charactcristics ol victimagc.
Turkish word signilying ordinary pcoplc. Tc raya wcrc a spccic class in thc tto
man cmpirc, which was Christian and had to work lor thc wcalthy Muslim landowncrs,
spahis.
For cxamplcs scc Mark Mazowcr, Te Balkans: A short history (Ncw York: Tc Modcrn
Library, :ooo). Gcorgijc strogorsky. History of the Byzantine state (Ncw 8runswick,
NJ: Rutgcrs Univcrsity Prcss, ++), Lcltcn S. Stavrianos, Te Balkans since 1453 (Ncw
York: Ncw York Univcrsity Prcss, +8).
Fricdrich Nictzschc, On the Genealogy of Morals (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity

Prcss, +).
8alcanica XXX\! 98
!nvoking thc thcrs history in ordcr to rclutc it is a stratcgy that almost all
participants in thc largcr study usc. !t is mcant to point out inconsistcncics
and lalsitics in thc thcrs history and argumcnt. Participants thus cngagc
thc thcr in an imagincd dialoguc, and dircctly disputc thc opposing vcr
sion ol cvcnts. 8akhtin
6
calls this thc dialogizing ol anothcrs discoursc,
whcrcin thc spcakcr dialogucs bctwccn his own position and thc position
ol othcrs.
Tc Albanians spcakcr in this cxccrpt invokcs collcctivc mcmory in
thc lorm ol lolk poctry to corroboratc his accusation against Scrbian vic
timagc, and rclcrs to thc mcmory ol thc pcoplc scvcral timcs. Hc portrays
it as thc mcmory ol constant, pcrpctual and ccnturicslong opprcssion, as
wcll as ol thc dcnial, by thc Scrbs, ol thcir tyranny. !t is cxcmplary as bcing
an invcntcd tradition,
which is part ol thc cnduring mcmory that ! mcn

tioncd carlicr.
To providc a solid historical basis lor his asscrtions, thc spcakcr gocs
lurthcr back in timc, to givc thc story ol origin, as it is postulatcd by ocial
Albanian historiography. Tc myth ol origin and primordial claims to tcrri
torial posscssion arc vital to all nations and thcir cndcavours, but in Kosovo
thcy arc cspccially rclcvant, contcstcd and cxplosivc, bccausc both groups
claims to bc thc rst scttlcrs and thcrclorc thc rightlul owncrs ol thc land.
Tc qucstions who camc rst and who is thc gucst ol whom gurc quitc
promincntly in both ocial and vcrnacular discoursc. As Ramct points out,
thc Kosovo dcbatc is much likc thc !sracliPalcstinian issuc: Two cthnic
communitics with distinct languagcs and rcligious traditions lay claims to
thc samc tcrritory with compcting historical argumcnts as cvidcncc.
8

8urkcs notion ol thc mclodramatic is cspccially cxcmplicd in thc
Albanian spcakcrs claim that thc history ol thc Albanian pcoplc has bccn
onc ol constant strugglc lor lrccdom and libcrty. !n thc ncxt cxccrpt, hc says
you scc, lrom thc vcry carly history ol our pcoplc, wc havc always bccn un
dcr attack. Tis notion ol bcing attackcd and undcr thrcat cxcmplics thc
lcar that motivatcs historical victimagc narrativcs, and is intimatcly ticd to
thc innoccncc ol thc victim who sucrs unjustly. !t invokcs martyrdom and
noblc sacricc lor thc nation.
Tc Albanians arc thc oldcst pcoplc in thc 8alkans. Tats thc truth.
ur anccstors arc thc !llyrians, and wc arc oldcr cvcn than thc
Grccks. ! mcan, somc lamous pcoplc, likc Aristotlc, wcrcnt Grcck at
6
Mikhail 8akhtin, Te dialogic imagination: Four essays (Austin: Univcrsity ol Tcxas
Prcss, +8+).
ric Hobsbawm and Tcrcncc Rangcr, Te invention of tradition (Cambridgc: Cam

bridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +8).
8
Ramct, Balkan Babel, +.
all. Tcy wcrc Albanian. Tcn thc Romans camc and colonizcd us.
Tcn thc Slavs attackcd us and thcy colonizcd us. You scc, lrom thc
vcry carly history ol our pcoplc, wc havc always bccn undcr attack.
All this was oncc ours, thc wholc rcgion. Albania, Kosovo, parts ol
Grcccc, Maccdonia, Montcncgro, and also somc parts ol 8ulgaria. !
mcan, thc wholc 8alkan rcgion was Albanian bclorc all thcsc othcrs
camc and conqucrcd us. Vc havc archacological sitcs to provc it, and
our languagc is living prool. ur languagc is thc oldcst. !ts ancicnt.
So wc havc all thc rights to Kosovo, as !llyrians and as thc majority
that has always bccn opprcsscd.
Tc spcakcr argucs that Albanians havc rights to thc land bccausc thcy arc
thc rst to inhabit it, and also bccausc thcy havc bccn thc victims lor so
many ccnturics. Tc Scrbs arc not only cast as ancicnt villains, but arc also
chargcd with stcaling thc Albanian tcrritory. Tcrc is a lot ol rcpctition in
thc spcakcrs narrativc, always is rcpcatcd thirtccn timcs in his narrativc.
!t cmphasizcs thc constancy ol thc victim/villain dichotomy and scrvcs to
rmly cstablish thc vcracity ol thc spcakcrs claims.

Tc Albanian spcakcrs narrativc prcscnts an intcrnally cohcrcnt and
pcrsuasivc argumcnt about thc unjust historical victimization ol thc Al
banian pcoplc. !t is constructcd through powcrlul and sclcctivc storics ol
opprcssion, dcrivcd lrom pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmory, and rcinlorccd
through appcaling to ocial national history. !t is important to notc how
cvcr that whilc ocial national history providcs lacts and lcgitimacy to thc
pcrsonal and thc collcctivc, thc rclationship is rccxivc. Tc spcakcrs narra
tivc is a tcstimony to thc vcracity ol thc national history and thc dominant
narrativc, and how it gurcs in vcrnacular rhctoric.
History is repeating itself for the Serbs
!n this subscction, thc two Scrb dialoguc partncrs, rclatc thcir immcdiatc
sucring to such instanccs in thc past, and claim that historically it has
always bccn this way lor Scrbs in Kosovo. Tcy cxpound on thcir currcnt
opprcssion in dctail, but ! havc dccidcd not to includc that part ol thcir
dialoguc hcrc lor thc purposcs ol brcvity, thc cxccrpt choscn spcaks dircctly
about historical victimagc, which is thc locus ol this idcological study. !n
thc largcr study, all Scrb participants invariably lollow thc samc linc ol ar
gumcntation, dcscribing in dctail thcir prcscnt situation and thcn linking it
to a largcr historical contcxt ol ScrbAlbanian rclations. Tcrcin thcy com
prcss scvcral ccnturics into thc claim that thc Scrbs havc continually bccn
opprcsscd, thus clcvating thcir status to ctcrnal victims as opposcd to thc
pcrpctual Albanian aggrcssors. Tc spcakcrs in this dialoguc maintain that
Tcun A. \an ijk, Ideology (London: Sagc Publications, :ooo).

8alcanica XXX\! 100
history is rcpcating itscll in tcrms ol thc opprcssoropprcsscd rclationship
and thc Scrbs contcmporary prcdicamcnt. Tc past is uscd not only to makc
scnsc ol thc prcscnt, but also to rcinlorcc victimization claims.
Serb speaker 1:
You know, it has always bccn this way. uring thc Turks, thcy |Al
banians| killcd our mcn and rapcd our womcn, thcn thc samc hap
pcncd whcn thc Gcrmans and !talians camc, in both world wars,
and cvcn during Tito, thcrc wcrc so many incidcnts ol kidnapping,
killing, and raping, just likc today. 8ut cvcrything got covcrcd up,
just likc now. You know, thcy always hatcd Scrbs. Always wantcd
just to kill us all.
Tc spcakcr summarizcs thc main points ol thc Scrb argumcnt, which
maintains that thc Albanians havc always bccn thc villains, whilc thc Scrbs
havc always bccn thc victims. Hc rcpcats thc samc claim that thc Albanian
makcs, namcly that ol thc thcr always hating thc ingroup. Hc thcn uscs
a pcrsonal, or rathcr lamilial mcmory to back up his claim.
Speaker 1:
You know, lor instancc, thcy killcd my grcat grandlathcr whilc hc
was working in his cld. Tc Shiptars
6o
|Albanians| slaughtcrcd
him. And thcn, latcr, you know a Shiptar camc to takc wcapons and
lood and moncy lrom my grandlathcr onc day, but my grandlathcr
wouldnt givc him anything and hc thrcw him out. 8ut thcn his
brothcrs, who kncw what this Shiptar was capablc ol doing, thcy ran
altcr him and gavc him what hc wantcd and plcadcd with him to
sparc my grandlathcr bccausc ol his wilc and childrcn. Tcy plcadcd
with him lor a long timc, and thcy barcly savcd him. 8ut wc rcmcm
bcr all that. Vc know who our grcat grandlathcrs and grandlathcrs
wcrc, what it was likc thcn, what thcy did and how thcy sucrcd. Vc
know all that.
Tc spcakcrs choicc ol words, such as slaughtcrcd, in contrast to plcad
cd paints a vivid imagc ol thc aggrcssor/innoccncc dichotomy. Spcaking
6o
Shiptars is a word that Scrbs usc to rclcr to Albanians. !t is now a pcjorativc tcrm,
dcrivcd lrom thc Albanian namc lor thcmsclvcs Shqiptars. Tis tcrm was widcly uscd
bclorc +, and did not havc ncgativc connotations. Altcr + though, whcn thc
Scrbs in Kosovo startcd lccling thrcatcncd, thc tcrm acquircd dcrogatory and ncgativc
connotations. Tc Albanians associatc thc tcrm and its usagc with thc risc ol Scrbian
nationalism and subscqucnt violcncc, considcring it a mark ol disrcspcct and dcnigra
tion. Howcvcr, ! intcrvicwcd scvcral Albanians, mostly thosc living in Scrbia propcr,
who did not likc bcing callcd Albanian, but rcqucstcd to bc callcd Shiptars. nc in
tcrvicwcc said: ! am not Albanian. Pu, pu, pu |spitting|. No way. Albanians arc lrom
Albania. ! am lrom Kosovo ! am Shiptar. Likcwisc, thcrc arc somc Scrbs who do not
usc thc tcrm with ncgativc or dcrogatory intcntions, but usc it out ol habit. As onc Scrb
intcrvicwcc in Kosovo said: Tcy |Albanians| arc Shiptars lor us, and thcy will always
bc Shiptars lor us. Albanians arc in Albania. Shiptars arc ours.
about his grcat grandlathcr and grandlathcr as victims ol Albanian tcrror
is likcwisc most powcrlul bccausc in Kosovo, as in thc rcst ol thc 8alkans
and many othcr arcas around thc world, grandlathcrs arc rcvcrcd cldcrs and
patriarchs. Tcy arc considcrcd thc cmbodimcnts and containcrs ol national
wisdom, couragc and honour. Tcy arc thc guardians ol thc national spirit
and its mcmorics. Tcrclorc, mctaphorically, by killing cldcrs, such as thc
spcakcrs grcat grandlathcr and grandlathcr, thc Albanians arc thought to
bc killing thc Scrbian idcntity and collcctivc mcmory. Howcvcr, thc spcak
cr dcmonstratcs how mcmorics arc kcpt alivc, dcspitc such attcmpts, hc
says but wc rcmcmbcr all that, asscrting that collcctivc mcmory is alivc
and wcll and docs not lorgct such injusticc. Hc is not spccic in what it is
that pcoplc rcmcmbcr, bccausc it is implicd that cvcry Scrb in Kosovo has
similar lamily storics, and sharcs thc samc mcmorics. Tis suggcsts that
thc idcas Scrb spcakcr + cspouscs arc not idiosyncratic, but arc much morc
complcx idcological congurations. His partncr in dialoguc uscs this cxcm
plary incidcnt to paint a widcr historical picturc and cmphasizc thc pattcrn
ol victimization. Tc spcakcrs togcthcr construct, what is lor thcm, a strong,
cohcrcnt and logical argumcnt. Tcy amplily and conrm cach othcrs argu
mcnts.
Serb speaker 2:
!n cvcry war thcy wcnt about crcating a Grcatcr Albania. Vhcn thc
Turk camc, thcy acccptcd !slam, so thc Scrbs wcrc thc subjugatcd
raya. Undcr thc zulum
6+
ol thcir mcrccnarics and zulumari
6:
Scrbs
wcrc lorccd cithcr to sucr or to lcavc. Tcn in ++: whcn wc took
back Kosovo wc acccptcd all thosc mcrccnarics and zulumari, and
wc didnt trcat thcm likc sccondclass citizcns, but wantcd to hclp
thcm, bccausc wc kncw what pain, miscry and sucring wcrc likc.
8ut bccausc thcy ncvcr lclt thosc things, thcy ncvcr kncw torturc
and sucring, thcy didnt know how to apprcciatc that, just likc today
thcy dont know how to apprcciatc cvcrything that Yugoslavia has
givcn thcm. Tcy constantly think that thcy havc to torturc somconc.
Hc argucs that thc Albanians havc always sidcd with thc conqucrors, and
havc always takcn advantagc ol thcir privilcgcd position to dcstroy Scrbs and
thcir claims to thc land. n thc othcr hand, likc thc Albanian spcakcr bclorc
him, and many othcr participants in thc largcr study, hc docs not mcntion
somc ol thc rcciprocity in this proccss, but contcnds that altcr Kosovo was
won back in ++: thc Scrbs wcrc mcrcilul toward thc Albanians, bccausc
thcy undcrstood what bcing victimizcd mcans. Tc dichotomy is bctwccn
thc compassionatc Scrbs and thc ruthlcss Albanians, who constantly think
6+
Tis is a Turkish word, which signics intcnsc, unbridlcd, unrcstraincd violcncc and
brutality, it has similar connotations as today cthnic clcansing docs.
6:
Tcsc arc thc mcn that pcrpctratcd thc zulum.
8alcanica XXX\! 102
that thcy havc to torturc somconc. Tc spcakcr givcs spccic historical in
stanccs whcn this was cspccially promincnt lurthcr on.
Speaker 2:
uring thc First Vorld Var whcn Scrbia was attackcd by Austro
Hungarians, Gcrmans and 8ulgarians, thcy uscd our wcak statc to
kill morc ol us and chasc us away lrom our homcs. Tc samc dur
ing thc Sccond Vorld Var. Tcy crcatcd Grcatcr Albania, thcy had
thcir SS unit, Skanderbeg, and thcy killcd so many ol us, and cxpcllcd
cvcryonc. And thcn thc worst cncmy ol thc Scrbs, Tito, didnt allow
pcoplc to comc back.
Tc spcakcr sclcctivcly invokcs mcmorics, including and lcaving out mcmo
rics according to thcir usclulncss in constructing a cohcrcnt and positivc ar
gumcnt about his group. Tis docs not allow lor thc inclusion ol compcting
or divcrgcnt mcmorics, such as thosc that comc lrom thc historiography or
thc collcctivc mcmory ol thc thcr. Tc proccss ol glossing ovcr mcmorics
that spcak ncgativcly ol thc ingroup, and supplanting thcm with positivc
oncs, is cxcmplary ol thc proccss, inhcrcnt to crcating historics and collcc
tivc mcmorics, ol sclcctivc rcmcmbcring and lorgctting.
6

bviously, this is not typical only in thc 8alkans. 8runcr
6
shows how
in Russia and Qucbcc national idcntitics wcrc (rc)crcatcd through sclcc
tivc crasurc. !n Vcst Gcrmany though, thc stratcgy did not call only lor
a simplc crasurc ol National Socialist pcrpctrators lrom public mcmory,
but also nccdcd Vcst Gcrmans to idcntily thcmsclvcs as victims ol Na
tional Socialism. caling with thc samc issuc, Hughcs cxplains that such
a construction was not a mattcr ol simply ignoring vast strctchcs ol thc
past, bccausc that would lcavc an unsustainablc vacuum, whilc rcsorting
to obvious untruths |would opcn| oncs claims to casy rclutation.
6
!nstcad
inconvcnicnt lacts wcrc silcntly passcd ovcr, whilc usclul truths and hall
truths wcrc highlightcd.
Zcrubavcl rcgards such a dynamic as a conscious and dclibcratc sup
prcssion ol unlavourablc storics about thc past,
66
Vhitc cxplains it as rcp
6
R. S. sbcnshadc, Rcmcmbcring to lorgct: Mcmory, history, national idcntity in
postwar astCcntral uropc, Representations (+), :6, rncst Rcnan, Quest-
ce quune nation? |Vhat is a nation:|, in Oeuvres Completes |Complctc Vorks|, (Paris:
CalmannLcvy, +6+), 88o6.
6
Michacl L. 8runcr, Strategies of Remembrance: Te Rhetorical Dimensions of National
Identity Construction (Columbia, South Carolina: Univcrsity ol South Carolina Prcss,
:oo:).
6
Michacl L. Hughcs, Trough no lault ol thcir own: Vcst Gcrmans rcmcmbcr thcir
war losscs, German History +8, no. : (:ooo), +.
66
Yacl Zcrubavcl, Recovered roots: Collective memory and the making of Israeli national
tradition (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +).
rcscntation and rcprcssion,
6
whilc Hasian and Frank vicw it as a mattcr
ol dcbatc, rccirculation and rcncgotiation.
68
An cxamplc that illustratcs this
dynamic is Milocvis risc to powcr. Milocvi tappcd into and raiscd to
thc ocial lcvcl, prcviously rcprcsscd collcctivc mcmorics ol thc Kosovo
Scrbs and thcir latcnt antagonism and rcscntmcnt toward thc Albanians.
6

!n lormcr Yugoslavia, cspccially undcr Titos rulc, vcrnacular mcmorics ol
cthnic hatrcd and strilc wcrc not allowcd to circulatc, bccausc undcr thc
ocial banncr ol communist Yugoslavia, brothcrhood and unity prcvailcd
ovcr cthnic discord. Tis did not mcan that vcrnacular mcmorics wcrc lor
gottcn. Ratilying somc mcmorics as ocial, Miloscvic acquircd a solid clcc
toral support lor claiming powcr. Tis movc on his part is most oltcn citcd
as thc most powcrlul impctus to thc subscqucnt Yugoslav wars.
nc ol thc mcmorics that had prcviously bccn rcprcsscd, but has
sincc thc +os bccn rccirculatcd and rcncgotiatcd is that ol thc prohibi
tion Tito put on Kosovo Scrbs, who wcrc cxilcd during Vorld Var !!, to
rcturn to thcir land. Tis is an cvcnt that is spccic to Kosovo. Tcrclorc,
whilc many othcr Scrbs might agrcc with thc spcakcr in his charactcriza
tion ol Tito as thc thc worst cncmy ol thc Scrbs, thcy might not sharc
thc samc vcrnacular mcmorics that arc thc basis lor this spcakcr claiming
so. Tc Scrbs in Kosovo always rcscntcd Tito lor giving thc Albanians too
much powcr and too many privilcgcs,
o
so that this rcgional mcmory ariscs
out ol a dicrcnt cxpcricncc than thc onc othcr Scrbs in lormcr Yugoslavia
havc.
Howcvcr, thc Scrbian spcakcrs also cvokc thc ocial historical vcr
sion ol Vorld Var !!, onc that has bccn lcgitimizcd by thc rcst ol thc world,
by rcmcmbcring thc Albanian!talianGcrman alliancc, and thc atrocitics
thc Albanians committcd as Nazi ghtcrs. Tc Albanians arc thus placcd on
a par with thc Nazis, which is thc most vivid and powcrlul imagc ol a villain.
Tis is a common and rhctorically ccctivc
+
stratcgy lor crcating authorita
tivc victimagc narrativcs, not only in thc discoursc ol Scrbs and Albanians
in Kosovo, but many othcrs around thc world. Mocllcr suggcsts that various
6
H. \. Vhitc, Foucault dccodcd: Notcs lrom undcrground, History and Teory +:
(+), :, :.
68
Maroul Hasian, Jr., and Robcrt . Frank, Rhctoric, history, and collcctivc mcmory:
ccoding thc Goldhagcn dcbatcs, Western Journal of Communication 6, no. + (+),
++.
6
CarlUlrich Schicrup, Tc postcommunist cnigma: thnic mobilization in Yugo
slavia, New Community +8, no. + (++).
o
8ogdanovi, Knjiga o Kosovu, Krsti, Kosovo.
+
Janicc H. Rushing and Tomas S. Frcntz, Tc Gods must bc crazy: Tc dcnial ol
dcsccnt in acadcmic scholarship, Quarterly Journal of Speech 8, no. (+), :::6.
8alcanica XXX\! 104
groups usc thc Jcwish cxpcricncc to construct thcir own victim idcntitics,
:

it is vcry lunctional, bccausc, as ocrr cxplains, thc Jcwish gcnocidc pro
vidcs mctaphorical languagc and a lramcwork to cxprcss absolutc domina
tion, victimization, and unbcarablc sucring.

Tus, Holocaust imagcry gurcs promincntly in thc vcrnacular dis
coursc ol both Scrbs and Albanians. Vc havc sccn how thc Albanian com
parcs Rankovic to Hitlcr, and portrays sccncs ol cthnic clcansing and gcno
cidc. Likcwisc, thc Scrbs usc thc samc tactic, bccausc it is onc ol thc most
ccctivc ways ol immcdiatcly dclincating bctwccn thc victims and thc vil
lains. 8uilding on thc momcntum, thc rst spcakcr immcdiatcly rcinlorccs
this imagc ol thc sucring Scrb nation. Hc cxcmplics 8urkcs mclodra
matic aspcct ol victimagc, by using thc word stradalnici, which translatcs lit
crally as univcrsal historical sucrcrs. !t connotcs sucring ol historic and
hcroic proportions, and is only uscd in an cpic contcxt. Tc word mcrgcs
martyrdom with innoccncc and injusticc in historically transccndcnt sul
lcring.
Speaker 1:
!n cach war, and wcvc had too many ol thcm, wc wcrc thc grcat
cst stradalnici and thc most ardcnt ghtcrs lor lrccdom. !n cvcry
war thc Scrbs sucrcd thc most. !n Vorld Var !!, cvcry third Scrb
was killcd. Houscs, lamilics dcstroycd, thc intclligcntsia murdcrcd,
thc raya was lclt only to work. Scrbia is small, but shc has givcn thc
most livcs and victims lor thc lrccdom ol Yugoslavia, and thc rcst ol
thc world. ! dont know ol anothcr nation that has sucrcd so much
and lorgivcn so much. Altcr +8 and thc Kosovo 8attlc, thc Scrbs
havc continually bccn sucring, lorccd to abandon thcir cthnic
spacc, whcrc thc rst royal throncs wcrc, at Prizrcn and Novo 8rdo,
whcrc thcir spiritual and cultural hcart startcd bcating. ! mcan, sincc
that battlc, wc havc just bccn going downhill.
Tc mclodramatic is lurthcr strcngthcncd through thc spcakcrs poctic
words about Kosovo and thc ancicnt royal throncs ol Scrbian kings, as thc
placcs whcrc thc Scrbian spiritual and cultural hcart startcd bcating. Tc
spcakcr rclcrs to thc pivotal clcmcnt ol Scrbian victimagc, mcmorializcd
through Scrbian historiography, cpic poctry, and national collcctivc mcmo
ry thc lamous 8attlc ol Kosovo (+8). Tis battlc is cngravcd into what
urkhcim calls thc conscience collective, in this casc ol thc Scrbian pcoplc,
likc thc Jcwish Masada, and is considcrcd a turning point, bccausc vc
:
Robcrt G. Mocllcr, War stories: Te search for a usable past in the Federal Republic of
Germany (8crklcy: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, :oo+).
K. ocrr, Mcmorics ol history: Vomcn and thc Holocaust in autobiographical and

ctional mcmoirs, Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies +8, no. (:ooo),
6, .
ccnturics ol subjugation undcr ttoman rulc lollow it. Tc battlc is thc
loundational nationalist claim, and its political, symbolic and cmotional sig
nicancc has bccn analyzcd or at thc vcry lcast mcntioncd in, to my knowl
cdgc, almost cvcry work that has bccn writtcn about thc Scrbs.

For rcasons ol spacc ! will not go into dctail about this battlc, but it
is important to notc that it cmbodics and symbolizcs thc Scrbian spirit ol
ghting lor Christianity against thc Turkish indcls, dying lor lrccdom
and spilling thcir blood lor thcir sacrcd land. Tcrclorc, thc appcal to this
battlc not only uscs ocial Scrbian historiography, but it calls on thc vast
rcpository ol national collcctivc mcmory to crcatc thc contrast bctwccn thc
hcroic Scrbs and thcir sad history, with that ol thc Albanians, who ncvcr
stood up to anyonc. Tc disparity hcrc is not simply bctwccn thc victim
and thc villain, but bctwccn a pcoplc who ght lor thcir lrccdom and prin
ciplcs, and a pcoplc who dont havc morals and who prclcr thc casy way out,
as Scrb spcakcr + claboratcs lurthcr.
Speaker 1:
!n cach war thcy ncvcr stood up to anyonc. Tcy always sidcd with
thc strongcst and most ruthlcss thc Turks, !talians, Nazis. History
is thc samc, only thc victor changcs. Vhcn thc Turks rulcd, thcy
wcrc with thc Turks, thcn thc AustroHungarians, thc !talians, thc
Gcrmans, now thc Amcricans, and whcn thcy lcavc, thcyll nd
somconc clsc.
Speaker 2:
No changc whatsocvcr cvcrything that was happcning thcn, is
happcning now. vcrything that was bclorc is going on today. Tat
is rcally a quagmirc. ! oltcn rcad a lcttcr that Fathcr Sava scnt to thc
8crlin Congrcss in +88. Tc samc thing is happcning today. Tc
things that wcrc going on thcn Fathcr Sava was thc ocial rcp
rcscntativc ol thc Scrbian pcoplc in Kosovo, and hc wrotc a lcttcr to
thc ambassadors ol thc Grcat Powcrs at thc 8crlin Congrcss. Tcn,
and now, thcrc is no dicrcncc lor us Scrbs wc arc bcing killcd,
kidnappcd, molcstcd, our churchcs and monastcrics dcstroycd, thcrc
is no lilc hcrc, as thcrc was nonc thcn.
Lynda . 8oosc, Crossing thc rivcr rina: 8osnian rapc camps, Turkish impalcmcnt,
and Scrb cultural mcmory, Signs :8, no. + (:oo:), +6, Tomas A. mmcrt, Kosovo:
cvclopmcnt and impact ol a national cthic, in !vo 8anac, John G. Ackcrman and Ro
man Szporluk. cds., Nation and ideology: Essays in honor of Wayne S. Vucinich (8ouldcr,
C: ast uropcan Monographs, +8+), Tomas A. mmcrt, Serbian Golgotha: Kosovo
1389 (Ncw York: Ncw York Univcrsity Prcss, ++), Robcrt G. . Laan, Te Serbs: Te
guardians of the gate (Ncw York: orsct Prcss, +8), lga Zirojcvic, Kosovo in thc col
lcctivc mcmory, in Ncbojsa Popov, cd., Te road to war in Serbia: Trauma and catharsis
(8udapcst: Ccntral uropcan Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo).
8alcanica XXX\! 106
Tc spcakcrs hcrc rclcr to, and citc as prool ol opprcssion, thc lcttcr to thc
Congrcss ol 8crlin (+88), which is anothcr vcrnacular mcmory spccic to
Kosovo. Tc lcttcr has bccn rcprintcd and ! havc sccn it circulatcd through
and rcad in thc rcmaining Scrb houscs in Kosovo.
Speaker 1:
Vhcn you rcad that lcttcr thcn you rcally undcrstand that cvcry
thing is thc samc, thc powcrs at play, thc cvcnts, cvcrything is thc
samc. Somc ol thc actors havc changcd, but thc stagc is thc samc,
and thc plot is thc samc. vcrything is thc samc. vcn though
Kosovo is ours, wc havc to sucr.
Tc dominant notion that history is rcpcating itscll is most clcarly cxprcsscd
by Scrb spcakcr +, who says history is hc samc, only thc victor changcs,
and thcn latcr, somc ol thc actors havc changcd, but thc stagc is thc samc,
and thc plot is thc samc.
Tc vcrnacular discourscs in this scction illustratc how thc rhctoric ol
victimagc as mclodramatic is accomplishcd by intcgrating pcrsonal and col
lcctivc mcmorics with ocially raticd history, whcrcin cach is invokcd and
uscd in support ol thc othcr. Tcrc is truc intcrdcpcndcncc ol thcsc parts,
and thc boundarics bctwccn thcm arc not clcarcut, but ovcrlap and intcr
mix, in crcating lor thcsc participants cohcrcnt, wcllsupportcd and rational
argumcnts about thc historical victimagc ol thcir rcspcctivc group.
Vhilc thc prcccding analysis has bccn mostly dcscriptivc in illustrat
ing how victimagc narrativcs arc constructcd through vcrnacular discoursc,
thc ncxt scgmcnt dcals with thc signicancc and thc lunctions ol claiming
historical victimagc lor thc Scrbs and Albanians in Kosovo.
Te signicance and the functions of historical victimage narratives in Kosovo
!t would bc a mistakc to think that thc proccss ol constructing and validat
ing oncs victim idcntity, and hcncc thc thcrs villain idcntity, is spccic
only to war zoncs, bccausc storics ol victimization arc vital lor crcating co
hcsivc national communitics. Amato cxplains that victimagc is at thc corc
ol national, social or indccd individual idcntity, saying that il wc havc no
sucrings or sacriccs to call our own, wc havc no story to tcll, and with
no story to tcll, wc arc no pcoplc at all.
Andcrson cmphasizcs thc crucial

nccd lor victimization to crcatc a nationally cohcsivc history whcn hc says
that thc nations biography snatchcs, against thc going mortality ratc, cx
cmplary suicidcs, poignant martyrdoms, assassinations, cxccutions, wars, and
Joscph A. Amato, Victims and values: A history and a theory of suering (Ncw York:
Grccnwood Prcss, +o), :+o.
holocausts. 8ut, to scrvc thc narrativc purposc, thcsc violcnt dcaths must bc
rcmcmbcrcd/lorgottcn as our own .
6
Similarly, sbornc says that
lor rcasons which sccm obscurc to us, collcctivc mcmory on a na
tional lcvcl lovcs to dwcll on ncgativc cxpcricnccs. !n particular,
thc notion ol victim, victimhood and victimization plays a crucial
rolc in thc collcctivc mcmory ol virtually cvcry country. Strongcr in
somc than in othcrs, dicring in its intcnsity according to timc and
spacc, cvcry country sccms to havc had at lcast onc trauma in its past
which continucs to haunt its collcctivc mcmory.

Howcvcr, ! disagrcc with sborncs claim that thc rcasons lor why victim
idcntity is so cndcmic to cvcry socicty arc always obscurc, bccausc my rc
scarch sccms to indicatc that thcy arc in ccrtain cascs transparcnt, and can bc
instrumcntal lor scvcral purposcs. Altcr rcvicwing thc abovc narrativcs onc
can contcnt that claiming historical sucring providcs moral high ground,
garncrs sympathy and can scrvc as justication and cxculpation, whilc bc
ing cast as thc pcrpctrator invokcs guilt, culpability and most importantly,
punishmcnt. Tc primary mcans through which this is achicvcd is through
invoking collcctivc mcmorics and historics, as thcsc arc a kcy attributc ol
idcntity and arc idcologically constraincd by thc Us as victims vcrsus Tcm
as villains opposition.
!n ordcr to unpack somc ol thc lunctions ol thc compcting historical
victimagc narrativcs, it is ncccssary to movc bcyond mcrc discovcry, and thc
orizc about thc practical and pragmatic aspccts ol this vcrnacular rhctoric.
Tc thrcc lunctions that will bc cxamincd in this scction arc: using thc past
to makc scnsc ol thc prcscnt, dcnying thc thcr, and justilying violcncc.
First function of historical victimage: Making sense of the present
As Zclizcr says thc past compcls us lor what it tclls us about thc prcscnt.
8

Tc participants construct symbolically thcir victim idcntity through using
thc past to makc scnsc ol thcir contcmporary situation. Tcy situatc thcir
pcrsonal and collcctivc trauma within a broadcr contcxt, and do not scc it
as novcl, but as a rcpctition and continuancc ol thc pattcrn ol thc nations
victimization. Tcy also do not scc thc conict as ncw, but vicw it as thc
pcrpctuation ol agcold hatrcds, and thcrclorc intractablc. Tc thcr thcn
bccomcs thc pcrpctual villain and pcrpctrator, mircd as thc ancicnt cncmy.
Tc participants not only rclatc to thc ccnturicslong national sucring at
thc hand ol various thcrs, but locatc thcmsclvcs within it, as witncsscs and
6
Andcrson, Imagined communities, :o6.
sbornc, Landscapcs, .
8
Zclizcr, Aids to thc past, 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 108
participants. Tcy scck mcaning and conrmation to thcir prcscnt victim
ization in historical victimagc, and thcir pcrsonal and vcrnacular tcstimony
providcs anothcr building block in thc construction ol thc historical victim
idcntity. Tis rhctoric is powcrlul, bccausc it hclps conrm scllpcrccptions
and idcntity, but it also lcgitimizcs national historiography. Sincc thc na
tional historics ol thc Scrbs and Albanians arc incompatiblc and conictcd,
this lcads to thc sccond lunctions ol historical victimagc.
Second function of historical victimage: Denying the Other
As thc abovc narrativcs illustratc, historics and mcmorics ol thc Scrbs and
Albanians in Kosovo arc in complctc contrast and opposition to cach othcr.
Tus, claiming that oncs vcrsion ol cvcnts is truthlul inhcrcntly implics that
thc thcrs is not. Tc Albanian spcakcr dircctly asscrts this, whcn hc says
dont bclicvc anything thcy say, bccausc Scrbian history is a big lic, but
cvcn without such opcn statcmcnts, this scntimcnt is implicd throughout
thc narrativcs. 8ccausc history is vital to thc cxistcncc ol a nation or a com
munity disputing thc thcrs history mcans dcnying thc vcry idcntity ol
thc thcr. Tcrclorc, as participants strivc to validatc thcir historical victim
status, and simultancously and inhcrcntly thc thcrs pcrpctual villain sta
tus, thcy arc also struggling ovcr thc lcgitimacy ol idcntity, mcmorics, and
cvcn thcir vcry nation.
Tc NAT intcrvcntion and UN govcrnancc ol Kosovo, which gavc
dc lacto indcpcndcncc to thc Kosovo Albanians, scriously challcngcd thc
Scrb nation and its pcrccption ol historical victim, whilc ratilying thc Al
banian claims to this status. Howcvcr, in thc Scrbian casc, bccausc NAT
was cast as thc villain,
and bccausc thc KFR troops did not protcct thc

Scrbian population lrom Albanian violcncc altcr thc intcrvcntion,
8o
it also
simultancously conrmcd and rcinlorccd thc victimagc mastcr narrativc.
8+

!n thc Albanian casc, NATs cndorscmcnt ol thcir historical victimagc
Stcl Janscn, \ictims, undcrdogs and rcbcls: iscursivc practiccs ol rcsistancc in Scr
bian protcst, Critique of Anthropology :o, no. (:ooo), +.
8o
Scc Judah, Kosovo. Stcphcn rlangcr, Scrbs drivcn lrom Kosovo livc bittcrly in cxilc,
Te New York Times, : Scptcmbcr +, R. Fisk, Scrbs murdcrcd by thc hundrcds sincc
libcration , Independent, : Novcmbcr +, A. Gray, Scrbs livc in lcar in Kosovos
kidnap capital, Reuters, + Scptcmbcr +, Jarcd !sracl, Vhy Frcnch troops stood by
as Albanians burncd a Scrbian villagc to thc ground, Emperors Clothes, :+ March :oo,
rctricvcd :: March :oo lrom http://cmpcrorsclothcs.com
8+
Jamcs P. Gcc, Mcaning: choosing, gucssing and cultural modcls, in Jamcs P. Gcc,
cd., Social linguistics and literacies, :nd cd. (London: Taylor & Francis, +6), R. A.
Hackctt and Y. Zhao, Challcnging a mastcr narrativc: pcacc protcst and opinion/cdito
rial discoursc in thc US prcss during thc Gull Var, Discourse & Society , no. (+).
providcd a basis lor justilying violcncc against thc Scrbs,
8:
which is thc third
lunction cxamincd in this idcological study.
Tird function of historical victimage: Justifying violence
Unlortunatcly, thc rhctoric ol victimagc is uscd not only to satisly thc moral
dcmands ol a community, but is instrumcntal in justilying opprcssion, dis
crimination and violcncc against thc thcr. Hauscr suggcsts that invok
ing collcctivc mcmorics ol victimization is usclul in collcctivc mobilization,
building cthnic cohcsion and justilying policics and action, and thus hc sccs
it as indispcnsablc in cthnic conict.
8
Vriting about 8osnia, hc says, con
icting storics ol victimization |providc| mutually cxclusivc justications
lor policics and acts ol mutual cxtcrmination.
8
Nictzschc cxplains this as
pcct ol victimhood as ressentiment, which Schwartzman calls thc ncgativc
cxtrcmc ol public mcmory rcvcngc.
8

Sincc rcvcngc is thc privilcgc ol thc victim, this bccomcs thc most
prizcd, and yct most dangcrous idcntity to lay claims to. Mcrtus cxplains
that this is bccausc oncc wc scc oursclvcs as victims, wc can clcarly idcn
tily an cncmy. Stccpcd in our own victimhood, wc no longcr lccl bound by
moral considcrations in bccoming pcrpctrators.
86
!n Kosovo, both sidcs
now lccl likc victims, both sidcs now lccl cntitlcd to takc somc libcrty in
taking back what is rightlully thcirs.
8
Sibcr similarly argucs that thc
sclcctivc intcrprctations ol history and cxpcricncc always providc abundant
rcasons lor rationalizing oncs own bchaviour, and prool ol guilt can always
bc lound in history, il onc looks hard cnough.
88
Tis dynamic lcads not only
to thc inability to cmpathizc with thc thcr, but to thc lurthcr intractability
ol thc conict, through thc pcrpctuation ol a vicious cyclc ol violcncc.
8

Tc rclativcly lrcqucnt powcr shilts in thc rcgion providc thc oppor
tunity lor thc victim to takc rcvcngc on thc villain.
o
!n thc coursc ol thc
8:
Fcldman, Political tcrror.
8
Hauscr, Vernacular voices, +:.
8
Ibid., +o.
8
Richard Schwartzman, Rccovcring thc lost canon: Public mcmory and thc Holo
caust, Rhetoric & Public Address , no. (:oo+), :8.
86
Mcrtus, Kosovo, +.
8
Ibid., .
88
!van Sibcr, Psychological approachcs to cthnic conict in thc tcrritorics ol lormcr
Yugoslavia, in usan Janjic, cd., Ethnic conict management: Te case of Yugoslavia (Ra
vcnna: Longo ditorc, +), +o6.
8
T. Pick, astcrn uropcan militant nationalism: Somc causcs and mcasurcs to coun
tcract it, Peace and Conict: Journal of Peace Psychology , no. (+), 8.
8alcanica XXX\! 110
protractcd conict in Kosovo, thc cthnic minority oltcn bccomcs thc ma
jority, and vicc vcrsa, duc to changcs in statc bordcrs, political systcms and
dcmographic lactors. !n such circumstanccs thc ncw majority always sccks
to cvcn thc scorc lor thc discrimination to which its group had bccn prc
viously subjcctcd.
+
Tis idcological position is an anchor lor both groups
idcntitics and is usclul in pursuing particular political goals and claims. !t
is cspccially lunctional in justilying acts ol violcncc by thc ingroup as war
rantcd rctribution.
!n my largcr samplc, whcn Scrb participants arc rcmindcd ol thc pol
icics ol Slobodan Milocvi, thcy rcspond by rccalling thc ccnturics ol Scr
bian plight undcr Muslim Albanian tcrror and thcir dominancc during thc
communist rulc. Similarly, whcn conlrontcd with thc violcnt crimcs pcr
pctratcd by thc Kosovo Libcration Army (KLA) against Scrbs, and othcr
minoritics, as wcll thcir cultural and rcligious hcritagc, thc Albanians invokc
thcir sucring in thc +os, undcr Milocvis rulc, and thc longstanding
opprcssion sucrcd at thc hands ol thc Scrbs.
Unlortunatcly, thcsc tragic kinds ol cxclusionary victimagc narrativcs
arc not only uscd to justily, but also to motivatc and provokc violcnt action.
Tis is not spccic only to thc 8alkans, but is visiblc and problcmatic in
othcr conicts around thc world. Tcy arc part ol thc rcason why thousands
ol pcoplc dic and thcir dcaths arc justicd as rcvcngc. Howcvcr, it is impor
tant to notc that participation and justication arc not idcntical, and that
justication docs not ncccssarily lcad to involvcmcnt. vcn though thcrc is
a thin linc, as Fcldman contcnds, bctwccn violcncc and inaction, spcctator
ship and partaking, sharing in thc vcrnacular rhctoric ol historical victim
agc, and rcproducing it through cvcryday discoursc, docs not guarantcc that
pcoplc will bc propcllcd to action, as scvcral authors writing about Kosovo
and thc lormcr Yugoslavia havc suggcstcd.
:

Concluding remarks
Tis idcological study has attcmptcd to problcmatizc cxplanations that
posit singular, prclcrcntial, and objcctivc victimagc in rclation to conict
o
onald G. llis, !ntcrcultural communication in intractablc cthnopolitical con
ict, in Villiam J. Starosta and G. M. Chcn, cds., Taking stock in intercultural com-
munication: Where to now? (!ntcrnational and intcrcultural communication annual, vol.
XX\!!!, :oo).
+
\ladimir Goati, Tc impact ol parliamcntary dcmocracy on cthnic rclations in Yugo
slavia, +8+, in usan Janjic, cd., Ethnic conict management: Te case of Yugoslavia
(Ravcnna: Longo ditorc, +).
:
Scc Anzulovic, Heavenly Serbia, Kaplan, Balkan ghosts, Sclls, Bridge betrayed.
intcrvcntion and rcsolution. !t has qucstioncd thc intcrrclationship bctwccn
claiming historical victimagc and using national historics, pcrsonal and col
lcctivc mcmorics to substantiatc it.
First, it has argucd that looking at history as objcctivc in contrast to
collcctivc mcmory as distortcd and mythical, lcads to sclcctivc sanctioning
ol victimagc narrativcs and rigid dcnitions ol victims and villains, which
lcads to inccctivc conict intcrvcntion and rcsolution, hclping to pcrpctu
atc violcncc.
Sccond, looking at vcrnacular discourscs ol Kosovo Scrbs and Al
banians this idcological study illustratcd how historical victimagc is crc
atcd and rcproduccd in cvcryday mclodramatic commcmoration rituals.

Tc analysis dcmonstratcd how ocial historiographics amalgamatc with
pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmorics, both rcgional and national, to producc
cohcrcnt and rational victimagc narrativcs lor thc spcakcrs.
Tird, it has bccn pointcd out that thc historical victim status is dcsir
ablc bccausc it aords cmotional,
symbolic and political rcsourccs,
whilc
bcing thc villain implics guilt and punishmcnt. Narrativcs ol historical vic
timagc invokc to past to makc scnsc ol thc prcscnt, scrvc to crcatc harsh
dichotomics ol opprcssor/opprcsscd, through which thc thcr is dclcgiti
mizcd and bccomcs thc targct ol violcncc, justicd as rcvcngc.
!ntractablc conict and thc inhcrcntly hostilc rclationship toward thc
thcr, bccomc cmbcddcd in cvcryday lilc through vcrnacular narrativcs ol
historical victimagc. Multigcncrational trauma
6
is translatcd into a victim
idcntity, which is givcn historical proportions.
Tc conict bccomcs mircd

in xcd binary oppositions ol victim vcrsus villain. !t is conccptualizcd and
undcrstood as a continuous strugglc ol thc innoccnt sucrcrs against thc
tyranny ol thc thcr. Such rationalizations sustain and pcrpctuatc conict,
making it cvcn morc intractablc and impcrvious to rcsolution, not only is
thcrc no room lor cmpathy and implicaturc, but thcrc is no room lor divcr
gcnt voiccs and inclusivc discourscs ol victimagc.
8urkc, Rhetoric of motives.
Lconard Hawcs, oublc binds as structurcs in dominancc and ol lcclings: problcm

atics ol dialoguc, in Robcrt Andcrson, Lcslic A. 8axtcr and Kcnncth N. Cissna, cds.,
Dialogue: Teorizing dierence in communication studies (Tousand aks: Sagc, :oo).
Hauscr, Vernacular voices.

6
anicl 8arTal, Tc rocky road toward pcacc: 8clicls on conict in !sracli tcxtbooks,
Journal of Peace Research , no. 6 (+8), ::.
Piro Misha, !nvcntion ol a nationalism: Myth and amncsia, in Stcphanic Schwad

ncrSicvcrs and 8rcnd J. Fischcr, cds., Albanian identities: Myth and history (London:
Hurst & Company, :oo:).
8alcanica XXX\! 112
!nstcad ol looking solcly at thc surlacc that is thc ocial and clitc
rhctoric cxamining thc dccp and undcrlying structurcs ol vcrnacular dis
courscs uncovcrs thc intcrplay ol multiplc mcmorics and rhctorical stratc
gics in cstablishing thc thcr as thc sourcc ol all tragcdics. Lack ol critical
attcntion to thc complcxitics ol historical victimagc rhctoric lcads to claims
ol primordial hatrcd and antagonism, and lails to undcrstand how thcsc cx
trcmc cmotions arisc out ol thc vcrnacular discoursc ol thc groups involvcd.
Tis idcological study shows that thc conict in Kosovo is not propcllcd by
such primordial instincts, but that hatrcd and violcncc arc constructcd as
lcgitimatc rcsponscs to ccnturics ol opprcssion. 8y uncovcring thc complcx
rhctoric ol historical victimagc in Kosovo it aims to makc a modcst contri
bution to thc undcrstanding ol intractablc conict dynamics, which rcvolvc
around historical victimagc. Tc implications ol this study can bc applicd in
othcr conicts, such as 8osnia, thc Middlc ast, Northcrn !rcland, Spain,
Chcchnya, Cyprus, ast Alrica, ast Timor, Turkcy, !raq, and various oth
crs. Tc goal is to movc us away lrom simplistic rationalizations, rcmcdics
and pcrpctual cyclcs ol violcncc in thcsc arcas.
UDC 316.347(=163.41=18)(497.115):323.1
uan T. 8atakovi
A Balkan-Style French Revolution?
Te 1804 Serbian Uprising in European Perspective
1
Enlightenment vs. Ottomanism
!t was not a coincidcncc that thc rst 8alkan rcvolution at thc bcginning ol
thc agc ol nationalism took placc in Scrbia. !n this northcrn provincc ol thc
ttoman mpirc bordcring with thc Habsburg mpirc along thc anubc
and Sava rivcrs, thc ccntral authority was wcakcr and lorcign inucnccs
strongcr than clscwhcrc in thc ttoman provinccs in uropc. Comparcd to
8osnia and Hcrzcgovina, whcrc local Muslim bcys rmly salcguardcd thc
conscrvativc ttoman systcm dcspitc thc lact that twothirds ol thc popu
lation wcrc Christian (rthodox and Roman Catholic), Scrbia was prc
dominantly Christian rthodox and maintaincd morc dynamic and morc
prolound contacts with thc Vcstcrn world. Frcqucnt wars, lorccd migra
tions and rcscttlcmcnts in thc shilting bordcrland bctwccn thc two cmpircs
intcnsicd contacts among thc Christian rthodox Scrbs, dcspitc thcir dil
lcrcnt social and political status undcr two dicrcnt cmpircs.
:
!t was in thc rcign ol Maria Tcrcsa and Joscph !! that thc cnlight
cncd rclorms in thc Habsburg mpirc brought thc Christian rthodox
Scrbs, dispcrscd in southcrn Hungary, thc Military Fronticr (Militrgren-
ze), almatia and CroatiaSlavonia, undcr a strongcr inucncc ol Vcstcrn
civilization. Tc Scrbian rthodox bishop ol Tcmcsvar (modcrn Timioara,
Romania) was an admircr ol \oltairc and had 8 books ol Frcnch rational
ists in his +obook library, whilc thc pcrsonal ,:6book library ol Count
Sava Tckclija, thc lcading mcmbcr ol thc Scrbian aristocracy in southcrn
+
Tis papcr was prcscntcd at thc conlcrcncc Te First Serbian Uprising: Political, Social
and Cultural Legacies, hcld at Harriman !nstitutc, Columbia Univcrsity, Ncw York, in
Novcmbcr :oo.
:
\. orovi, ic nstchung dcr unabhangigcn 8alkanstaatcn, Revue internationale
des tudes balkaniques !! (8clgradc, +), ++6o.
8alcanica XXX\! 114
Hungary, includcd thc cntirc Grande encyclopdie. Morcovcr, bcsidcs thcm,
thcrc wcrc dozcns ol inucntial Habsburg Scrbs that chcrishcd thc lcgacics
ol thc nlightcnmcnt and thc Frcnch Rcvolution.
Strongly imprcsscd by thc libcral idcas sprcading across uropc in

thc wakc ol thc Frcnch Rcvolution, thc Scrbian clitc raiscd thc issuc ol
national rights and tcrritorial autonomy as carly as +o, at thc ccclcsiasti
calnational dict hcld in Tcmcsvar and attcndcd by rcprcscntativcs ol thc
aristocracy, high clcrgy and occr corps. !n doing so, thcy wcrc lully awarc
ol thc lact that thc Scrbs (namcd by thc synonymous tcrm !llyrians, as thcy
had lor ccnturics bccn ocially labcllcd by thc impcrial govcrnmcnt in \i
cnna) wcrc yct to bccomc a modcrn nation. !n thcir pctition Gravamina und
postulata, thc Scrbs rclicd on Montcsquicu lor cmphasizing that a pcoplc
could not bc a distinct nation (corps de nation) without thcir tcrritory or tcr
ritorial autonomy.
A varicty ol possiblc solutions to thc Scrbian qucstion

produccd by Austrian Scrbs prior to +8o rcvcal a mixturc ol historicism,
drawing on thc mcdicval tradition ol thc Ncmanji dynasty, and thc mod
crn principlcs ol natural rights and popular sovcrcignty.
!n parallcl with thc rising ol national awarcncss among thc south
Hungarian Scrbs, thcir lcllow nationals in thc troublcd provincc ol Scrbia
raiscd dcmands lor local autonomy cncouragcd both by thc practicc cs
tablishcd during thc shortlivcd Habsburg occupation (++8) and by
thc wcakcning ol ttoman powcr altcr thc last war with thc Habsburgs.
nly vc ol thirtythrcc pctitions thc Scrbs lrom thc pashalik ol 8clgradc
submittcd to thc ttoman sultan bctwccn + and +8o6 rclcr to agrarian
problcms, thc rcst bcing rclatcd to thc cxtcnt ol thcir local autonomy.
Tcir
growing discontcnt with local administrators, who wcrc signicantly rcduc
ing thc autonomy obtaincd lrom Sultan Sclim !!!, cvcntually triggcrcd yct
anothcr uprising, which turncd into both a social and national rcvolution
altcr +8o.
6
M. Kosti, Nckoliko idcjnih odraza lrancuskc rcvolucijc u nacm drutvu krajcm

X\!!! i poctkom X!X vcka, Zbornik Matice srpske. Serija drutvenih nauka (Novi Sad,
+:), ++6, N. Radojii, Sava Tckclija, Istorijski asopis X!!X!!! (8clgradc, +6),
, N. Gavrilovi, \clika Francuska rcvolucija i Srbi u junoj Ugarskoj, Zbornik Matice
srpske. Serija drutvenih nauka :6 (Novi Sad, +6o), +8.
N. Pctrovi, Temivarski sabor 1790 (Novi Sad: Matica srpska, +:), 6:. Cl. also
Mmoirc dun Scrbc dc \icnnc sur la situation dcs Scrbcs dc la Hongric, Le monde
slave (April), (Paris, +), +:+:.
. Pantcli, Beogradski paaluk pred prvi srpski ustanak (17941804), Poscbna izdanja
CXL\! (8clgradc: Srpska akadcmija nauka, +).
6
For comprchcnsivc accounts ol various aspccts ol thc Scrbian rcvolution, scc V. \u
cinich, cd., Te First Serbian Uprising 18041813 (8ouldcr & Ncw York: Columbia
Univcrsity Prcss, +8:).
. T. 8atakovi, A 8alkanStylc Frcnch Rcvolution: 115
Although initially a pcasant rcbcllion against local janissarics, lrom +8o on
thc Scrbian uprising was incrcasingly national in charactcr. Tc insurgcnts
took up thc mcdicval coat ol arms ol thc Ncmanji dynasty, and in +8o
thc Praviteljstvujui sovjet (Govcrning Council) hcld its scssions in Smc
dcrcvo thc capital ol our dcspots and cmpcrors undcr thc portrait ol
mpcror Stclan uan (++). Karagcorgcs ocial lcttcrs and acts scnt
to local insurgcnt commandcrs, his proclamations and corrcspondcncc with
rcprcscntativcs ol thc grcat powcrs (including his lcttcr to Francis !), bcar
his signaturc as Scrbian commandcr. !n thc lcttcr ol +8o6 authorizing an
ocial Scrbian dclcgation to mcct both thc Habsburg and Russian cmpcr
ors, Karagcorgc dcscribcs thcm as potcntial saviours ol our nation, and
authorizcs thcm to act in thc namc ol thc Scrbian nation. !n thc namc
ol thc wholc Scrbian nation, thc lcttcr is signcd by Karagcorgc Pctrovi,
suprcmc commandcr in Scrbia.
!n thcir pctition to thc Russian cmpcror in +8o6, thc insurgcnts

cncouragcd by a scrics ol victorics ovcr thc rcgular ttoman troops (at
!vankovac in +8o, at Miar and cligrad in +8o6), including thc capturc
ol 8clgradc, thc rcgional stratcgic stronghold claim that, should Russia
dccidc to scnd its troops to thc 8alkans, all Scrbs lrom Scrbia, 8osnia,
Hcrzcgovina, Montcncgro, almatia and Albania would joylully unitc and,
in a short spacc ol timc, crcatc a ncw :oo,ooostrong army.
8
As a mattcr ol lact, such political claims rccctcd thc rcality ol con
tinuous coopcration with similar antittoman rcvolts stagcd by Scrbian
clans in Hcrzcgovina and Montcncgro. From thc vcry bcginning, thc in
surgcnts organizcd thcir military opcrations in coordination with thc rulcr
ol Montcncgro, Princc8ishop Pctar ! PctroviNjcgo, who considcrcd his
pcoplc a branch ol onc Scrbian nation.
Altcr Montcncgrin tribcs dc

lcatcd thc ttoman army in +6 (thc battlcs ol Krusi and Martinii), thcir
scmiindcpcndcnt status was additionally strcngthcncd, paving thc way lor
thcir morc signicant rolc in thc subscqucnt antittoman movcmcnts. As
carly as January +8o Princc8ishop Pctar ! inlormcd thc hcad ol thc Scr
bian monastcry ol cani in Kosovo that both Montcncgrins and Scrbs
wcrc making plans to risc up against thc ttomans.
+o
Although tiny Montcncgro rcmaincd inactivc in thc carly stagc ol
thc insurrcction in Scrbia, mostly duc to Russian intcrlcrcncc, a scrics ol lo
R. Pcrovi, Prvi srpski ustanak. Akta i pisma na srpskom jeziku (18041808), (8clgradc:
Narodna knjiga, +8), vol. +, +:, +:, +.
8
M. jordjcvi, Oslobodilaki rat srpskih ustanika 18041806 (8clgradc: \ojnoizdavaki
zavod, +6).
J. M. Milovi, Titulc vladikc Pctrovia, Istorijski zapisi LX/+ (Titograd, +8), .

+o
S. Risti, Deanski spomenici (8clgradc, +86), ::.
8alcanica XXX\! 116
cal rcbcllions brokc out in thc sanjak ol Novi Pazar, a small district bctwccn
thc pashalik ol 8clgradc and thc mountainous rcgions ol Montcncgro, thc
ncighbouring Scrb clans in Hcrzcgovina (robnjaci, Nikii, 8jclopavlii
and Moraani) also took up arms, whilc othcr Scrb clans ol Montcncgro
(Kui and Pipcri), as wcll as Albanian highlandcrs (Klimcnti or Kclmcndi
tribc), rcbcllcd lor grcatcr autonomy.
++
!n Kosovo, undcr thc ironhand rulc
ol local Albanian pashas, unrcst was rccordcd among thc Scrbs and somc ol
thcm cvcntually managcd to join Karagcorgcs rcbcl lorccs.
+:
Tc Hcrzcgovinabascd robnjaci clan bcgan to launch attacks
against ttomanhcld Podgorica as carly as +8o, and +8o saw thc out
brcak ol thcir ycarlong rcbcllion against thc local ttoman authoritics,
pacicd only altcr mcmbcrs ol thcir lamilics had bccn takcn hostagc.
+
!n
+8o6 Karagcorgc issucd a proclamation to thc rcbclling clans ol Hcrzc
govina calling thcm to join thc battlc against thc ttomans, lor our holy
churchcs and monastcrics, lor thc lrccdom ol our lathcrland, in his lcttcr
to Pctar ! PctroviNjcgo, hc callcd upon thc Montcncgrins to build a
common Scrbian statc loundcd on thc samc rthodox laith and thc samc
Scrbian blood, and to bccomc onc body, onc hcart, onc soul and loving lcl
low citizcns.
+
!n rcsponsc, thc Montcncgrins launchcd scvcral assaults on thc
ncighbouring ttoman lorts in Hcrzcgovina, particularly in thc Niki
arca. Howcvcr, thc intcndcd unication ol Montcncgrin and Scrbian lorccs
during Karagcorgcs incursion into thc sanjak ol Novi Pazar in +8o was
thwartcd by a suddcn ttoman ocnsivc on thc southcrn lront which
lorccd thc Scrbs to withdraw.
Although a mixturc ol modcrn national and romantic historic rights,
thc Scrbian insurgcnts political claims wcrc dominatcd by thc ambition
lor rcstoring thc mcdicval Scrbian statc, wcakcncd by thc 8attlc ol Kosovo
in +8 and cvcntually lost to thc ttomans. uans cmpirc, although its
corc had bccn lar to thc south (in thc arca ol Kosovo and Skopjc), was an
idcal chcrishcd by thc lcading rcprcscntativc ol Scrbian monastic histori
cism, Jovan Raji (+:6+8o+), whosc lourvolumc History of Various Slavic
Nations, Notably Bulgars, Croats and Serbs, publishcd in \icnna in +/,
bccamc thc mainstay ol Scrbian national idcology in thc carly ninctccnth
ccntury. An ttoman ocial, hcld in imprisonmcnt in Scrbia during +8o6,
++
P. obaji, Udco dinarskih plcmcna u Prvom srpskom ustanku, Glasnik Etnografskog
instituta Srpske akademije nauka !!!!! (8clgradc, +), 8+6.
+:
. T. 8atakovi, Te Kosovo Chronicles (8clgradc: Plato, +:), .
+
A. Alii, Ustanak u robnjacima +8o. godinc, Godinjak drutva istoriara BiH
X!X (Sarajcvo, +), +.
+
Pcrovi, Prvi srpski ustanak, +.
rcportcd about thc insurgcnts plans: As King |Princc| Lazar oncc wcnt to
Kosovo |in +8 to conlront ttomans| so thcy will all comc to Kosovo
again. Tcy always havc at hand thc history books |History by Jovan Raji|
on thc alorcsaid King |Princc Lazar|, and it is hc that puts thcm in mind
ol rcbcllion.
+
Restoration of Serbia: medieval inspiration, modern demands
Tc lack ol a strong intcllcctual lcadcrship among thc pcasant rcbcls, whosc
chicl idcologist was Matija Ncnadovi, a pricst who drcw upon mcdicval
Scrbian traditions (Krmija ol Saint Sava),
+6
was compcnsatcd lor by politi
cal support cxtcndcd by thc cnlightcncd Scrbian clitc lrom thc ncighbour
ing Habsburg provinccs. Following thc Tcmcsvar dict ol +o, thcy camc
to scc thcmsclvcs as dcstincd to providc political and intcllcctual lcadcrship
lor thc cntirc national movcmcnt. nthusiasm lor thc insurrcction both
among urban and rural Scrbs in southcrn Hungary (prcscntday \ojvodina)
was so strong that it gavc scrious causc lor conccrn to thc local Austrian
authoritics. Sccrct rclations wcrc cstablishcd bctwccn prospcrous Scrbian
mcrchants and church dignitarics in thc ncighbouring Habsburg provinccs
and thc insurgcnts, and purchasc ol arms and ammunition was discusscd.
As strcsscd by local Habsburg ocials, thc Scrbs ol southcrn Hungary not
only wclcomcd thc insurrcction but bcgan to associatc thcir own luturc with
thc prospcct ol a sovcrcign Scrbian statc.
+
Gavrilo Kovacvi, a Scrb intcl
lcctual lrom Zcmun (Scmlin), dcdicatcd a solcmn pocm to thc insurrcction,
linking it with thc +8 8attlc ol Kosovo, whilc thc lcading Scrbian intcl
lcctual, ositcj bradovi, wrotc an odc which in timc bccamc thc idcolog
ical hymn ol thc insurgcnts: Risc up Scrbia / our dcar mothcr / to bccomc
again what you oncc wcrc. / For you thc Scrbian childrcn cry / and bravcly
thcyrc ghting lor you.
+8
Tc odc madc it clcar that thc insurrcction had
rcvivcd hopcs lor thc libcration ol 8osnia, Hcrzcgovina, Montcncgro and
othcr ncighbouring lands, scas and islands.
Tough rclcrring to thc rcstoration ol thc shortlivcd mcdicval Scr
bian cmpirc ol Stclan uan, which in thc middlc ol thc lourtccnth ccntury
strctchcd lrom 8clgradc to thc Pcloponncsus, Scrbian intcllcctuals draltcd
+
R. Trikovi, Pismo travnikog vczira iz +8o6. godinc, Politika, 8clgradc, :+ Fcbru
ary +6.
+6
For morc, scc Te Memoirs of Prota Matija Nenadovi, cd. and trans. Lovctt F. dwards
(xlord: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +6).
+
A. !vi, Spisi bekih arhiva o Prvom srpskom ustanku (8clgradc: Srpska Kraljcvska
Akadcmija, +), vol. !!!, .
+8
J. . Mitrovi, Istorija Srba (8clgradc: Curo, +), o8.
8alcanica XXX\! 118
tcrritorial claims that wcrc bascd on thc modcrn conccpt ol national idcntity
dcncd by a common languagc, culturc, rcligion and historical traditions.
+
Considcring languagc as ccntral to thc modcrn dcnition ol national
idcntity transccnding rcligious aliations, ositcj bradovi strcsscd that
thc part ol thc world in which thc Scrbian languagc is cmploycd is no
smallcr than thc Frcnch or thc nglish tcrritory, il wc disrcgard vcry small
dicrcnccs that occur in thc pronunciation and similar dicrcnccs arc
lound in all othcr languagcs ... Vhcn ! writc ol pcoplcs who livc in thcsc
kingdoms and provinccs, ! mcan thc mcmbcrs both ol thc Grcck |astcrn
rthodox| and ol thc Latin |Roman Catholic| Church and do not cxcludc
cvcn thc Turks ol 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina |8osnian Muslims|, inasmuch as
rcligion and laith can bc changcd, but racc and languagc can ncvcr bc.
:o
Tc lcading historians and linguists ol Ccntral uropc gcncrally
considcrcd thc Scrbs, oltcn labcllcd !llyrians or SlavoScrbs, as thc larg
cst South Slavic group sprcad ovcr most ol thc lormcr Roman provincc ol
!llyricum in thc ccntral and wcstcrn 8alkans. Johann Christian von ngcl,
a lcading authority lrom thc turn ol thc ccntury, dcscribcd Scrbs as a na
tion distributcd lrom !stria and almatia to Slavonia, including 8osnia,
Hcrzcgovina, Montcncgro, Scrbia, and cvcn somc parts ol prcscntday 8ul
garia, and sharing thc samc languagc, and hcncc, thc samc cthnic aliation.
Considcring kaikavian to bc thc only gcnuincly Croatian dialcct, von ngcl
quotcd obrowski (+) in ordcr to point that somc Rcnaissancc writcrs
had conluscd thc Scrbian languagc ol almatia with Croatian duc to politi
cal tics.
:+
Rclying on such assumptions, Count Sava Tckclija (+6++8:), thc
wcalthicst Scrbian notablc in Hungary, printcd a :,ooocopy cdition ol thc
Geographic Map of Serbia, Bosnia, Dubrovnik, Montenegro and Neighbouring
Regions in \icnna (+8o), in ordcr to dcnc thc potcntial national claims
ol thc Scrbs. Tc rst oo copics wcrc scnt to thc insurgcnt lcadcrship in
Scrbia. Anothcr Habsburg Scrb, Gcorgijc Mihaljcvi, cditcd thc +8o8 is
suc ol thc widcly rcad Almanac for every Serb giving Karagcorgcs portrait
thc placc ol honour. A baroquc portrait ol thc mcdicval Scrbian mpcror
Stclan uan, printcd somcwhcrc in Hungary, was distributcd all ovcr Scr
+
For thc ovcrall inucncc ol Habsburg Scrbs, scc !. 8anac, Tc Rolc ol \ojvodina in
Karadjordjcs Rcvolution, Sdost-Forschungen XL (Munich +8+), +6+.
:o
. bradovi, Lcttcr to Haralampijc, in Te Life and Adventures of Dimitrije Obra-
dovic, cd. and trans. G. R. Noycs (8crkclcy, Los Angclcs: Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss,
+), +.
:+
J. C. von ngcl, Gcschichtc von Scrwicn und 8osnicn, Geschichte des Ungarischen Re-
iches and sein Nebenlander !!! (Hallc, +8o+), ++, M. kmci, Stvaranje Jugoslavije
1790-1918 (8clgradc: Prosvcta, +8), vol. !, 8.
bia, southcrn Hungary and thc Austrian Military Fronticr (Militrgrenze).
A lormcr Grenzer occr, Nikola Stamatovi, rcproduccd mcdicval Scrbian
coats ol arms, including thosc ol Scrbia, 8osnia, Zcta (Montcncgro), Hcr
zcgovina and almatia, lrom Hristilor clarovis Stemmatography (++),
and distributcd thc prints.
::
Although Russia was traditionally considcrcd thc main Scrbian ally,
somc inucntial Habsburg Scrbs, such as Count Sava Tckclija, turncd to thc
Frcnch and Austrian rulcrs lor thcir support lor thc rcstoration ol Scrbia,
a statc that would bc thc corc ol a largcr political cntity. Tckclijas mcmo
randum ol Junc +8o to thc ncwlycrowncd mpcror Napolcon ! proposcd
thc crcation ol a vast !llyrian kingdom, i.c. ol a largc South Slavic statc
that would, undcr thc auspiccs ol Francc, cncompass most ol thc Scrb and
Slavinhabitcd 8alkan rcgions. A ycar latcr, a slightly rcviscd vcrsion ol thc
proposal was submittcd to thc Habsburg mpcror Francis !.
:
According to Tckclija, thc !llyrian kingdom, mostly comprising Scrbs
as thc largcst Slavic nation in thc 8alkans, would bc a major contribution
to thc longtcrm stability ol thc rcgion. Strctching lrom thc Adriatic to
thc 8lack Sca, thc kingdom would bc a solid barricr to both Russia and
Austria. For that rcason, uropc should guarantcc a distinguishcd position
and ourishing continuity to thc nation capablc ol providing that kind ol
stability: Right now, Tckclija strcsscd in his mcmorandum to Napolcon !,
such a nation is rising its hcad and throwing o thc yokc ncvcr to acccpt it
again lor any othcr domcstic or lorcign inucncc. !t is thc Scrbian nation, or
Scrbians, il wc takc into account only thosc living in Scrbia Vhcn, sup
portcd by uropc, thcy unitc into a largc !llyrian kingdom joining 8osnia,
8ulgaria, almatia, Croatia, Slovcnia, Montcncgro, Maccdonia, Albania,
ubrovnik, thc Scrbinhabitcd arcas ol Hungary and Scrbia, that kingdom
will bc a powcrlul barricr against thosc powcrs, namcly Austria and Rus
sia, that might attcmpt to cstablish thcir domination in thc 8alkans. !n
his mcmorandum to Francis ! a ycar latcr (+8o), howcvcr, Count Tckclija
mcntioncd only Russia as a potcntial thrcat to thc 8alkans.
:
Tc main obstaclc to mcrging all thcsc provinccs into a singlc statc, as
argucd by Count Tckclija in his mcmorandum to Napolcon !, would bc rc
ligious dicrcnccs and thc backwardncss ol thc population. 8ut to Tckclija,
thc Rcvolutionary Frcnch cxamplc ol surmounting rcligious barricrs was a
::
H. clarovi & T. Mcsmcr, Stematograja. Izobraenije oruij Ilirieskih (++), cd. .
avidov (Novi Sad: Galcrija Maticc srpskc, +:).
:
S. Tckclija, Opisanije ivota (8clgradc: Prosvcta, +66), +++8, 6. Cl. also .
J. Popovi, Sava Tckclija prcma Prvom srpskom ustanku, Zbornik Matice srpske (Novi
Sad, +), ++8+:.
:
S. Gavrilovi, Vojvodina i Srbija u vreme Prvog ustanka (Novi Sad, +), :o:.
8alcanica XXX\! 120
ray ol hopc that nationalism might lostcr thc unication ol thc Scrbs and
abatc rcligious lanaticism, cxcluding rcligious qucstions and highlighting
only nationalism and lathcrland.
:
!n dcning national idcntity, Count Tckclija lollowcd thc samc pat
tcrn as ositcj bradovi. Summing up thc cightccnthccntury scholarly
tradition ol cquating languagc with nationality, transccnding rcligious al
liation, bradovi strcsscd: Scrbs lrom dicrcnt kingdoms and provinccs
bcar dicrcnt namcs: thcy arc Scrbians in Scrbia, 8osnians in 8osnia, al
matians in almatia, Hcrzcgovinians in Hcrzcgovina and Montcncgrins in
Montcncgro. vcrywhcrc thcy spcak thc samc |languagc|, undcrstand cach
othcr pcrlcctly and casily, cxccpt lor slight dialcctal dicrcnccs ... vcn thc
simplcst Scrb lrom thc 8anat or 8aka |in prcscntday \ojvodina|, whcn
in Scrbia, 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina and in particular in Croatia, Slavonia or
in Srcm, nds himscll in his own matcrnal languagc and nation, whcthcr
bcing ol astcrn or Roman |Christian| ritc.
:6
Following thc samc pattcrn, Count Tckclija considcrcd all thc Scr
bianspcaking Slavic population ol thc 8alkans as Scrbs. His inclusion ol
thc ncighbouring provinccs ol 8ulgaria and Albania was probably bascd on
cthnic similaritics in thc casc ol 8ulgaria, or on thc assumption that somc
parts ol northcrn Albania wcrc inhabitcd by clans ol mixcd ScrbianAlba
nian origin.
Vhilc thc cnlightcncd Scrbs lrom southcrn Hungary advocatcd a
modcrn approach to thc qucstion ol nation, bascd primarily on common
culturc and linguistic kinship, thc Scrbian church hicrarchy, both in thc
ttoman and Habsburg cmpircs, had a narrowcr rcligious approach to thc
dcnition ol national idcntity. isillusioncd with thc Habsburgs, cspccially
altcr thc Trcaty ol KuukKaynarca (+), thcir obvious choicc lor an ally
was impcrial Russia. Although cvoking mcdicval traditions, thcir projccts
lor thc rcstoration ol a Scrbian cmpirc hingcd on thc vast tcrritory in both
thc ttoman and Habsburg cmpircs that had bccn undcr thc spiritual juris
diction ol thc Patriarchatc ol Pc until +6 rathcr than on thc boundarics
ol Stclan uans cmpirc.
\arious plans lor thc rcstoration ol thc Scrbian statc wcrc dcsigncd
throughout thc cightccnth ccntury. Undcr thc circumstanccs, thcy sought
support cithcr lrom thc Habsburg or thc Russian cmpirc. Tc carlicst proj
cct is datcd +6/: Patriarch Arscnijc !\ Jovanovi akabcnta cnvisagcd
!llyria as a largc autonomous statc within thc Habsburg rcalm comprising
Scrbia, 8osnia, 8ulgaria, Hcrzcgovina and Albania. !ts political status was
:
Ibid.
:6
. bradovi, Prvenac (8clgradc, +8++).
to bc similar to that ol Hungary, with its own govcrnmcnt, army, nobility,
churchcs and schools. Tc !llyrianRascian nation (i.c. Scrbs) would bc
govcrncd by a patriarch as suprcmc rulcr, whilc ccclcsiastical aairs would
rcmain undcr thc jurisdiction ol thc cumcnical Patriarchatc at Constan
tinoplc.
:
l scvcral projccts claboratcd in Montcncgro, an ambitious onc, dc
signcd by Princc8ishop \asilijc Pctrovi Njcgo in +8:, cnvisagcd thc
rcstoration ol thc mcdicval Scrbian statc comprising 8osnia, Scrbia, 8ul
garia, Uppcr Albania, almatia, 8anat and Slavonia. !n +8 thc cnvoy ol
Montcncgrin Princc8ishop Pctar ! Savo Ljubia wcnt to Russia to prcscnt
a similar projcct lor a kingdom ol ld Rascia, largc cnough to supply as
many as :oo,ooo soldicrs. 8ascd on a scvcntccnthccntury plan ol Count
Gcorgc 8rankovi, thc projcct, as dcscribcd by Ljubia, was lurthcr clabo
ratcd with somc Grcck prclatcs.
:8
Yct anothcr proposal lor crcating a largc
SlavicScrb cmpirc that would bc undcr Russian protcction and rulcd by
a Russian princc was submittcd to thc Russian court in +8o by thc Archi
mandritc ol thc Monastcry ol Moraa in Hcrzcgovina (today in Montcnc
gro), Arscnijc Gagovi, most likcly lollowing his consultations with Stclan
Stratimirovi, Scrbian Mctropolitan ol Srcmski Karlovci (Carlowitz).
:
Mctropolitan Stratimirovis condcntial mcmorandum ol Junc +8o
scnt to Russian mpcror Alcxandcr ! lormulatcd an ambitious plan lor rc
cstablishing a largc Scrbian statc that, in addition to thc ttomanhcld
provinccs (Scrbia, 8osnia, Montcncgro, Hcrzcgovina), would also cncom
pass thc Austrianhcld tcrritorics: Srcm, thc Gull ol Cattaro (Boka Kotor-
ska) and much ol almatia up to thc city ol ibcnik. Tc ncwlycstablishcd
Scrbian statc would bc an indcpcndcnt monarchy rulcd by a mcmbcr ol
thc Russian impcrial lamily. !n +8o thc Scrbian 8ishop ol 8aka, Jovan
Jovanovi, had on his own initiativc scnt a pctition to thc Russian Mctro
politan, strcssing that thc Scrbs, an rthodox nation with traditions ol thcir
own, wcrc sucring and cxpccting hclp lrom thcir rthodox brcthrcn.
o
:
S. Gavrilovi, Srpski nacionalni program patrijarha Arscnija !\ Jovanovia akabcntc
iz +6/. godinc, Zbornik Matice srpske za istoriju (Novi Sad, ++), 8.
:8
. \uksan, Petar I Petrovi Njego i njegovo doba (Cctinjc, ++), 88, S. Gavrilovi,
Gradja bekih arhiva o Prvom srpskom ustanku (18041810), (8clgradc: SANU, +8),
vol. !, .
:
. Pantcli, Beogradski paaluk pred Prvi srpski ustanak (17941804), (8clgradc: Srp
ska akadcmija nauka, +), 688.
o
. jordjcvi, Rvolutions nationales des peuples balkaniques 1804-1914 (8clgradc: !nsti
tut dhistoirc, +6), +8+. For morc dctails, scc St. imitrijcvi, Stevana Stratimirova
mitropolita karlovakog plan za oslobodjenje srpskog naroda (8clgradc, +:6).
8alcanica XXX\! 122
Te Habsburg Serbs response to the Serbian Revolution
Although highly unrcalistic, such political claims wcrc not mcrcly articial
projccts with strong historic rclcrcnccs. Tcy wcrc soon justicd by politi
cal uphcaval among Scrbs in both thc ttoman and Habsburg cmpircs.
According to Frcnch rcports, as carly as +8o songs about Karagcorgc as
hros librateur could bc hcard in almatia, whcrc thc vcry notion ol lrcc
dom was associatcd with his namc. Tc Scrbian uprising strongly cchocd
throughout thc 8alkans, lar bcyond thc bordcrs ol thc pashalik ol 8clgradc.
A signicant stir was obscrvcd in thc Habsburg mpirc among thc Scrbs
in thc Srcm and 8anat rcgions ol southcrn Hungary and thc Scrb soldicrs
lrom thc Military Fronticr surrounding thc uropcan ttoman posscs
sions as a bclt strctching along thc Sava Rivcr, around 8osnia and alma
tia.
Tc Austrian authoritics rcgistcrcd that southHungarian Scrbs
lrom pcasants and army occrs to pricsts, tcachcrs and lawycrs wcrc
massivcly crossing into Scrbia to join thc insurgcnts. From thcir ranks
thc lcadcrship ol thc uprising got not only capablc and highly motivatcd
voluntccrs, but also its rst diplomats, ministcrs and school tcachcrs. Tc
rst Ministcr ol ducation ol insurgcnt Scrbia was ositcj bradovi, thc
ccntral gurc ol thc Scrbian nlightcnmcnt. uring thc initial phasc ol
thc insurrcction, with tacit approval ol thc local authoritics, Scrbian trad
crs lrom thc southcrnmost rcgion ol thc Habsburg mpirc (Srcm, 8anat,
8aka) supplicd thc insurgcnts with arms and ammunition. Tc chicl coor
dinator ol all thc corts to providc nancial support and military supplics
lor Karagcorgcs troops, thc suprcmc lcadcr (vrhovni vod) ol thc Scrbian
rcvolution, was Mctropolitan Stcvan Stratimirovi, thc spiritual lcadcr
ol Christian rthodox Scrbs in thc Habsburg Monarchy. Altcr thc rst
victorics ol thc insurgcnts, a signicant numbcr ol cxpcricnccd Scrbian
occrs and soldicrs arrivcd in Scrbia as voluntccrs lrom prcdominantly
Scrbinhabitcd rcgions ol thc Austrian Military Fronticr (SlavoniaSrcm
military district).
As carly as April +8o, thc Habsburg military commandcr ol Za
grcb was vcry upsct about thc lact that rthodox Christians (i.c. Scrbs)
wcrc sprcading thc ncws ol Karagcorgcs grcat victorics across all ol thc
Military Fronticr, and rcportcd that thc cntirc population was cnthusiastic
about thc idca ol lrccdom won by thc insurgcnts in Scrbia.
+
Tc numbcr
ol voluntccrs lrom thc Military Fronticr joining Scrbian troops rosc to +
in +8o, including +88 coming lrom rcgular Habsburg rcgimcnts. Many
+
F. ii, Karadjordjc, Juni Slovcni i Napolconova !lirija, in P. S. Pctrovi, Karadjor-
dje. ivot i delo (8clgradc: Narodno dclo, +:), 6.
othcrs, as rcportcd by worricd Austrian ocials, camc to Scrbia cvcn lrom
almatia.
:
Tc rst dircct ccct ol thc Scrbian uprising wcrc two shortlivcd
rcbcllions ol Scrbian pcasants in what is today \ojvodina (+8o in Srcm,
and +8o8 in thc 8anat), both striving lor national and social libcration. !n
a mcmorandum scnt to thc Russian mpcror prior to thc rcvolt, thc Scrbs
ol Srcm strcsscd thc intcntion, sharcd by thcir compatriots in thc 8anat,
to libcratc thcmsclvcs lrom thc Gcrman |Habsburg| yokc. Count Sava
Tckclijas map in thcir hcadquartcrs showcd thc lands that should bc libcr
atcd and unitcd with Scrbia. Tc local Austrian commandcrs had no doubts
that thc Scrbs, should thcy obtain thcir own dynasty, would do cvcrything
it takcs to rcstorc Stclan uans cmpirc. uring thc shortlivcd uprising in
8anat, its lcadcr, thc pricst imitrijc Gcorgijcvi, rcpcatcd to his lollowcrs
that thc main goal is thc rcstoration ol Stclan uans cmpirc. Tc com
mandcr ol Scrbian bordcr troops on thc oppositc sidc ol thc anubc, Pctar
obrnjac, invitcd thc 8anat Vallachians to risc and join thc Scrbs, appcal
ing to rcligious solidarity against lorcign (Habsburg) rulc, as harsh as that
ol thc ttomans. Tc obvious coordination ol military corts ol Scrbian
insurgcnts in Scrbia and thc 8anat compcllcd Austrian ocials to ban, at
lcast lor a whilc, thc distribution ol Scrbian books in thc Habsburg arcas
bordcring with Scrbia.
Struggling lor thc rcstoration ol thcir own privilcgcs within thc t

toman systcm in thc carly stagc ol thc uprising in Scrbia (+8o+8o6), thc
insurgcnts issucd modcst political dcmands. Claiming limitcd autonomy
lrom Sultan Sclim !!!, thcy also ocrcd that Scrbia bc placcd undcr thc pro
tcction ol Austria and Russia. uring thc sccond phasc ol thc insurrcction
(latc +8o6 carly +8o), Scrbian insurgcnts, cncouragcd by thc Russians
whosc army rcachcd thc Scrbian bordcr on thc anubc altcr thcy had cn
tcrcd into a ncw war against ttomans, opcnly proclaimcd thcir dcmand lor
indcpcndcncc. !t was in +8o that, ordcrcd to supply troops lor thc Sultans
war against Russia, knez Sima Markovi, prcsidcnt ol thc Praviteljstvujui
Sovjet, dcclarcd: Scrbia considcrs hcrscll as an indcpcndcnt statc, shc docs
not acccpt to pay any tributc nor will shc raisc arms against hcr brothcrs in
laith and allics.
!t was in +8o that Karagcorgc invitcd all thc Christians

lrom Albania, Rumclia and 8ulgaria to risc to arms and join thc Scrbians.
:
Ibid.
. Scanski, Gradja o Ticanovoj buni u Sremu 1807. godine (8clgradc, +:), S.

Gavrilovi, okumcnta Karlovakog arhiva o Kruikoj buni +8o8, Zbornik Matice
Srpske. Serija drutvenih nauka (Novi Sad, +6), 68, Gavrilovi, Vojvodina i Srbija,
6++, +o+.
M. \ukicvi, Karadjordje (8clgradc, ++:), vol. !!, 6.

8alcanica XXX\! 124
Tc Scrbian lcadcr scnt, in addition to his proclamation to thcsc provinccs,
a standard lor cach ol thcm.
ncouragcd by military succcsscs, thc lcad

crs ol thc Scrbian Rcvolution wcrc sccking widcr 8alkan support lor thcir
strugglc against ttoman domination.
8ittcrly disappointcd by both Austrian hcsitations and Russias at
tcmpts to takc lull control ol thc Scrbian insurrcction in pursuit ol hcr own
cnds, Karagcorgc pinncd all his hopcs on a possiblc alliancc with Francc.
Having takcn almatia and cstablishcd thc !llyrian provinccs strctching
lrom Ljubljana in thc Slovcnc Alps all thc way down to thc coastal town ol
ubrovnik, thc Frcnch considcrcd 8osnia as thc kcy ttoman provincc lor
transport ol thcir goods towards Anatolia during thc contincntal blockadc,
whilc Scrbia, undcr Russian inucncc, was considcrcd a possiblc thrcat to
thcir global intcrcsts. !t was in +8o, howcvcr, lollowing hcavy dclcats on
scvcral lronts, that Karagcorgc ocrcd Napolcon to takc abac, a stratcgic
Scrbian town on thc bordcr with 8osnia, and hclp thc insurgcnts to ncgoti
atc a ncw status lor Scrbia with thc Sublimc Portc.
6
!n +8+o, through his spccial cnvoy to Paris, Captain Radc \uini
lrom thc Military Fronticr town ol Karlovac (Karlstadt), Karagcorgc pro
poscd to Napolcon thc unication into a largc Frcnchprotcctcd statc ol
Scrbia, 8osnia, Hcrzcgovina, thc !llyrian provinccs strctching lrom Ljublja
na to ubrovnik (including almatia with ubrovnik, portions ol prcscnt
day Croatia and Slovcnia) and thc Scrbinhabitcd lands undcr Habsburg
rulc (8anat, Srcm, Slavonia), including, il possiblc, thc kindrcd 8ulgarian
pcoplc. Napolcon could not acccpt his ocr as it would havc cndangcrcd
thc tcrritorial intcgrity ol his ally, thc ttoman mpirc, but suggcstcd to
thc Frcnch consul in 8ucharcst to coopcratc with thc Scrbs. Tis proposal,
although not viablc, clcarly showcd that Karagcorgc saw Frcnch support as
thc only way out ol both thc Russian and Austrian orbits. Howcvcr, it can
not bc rulcd out that Napolcon rcorganizcd thc Frcnch posscssions in al
matia, Krajina and Slovcnia into thc !llyrian provinccs (+8o+) in ordcr
to countcrbalancc thc Scrbian insurrcction, sccn in Paris as an important
instrumcnt ol Russian inucncc in thc 8alkans.
isappointcd with Frcnch rcluctancc to support thc insurrcction, thc

Scrbs had to turn to Russia oncc again. Karagcorgcs othcr option, an al
liancc with thc Habsburgs, bccamc impracticablc with Scrbia, mostly lor
M. Gavrilovi, Ispisi iz Pariskih arhiva (8clgradc: Srpska Kraljcvska Akadcmija,

+o), +.
6
For morc dctails, scc . T. 8atakovi, La Francc ct la Scrbic +8o+8+, Balcanica
XX!X (8clgradc, +8), +++.
Cl. . Roksandi, Vojna Hrvatska. La Croatie militaire. Krajiko drutvo u Francuskom

carstvu (18091813), (Zagrcb: kolska knjiga, +88), vol. !, +++.
military rcasons, rcmaining attachcd to Russias 8alkan campaigns. Aban
doncd by Russia altcr thc +8+: Trcaty ol 8ucharcst, thc Scrbs, whilc cx
prcssing rcadincss to acccpt a scmiindcpcndcnt status similar to that ol thc
anubian Principalitics (Vallachia and Moldavia), rcjcctcd thc proposal ol
morc limitcd autonomy: Vc do not rccognizc clauscs ol thc |ttoman|
trcaty with Russia |in 8ucharcst|. Vc dcmand our indcpcndcnt statc and
wc do not acccpt any othcr solution.
8
Lacking cxtcrnal support, thc Scrbian rcvolution was brutally crushcd
by rcgular ttoman troops in thc autumn ol +8+. Somc +oo,ooo Scrbs, in
cluding Karagcorgc and most othcr insurgcnt lcadcrs, crosscd thc Sava and
thc anubc to scck rclugc in thc Habsburg Monarchy.
Te impact on Bosnia, Bulgaria and Greece
Tc Scrbian uprising also had a strong impact on thc Christian rthodox
Scrbs in 8osniaHcrzcgovina. According to somc statistics, thc population
ol Christian rthodox Scrbs thcrc was probably cvcn largcr than in rcbcllcd
Scrbia itscll.
As carly as +8o, sccrct talks wcrc conductcd in Sarajcvo on

a possiblc joint uprising by thc Scrbs in 8osnia, Hcrzcgovina and Scrbia. !n
thc summcr ol +8o, songs wcrc sung in 8osnia about Karagcorgcs hcroic
dccds and numcrous voluntccrs kcpt crossing into Scrbia.
o
Tc rcsounding victory ol +:,ooo Scrbians ovcr thc powcrlul :o,ooo
strong army ol 8osnian bcys at thc 8attlc ol Miar in +8o6 raiscd hopcs
among Scrbian pcasants in 8osnia that ttoman rulc might bc rcplaccd by
that ol Karagcorgcs Scrbia. Tc victory at Miar was pcrccivcd as thc rst
major victory ol thc Scrbian raya ovcr ttoman troops. A Scrbian rtho
dox pricst lrom Prijcdor wrotc thc lollowing: ! was paticntly bcaring thc
Turkish yokc, as all othcr rthodox Christians, hoping that Karagcorgc
will libcratc us and put us undcr his protcction.
+
As obscrvcd by a Frcnch
travcllcr, thc Scrbian insurrcction was thc main rcason lor rcsolutc and morc
ccctivc dclcncc ol Scrbian pcasants lrom Muslim violcncc.
:
A Scrbian
8
S. HadzihuscinoviMuvvckit, Tarih-i Bosna, quotcd in kmci, Stvaranje Jugoslav-
ije, +.
kmci (Stvaranje Jugoslavije, ) quotcs a statistics cstimating thc ovcrall popula

tion ol 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina as high as +, million inhabitants.
o
. T. 8atakovi, Te Serbs of Bosnia & Herzegovina. History and Politics (Paris: ia
loguc, +6), :.
+
J. Tokovi, Odnosi izmedju Bosne i Srbije 1804-1806 i boj na Miaru (Subotica, +:),
:.
:
M. ami, Francuski putnici u Bosni i Hercegovini na pragu XIX stoljea i njihovi utisci o
njoj (Sarajcvo: \csclin Maslca, +66), :o6.
8alcanica XXX\! 126
bard lrom castcrn 8osnia, Filip \inji, in a contcmporary cpic song on
thc insurrcction summcd up thc cxpcctations ol thc 8osnian Scrbs: rina
watcr, thou noblc boundary / bctwixt 8osnia, bctwixt Scrbia / soon thc timc
will comc / whcn ! shall cross thcc and into 8osnia comc.
Two Scrbian rcvolts brokc out in 8osnia, both cvcntually crushcd by

thc rcgular ttoman army and 8osnian Muslim lorccs. Tc rst brokc out
in +8o, altcr thc Scrbian insurgcnts crosscd thc rina bordcr into castcrn
8osnia, whilc thc sccond, ol a largcr scopc, took placc in thc northwcst ol
thc 8osnian Krajina in +8o, lcd by Jovan Jani, a gunsmith lrom Sarajcvo,
who had lor thrcc ycars smugglcd arms lrom thc Military Fronticr in ordcr
to arm all Scrbinhabitcd districts bctwccn thc Una and 8osna rivcrs. Sup
portcd by 8ishop 8cncdikt Kraljcvi, Jani had ncgotiatcd about thc rcvolt
succcssivcly with Scrbia, Russia and thc Frcnch in almatia, but an incidcnt
in 8anja Luka prccipitatcd its bcginning. Tc rcvolt soon lailcd duc to thc
lack ol coordination bctwccn insurgcnt units.
cprivcd ol cxtcrnal military support altcr thc Trcaty ol Prcssburg,

Scrbian lcadcrs asscmblcd at Smcdcrcvo and dccidcd to invitc not only
Scrbs, but othcr 8alkan Christians as wcll to join thcm in thcir strugglc
against thc ttomans. Tcrc was a signicant stir in dicrcnt rcgions ol
Slavic Maccdonia, whilc in 8ulgaria, particularly in thc arca ol \idin and
8clogradik, bordcring with Scrbia along thc anubc, Scrbian proposals
incitcd movcmcnts and occasional rcvolts ol thc othcrwisc passivc pcasant
population. !n +8o, a Grcck armatol lcadcr Nikotsaras prcparcd his units to
support Karagcorgc, crossing almost thc wholc ol thc 8alkans lrom Mount
lympus in mainland Grcccc to anubc,
whilc in Salonika, alrcady in

+8o6, a Frcnch consul has rcportcd to Paris that, duc to thc Scrbian rcvo
lution, many Slav pcasants and Grcck mcrchants wcrc arrcstcd undcr thc
suspicion ol supporting Scrbian insurgcnts.
6
From +8o6 thc Grcck klephtes
in northcrn Maccdonia and armatoloi in ccntral and castcrn parts ol prcs
cntday Grcccc wcrc cncouragcd by both thc Scrbian insurrcction and Rus
sian actions in thc Acgcan in thcir rcncwcd corts to organizc systcmatic
rcsistancc to thc ttomans.
8atakovi, Te Serbs of Bosnia & Herzegovina, .
\. ubrilovi, Prvi srpski ustanak i bosanski Srbi (8clgradc: Gcca Kon, +), ++
+:.
M. Lascaris, Lc rlc dcs Grccs dans linsurrcction scrbc sous lc Karagcorgc, in Les
Balkans (Paris, +), +++:.
6
C. A. \acalopoulos, La Macdoine vue en dbut du XIX sicle par les consuls europens de
Tessalonique (Tcssaloniki, +8o), 6.
. jordjcvic, Tc !mpact ol thc First Scrbian Uprising on thc 8alkan Pcoplcs, in

V. \ucinich, cd., Te First Serbian Uprising 18041813, 686.
!n parallcl, in thc coursc ol +8o6 thc Scrbian suprcmc lcadcr armcd ,ooo
8ulgarians willing to join thc strugglc against thc ttomans. !n +8o, 8oo
ol thc ,ooo 8ulgarians that camc to Scrbia immcdiatcly joincd thc Scr
bian troops.
8
Tc rcbcl lorccs also includcd a numbcr ol Grccks, 8ulgar
ians, Vallachians and Tzintzars (Hcllcnizcd \lachs), most ol whom had
lought in thc ranks ol thc Russian army during thc Russottoman Var.
n scvcral occasions 8ulgarian cnvoys lrom Vallachia rcqucstcd Scrbian
assistancc lor thcir plans against thc ttomans, whilc thc Scrbian cxam
plc inspircd luturc Grcck insurgcnts in many ways. Tc rst historian ol
thc Scrbian rcvolution was a Grcck, Triantallos oukas, whosc History of
Slavo-Serbs was publishcd in 8udapcst as carly as +8o. Poctic cxprcssion
ol thc 8alkanwidc impact ol thc Scrbian Rcvolution was highlightcd in
thc lollowing vcrscs: !n thc army ol thc Scrbian pcoplc / Many had joincd
who did not know cach othcr / For lrom all parts thcy gathcrcd / 8ulgars as
many, \lachs and Grccks...
Altcr thc initial victorics ol thc Scrbian insurgcnts in +8o, Princc

Constantinc Ypsilanti ol Vallachia, cncouragcd by thc Russian lorcign
ministcr Count Adam Czartoryski, dcvclopcd somc lcdcralist idcas about
thc crcation ol a largc 8alkan Christian statc that would bc rulcd by his
lamily. !n support ol Karagcorgc, hc scnt arms, supplics and cvcn a small
military unit to Scrbia, whilc most ol thc Romanian boyars opcnly cx
prcsscd thcir cxpcctations ol Scrbias scccssion lrom thc ttoman m
pirc.
o
Tc historical importancc ol thc +8o+ Scrbian rcvolution
which, ovcrshadowcd by thc Napolconic wars, attractcd littlc attcntion in
uropc was manilold. For thc 8alkan nations it was a Frcnch rcvolution
adaptcd to local conditions: thc principlc ol popular sovcrcignty was op
poscd to thc principlc ol lcgitimism, a ncw socicty was crcatcd in which,
duc to thc lack ol thc aristocracy and wcllcstablishcd middlc classcs, agrar
ian cgalitarianism was combincd with thc cmcrging aspirations ol a modcrn
nation.
Tc lcgacy ol thc Scrbian Rcvolution had a larrcaching ccct: altcr
+8+ and throughout thc ninctccnth and carly twcnticth ccnturics 8clgradc
rcmaincd an undisputcd Picdmonttypc political ccntrc, and not only lor
thc Scrbs, dispcrscd in thc ncighbouring provinccs ol thc ttoman and
Habsburg cmpircs, but also lor most South Slavic cthnic groups. Having in
8
\. Stojancvi, Prvi srpski ustanak prcma 8ugarskoj i 8ugarima, Istorijski glasnik +:
(8clgradc, +), +:++.
jordjcvic, Tc !mpact, 8+.

o
\. Gcorgcscu, Political Ideas and the Enlightenment in the Romanian Principalities
(17501831), (8ouldcr ast uropcan Monographs, ++), +o.
8alcanica XXX\! 128
mind its longtcrm cccts on thc political and social landscapc ol thc wholc
rcgion, thc cmincnt Gcrman historian Lcopold von Rankc dcscribcd thc
+8o+ Scrbian insurrcction, by analogy with thc Frcnch cxamplc, as thc
Serbian Revolution.
+
Institute for Balkan Studies UDC 94(497.11:4)1804
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts 323.27(=163.41=512.161)1804
Belgrade
+
L. von Rankc, History of Servia and the Servian Revolution (London: 8cnn, +88).
Milan St. Proti
Te Serbian Radical Movement 18811903
A Historical Aspect
Following thc ScrboTurkish war (+868) an outburst ol dynamic po
litical cvcnts culminatcd in thc carly +88os with thc lormation ol modcrn
political partics in Scrbia. Tis phcnomcnon rcsultcd lrom scvcral impor
tant lactors. Although thc promulgation ol thc Constitution in +86 had
not yct cstablishcd lull parliamcntary dcmocracy, it had sccurcd a political
cnvironmcnt in which largcr scgmcnts ol socicty could takc an activc part
in political dccision making.
+
Tis political documcnt cxprcsscd a compro
misc bctwccn thc Crown and thc National Asscmbly by dividing lcgislativc
authority, climinating thc prcvious oligarchic political tradition and almost
unlimitcd powcr ol thc rulcr. Sccondly, altcr thc assassination ol Princc
Mihailo brcnovi in +868, Scrbia was rulcd by his minor ncphcw Princc
Milan brcnovi who was rcprcscntcd by thc Rcgcncy. Tc Rcgcncy was
dominatcd by a strong political pcrsonality, latcr loundcr ol thc Libcral
Party, uropcancducatcd Jovan Risti.
:
Tc ruling circlcs lclt a nccd to
introducc ccrtain rclorms bascd on Vcstcrn political cxpcricncc. Tirdly,
as a conscqucncc ol thc ScrboTurkish war and thc Congrcss ol 8crlin in
+88, Scrbia bccamc an indcpcndcnt statc with all thc prcrogativcs ol powcr
and importancc that such a position acquircs. Fourthly, during this pcriod
a numbcr ol young Scrbian studcnts wcrc scnt to uropcan univcrsitics
to rcccivc highcr cducation. xposurc to uropcan political dcvclopmcnts,
movcmcnts, and idcas accompanicd thcm back to Scrbia. Finally, Scrbian
socicty politically maturcd and cntcrcd thc partisan strugglc.
Scrbian socicty, dominatcd by thc pcasantry, passcd through scvcral
stagcs ol national consciousncss. Tcy bcgan by opposing thc ttoman rulc
and laying thc loundations lor a nationstatc at thc bcginning ol thc ninc
tccnth ccntury, progrcsscd through opposing thc vcry samc Statcs cstab
+
Slobodan Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, vol. ! (8clgradc, +), :o+, scc also
Ustavni razvitak Srbije u XIX veku, cd. Miroslav jordjcvi (Lcskovac, +o).
:
Ibid.
8alcanica XXX\! 130
lishmcnt by bcginning pcasant rcvolts throughout thc +8os and +8os,
to nally waging war against thc ttomans in +86 (joincd by Russia in
+8) and winning indcpcndcncc in +88. Tc Scrbian pcasantry maturcd
during thcsc ycars, publicly articulating its own opinions and intcrcsts.
8y thc +88os Scrbian socicty dcvclopcd a thin, but cxisting laycr ol urban
bourgcoisic who gcncrally originatcd lrom thc villagc, with a pcasant con
sciousncss couplcd with rudimcntary capitalist commcrcial mcntality. At
thc samc timc, a third social laycr grcw within thc Scrbian socicty consisting
ol local intclligcntsia (tcachcrs, physicians, pricsts, local statc authoritics)
who sharcd thc social dcstiny ol pcasantry, but had lairly dcvclopcd political
awarcncss. Hcadcd by 8clgradc intcllcctuals, this was basically thc structurc
ol thc Scrbian socicty in thc +88os.
Tc Radical Party was ocially organizcd in +88+ as thc rst or

ganizcd political party in Scrbia.
!n its initial stagc (until +o) Scrbian

Radicalism passcd through scvcral phascs ol political and idcological dcvcl
opmcnt. Tc rst pcriod (+868o) could bc namcd thc pcriod ol rudimcn
tary Radicalism. Tc movcmcnt was unorganizcd and strctchcd bctwccn
thc idcas ol socialism, anarchism and pcasant dcmocracy. Tc sccond pc
riod, that ol militant Radicalism (+88+86), was markcd by thc organizcd
and uncompromising opposition to thc cxisting systcm and thc Crown,
which culminatcd in thc Timok armcd rcbcllion in +88. Tc altcrmath was
markcd by thc Radical waving bctwccn armcd rcsistancc and lcgitimism.
uring thc pcriod ol pragmatic Radicalism (+886) thcrc was a rccu
pcration and rcorganization ol thc movcmcnt, an inclusion into thc cxisting
ordcr as a lcgitimatc political lorcc, a ncw Constitution in +888 which had
bccn chicy inucnccd by Radical political vicws, and by thc rst compro
miscs with othcr political lactors in Scrbia. Finally, thcrc was thc pcriod
ol ovcrpowcrcd Radicalism (+8+o), whcrcin Radicals madc scrious
compromiscs with rival partics and thc Crown, modcratcd thcir political
programmc, and opcnly cntcrcd into compctition lor powcr although prc
scrving thcir basic idcology.
As any pcriodization, this onc could bc subjcctcd to various criti
cisms. !ts major critcria, howcvcr, wcrc stagcs in thc idcological dcvclop
mcnt ol Radicalism in Scrbia.
Scc imitrijc jordjcvi, Tc Scrbian Socicty in thc +88os: A Cross Scction ol thc
rigins ol thc Radical Party (in manuscript).
ivan ivanovi, Politika istorija Srbije, vol. !! (8clgradc, +::), +6+. Scc also
Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, !!, +, ivan Mitrovi, Srpske politike stranke
(8clgradc, +), +, Michacl 8oro Pctrovich, History of Modern Serbia 1804-1918
(Ncw York: Harcourt 8raca Jovanovich, +6), ++.
M. St. Proti, Tc Scrbian Radical Movcmcnt 18811903 131
Tc pcriod altcr +o could bc justiably namcd Tc Goldcn Agc. Altcr
thc assassination ol thc last brcnovi on : May +o,
Scrbia cntcrcd a
pcriod ol lull parliamcntary dcmocracy bascd on thc rcviscd Constitution
ol +888. From +o to ++, thc Radicals wcrc in powcr most ol thc timc,
lcading thc Scrbian Statc towards complctc cmancipation. Tc movcmcnt
had maturcd through twcnty ycars ol political strugglc, cxpcricnccd numcr
ous challcngcs and tcmptations, claricd and modicd its idcological and
structural loundations, and bccamc capablc ol playing an instrumcntal rolc
in thc proccss ol Scrbias dcvclopmcnt into a uropcan statc in thc cultural
scnsc.
Altcr thc First Vorld Var and thc crcation ol Yugoslavia, thc Radi
cal Party continucd to cxist and act as a political movcmcnt until ++.
Howcvcr, gcncral political, social, and cultural circumstanccs bccamc so dil
lcrcnt that it sccms vcry dicult, il not impossiblc, to look at it as thc samc
movcmcnt bclorc and altcr ++8.

Tc group ol Svctozar Markovi appcarcd in Scrbian politics in thc latc
+86os, and rcmaincd activc until +8.
6
Svctozar Markovi was a young
political thcorctician and activist who had studicd in Scrbia, Russia, and
Switzcrland in thc latc +86os. Hc dcvclopcd a political doctrinc bascd on
idcas ol Russian socialism, cxpcricnccs ol narodniki movcmcnt and anar
chism, and latcr Vcsturopcan socialism.
ncc hc had rcturncd to Scrbia

in +86, togcthcr with a group ol his lcllow Scrbian studcnts lrom Swit
zcrland, hc bccamc politically activc in Kragujcvac, a town in ccntral Scrbia.
Markovi and his associatcs publishcd a numbcr ol political ncwspapcrs
and organizcd a dynamic political lorcc. Trough innumcrablc articlcs and
writings, Markovi dcvclopcd his own sociopolitical tcaching. Although
incomplctc and somctimcs inconsistcnt, it was thc rst socialist doctrinc
not only in Scrbia, but in thc cntirc 8alkans.
8
His tcaching was somcwhat
luturistic, romantic, and unrcalistic, but ncvcrthclcss had strong impact on
Scrbian political cvcnts in his and luturc timcs.
For morc dctails, scc ragia \asi, 1903 (8clgradc, +:).

6
Scc Slobodan Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi (8clgradc, +:o), Jovan Skcrli, Sveto-
zar Markovi, njegov ivot, rad i ideje (8clgradc, +::), Voodlord McClcllan, Svetozar
Markovic and the Origins of Balkan Socialism (Princcton, +6).

Soja Skoric, Tc Populism ol Nikola Pasic: thc Zurich Pcriod, East European Quar-
terly X!\/ (Vintcr +8o).
8
McClcllan, Svetozar Markovic, 68.
8alcanica XXX\! 132
Markovis tcaching could bc dividcd in thrcc major scctions: his political
conccpt, his sociocconomic doctrinc, and his national programmc.
!n his
political programmc, Svctozar Markovi strcsscd scvcral points. His con
ccpts includcd a vcry strong antiburcaucratic scntimcnt. Hc argucd in la
vour ol thc abolition ol a prolcssional administration, which hc rcgardcd
as thc main obstaclc on thc road to cconomic and cultural cmancipation
ol thc Scrbian population: ! considcr thc dcstruction ol thc burcaucratic
systcm as thc rst ncccssity in Scrbia.
+o
Markovi also strcsscd thc intro
duction ol communal and rcgional scllgovcrnmcntal organization in placc
ol thc prolcssional administrativc apparatus. Hc lavourcd clcctcd collcctivc
bodics in communcs and rcgions to bc suprcmc authoritics in thosc arcas.
Communal asscmblics would bc thc oncs to incorporatc all clcctcd ocials
in thc communc not only thc administrators, thc chicl ol policc, and thc
judgc, but also thc doctor and thc tcachcr.
++
Tc wholc structurc ol thc Statc
cstablishmcnt was to dcrivc lrom thc slogan that thc qucstion ol brcad is
thc qucstion ol local scllgovcrnmcnt.
+:
Tc last ol Markovis political objcctivcs, thc suprcmc authority ol
thc National Asscmbly, logically lollowcd thc principlc ol local scllgovcrn
mcnt. Markovi argucd that thc National Asscmbly, complctcly clcctivc on
thc rcgional basis, constitutcd thc suprcmc lcgislativc body. Conscqucntly,
this linc ol thought lcd him to thc Convcnt systcm ol govcrnmcnt and
lurthcr on, to rcpublicanism.
+
Tc sociocconomic scgmcnt ol Svctozar
Markovis tcaching suggcstcd thc abolition ol privatc owncrship and thc
introduction ol communal propcrty. His cconomic conccpt was bascd on
thc traditional patriarchal lamily coopcrativc, thc socallcd zadruga.
+
Fas
cinatcd by its dcmocratic organization and spirit, Markovi put it in thc
ccntrc ol his sociocconomic tcaching: Tc modcrn cconomic idcal is vcry
closc to thc cconomic mcchanism ol thc Scrbian zadruga.
+
!n his opin
ion, it rcprcscntcd thc most advanccd communism ol owncrship, work and
plcasurc.
+6
Markovi was hcavily inucnccd by Nikolai Chcrnyshcvsky.
Tis Russian socialist lound thc idcal pattcrn lor his cconomic systcm in a
Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi, :+o.

+o
Svctozar Markovi, Srpskc obmanc, Zastava, Novi Sad, +86.
++
Svctozar Markovi, Odabrani spisi (8clgradc, +6), 8:.
+:
Ibid.
+
Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi, ++:.
+
McClcllan, Svetozar Markovic, :.
+
Svctozar Markovi, in Javnost :o (Kragujcvac, +8).
+6
Ibid.
traditional Russian institution, thc mir. Following his tcachcr, Markovi did
similarly lounding his systcm on zadruga.
+
Tc national conccpt ol Svctozar Markovi conccntratcd on thc dc
struction ol both cmpircs in thc 8alkans, thc Habsburg Monarchy and thc
ttoman mpirc. Morcovcr, hc plcdgcd lor thc libcration ol all Scrbs and
thcir lrcc association with othcr 8alkan nations in a lcdcration achicvcd
through armcd rcvolution:
+8
Tc Scrbian pcoplc havc no othcr option but a rcvolution in thc
8alkan Pcninsula, thc rcvolution which would cnd with disappcar
ancc ol all statcs which cxist today on thc road to thc unication ol
lrcc pcoplcs and workcrs in thc union ol communcs, rcgions or
statcs
+
Tc political lcrmcntation in Scrbia in thc carly +8os witncsscd two paral
lcl proccsscs. n onc sidc, thc group ol Svctozar Markovi, which includcd
a handlul ol young, uropcancducatcd mcn politically vcry conscious
and lcaning towards socialist idcas dcvclopcd rathcr wcllorganizcd action
cspccially through political ncwspapcrs Radenik (Tc Vorkcr), Javnost (Tc
Public), Rad (Tc Labour) and Oslobodjenje (Tc Libcration).
:o
At about
thc samc timc, in +8, a group ol rcprcscntativcs in thc National Asscmbly
bcgan to attract attcntion by thcir pcasant looks, outspokcn attitudcs, and
public spccchcs in which thcy dclcndcd thc intcrcsts ol thc Scrbian pcas
antry.
:+
Tcy camc lrom thc countrysidc, lrom various rcgions ol Scrbia,
but all gathcrcd round thc samc political objcctivc to work towards thc
improvcmcnt ol thc sociocconomic position ol thc Scrbian pcasant.
::
Tus in thc politically undcvclopcd Scrbian cnvironmcnt thcsc two
trcnds lound common grounds lor joint action young intcllcctuals at
tractcd by uropcan socialism which thcy vigorously tricd to implcmcnt
in Scrbia and thc group ol pcasant dcputics (among whom somc wcrc wcll
cducatcd),
:
who cxprcsscd thc pcasantrys simplicd and csscntially ncga
tivist attitudc towards thc govcrnmcnt. 8ut, much as it lookcd pcculiar and
conlusing, this combination has a clcar cxplanation. Vithout any tracc ol
+
McClcllan, Svetozar Markovic, :l.
+8
Svctozar Markovi, Celokupna dela, vol. !! (8clgradc, +8:+:+), 6.
+
Svctozar Markovi, Srbija na istoku (8clgradc, +8:), +6+68.
:o
Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi, 8.
:+
Rastislav Pctrovi, Adam Bogosavljevi (8clgradc, +:), :. Scc also Skcrli, Svetozar
Markovi, +.
::
Ibid.
:
Adam 8ogosavljcvi attcndcd 8clgradc Velika kola, but dccidcd to rcturn to his nativc
villagc and to agriculturc. For morc dctails, scc Pctrovi, Adam Bogosavljevi.
8alcanica XXX\! 134
working class or capitalist cconomic rclations takcn as a dominant socio
cconomic lactor, no idca ol uropcan socialism could nd lcrtilc soil in
Scrbia. Conscqucntly, thc promotcrs ol socialist idcology wcrc lorccd to
look lor supportcrs among thc pcasants as thcy wcrc thc most numcrous
social laycr in Scrbian socicty. As a rcsult ol this mutual inucncc, thc young
Scrbian socialists mcllowcd in thcir idcological cxclusivcncss and thc pcas
ant clcmcnt obtaincd solid thcorctical guidclinc lor luturc political action.
Tc bcst illustration ol thc common origins ol thc two trcnds is thc lact
that both Svctozar Markovi, thc lcadcr ol thc socialist group, and Adam
8ogosavljcvi, thc dominant gurc among pcasant Asscmblymcn, attcndcd
\clika kola (8clgradc School, prcdcccssor ol thc Univcrsity ol 8clgradc) in
thc carly +86os.
:
As carly as +8, thc group ol Adam 8ogosavljcvi camc out with a
dcncd political programmc which mainly conccntratcd on antiburcaucra
tism and which includcd thrcc major points: thc rcduction ol statc ocials
salarics, thc abolition ol district occs (okruna naelstva) and thc organi
zation ol rcgional scllgovcrnmcnt.
:
At thc samc timc, thcy insistcd on thc
constitutional rclorms which would providc all lcgislativc powcrs lor thc
National Asscmbly as wcll as on absolutc lrccdom ol thc prcss, association,
and public gathcring.
:6
!t is quitc clcar that thc political programmc ol 8ogosavljcvis group
had bccn hcavily inucnccd by Markovis idcas. Howcvcr, 8ogosavljcvi
acccptcd only thc political, antiburcaucratic aspcct ol Markovis tcaching
which obviously was most attractivc to thc Scrbian pcasantry.
8oth ol thcsc political attcmpts, thc socialist programmc ol Markovis
group and thc activity ol 8ogosavljcvis group in thc Asscmbly, wcrc in cs
scncc rudimcntary and shortlivcd movcmcnts. Tcir importancc rcsidcs in
thcir rolc as prcdcccssors ol latcr political dcvclopmcnts. Tcy scrvcd as car
ly political cxpcricnccs ol individuals who latcr wcrc to organizc thc Radical
movcmcnt in Scrbia. Somc idcas which latcr bccamc scgmcnts ol Radi
cal political idcology had bccn born in thc coursc ol thcsc carly attcmpts.
Howcvcr, thcy both sucrcd lrom incxpcricncc, idcalism and simplication
ol issucs. Tc most important problcm ol thc socialist tcndcncy sccmcd
to bc thc inability to copc with Scrbian rcalitics, with thc rcal problcms
ol Scrbian socicty and thc cxpcctations ol thc pcasantry. !mportcd lrom
abroad, socialist idcas could not possibly corrcspond to thc stagc ol socially
undcvclopcd and basically pcasant Scrbian socicty. n thc othcr hand, thc
group ol Adam 8ogosavljcvi pointcd out ccrtain vital discrcpancics ol thc
:
Ibid., 68o.
:
Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi, +6+.
:6
Jaa Prodanovi, Istorija politikih stranaka i struja u Srbiji (8clgradc, +), .
Scrbian political systcm, but was incapablc ol dcvcloping its own positivc
political altcrnativc. !ts attitudc was csscntially ncgativc, as had bccn lucidly
noticcd by thc grcat Scrbian historian Slobodan Jovanovi.
:
Tc socialist vcnturc ol Svctozar Markovis group in Scrbia did not
last morc than vc ycars. Altcr thc dcath ol its lcadcr in +8, thc movcmcnt
slowly startcd to lall apart and its solc substantial attcmpt at rcvival in +86
latcr bccamc known as thc Rcd 8anncr Aair.
:8
Tc city ol Kragujcvac in
ccntral Scrbia was thc ccntrc ol socialist action ol Markovis group. !n Fcb
ruary +86, thc conict bctwccn govcrnmcnt lorccs and thc socialists ovcr
local clcctions cndcd in massivc dcmonstrations and opcn conlrontation.
Tc dcmonstrators, lcd by socialist activists and lollowcd by workcrs lrom
Kragujcvac armamcnts lactory, raiscd thc ag with thc slogan Scllgovcrn
mcnt on it, thus cxprcssing thcir Markovicvist aliation.
:
Tc cvcnt was
cndcd by thc cncrgctic action ol thc policc and thc military lorccs that samc
cvcning. Among thc conspirators ol thc dcmonstrations, latcr lound guilty
and scntcnccd to timc in prison, wcrc oldtimc collaborators ol Svctozar
Markovi and luturc loundcrs ol thc Radical Party Pcra Todorovi and Pcra
\climirovi. Tcy, howcvcr, managcd to cc lrom Scrbia bclorc thc trial and
wcrc pardoncd in +88o.
+
From that point on, thc activity and thc cxistcncc ol this political
group in Scrbia gradually diminishcd and cvcntually disappcarcd. uc to
thc war with thc ttomans (+86+88), which cngagcd all thc mcntal
and physical lorccs ol thc Scrbian pcoplc, as wcll as latcr diplomatic cvcnts,
which dccisivcly inucnccd thc Scrbian luturc (thc opposition to thc pro
visions ol thc San Stclano Trcaty and thc winning ol indcpcndcncc at thc
8crlin Congrcss), thc intcrnal political qucstions wcrc put asidc. Tc social
ist movcmcnt as it had cxistcd in thc prcvious pcriod was ncvcr rcborn.
Tc action ol ccrtain individuals who had bclongcd to this group, how
cvcr, continucd through thcir activity in thc Scrbian National Asscmbly.
Tis particular grouping consistcd ol somc lormcr mcmbcrs ol Markovis
movcmcnt (Nikola Pai, Pavlc \ukovi and Kosta Tauanovi) and somc
pcasant Asscmblymcn (Adam 8ogosavljcvi, Ranko Tajsi, imitrijc Kati,
and Milija Milovanovi).
:
!n thc latc +8os this grouping gradually gaincd
:
Jovanovi, Svetozar Markovi, 8.
:8
Scc ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!, ++o, Prodanovi, Istorija, o:o6, \clizar
Nini, Pera Todorovi (8clgradc, +6), o.
:
Prodanovi, Istorija, o:.
o
ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!, ++o.
+
Prodanovi, Istorija, o:.
:
Raa Milocvi, Timoka buna 1883 godine (8clgradc, +:), ++8, ivanovi, Politika
istorija, !!, +8, Prodanovi, Istorija, o.
8alcanica XXX\! 136
in importancc and bccamc thc outspokcn voicc ol minority opposition in
thc Scrbian National Asscmbly.

Tc cnd ol thc +os and thc carly +88os witncsscd a dynamic political po
larization among mcmbcrs ol thc Scrbian National Asscmbly. Tc National
Asscmbly in Scrbia bccamc thc local political stagc and thc placc lrom
which all political movcmcnts and dcvclopmcnts bcgan. Scrbias rudimcn
tary political structurc lcd to a kind ol parallclism ol political powcrs: thcrc
wcrc thc rulcr and thc National Asscmbly, which, altcr thc Constitution ol
+86 bccamc a lcgislativc body.
!n thc carly +88os thrcc major political camps in thc Scrbian As

scmbly wcrc taking shapc. Although not yct complctcly dcncd in tcrms ol
organization and idcology, thcsc inlormal groupings ol Asscmblymcn, who
somctimcs switchcd lrom onc group to anothcr wcrc thc nuclci ol luturc
political partics.
Tc Libcrals wcrc thc oldcst political group in Scrbian politics. Tcy
cmcrgcd lrom thc St. Andrcws Asscmbly ol +88 and dominatcd Scrbian
politics lrom +868 to +88o.
Lcd by thc strong pcrsonality ol wcllcducat

cd Jovan Risti, thcy introduccd somc Vcstcrn libcral idcas to Scrbia. !n
ucnccd by lorcign libcralnational idcologics, thc Libcrals sought intcrnal
progrcss through national libcration. Tcir rulc was markcd by two crucial
succcsscs: thc Constitution ol +86, which opcncd thc door lor parliamcn
tary dcmocracy, and thc achicvcmcnt ol Scrbian indcpcndcncc in +88.
Tc Young Conscrvativcs, who latcr lormcd thc Progrcssivist Party,

wcrc somc ol thc most brilliant young scholars in Scrbia (Stojan Novakovi,
cdomilj Mijatovi, Milan Milicvi, ctc.), who togcthcr produccd a pro
grammc ol modcrnization through modcratc rclorms. ricntcd towards
thc clitc ol Scrbian socicty, thcy sought progrcss in thc collaboration ol thc
intclligcntsia with thc Crown. cspitc thc groups namc, its conscrvatism
combincd with libcral idcas.
6
Tc third group was thc Radicals who at rst collaboratcd with thc
Young Conscrvativcs (+88o), thus lorming an opposition group to thc
Libcral govcrnmcnt. Tis collaboration, howcvcr, was tcmporary and not
Slobodan Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !!!, ++, scc also Milivojc Popovi,
Borbe za parlamentarni reim u Srbiji (8clgradc, +), .

Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !!!, +:, scc also Galc Stokcs, Legitimacy
through Liberalism: Vladimir Jovanovic and the Transformation of Serbian Politics (Scattlc:
Univcrsity ol Vashington Prcss, +).

Ibid.
6
Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, !!, ++.
bascd on similar idcological grounds, but rathcr on a common intcrcst in
opposing thc govcrnmcnt. As a rcsult ol thcir joint cort, thc Radicals and
thc Young Conscrvativcs wcrc ablc to lorcc thc Libcral govcrnmcnt to rc
sign. Tc Young Conscrvativcs lormcd thcir rst cabinct undcr thc prcsi
dcncy ol Milan Piroanac at thc cnd ol +88o.
!n thosc days, thc Radicals

oltcn promulgatcd thcir proclamations and political statcmcnts through thc
Young Conscrvativc ncwspapcr Videlo (Tc Mirror).
8
Tc bcginning ol +88+ was markcd by thc most dccisivc momcnt
in thc history ol Scrbian Radicalism. n 8 January +88+ thc rst issuc ol
thc ocial organ ol thc Radical Party Samouprava appcarcd, announcing
thc lormal organization ol thc Radical Party.
Tis was thc rst ocially

organizcd political party in Scrbia. !t was lollowcd by thc lormation ol thc
Progrcssivist Party latcr that January, and thc Libcral Party in ctobcr thc
samc ycar.
o
Tc rst issuc ol Samouprava prcscntcd thc gcncral proclamation ol
Party lcadcrship, dcning thc organizations rationalc, as wcll as its political
stand. Tc Radical Partys political programmc also appcarcd in this rst is
suc ol Samouprava, signcd by thirtycight Asscmblymcn, including Nikola
Pai, Aca Stanojcvi, Pavlc \ukovi, Raa Milocvi, Kosta Tauanovi,
imitrijc Kati, Ranko Tajsi, and Milija Milovanovi,
+
lollowcd by an
othcr thirtycight lcllow rcprcscntativcs in thc National Asscmbly.
:
Tc Radical Party bcgan a scrics ol dynamic and amboyant actions.
Trough cvcryday writings in political ncwspapcrs (bcsidcs Samouprava, thc
Radicals issucd Rad and Cosa), thcy vigorously attackcd thc govcrnmcnt,
thc Crown, and its policics. Tcy locuscd primarily on practical, daily is
sucs and political problcms. Tc pcriod lrom +88+ to +88 was markcd
chicy by this trcmcndously activc work ol thc Radicals. At thc samc timc,
thc movcmcnt was growing rapidly, mostly sprcading among thc provincial
intclligcntsia and pcasantry.
A rcsult ol this growth was thc rst Congrcss

ol thc Radical Party at \ilinc \odc ncar Kragujcvac in thc summcr ol +88:.
Vith ovcr onc thousand pcoplc prcscnt, thc convcntion clcctcd thc Party

ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!, +.
8
Prijatcljima naroda, Videlo +8, :+ Novcmbcr +88o.
ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!, +6+, scc also Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, !!,
+, ivan Mitrovi, Srpske politike stranke (8clgradc, +), +, Pctrovich, History,
+o++.
o
Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, !!, +8:o.
+
Scc Mitrovi, Politike stranke, +, Alcx ragnich, Serbia, Nikola Pasic, Yugoslavia
(Ncw Jcrscy: Rutgcrs Univcrsity Prcss, +6), +6, Pctrovich, History, ++.
:
Ibid.
Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !, +6.

8alcanica XXX\! 138
lcadcrship or rathcr its Main Committcc as it was thcn namcd.
Nikola
Pai bccamc thc rst Prcsidcnt ol thc Radical Main Committcc, and Pcra
Todorovi was clcctcd \icc Prcsidcnt.
8y +88, thc Radical movcmcnt

had sprcad all ovcr Scrbia, bccoming thc most numcrous political organiza
tion. Tc Radicals lclt strong cnough to assumc powcr. !l thcy could not usc
lcgal dcmocratic mcans, thcy wcrc rcady to usc othcr mcthods. 8y a machi
nation ol thc Crown and thc Progrcssivists, thc Radicals wcrc prcvcntcd
lrom lorming thcir cabinct, although thcy won a clcar majority in thc +88:
clcctions. 8y +88, thc conict bctwccn thc Radicals and thc King bccamc
so sharp that a clash sccmcd unavoidablc. n onc sidc, thcrc was a young
and impaticnt movcmcnt, with a lcadcrship cagcr to comc to powcr and
lostcr a scrics ol lundamcntal political rclorms, and on thc othcr, thcrc was
thc rulcr and his supportcrs who wantcd to prcscrvc thc status quo in which
thcir prcdominancc would not bc jcopardizcd.
Tc rcvolutionary drcams ol thc Radicals nally camc truc in cto
bcr +88. Altcr an articlc in Samouprava in which thc Radicals adviscd thc
population not to surrcndcr arms to thc govcrnmcnt,
6
although such a dc
mand had bccn announccd, thc pcasants in astcrn Scrbia startcd an armcd
rcvolt which was soon namcd thc Timok rcbcllion.
Tc rcbcllion was lcd by

local Radical lcadcrs, thc most distinguishcd ol thcm bcing Aca Stanojcvi,
ika Milcnovi, Ljuba idi and thc pricst Marinko !vkovi.
8
ncc thc
army was callcd lrom thc town ol Parain, thc rcvolt was crushcd in a lcw
days. Tc mcmbcrs ol thc Radical Main Committcc, although not pcrson
ally involvcd, wcrc all takcn into custody, cxccpt Nikola Pai who managcd
to cc to 8ulgaria.
Tc local rcbcllion lcadcrs wcrc cithcr courtmartiallcd

and scntcnccd or managcd to cc to 8ulgaria.
o
Tc Radical lcadcrship also
stood trial. Trcc ol thcm, Pcra Todorovi, Raa Milocvi and Nikola Pai,
wcrc scntcnccd to dcath, Kosta Tauanovi to scvcn and Paja Milhailovi to
vc ycars in prison, whilc Giga Gcri and Andra Nikoli wcrc acquittcd.

Milocvi, Timoka buna, ++o.
Ibid.
6
isarmamcnt ol thc Popular Army, Samouprava, o July +88, How to Gct Rid ol
!llcgal lcctions, Samouprava, o August +88.
For morc dctails, scc Milocvi, Timoka buna, ragutin !li, Zajearska buna (8cl
gradc, +o), Momilo \cljkovi, O Timokoj buni 1883 godine (8clgradc, +6), im
itrijc jordjcvi, Tc +88 Pcasant Uprising in Scrbia, Balkan Studies :o,: (Tcs
saloniki, +).
8
!li, Zajearska buna, 8.
Scc Milocvi, Timoka buna, +o.

o
!li, Zajearska buna, :.
Tc trials lclt thc Radical movcmcnt crushcd and disorganizcd. Tc Kings
victory was absolutc.
Tis phasc in thc Radical movcmcnts history could rightlully bc
namcd thc pcriod ol militant Radicalism. Scvcral important charactcris
tics rcgarding thc vcry naturc ol thc movcmcnt cmcrgcd. First, thc Radical
movcmcnt was ablc to dcvclop its political programmc and organization.
Sccondly, it showcd strcngth in both political attitudc and manpowcr.
Tirdly, it bccamc awarc ol its strcngth, challcnging thc authority ol thc
King and displaying an cagcrncss to takc powcr and procccd with thc politi
cal rclorms prcviously announccd.
Tc movcmcnt rcmaincd incxpcricnccd in practical political aairs
and ovcrwhclmcd by visionary idcas ol a rcvolution. 8cyond that, thc Scr
bian Radical movcmcnts impaticncc involvcd its mcmbcrs in a rcbcllion
which had bccn illorganizcd and doomcd to lailurc. Tc powcr ol thc bu
rcaucracy and, abovc all, ol thc Kings standing army wcrc simply too strong
lor a spontancous uprising ol thc pcasantry lcd by local Radical lcadcrs.
Tc cvcnt rcvcalcd yct anothcr charactcristic ol thc movcmcnt: dil
lcrcnccs in attitudc bctwccn thc lcadcrship and thcir lollowcrs. Although
thcrc wcrc proposals among thc Radical Main Committcc to join thc rcb
cls at a clandcstinc mccting on thc cvc ol thcir arrcst,
+
thcy all rcmaincd
pcacclully in 8clgradc. 8y contrast, thc local Radicals immcdiatcly took thc
lcadcrship ol thc rcbcllion, conlronting thc cxisting ordcr.
Tc nal aspcct ol thc Timok uprising sccms to bc that thc rcbcllion
did not sprcad throughout Scrbia. !t rcmaincd localizcd in thc castcrn part
ol thc country. vcn thc major town in thc arca, Zajcar, was not caught up
in thc movcmcnt.
:
Tis pointcd to ccrtain dicrcnccs, or at lcast thcrc was
a ccrtain disunity in thc movcmcnt. Tcrclorc, thc pcriod lrom thc lorma
tion ol thc Radical Party in +88+ to thc Timok rcbcllion in +88 was a timc
ol rapid risc ol Scrbian Radicalism and an cvcn morc rapid dcclinc. Still,
it scrvcd as a prccious cxpcricncc lor thc movcmcnts luturc. Tc ycars that
lollowcd wcrc markcd by two parallcl proccsscs: rst, by thc attcmpts ol scv
cral Radical lcadcrs who rcmaincd in 8clgradc to rccupcratc and rcorganizc
thc movcmcnt on thc basis ol lcgal political activity, and sccondly, by thc
activitics ol thc Radical cmigrants in 8ulgaria lcd by Nikola Pai, whosc
actions wcrc dircctcd towards prcparing anothcr armcd uprising in Scrbia.
Tcsc two tcndcncics rcprcscntcd two dicrcnt laccs, or morc prcciscly, thc
doublc pcrsonality ol thc Radical movcmcnt. Troughout its carly history
Scrbian Radicalism had bccn torn bctwccn thcsc two, csscntially oppositc
+
Scc Milocvi, Timoka buna, ++o+++.
:
!li, Zajearska buna, 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 140
options: to bccomc a lcgal, dcmocratic political organization, or to accom
plish political goals by mcans ol lorcc.
!n his rst manilcsto altcr hc had lclt Scrbia, publishcd in cccmbcr
+88, Nikola Pai opcnly callcd lor an armcd rcbcllion against thc King:
Lcgal and constitutional mcans arc not sucicnt to curb thc vio
lcncc, abusc and bctrayal ol thc King and his supportcrs. Laws prc
vail ovcr lics, robbcrics and crimcs only whcn committcd by ordinary
pcoplc, but whcn committcd by thosc who wcrc supposcd to protcct
thc pcoplc in that casc only wcapons could hclp.
!n a lcttcr to Nikola Pai scnt lrom 8clgradc in Fcbruary +88, onc ol thc
Radical lcadcrs also cmphasizcd thc importancc ol an armcd rcbcllion:
but ! know that our strugglc through parliamcnt has to bc
mcrcly lormal, or at lcast sccond in importancc, our main goal has to
bc thc uprising.
Tc othcr opinion within thc Radical movcmcnt during thosc crucial ycars
in thc wakc ol thc Timok rcbcllion argucd in lavour ol a gradual and silcnt
rccovcry ol thc Party structurc, and thc movcmcnts conccntration on politi
cal issucs, avoiding sharp conlrontations and attacks on thc King pcrsonally.
Somc ol thc Radical lcadcrs lrom 8clgradc criticizcd thcir comradcs in
cmigration lor such statcmcnts. Stojan Proti wrotc to Nikola Pai:
! cannot undcrstand that you, Aca |Stanojcvi| and ika
|Milcnovi|, but you cspccially, can makc such mistakcs. Vhy and
how comc that you camc out so opcnly against thc King: ! can, but
only partially, cxplain thc loolishncss ol your action by your dcspcr
atc situation and by your psychological condition.
!nstcad ol a ncw, lorcclul uprising, this Radical group suggcstcd to Pai

thc commcnccmcnt ol a ncw political ncwspapcr intcndcd to rccstablish
brokcn tics among thc Radicals and to scrvc as thc basis lor luturc Radical
work.
6
uring +88 thcsc two strcams conlrontcd onc anothcr, and thc con
ict was particularly sharp within thc lcadcrship in 8clgradc. !n a lcttcr to
Nikola Pai, onc ol 8clgradcs Radicals wrotc:
! dccidcd to approach our closcst lricnds in 8clgradc jaja | Jovan|,
Stojan |Proti|, Svctozar |Milosavljcvi| and othcrs ... to dccidc
Lcttcr ol Nikola Pai, +8 cccmbcr +88, privatc collcction.
(Probably Andra Nikoli) to Nikola Pai, 8clgradc, + April +88, privatc collcc
tion.

(Probably Stojan Proti) to Nikola Pai, 8clgradc, Fcbruary +88, privatc collcc
tion.
6
Ibid.
oncc and lor all: do thcy think that our Party could accomplish its
programmc undcr thc rulc ol King Milan without an uprising. A
lot would dcpcnd upon this. Accordingly, our luturc work should bc
organizcd with thcm or without thcm.
Finally, on + Scptcmbcr +88, Nikola Pai callcd lor an armcd rcbcllion.

Tis is what hc said in his mcssagc to thc Scrbian nation:
car compatriots, thc timc has comc to stop and to cast o thc yokc
ol our patrons: thcy abolishcd lrccdom, thcy ncglcctcd thc rights ol
thc pcoplc, thcy scparatcd Scrbia lrom Scrbdom and Slavophilism
Stop any communication through mail, tclcgraph or mcsscngcrs ...
Form units, battalions and armics and go to 8clgradc il thc King is
thcrc or to Ni il that is whcrc hc is. Vc arc about to cross thc bor
dcr and comc to your aid Tc army should bc with thc pcoplc, it
should not obcy any command against thc pcoplc, its lrccdom and
lathcrland
8
According to Slobodan Jovanovi, thc highcst authority on Scrbian political
history ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, thc cntirc rst pcriod ol Pais cmigra
tion in 8ulgaria (until +88) conccntratcd on prcparations lor an armcd
rcbcllion.
8y thc summcr ol +88, Pai managcd to sccurc thc moncy and

arms lor thc uprising. According to Jovanovi, this action was hampcrcd by
thc Plovdiv coup in 8ulgaria.
6o
!l Jovanovis assumption is corrcct, and it
sounds convincing, thcn it would corroboratc thc inlcrcncc that thc Radical
lcadcrship in 8clgradc had bccn dividcd.
8y thc bcginning ol +886, howcvcr, thc Radical movcmcnt complctc
ly abandoncd its rcvolutionary ambitions. Tcrc wcrc scvcral rcasons lor
this shilt in political stratcgy. Firstly, on + January +886, thc Radical lcadcrs,
imprisoncd lor thcir allcgcd involvcmcnt in thc Timok rcbcllion, had bccn
pardoncd and lrccd. Tc Scrbian rulcr was lorccd to stcp back largcly bc
causc ol his disastrous dclcat in thc war with 8ulgaria in +88.
6+
Sccondly,
Nikola Pai and othcr Radical cmigrants in 8ulgaria ccascd thcir rcbcllious
activitics. Tirdly, thc movcmcnt had alrcady bccn rcorganizcd. Tc proccss
ol Radicals rccntcring Scrbian politics was undcrway, cspccially through
its ncwlylaunchcd ncwspapcr Odjek (Tc cho), which had bccn startcd in
Lcttcr to Nikola Pai, 8clgradc, ++ Fcbruary +88, privatc collcction.

8
8clgradc, Archivcs ol Scrbia (hcrcaltcr AS), Milutin Garaanin Fond, 86, no. 8.
Slobodan Jovanovi, Pai u cmigraciji, Srpski knjievni glasnik XX! (8clgradc,

+:), o++.
6o
Ibid.
6+
Stojan Novakovi, Dvadeset godina ustavne borbe u Srbiji 1883-1903 (8clgradc, ++:),
:o:.
8alcanica XXX\! 142
thc lall ol +88, and by thc bcginning ol +88 had alrcady oo subscribcrs.
6:

Although modcratc in political cxprcssions comparcd to Samouprava, Odjek
was instrumcntal in sprcading Radical idcas and in lcgalizing thc movc
mcnt altcr thc Timok rcbcllion.
Tc Radicals clcarly cxprcsscd thcir tcndcncy towards appcascmcnt
in two announccmcnts to thc mcmbcrship publishcd in +886:
Tc attitudc ol our Party visavis prcscnt circumstanccs should not
bc cmotional or inspircd by grcat hopcs or moral bclicls, rathcr it
should bc limitcd to cautious waiting and unanimous rcadincss lor
complcx political work.
6
!n anothcr sct ol instructions conccrning thc upcoming clcctions in +88,
thc Radical lcadcrship adviscd its lollowcrs:
to avoid cvcrything that could givc cxcusc or provokc scvcrcr
countcrmcasurcs by thc govcrnmcnt.
not to listcn to anyonc, to usc dccisivcly and collcctivcly thc vot
ing rights, to act intclligcntly within lcgal limits.
6
Tc movcmcnt had obviously maturcd through thc ycars ol dynamic cvcnts
and dcnitcly acccptcd a lcgal path to political powcr as thc only mcans ol
dcmocratic strugglc. From this point on, Scrbian Radicalism nally bccamc
thc movcmcnt ol a purcly dcmocratic oricntation.

Tc pcriod ol pragmatic Radicalism in Scrbia roughly covcrcd thc ycars
bctwccn +886 and +8. !t was notablc lor thc movcmcnts dcnitc acccp
tancc into thc cxisting political systcm, and lor thc actions aimcd at achicv
ing political rclorms through that systcm. Tc Radicals rst succcss was thc
agrccmcnt thcy concludcd with thc Libcrals in thc spring ol +886.
6
Tis
agrccmcnt was motivatcd by two important lactors: thc ncccssity ol lcgal
izing thc Radical movcmcnt altcr thc Timok rcbcllion aair and thc chancc
ol cntcring thc govcrnmcnt. Tis was possiblc only through an agrccmcnt
with thc opposition party ol thc Libcrals.
Tc RadicalLibcral agrccmcnt did not signal any idcological rap
prochcmcnt bctwccn thc two political groups.
66
!t rathcr was dircctcd to
wards collaboration during thc clcctions and, in casc ol clcctoral victory,
6:
Stojan Proti, Odlomci iz ustavne i narodne borbe (8clgradc, ++++:), +6.
6
Archivcs ol thc Scrbian Acadcmy ol Scicnccs and Arts (hcrcaltcr ASANU), no.
+68:.
6
Ibid.
6
Jovan Avakumovi, Mcmoirs, ASANU, no. :8, p. .
66
Ibid. Scc also ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!!, o.
thc possibility ol lorming a coalition govcrnmcnt.
6
Tc major task ol that
coalition cabinct, which was actually organizcd on + Junc +88, undcr thc
Prcsidcncy ol thc Libcral Jovan Risti, was to lostcr constitutional rclorm.
For thc rst timc in thcir history, thc Radicals cntcrcd thc cabinct, rccciving
thc lollowing ministcrial scctors: Sava Gruji bccamc thc Ministcr ol thc
Military, Mihailo \uji rcccivcd thc Ministry ol Financcs, Pcra \climirovi
bccamc thc Ministcr ol Constructions and Svctozar Milosavljcvi was ap
pointcd thc Ministcr ol ducation.
68
Tc coalition bctwccn thc Libcrals
and thc Radicals did not last long. Altcr scvcral months, on + cccmbcr
+88, thc Radicals lormcd thc rst purcly Radical cabinct
6
undcr thc prcsi
dcncy ol Gcncral Sava Gruji. Tc conict with thc King cscalatcd, lorcing
thc Radical govcrnmcnt to rcsign in April +888.
o
!l thc lailurc ol thc Timok rcbcllion was thc Kings victory ovcr thc
Radicals, than thc promulgation ol thc ncw Constitution in cccmbcr +888
was thc Radical victory ovcr thc rulcr. Soon altcr this documcnts approval
by thc National Asscmbly, thc King abdicatcd and lclt Scrbia (:: Fcbruary
!88). A Rcgcncy was lormcd in ordcr to rcprcscnt thc sovcrcign rights ol
Milans minor son Alcxandcr.
+
Although thc Constitution ol +888 camc as a rcsult ol thc work ol
all thrcc political partics, its spirit basically rccctcd thc programmc ol thc
Radical Party. !t was onc thc most libcral constitutions in uropc ol that
timc, cstablishing thc basis lor lull dcmocracy and opcning thc door lor thc
dcvclopmcnt ol an advanccd political systcm in Scrbia. 8ricy, thc constitu
tional act ol +888 can bc considcrcd thc rcalization ol thc Radical political
programmc.
Soon altcr thc abdication ol King Milan, thc promincnt Radical
lcadcr Nikola Pai was nally pardoncd and allowcd to rcturn to Scrbia.
Hc camc back to his nativc country in +88 and immcdiatcly took ovcr
lcadcrship ol thc Radical movcmcnt.
Tc pcriod lrom Fcbruary +88 to August +8: was thc longcst pc
riod prior to +o in which thc Radicals wcrc in powcr. uring thosc thrcc
and a hall ycars thcy wcrc ablc to implcmcnt and dcvclop a political systcm
bascd on thc Constitution ol +888 and on intcnsivc lcgislativc activity. Tis
pcriod ol Scrbian history was rightlully namcd thc Radical rcgimc.
:
6
LibcralRadical agrccmcnt in Avakumovi, Mcmoirs, 86.
68
Avakumovi, Mcmoirs, 8.
6
Jovanovi, Vlada Milana Obrenovia, !!!, ::.
o
ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!!, :o:.
+
Ibid.
:
Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !, +o:oo.
8alcanica XXX\! 144
According to thc law on clcctions ol rcprcscntativcs, passcd in March +8o,
thc Radicals succccdcd in introducing virtually gcncral voting right without
any ccnsus. !t containcd scvcral important rclorms which sccurcd a dcmo
cratic clcctoral proccdurc: it introduccd thc sccrct ballot, powcr during thc
clcctions was assigncd to thc prcsidcnt ol thc clcctoral committcc, without
any intcrlcrcncc ol Statc authoritics, and a dctailcd pcnal codc was intro
duccd lor cascs ol abusc during thc clcctions.
Two othcr lcgal documcnts wcrc passcd during Radical rulc and
shcd a grcatcr undcrstanding ol thc Radical intcrprctation ol dcmocracy.
Tc law on ministcrial rcsponsibility datcd January +8+, gavc thc right ol
qucstioning to both thc National Asscmbly and to thc King. Tc ministc
rial rcsponsibility was both political and criminal.
Tc law on communcs,
cnlorccd in Novcmbcr +88, was dcsigncd to introducc thc conccpt ol local
scllgovcrnmcnt as thc most important political systcm in thc country. Tc
application ol this systcm csscntially mcant thc rcalization ol thc Radical
programmc.
Upon his rcturn to Scrbia, Nikola Pai was clcctcd prcsidcnt ol thc
National Asscmbly in +88 and promptly lormcd his rst Radical cabinct.
6

Tc cabinct rcsigncd in August +8: and was succccdcd by thc Libcral
govcrnmcnt ol Jovan Avakumovi.
Tc Radicals wcrc again an opposition

party waiting lor ncw clcctions that, so thcy hopcd, would bc thcir ncxt
chancc. Changcs in thc clcctoral systcm, whcrcby all indcbtcd citizcns wcrc
dcnicd voting rights, rcsultcd in a closc votc. Tc Libcrals wcrc ablc to kccp
thcir govcrnmcnt by a tight margin.
8
Vithin a ycar, on + April +8, thc minor King Alcxandcr brcnovi,
whilc dining with mcmbcrs ol thc Rcgcncy, supportcd by thc army and gov
crnmcnt mcmbcrs, proclaimcd himscll king and took thc royal powcrs. Tc
outcomc ol thc coup dtat was thc collapsc ol thc Rcgcncy and thc cabinct.
Tc young rulcr appointcd Lazar oki, his lormcr prolcssor (mcmbcr ol
thc Radical Party but lricndly with thc Court), as Prcsidcnt ol thc Govcrn
mcnt.
Tc Radicals acccptcd this changc with vigour and acclamation. !t

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.
6
Ibid., :::.

ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!!, :.
8
Ibid.
Scc Raa Milocvi, Dravni udar odozgo i Prvi april 1893; svrgnue krujeg kraljevskog
namesnitva (8clgradc, +6).
was rcportcd that thc Radicals accompanicd thc King all ovcr Scrbia chccr
ing and calling him thc rst Radical and Alcxandcr thc Grcat.
8o
Vith thc
cxccption ol thc Ministry ol thc Military, thc cabinct ol Lazar oki was
purcly Radical.
8+
ncc again, thc collaboration was shortlivcd. Tc Radical
cabinct was lorccd to rcsign and, morcovcr, thc Radicals and thc King cn
tcrcd into an opcn conlrontation. Radical public mcctings wcrc banncd and
thc Radicals dcscribcd as just a mob gathcrcd to disturb public pcacc and
ordcr.
8:
Tc Kings nal stcp was his dccision to abolish thc Constitution
ol +888 in May +8.
8
ncc again, thc Scrbian Statc was pushcd into a
pcriod dominatcd by thc rulcr and his camarilla. Tc Radical achicvcmcnts
in political aairs wcrc supprcsscd and thcir collaboration with thc King
provcd to bc dctrimcntal and misjudgcd. Tc pcriod ol pragmatic Radical
ism sccms to havc bccn crucial in many ways. Tc Radical Party progrcsscd
in thc altcrmath ol thc Timok rcbcllion, passing through thc painlul proccss
ol political rcoricntation, nally succccding in cntcring thc govcrnmcnt and
bccoming an important political lactor. Tis pcriod was charactcrizcd by
scvcral signicant achicvcmcnts ol thc Radical Party in thc implcmcntation
ol parliamcntarism and modcrn dcmocracy. 8cginning with thc Constitu
tion ol +888, lollowcd by a scrics ol lcgal documcnts which had spccicd
thc principlcs cstablishcd by thc Constitution, thc Radicals rcalizcd much
ol thcir political programmc.
8
Finally, thcy collaboratcd with thc Libcrals
and with thc King. Tis mcant that thcir partisan cxclusivcncss, which still
cxistcd among ccrtain circlcs in thc Party, had bccn gcncrally climinatcd.
Tcy cntcrcd thc phasc in which thcy undcrstood and acccptcd thc rulcs ol
thc political gamc, thcy wcrc not as innoccnt and clcan as thcy had bccn in
+88+. !nstcad, thcy bccamc succcsslul and powcrlul.

Tc phasc ol Scrbian Radicalism lrom +8 to +o was markcd chicy
by pcacclulncss and unsucccsslul attcmpts to rcturn to powcr, bccoming
known as thc pcriod ol ovcrpowcrcd Radicalism. Tc political work ol thc
Radical lcadcrs was mainly conccntratcd on journalistic activitics. Trough
thcir lcading political organ Odjek, thc ncwlystartcd Narod (Tc Pcoplc)
and thc litcrarypolitical magazinc Delo (Tc ccd), thc Radicals wcrc ablc
8o
Avakumovi, Mcmoirs, +:.
8l
Ibid.
8:
Avakumovi, Mcmoirs, no. :8/!!!, +.
8
Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !!, :o::+.
8
Milivojc Popovi, Poreklo i postanak ustava od 1888. godine (8clgradc, +), o+.
8alcanica XXX\! 146
to rcmain a prcscncc in daily politics. 8csidcs cvcryday issucs, thcir attcn
tion turncd to qucstions ol uropcan political thcory. uring this pcriod,
thc Radicals acccptcd thc thcory ol 8ritish parliamcntarism, rclying on
thc work ol two ol thcir political writcrs: Stojan Proti and Milovan j.
Milovanovi.
8
ncc again, thc major Radical objcctivc was thc dcmand lor a new
constitution. Tc govcrnmcnts attcmpts to lorm a constitutional commit
tcc ol all thrcc political partics dcnitcly lailcd in +86 as a rcsult ol thc
Radicals vigorous opposition to collaboration with thc Progrcssivist gov
crnmcnt ol Stojan Novakovi couplcd with thcir prcssurc to rcinlorcc thc
Constitution ol +888.
86
Tc summcr ol +86 was markcd by a massivc Radical mccting hcld
in 8clgradc on :8 July. According to Odjek, bctwccn and o thousand
pcoplc wcrc prcscnt.
8
Most ol thcm wcrc pcasants who camc lrom all ovcr
Scrbia.
88
ivan ivanovi, a promincnt Libcral, claimcd that this had bccn
thc most massivc political mccting cvcr organizcd in Scrbia.
8
At thc cnd ol +86 thc Radicals cntcrcd thc cabinct again. Altcr an
arrangcmcnt with thc King, jordjc Simi, onc ol thc lcss important Radi
cals in thc party hicrarchy and a mcmbcr ol its lcast militant wing, lormcd a
govcrnmcnt consisting ol ncutrals and compromising Radicals. Tc Radical
ministcrs wcrc Mihailo \uji, Pcra \climirovi, Andra Nikoli and Milovan
Milovanovi.
o
8chind this group stood Nikola Pai as a sccrct advisor ol
thc govcrnmcnt.
+
As a part ol thc dcal with thc King, thc Radicals agrccd
to postponc constitutional rclorm lor onc wholc ycar. Radical pragmatism
bccamc morc than obvious. !ntcnt to rcmain in powcr, thcy tcmporarily
bctraycd thcir most important political objcctivc and principlc: thc dcmand
lor thc rcinstitution ol thc +888 Constitution. Tis cabinct was lorccd to
rcsign in thc lall ol +8, largcly bccausc cxKing Milan brcnovi rc
turncd to Scrbia. Tc ncxt ycars markcd thc timc ol thc pcrsonal rcgimc ol
King Alcxandcr supportcd and adviscd by his lathcr Milan. Tc govcrn
mcnt was hcadcd by Milans intimatc old lricnd \ladan jordjcvi. cspitc
all thcir prcvious attcmpts to collaboratc with thc Crown, thc Radicals wcrc
again out ol powcr, and morc importantly, out ol thc political mainstrcam.
8
Slobodan Jovanovi, Moji savremenici (Vindsor, Canada, +), +:8.
86
Scc Novakovi, Ustavna borba.
8
Odjek, o July +86.
88
Ibid.
8
ivanovi, Politika istorija, !!!, o+o.
o
Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !!!, +8++.
+
Ibid.
Tc majority ol thc laws passcd undcr Radical rulc wcrc changcd or sup
prcsscd.
Tc nal attack on thc Radical Party camc in +8. An abortivc at
tcmpt on thc cxKing Milans lilc madc by a youngstcr lrom 8osnia was
uscd by thc govcrnmcnt as a prctcxt to arrcst thc Partys most outspokcn
lcadcrs, accusing thcm ol inspiring and organizing thc attcmptcd assassina
tion. Tc Radicals imprisoncd wcrc Nikola Pai, Kosta Taunovi, Stojan
Proti, Ljuba ivkovi and thc pricst Milan juri.
:
Tc prosccution pa
pcrs statcd that during thc mccting ol thc Radical Main Committcc Nikola
Pai opcnly thrcatcncd cxKing Milan, that Ljuba ivkovi was thc author
ol Tc cmon ol Scrbia, which alludcd to cxMilan, and praiscd Karad
jordjc, thc lcadcr ol thc First Scrbian !nsurrcction, and that thc cntirc public
lilc ol Stojan Proti was thc lilc ol a rcvolutionary.
Tc cxKing Milan took

thc advantagc ol thc cvcnt to dcstroy thc lcadcrship ol thc Radical movc
mcnt.
At rst, hc insistcd on thc dcath pcnalty lor Pai and Tauanovi

in rctaliation lor all past and prcscnt conicts and clashcs. 8ut, whcn thc
Scrbian and uropcan, cspccially Russian public as wcll as govcrnmcnts
rcactcd against thc govcrnmcnt accusations, nding that thc arrcstcd Radi
cals wcrc innoccnt, thc cxKing dccidcd to makc a bargain with Pai. Pai
agrccd to accusc somc ol his Party comradcs (Proti and ivkovi) ol anti
dynastic attitudcs and possiblc inspiration lor thc attcmptcd assassination
and, in rcturn, his and Tauanovis livcs wcrc sparcd. !n thc cnd, thc ac
cuscd Radicals wcrc scntcnccd to twcnty ycars ol hard labour, Tauanovi
to +o ycars and Pai to only vc ycars in prison.
Tcsc mcasurcs wcrc

accompanicd by organizcd attacks on thc Radicals. Tcy wcrc bcing rcd,
pcrsccutcd, and purgcd throughout Scrbia.
!n +o+, thc Radical movcmcnt rccmcrgcd in Scrbian politics with
thc dcath ol thcir archcncmy, cxKing Milan brcnovi. And oncc again,
as many timcs bclorc, thc Radicals insistcd on constitutional rclorm.
Sincc +8 thc country had bccn virtually without a constitution.
Tc documcnt ol +888 had bccn voidcd in lavour ol thc old Constitution
ol +86 without an ocial proclamation. !n Fcbruary +o+, thc Radical
lcadcrs Mihailo \uji and Milovan Milovanovi cntcrcd thc govcrnmcnt.
At thc cnd ol March, \uji lormcd a coalition cabinct with thc Progrcs
sivists and immcdiatcly addrcsscd thc constitutional qucstion. Tc king oc
troycd thc ncw Constitution in April +o+. Tis cvcnt was prcccdcd by a
RadicalProgrcssivist agrccmcnt, known as thc Fusion, which camc as a
:
AS, \ladan jordjcvi Fond, 8, no. :.

Ibid.
Ibid. Scc also Kosta Jczdi, Ivandanski atentat i Nikola Pai (8clgradc, +:6).
Jovanovi, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovia, !!!, :.

8alcanica XXX\! 148
rcsult ol King Alcxandcrs dcmand.
6
Tc Constitution was a compromisc
solution bctwccn thc two prcvious Scrbian highcst chartcrs, ol +86 and
+888. Tc Constitution ol +o+ cstablishcd a bicamcral Parliamcnt with a
Scnatc and National Asscmbly. Tc Scnatc as thc Uppcr Housc was only
partially clcctivc most ol its mcmbcrs (o) wcrc appointcd by thc King,
whcrcas only +8 wcrc choscn by thc votcrs.
Tc lcgislativc initiativc was

dividcd bctwccn thc King and thc Parliamcnt. Tc Constitution cnlargcd
thc prcrogativcs ol thc Statc Council as thc suprcmc administrativcjudicial
body. lcction by sccrct ballot was rccstablishcd, whilc thc Constitution
guarantccd only limitcd civil libcrtics.
8
Tc Fusion with thc Progrcssivists, a compromisc on thc constitu
tional qucstion, bccamc thc major causc lor thc split in thc Radical movc
mcnt. A group ol youngcr Radical intcllcctuals lclt thc bulk ol thc Party
and startcd thc !ndcpcndcnt Radical Party in +o+.
Tis was thc rup

turc bctwccn thc oldcr gcncration and thc youngcr mcmbcrs ol thc Radical
movcmcnt rathcr than an idcological division bctwccn thc two groups. Tc
!ndcpcndcnt Radicals insistcd on rcturning to thc original political pro
grammc ol +88+ and on thc rcstoration ol thc +888 Constitution. From this
point on, thc !ndcpcndcnt Radical Party playcd an outstandingly important
rolc in Scrbian politics. Altcr +o, thc ld Radicals and thc !ndcpcndcnt
Radicals bccamc two lcading political camps in Scrbia. Tc old political
groups, Progrcssivists and Libcrals, gradually disappcarcd lrom thc political
sccnc. Tc !ndcpcndcnt Radicals wcrc lcd by thrcc Ljubomirs: Ljubomir
ivkovi, Ljubomir Stojanovi and Ljubomir avidovi.
+oo

Tc turning point in modcrn Scrbian history camc in +o. Tat ycar was
markcd by thc assassination ol King Alcxandcr and Quccn raga by a group
ol young Scrbian occrs.
+o+
Tis cvcnt markcd thc cnd ol thc brcnovi dy
nasty which had rulcd Scrbia with intcrruptions lor morc than scvcnty ycars
(+8+: and +88+o), but morc importantly, it opcncd thc door lor a
constitutional parliamcntary dcmocracy. !n Junc +o, only a month altcr
thc Kings dcath, a ncw constitution, with csscntially thc samc tcxt as that
ol +888, was passcd by thc Grand National Asscmbly. Tc Karadjordjcvi
6
Ibid., 8+8.

Ibid.
8
Ibid.
Ibid., +.
+oo
Ibid.
+o+
For morc dctails, scc \asi, 1903.
dynasty rcplaccd thc brcnovis Pctcr Karadjordjcvi, thc grandson ol
Karadjordjc, bccamc King ol Scrbia. Tc Radical Party cntcrcd its Goldcn
Agc. Altcr ovcr twcnty ycars ol strugglc, rcbcllion, crisis, compromisc and
succcss, it bccamc powcrlul and maturc cnough to dominatc Scrbian poli
tics and dccisivcly contributc to Scrbias cmcrgcncc as a dcmocratic uro
pcan statc.
Institute for Balkan Studies UDC 329.13/.17(=163.41)(091)!1881/1903
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art 94(497.11)18/19
Belgrade
cdomir Anti
Crisis and Armament
Economic Relations between Great Britain
and Serbia 19101912
1
Te highest rise and insignicant presence
!n ++o a pcriod ol intcnsivc armamcnt ol thc Scrbian army bcgan, and
as thc country was not nancially strong cnough to mcct all thc projcctcd
cxpcnscs, a ncw and widcranging involvcmcnt ol lorcign capital in Scrbia
was incvitablc. Tis crcatcd a nancial contcst bctwccn thc Grcat Powcrs
lor dominancc ovcr thc country, and was a quict prcludc to thc 8alkan Vars
and thc First Vorld Var.
+
iplomatic rclations bctwccn Scrbia and Grcat 8ritain wcrc cstablishcd on Junc
+8, whcn Coloncl Gcorgc Lloyd Hodgcs handcd his crcdcntials to Princc Milo, thus
bccoming thc rst 8ritish GcncralAgcnt in thc Principality ol Scrbia. Hodgcs activi
tics wcrc mainly aimcd at supporting thc autocratic Scrbian monarch in his opposition
to thc inucncc ol St. Pctcrsburg and Constantinoplc. Ncvcrthclcss, as it was a pcriod
whcn Russian inucncc on thc Portc was in thc asccndant, and as Milos misrulc was
mccting lormidablc rcsistancc in Scrbia, 8ritish diplomacy lailcd in its corts. Finally,
Princc Milo was lorccd to abdicatc, and thc rst 8ritish diplomatic rcprcscntativc in
Scrbia, nding his position untcnablc, lclt thc country as wcll.
Tc ncxt 8ritish diplomatic rcprcscntativc in Scrbia was T. G. dc Fonblanquc. Tis
timc, 8ritish diplomacy dccidcd to avoid any troublc. Ncvcrthclcss, Fonblanquc was not
imprcsscd by thc rcgimc cstablishcd in Scrbia: hc dcspiscd thc wcakncss ol Princc Alc
ksandar Karadjordjcvi and pointcd out in his dcspatchcs thc high lcvcls ol corruption
in thc powcrlul oligarchy asscmblcd in thc Statc Council. Abovc all, hc ncvcr got uscd
to Scrbia and maintaincd a hostilc attitudc towards thc Scrbs. Paradoxically, although
alicnatcd and inimically disposcd, Fonblanquc had bccn virtually lorgottcn in 8clgradc
lor almost cightccn ycars. Altcr thc +88/ rcvolution in Hungary, hc hclpcd to ccct
thc cscapc ol its lcadcr Kossuth, and so attractcd thc pcrsonal cnmity ol thc Austrian
mpcror Franz Joscph. Vhcn, at thc outbrcak ol thc Crimcan Var, Russia and Austria
thrcatcncd to occupy Scrbia, it was 8ritain that tcmporarily won thc grcatcst inucncc
on Scrbian aairs. 8ut, as thc Paris Pcacc scttlcmcnt did not signicantly cnhancc thc
position and status ol thc Principality ol Scrbia, 8ritish prcstigc promptly dccrcascd.
8alcanica XXX\! 152
For Scrbia, thc qucstion ol army modcrnisation bccamc a burning
priority altcr thc rcport by Coloncl Main, submittcd to thc Scrbian Gov
crnmcnt in +o, rcvilcd thc Scrbian army not only lor lagging bchind its
mighty impcrial locs, thc ttoman mpirc and AustriaHungary, but lor
Rcstoration ol thc brcnovi dynasty in +88 did not bring much changc in Anglo
Scrbian rclations. uring thc +86os Scrbia was trying to win complctc indcpcndcncc
and to libcratc ncighbouring districts. Tc ncxt 8ritish consul, Langworth (+86o+8),
pcrccivcd Scrbia as a battlccld lor thc two cqually dangcrous movcmcnts lor thc u
ropcan balancc ol powcr: PanSlavism and SouthSlavism. Vhcn, in thc astcrn Crisis
Russia dclcatcd thc ttoman mpirc and PanSlavism appcarcd to bc triumphant in
thc 8alkans, Grcat 8ritain stood up as thc last protcctor ol thc ttoman mpirc. Ncv
crthclcss, thc crisis opcncd a lormidablc rilt bctwccn thc approach ol 8ritish politicians
to thc 8alkans and thc attitudc ol thc public. Somc politicians, as was thc casc with
isracli, wcrc motivatcd by political pragmatism to support thc Portc, and at thc samc
timc wcrc almost complctcly without intcrcst in thc ttoman rclorm and thc position
ol Christian subjccts in thc ttoman mpirc. n thc othcr sidc wcrc thc Libcrals,
strongly supportcd by thc 8ritish public, who bccamc vcry scnsitivc to any ncws about
unrcstraincd opprcssion in thc ttoman mpirc. Tc most lamous proponcnt ol this
policy was Gladstonc.
Tc +88os and +8os wcrc a pcriod whcn Scrbia and Romania, although lormally
indcpcndcnt sincc +88, wcrc gradually bccoming politically and cconomically dcpcnd
cnt on AustriaHungary. vcn though, in +886, thc 8ritish diplomatic rcprcscntativc in
8clgradc was promotcd in rank to Ministcr xtraordinary and nvoy Plcnipotcntiary,
dircct political intcrcst in Scrbia was in a proccss ol dcclinc. At thc turn ol thc ccntury
thc situation changcd to a ccrtain dcgrcc. Tc Maccdonian uprising ol +o and thc as
sassination ol thc Scrbian royal couplc attractcd thc attcntion ol thc 8ritish public and
govcrnmcnt. Tc Maccdonian uprising triggcrcd uropcan mcdiation and thc common
rclorming action ol thc Grcat Powcrs towards Turkcyinuropc. n thc othcr sidc,
thc brutal murdcr ol King Alcksandar brcnovi and Quccn raga lclt a longlasting
mark on rclations bctwccn London and 8clgradc. iplomatic rclations wcrc brokcn lor
thrcc ycars, and rcmaincd cstrangcd until ++. Tc 8ritish Govcrnmcnts conditions
lor thcir rcstoration involvcd thc climination lrom public lilc ol thc occrs who had
playcd major rolcs in thc conspiracy. As thc ncw rcgimc and thc Karadjordjcvi dynasty
wcrc still wcak, and rclicd hcavily on thc support ol thc army, gcnuinc normalisation
rcquircd considcrablc timc. 8clorc that could happcn, thc cconomic rivalry and politi
cal disputc bctwccn Scrbia and AustriaHungary had alrcady startcd, whilc 8ritain did
not takc part in thc rst stagcs ol thc cconomic contcst bctwccn thc Grcat Powcrs ovcr
thc provision ol loans lor Scrbia and thc cstablishmcnt ol an armamcnt programmc
lor thc Scrbian army. So whcn in +o6 a ncw 8ritish Ministcr, John 8. Vhitchcad,
was appointcd, 8ritain was lagging bchind thc othcr Grcat Powcrs as lar as inucncc
on Scrbian aairs was conccrncd. Tc 8ritish position improvcd somcwhat during thc
8osnian crisis ol +o8, but 8ritish diplomacy limitcd thc signs ol its ncw bcncvolcncc
towards Scrbia strictly to moral support. Scrbia bccamc intcrcsting to thc Forcign l
cc mainly bccausc Scrbias advcrsary was AustriaHungary, a dcvotcd ally ol Gcrmany.
8cyond that lact thcrc was nothing about Scrbia that was attractivc lor 8ritish diplo
. Anti, Crisis and Armamcnt 153
lagging bchind 8ulgaria as wcll.
:
Anothcr impulsc camc with thc humiliat
ing Anncxation crisis and thc Austrian actions in Sandjak, Malissori and
thc KosovoMctohija rcgion. Alongsidc thc military issucs, Scrbia had lclt
strong cconomic prcssurc lrom its mighty ncighbour AustriaHungary. Tc
pcriod altcr +o witncsscd an intcnsilying cconomic contcst bctwccn thc
two countrics, which culminatcd in thc Customs Var in +o6. An cco
nomic outlct onto thc sca ol onc ol its ncighbours thus bccamc thc principal
political obscssion ol Scrbian politicians and capitalists, and it was usually
idcnticd with thc indcpcndcncc ol thc country. As has alrcady bccn mcn
tioncd, ++o was thc ycar whcn thc idca ol a military and political alliancc
bctwccn thc 8alkan countrics attractcd oncc morc thc attcntion ol local
politicians. Vhcthcr such an alliancc would bc antiAustrian or antit
toman, pcacclul or aggrcssivc, was bcing kcpt an obscurc sccrct, lor 8alkan
politicians wcrc lully awarc that thcir lrccdom ol action would mainly dc
pcnd on thc complcx balancc bctwccn thc Grcat Powcrs.
Succcsslul rclorm
and armamcnt ol thc Scrbian army was thc main prccondition that such an
alliancc would bc ccctivcly ncgotiatcd, and that Scrbian intcrcsts would bc
wcll placatcd within it.
Vhcn Sir Ralph Pagct
arrivcd in 8clgradc, cconomic rclations bc

twccn Grcat 8ritain and Scrbia wcrc twolold. Tc rangc ol potcntial
nancial and commcrcial activitics in Scrbia was limitcd, and that was why
macy. Scrbia was not pcrccivcd as worth considcring as a possiblc luturc ally. Tc obvi
ous instability ol thc Karadjordjcvi dynasty, thc lragility ol thc ncw parliamcntarian
political systcm, and thc qucstionablc virtucs ol thc Scrbian army all raiscd conccrns
that intcrnal criscs in Scrbia might wcll acct rclations bctwccn thc Grcat Powcrs in
thc luturc.
:
Vhitchcad to Grcy, Gcncral Rcport on thc Kingdom ol Scrvia lor thc ycar +o,
8clgradc, : April +o8, :+:, in British Documents on Foreign Aairs: Reports and
Papers from the Foreign Oce Condential Print, gcn. cds. Kcnncth 8ournc and . Cam
cron Vatt, Part !, From thc MidNinctccnth Ccntury to thc First Vorld Var, scrics F:
uropc, +88++, cd. J.\. Kcigcr, vol. +6 (Univcrsity Publications ol Amcrica, +8,
lurthcr rclcrrcd to as BdoFA).
. jordjcvi, Milovan Milovanovi (8clgradc, +), Ch. Hcilmrcich, Te Diplomacy

of the Balkan Wars, 191213 (London, +8).
Sir Ralph Spcnccr Pagct (+86+o) was in 8ritish diplomatic scrvicc lrom +88.
Hc was 8ritish Ministcr in Guatcmala, Siam, 8avaria, Scrbia and cnmark. !n ++
hc was scnt to Rio dc Janciro as thc rst 8ritish Ambassador to 8razil. Pagct was 8rit
ish Ministcr in 8clgradc lrom ++o to ++ (during thc 8alkan Vars ++:+) and
in ++ spcnt scvcral months in Scrbia as High Commissioncr ol 8ritish Rcd Cross.
Ralph Pagct was Assistant Undcrsccrctary ol Forcign Aaircs in ++6, whcn togcthcr
with Sir Villiam Tyrcll draltcd thc rst ocial 8ritish plan ol postwar composition ol
uropc. Ccdomir Antic, Sir Ralph Pagct and 8ritish Policy towards Scrbia lrom ++o
to ++ (MA thcsis, 8ristol, :oo:).
8alcanica XXX\! 154
it only attractcd small and not particularly inucntial 8ritish companics.
Although occasionally raiscd vcry loud, thcir voicc had only a modcst ccct
on thc Forcign cc, which lound many political obstaclcs to a widcr in
volvcmcnt ol 8ritish capital in Scrbia. Animosity towards thc Scrbian army,
in which thc dctcstcd rcgicidcs prcscrvcd much ol thcir prcvious inucncc,
was still alivc, as was an undisguiscd contcmpt lor corrupt 8clgradc politi
cians and thc lccblc Karadjordjcvi dynasty.
Tc 8alkans wcrc also a rcgion

in which 8ritain did not havc any dircct political or cconomic intcrcst, but
this was not thc casc with 8ritish impcrial allics and advcrsarics. !n this
contcxt, thc rcgion had a disproportional importancc lor 8ritish lorcign
policy. So, it was natural that 8ritish diplomats dcncd 8ritains cconomic
rclations with Scrbia in vaguc tcrms. Tcy had tricd to cxplain thc apparcnt
political obstaclcs and prcssurcs lor a widcr involvcmcnt ol 8ritish capital in
Scrbia by thc abscncc ol any major 8ritish invcstmcnt or any alrcadycxist
ing cconomic prcscncc.
6
Abovc all, Grcat 8ritain was vcry intcrcstcd in thc dcstiny ol thc t
toman mpirc, and was naturally anxious about thc prottoman lcclings
ol a hundrcd million ol its Muslim subjccts in !ndia.
Rclations with Russia

wcrc also thc sourcc ol considcrablc uncasc lor Grcat 8ritain and madc it
vcry rcluctant to bccomc involvcd. !n +o, an alliancc was concludcd bc
twccn thc two old advcrsarics. Howcvcr, whilc Pcrsia had bccn thc last and
most lormidablc obstaclc to ovcrcomc bclorc that alliancc was concludcd,
thc 8alkans, which wcrc to bccomc thc ccntrc ol two major criscs that ush
crcd in thc First Vorld Var, wcrc not particularly discusscd. Vhcn, about
++o, Grcat 8ritain tricd to movc closcr to AustriaHungary, thc Forcign
cc did not considcr that a common stand with Russia ovcr thc 8alkans
was ncccssary.
8
n thc othcr hand, Francc, thc closcst 8ritish ally, was ca
gcr to takc thc placc ol AustriaHungary as thc nancial patron ol Scrbia.
Tc bids to providc Scrbian loans thus turncd out to bc a contcst bctwccn
Frcnch and Gcrman capital and ultimatcly rcsultcd in a compromisc, which
Many authors considcr xcnophobia and corruption as thc main rcason lor modcst
involvcmcnt ol lorcign capital in Scrbia, cl. M. Palairct, Te Balkan Economies, c. 1800
1914 (Cambridgc, +), +, .
6
Pagct cxprcsscd dissatislaction with thc valuc ol commcrcial cxchangc bctwccn thc
two countrics, although awarc ol its potcntial lor stcady incrcasc. BdoFA, o.
J. Hcllcr, British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire (19081914), (London, +8),
8.
8
Russia tcndcd to rcinlorcc its political inucncc on thc 8alkans with cconomical in
volvcmcnt, but altcr thc +o rcvolution and thc rcdcnition ol its lorcign policy aims,
this ccascd to bc a priority. Just bclorc thc 8alkan Var, Russian 8alkan policy bccamc
highly limitcd and dcpcndcnt upon thc Straits qucstion.
nally imposcd Frcnch cconomic suprcmacy in Scrbia. Tc participation
ol Francc in two major loans that Scrbia raiscd in +o/+o and ++ was
so signicant that Francc bccamc thc owncr ol morc than thrccquartcrs
ol all thc dcbts ol thc Scrbian Statc.
!n thc strugglc to givc loans, Grcat

8ritain, which rcstorcd rclations with Scrbia in +o6, was a ncwcomcr. 8rit
ish diplomats did not bclicvc that any cxpcctcd prots could bc worth cvcn
thc slightly possiblc dctcrioration ol 8ritains othcrwisc good rclations with
Francc.
Although thc issuc was not important cnough to provokc rivalry bc
twccn 8ritain and Francc, thc Scrbian loans wcrc still a vcry tcmpting and
attractivc invcstmcnt. Tc Scrbian political clitc considcrcd armamcnt and
thc anubcAdriatic Railway an urgcnt mattcr, crucial lor thc survival ol
thc Statc. Tis was thc rcason why thc Scrbian Govcrnmcnt was not will
ing to bccomc cconomically dcpcndcnt on Gcrmany or, cspccially, on Aus
triaHungary. So it was almost cntircly up to nancial syndicatcs lrom thc
countrics ol thc Triplc ntcntc to dcnc conditions and to imposc thcm,
without cxpccting many dicultics. Succcssivc loans ol +o and :o mil
lion lrancs had bccn takcn mostly lrom Francc. Tcir conditions wcrc so
unlavourablc that in thc casc ol thc sccond loan thc total sum dcsigncd to
bc rcpaid by +6 was supposcd to rcach 6. million lrancs.
+o
Awarc that
its corts to prcscrvc political indcpcndcncc could havc thc possiblc ccct
ol making thc country highly dcpcndcnt on Francc, thc Scrbian Govcrn
mcnt at rst tricd to attract Russian and 8ritish capital, and thcn to involvc
industrial invcstmcnts lrom both countrics, in ordcr to makc thc Frcnch
prcssurc lightcr.
Tc Scrbian Govcrnmcnt had not bccn complctcly lrank about its rcal
aims. Although Frcnch prcdominancc in Scrbian loans and armamcnt had
alrcady bccn dccidcd bclorc Ralph Pagct was appointcd 8ritish ministcr to
8clgradc, thc corts ol Scrbian diplomats to attract 8ritish capital did not
ccasc right up to thc bcginning ol thc First Vorld Var. Howcvcr, dcspitc all
thc promiscs, 8ritish capital largcly rcmaincd uninvolvcd, and only lcw ol
thc smallcr ordcrs lor military matcrial wcrc placcd in 8ritain. Tc rcal aim
ol Scrbian politicians bccamc obvious altcr a whilc to thc rcprcscntativcs ol
thc 8ritish Lcgation in 8clgradc: 8ritish nancial syndicatcs and military
industry wcrc lrcqucntly pursucd only with thc purposc ol using thcm to
ncgotiatc down Frcnch conditions, in casc thcy wcrc too harsh. !n rcality,
!n all loans that Scrbia had raiscd bctwccn +86 and ++ thc Frcnch sharc was ,
whilc thc AustroGcrman was :+. Lj. AlcksiPcjkovi, Odnosi Srbije sa Francuskom i
Engleskom 19031914 (Tc Rclations bctwccn Scrbia, Francc and Grcat 8ritain lrom
+o to ++), (8clgradc, +6), 8+:.
+o
Ibid., o.
8alcanica XXX\! 156
8ritish support was rarcly scriously considcrcd as an altcrnativc.
++
Tis madc
8ritish rcprcscntativcs in Scrbia cvcn morc suspicious ol and closcd towards
potcntial ocrs, cvcn whcn, as was thc casc with Sir J. 8. Vhitchcad, Pagcts
prcdcccssor, thcy wcrc pcrsonally intcrcstcd.
+:
At thc bcginning ol ++o, 8ritish diplomacy madc major corts to
acquirc a sharc in thc o million lranc loan that thc Scrbian Statc Mortgagc
8ank was ncgotiating with Frcnch crcditors. Undcr thc burdcn ol prcvi
ous loans concludcd in Francc, and dcspitc vcry unlavourablc conditions,
thc 8ank nally gavc priority to Paris again.
+
As thc conclusion ol thc
loan was immcdiatcly lollowcd by ncgotiations lor thc ordcrs ol armamcnts,
8ritish diplomacy was trying to ncgotiatc its involvcmcnt dircctly with thc
Frcnch. Tc ncgotiations bcgan inlormally in Paris, whcrc thc 8ritish am
bassador Sir Francis 8crtic rcccivcd thc rcprcscntativcs ol thc Frcnch 8ank
group, who rccommcndcd that hc should inquirc ol thc Frcnch govcrnmcnt
whcthcr thcrc was any possibility ol part ol an artillcry ordcr bcing placcd
in Grcat 8ritain.
+
Tc sharc that thc Frcnch bankcrs promiscd to 8crtic
was modcratc but appcarcd to bc satislactory, lor out ol million lrancs
rcscrvcd lor military purchascs (ol thc +o million lranc loan), 8ritain was
promiscd millions.
+
Howcvcr, although rst rcactions lrom Scrbia wcrc
vcry optimistic,
+6
thc 8ritish plans camc to nothing whcn thcy mct thc
rcsolutc opposition ol Frcnch diplomacy and, morc surprisingly, thc joint
rcsistancc ol thc govcrning Scrbian partics.
+
Subscqucntly, Vhitchcad
tricd to savc somc smallcr ordcrs, namcly machinc guns, lor \ickcrs, Sons
and Maxim Company. vcn so, ncithcr thc 8ritish ministcr nor his supcri
ors harbourcd any illusion that thc nal dccision would bc in lavour ol thc
8ritish applicant.
+8
Tat imprcssion was conrmcd only thrcc wccks latcr,
++
Altcr onc such casc in Fcbruary ++o, thc 8ritish Ministcr madc an ocial protcst,
but thc Scrbian 8ank did not abolish thc concludcd loan, nor did it rcsumc ncgotia
tions. Vhitchcad to Grcy, 8clgradc, + March ++o, F +/8:. !ndicativc was thc rc
action in thc Forcign cc. Sir dward Grcy, altcr a mccting with thc Scrbian Charg
dAaircs, rcmarkcd that thc ncgotiations wcrc not a mattcr in which HMG could
intcrvcnc diplomatically. Grcy to Vhitchcad, London, March ++o, Minutc.
+:
AlcksiPcjkovi, Odnosi, :.
+
Vhitchcad to Grcy, 8clgradc, + Fcbruary ++o, Scrbia F +/8:.
+
8crtic to Grcy, Paris, +o January ++o, F +/8:.
+
Caillard to 8crtic, Hotcl Chatam, Paris, +o January ++o, F +/8:.
+6
Vhitchcad to Grcy, + January ++o, F +/8:.
+
!n convcrsation with thc Scrbian Primc Ministcr Pai, Vhitchcad naturally got
assuranccs that thc main guilt lor thc rcjcction was on Pais coalition partncrs, thc
!ndcpcndcnt Radicals. Vhitchcad to Grcy, +8 January ++o, F +/8:.
+8
Hardingc rcmarkcd that 8ritish only play thc part ol lcttcr box in cntirc aair, pt.
Cit. Minutc.
whcn thc corts ol anothcr 8ritish applicant, Armstrong, Vhitworth and
Company, to scll :,ooo rics to Scrbia mct thc samc latc.
+
n thc othcr hand, somctimcs thc 8ritish govcrnmcnt appcarcd to bc
thc main obstaclc lor thc immcdiatc intcrcsts ol thc 8ritish military indus
try. Sir Ralph Pagct had alrcady bccn lormally appointcd 8ritish ministcr to
thc Court ol Scrbia whcn a rcadnought aair attractcd thc attcntion ol
thc scnsitivc 8ritish public. !n Junc ++o, a Major Maunscll visitcd 8clgradc
as a rcprcscntativc ol thc \ickcrs, Sons and Maxim Company. Maunscll
ocrcd thc Scrbian Govcrnmcnt an opportunity to purchasc onc or two
powcrlul gunboats lor scrvicc on thc anubc and Sava rivcrs.
:o
As thc bor
dcr bctwccn Scrbia and AustriaHungary was an ambiguous issuc, so was
thc dclcncc ol thc Scrbian capital, and thc Forcign cc promptly dcnicd
any hclp or support to thc 8ritish visitor. 8ridgc suggcsts that Vhitchcad,
dcspitc his lamily tics with onc ol thc companys owncrs, strongly warncd
Grcy that thc +:o,ooo contract, howcvcr bcnccial it might havc bccn
lor 8ritish industry, could causc a scrious dctcrioration in rclations with
AustriaHungary.
:+
Tc prcscncc ol a 8ritish major, and his activitics in
8clgradc, arouscd thc suspicion ol Austrian diplomats. Tc 8ritish ambas
sador in \icnna was askcd lor an cxplanation, whilc thc Austrian ministcr
in 8clgradc madc it known to his 8ritish collcaguc that thc cntirc opcration
was bcing carclully monitorcd.
::
Tc rcaction ol thc Forcign cc was vcry
tcnsc. As thc Scrbian govcrnmcnt had just askcd lor somc cxpcrtisc, a lorm
ol assistancc which thc 8ritish govcrnmcnt had usually givcn willingly, thc
rcsponsc now was ncgativc, and any ocial conncction with Maunscll was
again dcnicd.
:
Tc contract was not concludcd. Tc alrcadylamiliar pattcrn was
rcpcatcd, but this timc it was motivatcd by 8ritish diplomatic prioritics.
Howcvcr, thc 8ritish prcss, anothcr important lactor, intcrlcrcd almost im
mcdiatcly. Tc cntanglcmcnt surlaccd in \icnna, whcrc no onc cxpcctcd it
would, whcn Allrcd Stccd, Austrian corrcspondcnt ol Te Times, madc a
+
Vhitchcad to Grcy, : March ++o, F 68/6.
:o
Vhitchcad to Grcy, 8clgradc, 6 Junc ++o, F +/8:.
:+
F.R. 8ridgc, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary 19061914 (London, +:), +:,
8 \!!, 66.
::
Count Forgach cvcn mcntioncd thcm as drcadnoughts, adopting thc samc tcrm that
had bccn uscd in ocr to Scrbian Govcrnmcnt. Vhitchcad to Grcy, 8clgradc, 6 Junc
++o, F +/8:.
:
dward Grcy rcmarkcd: Vc can not urgc to hclp Scrbia in arms against Austria
and it is pcrlcctly lutilc lor hcr to attcmpt to do it. Two gunboats on thc rivcr, howcvcr
good, would not savc 8clgradc lrom thc Austrian army. !l Scrvia ordcrs thc gunboats
shc can do so, but wc can not lcnd opinion. pt. Cit. Minutc.
8alcanica XXX\! 158
carclully prcmcditatcd cort to cmbarrass thc 8ritish Govcrnmcnt. Stccd,
alrcady wcllknown as an cagcr supportcr ol 8alkan Christians, pursucd thc
campaign against AustroHungarian policy towards Crctc in Junc ++o,
which had much cmbarrasscd Vhitchall.
:
Tis timc, probably provokcd by
thc lailurc ol Maunsclls mission, Stccd transmittcd in lull an othcrwisc un
noticcd articlc that had originally appcarcd in Tagblat. Tc Austrian ncws
papcr had writtcn that ocial rclations bctwccn Scrbia and 8ritain had
bccn straincd duc to thc allcgcd rclusal ol thc Scrbian Govcrnmcnt to givc
ordcrs lor war matcrial to 8ritish rms, and cvcn announccd a rupturc bc
twccn thc two countrics. For Cartwright, thc 8ritish ambassador in \icnna,
it sccmcd obvious that Stccds main intcntion was to suggcst to thc 8ritish
public that AustriaHungary had inspircd thc rumour. Stccds manocuvrc
was also obvious and unplcasant lor thc Scrbian govcrnmcnt, which not
only hastcncd to publish a rclutation, but prclcrrcd to do so in Te Times.
:
So, lor thc sakc ol good rclations with AustriaHungary, thc Forcign
cc withhcld thc contract worth a quartcr ol thc annual 8ritish cxport
to Scrbia, and prcvcntcd its conclusion. vcn so, in his Annual Rcport lor
++o thc Sccrctary ol thc 8ritish Lcgation in 8clgradc put thc cntirc blamc
lor thc symbolic 8ritish prcscncc in thc Scrbian cconomy on thc rottcn
systcm ol placing army contracts in Scrbia.
:6
8ut, whilc Francc managcd
to bccomc thc main crcditor ol thc Scrbian Statc, its part in thc much
morc modcst Scrbian commcrcial world rcmaincd insignicant.
:
Vhcn,
as a rcsult ol rccovcry altcr thc Anncxation crisis, Scrbian imports in ++o
incrcascd by :, it was thc incrcascd 8ritish sharc in it that proportion
ally ovcrtook thc incrcascs ol othcr Grcat Powcrs.
:8
Tc dcclinc in com
mcrcial cxchangc with AustriaHungary, which camc as a conscqucncc ol
hcr Customs Var with Scrbia, madc thc risc in Scrbian cxports to Grcat
8ritain much morc spcctacular. Altcr Scrbia had choscn thc 8ritish outpost
ol Malta as thc transit station lor thc cxport ol its cattlc, thc total amount ol
Scrbian cxports to thc Unitcd Kingdom incrcascd by oo (lrom a lairly
modcst 6 to :,+). Tc Scrbian cnthusiasm lor lorcign commcrcc
was only tcmporary, sincc it was inspircd by thc strong inucncc ol thc
:
8ridgc, Great Britain, +.
:
Having in mind possiblc conscqucnccs, Grcy was outragcd. For him, Stccd was noth
ing morc than a mischicvous pcrson. Cartwright to Grcy, \icnna, July ++o, F
+8:, Minutc.
:6
BdoFA, 6.
:
Ibid., 6.
:8
Tc risc in 8ritish tradc with Scrbia ol almost o, lrom :+:,8 to 68,:6, can
only bc comparcd with that ol Gcrmany. Ibid., .
Anncxation crisis. Howcvcr, dcspitc thc constantly tcnsc political rclations
with AustriaHungary, by ++: thc ncighbouring monarchy had again bc
comc thc principal buycr and supplicr ol Scrbia, a trcnd disruptcd only by
thc 8alkan Vars and thc First Vorld Var. Tat was why Sir Ralph Pagct
considcrcd thc 8ritish sharc in Scrbian commcrcc to bc unsatislactory, al
though in comparison with +o its incrcasc was cvidcnt.
:
cspitc all this, any incrcasc in commcrcc with Scrbia was to a vcry
high dcgrcc rclatcd to thc rcadincss ol lorcign countrics to cxtcnd crcdit to
hcr. !n +++, thc thclburga (Financial) Syndicatc compctcd lor a 8clgradc
municipal loan ol o million lrancs.
o
As might havc bccn cxpcctcd, thc
proposal was rcjcctcd cvcn though it was thc lowcst bid. 8ritish diplomats
suspcctcd thc unwrittcn provisions and provisional arrangcmcnts with
Frcnch nancicrs as a main rcason lor this ncw dclcat ol 8ritish intcrcsts.
n thc othcr hand, as was thc casc with thc military industry, although it
was ocially intcrcstcd in involving 8ritish capital in Scrbia, thc Forcign
cc did not show a grcat dcal ol intcntion to support commcrcial ini
tiativcs politically and to harmonisc political activitics with thc lruitlcss
corts ol 8ritish capitalists. !n +++ it bccamc apparcnt that thc ttoman
Govcrnmcnt was going to rcjcct Scrbian proposals lor thc construction ol
thc anubcAdriatic Railway. Rcqucstcd to support thc rcprcscntation to
thc Portc, HMG dcclarcd that it did not care to take the initiative in any steps
at the Porte to promote the enterprise for which is not directly interested.
+
Tc
attitudc would soon bc sccn to bc rcgrcttablc, lor only a ycar latcr 8ritish
diplomacy had to stand bchind a 8ritish company which was sccking to bc
contractcd to construct thc port ol Prahovo (onc planncd tcrminus ol thc
anubcAdriatic Railway). Tc company was J&W Stewart (Mc Laugh-
lin), which spccialiscd in concrctc constructions and was trying to compctc
lor thc contract against thc Russianbackcd Taburno. Tcrc was somcthing
minimalist in thc approach that thc 8ritish company assumcd. Allcgcdly
backcd by ccrtain circlcs in thc 8ritish Govcrnmcnt, J&W Stewart did not
cvcn succccd in cstablishing a good contact with thc 8ritish Lcgation in
8clgradc. Tis was dcspitc thc lact that Sir Ralph Pagct was tirclcssly try
ing to win ovcr thc support ol thc Scrbian Primc Ministcr Pai lor thc
application. His corts wcrc sinccrc, but Pagct, on thc grounds ol prcvi
ous cxpcricnccs, did not cvcn lor a momcnt havc any doubts that thc
:
Tc imports lrom thc Unitcd Kingdom had riscn by 8 in ++: in comparison with
+o, but thc risc was just in comparison with ++o. At thc samc timc thc trcmcn
dous Scrbian cxport risc ol oo rccordcd in ++o was rcplaccd with a modcst and
morc rcalistic, but statistically still lantastic, oo. BdoFA, , oo6.
o
Ibid., 8.
+
Ibid., +.
8alcanica XXX\! 160
nal rcsponsc would bc ncgativc.
:
Again thc 8ritish company had ocrcd
thc lowcst pricc and bcttcr conditions, but Pagct was strongly convinccd
that thc opcn lavour thc Scrbian govcrnmcnt showcd towards Mr. Taburno
would bc dccisivc. Pagct did not bccomc any morc optimistic cvcn whcn
thc Scrbian Parliamcnt rcjcctcd Taburnos ocr. Tc coursc ol cvcnts provcd
him right, bccausc altcr thc outbrcak ol thc First 8alkan Var thc cntirc
anubcAdriatic Railway projcct was abandoncd.
n thc cvc ol thc First 8alkan Var, it appcarcd lor a momcnt that
8ritish nancicrs had nally dccidcd to takc a rm position in Scrbia by
cstablishing thc AngloScrvian 8ank. Tc sum ol 8oo ooo (:o million
lrancs) that was ocrcd as initial capital sccmcd to bc a rm assurancc that
thc conccssion would cvcntually bc grantcd. Tis timc, howcvcr, Sir Ralph
Pagct was doubtlul not just about thc lrankncss ol thc Scrbian ncgotiators.

Tc talks wcrc vcry long and wcrc cvcntually intcrruptcd by thc war, ncv
crthclcss, at thc vcry bcginning, cvcn bclorc hc rcccivcd instructions lrom
thc Forcign cc, thc 8ritish ministcr had not bccn particularly cagcr to
givc any assistancc to Mr. Nc, thc rcprcscntativc ol thc 8ritish trust (a
nancial syndicatc). Pagcts warincss was ultimatcly justicd, lor his initial
qualms about Mr. Nc wcrc rcinlorccd by intclligcncc that thc 8ritish trust
was mcrcly a smokcscrccn lor Hungarian capital.
8ctwccn ctobcr ++:

and August ++, thc ttoman mpirc, onc ol lour uropcan cmpircs that
mct thcir dcmisc in thc First Vorld Var, had bcgun to crumblc. Tc 8alkan
Vars wcrc thc rst !mpcrial crisis and thcy ushcrcd in thc First Vorld Var,
which had a dircct impact on thc uropcan statcs. Tc armics ol thc small
8alkan statcs, which through corts which had prcviously bccn unimagi
nablc brought about thc cnd ol ttoman dominancc in thc 8alkans, had
bccn nanccd and armcd by thc Grcat Powcrs. !n thc complicatcd balancc
bctwccn thc Grcat Powcrs, thosc countrics only achicvcd importancc whcn
thcir unitcd armics rcachcd a sizc that not cvcn somc ol thc Grcat Powcrs
wcrc ablc to raisc two ycars latcr.
6
Scrbia was thc grcatcst surprisc ol thc
8alkan Var lor AustriaHungary, but thc Scrbian army could ncvcr havc
riscn to bccomc a rst ratc powcr on thc pcninsula without Frcnch loans
and armamcnts. Among thc Grcat Powcrs, Grcat 8ritain had thc wcakcst
cconomic tics with Scrbia, and only indircct political intcrcsts. Tat lact
cnablcd 8ritain to act as thc main mcdiator in thc crisis and to makc a
:
Pagct to Grcy, 8clgradc, : Scptcmbcr ++:, F 68/:.
BdoFA, oo.
Pagct to Grcy, +6 Scptcmbcr ++:, F 68/:.
BdoFA, oo.
6
A. J. P. Taylor, Te Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 18481918 (London, :oo+), 8.
crucial contribution to pcacc ncgotiations. As has alrcady bccn mcntioncd,
thc main lactors in thc rapprochcmcnt bctwccn Grcat 8ritain and Scrbia
wcrc a conscqucncc ol thc nccds ol gcncral and intcrnal 8ritish policy. Tc
8ritish public, and to a lcsscr dcgrcc 8ritish diplomacy, had alrcady bccomc
hostilc towards thc Turks and wcrc to somc cxtcnt antiAustrian. Howcvcr,
8ritish diplomacy had many rcasons not to bccomc proScrbian. Tc dicr
cncc bctwccn thc 8ritish and Frcnch attitudcs rcstcd mainly on thc lact that
Francc was cconomically involvcd in thc rcgion. Tc abscncc ol cconomic
intcrcsts, howcvcr, did not cxcludc thc cconomic lactor lrom 8ritish policy
towards thc 8alkans. 8ritish industry had intcrcsts in cxpansion in Scrbia,
and although thosc intcrcsts wcrc in thcir carly stagcs bclorc ++:, thcy
most ccrtainly cxistcd.
8ut whilc 8ritish involvcmcnt was insignicant,

thc inucncc ol Sir Ralph Pagct on thc dcvclopmcnt ol cconomic links
bctwccn thc two countrics during thc pcriod that hc was at thc hcad ol
thc 8ritish Lcgation in 8clgradc had a much widcr importancc. Tc main
charactcristics ol Pagcts cconomic policy towards Scrbia wcrc caution and
rcstraint. Hc was carclul not to run thc risk ol compcting with 8ritains ally
Francc, and was lar too suspicious ol Russia to cncouragc 8ritish rivalry
with Gcrmany and AustriaHungary.
Institute for Balkan Studies UDC 94(497.11:420)1914/1918
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art 330.142.2(=111)1910/1912
Belgrade
!n thc Annual Report for 1913, thc Charg dAaircs in thc 8ritish Lcgation ayrcll
Crackanthorpc cxprcsscd his bclicl that Scrbia, which in thc Var had provcd hcrscll
capablc ol acquiring a solid position among uropcan nations, would managc to wcak
cn thc prcdominating cconomic inucncc ol Francc and Gcrmany on hcr cconomy,
BdoFA, +++:. As Scrbia had spcnt a sum ol its thrcc annual budgcts (o million
dinars) during thc 8alkan Vars it sccms obvious that thc country could only bccomc
morc cconomically dcpcndcnt. M. Cornwall, Tc First Vorld Var, in Serbia, Decision
for War 1914, cd. K. Vilson (London, +), 8.
\ojislav Pavlovi
Le conit franco-italien dans les Balkans 19151935.
Lc rlc dc la Yougoslavic
Lc conit lrancoitalicn dans lcs 8alkans cst la consqucncc dircctc dc
la Grandc gucrrc. Ccttc dcrnirc modic prolondmcnt lcs constantcs
gostratgiqucs dc la rgion. La disparition dcs Habsbourg ct dcs Romanov,
la dlaitc dc lAllcmagnc ct dc la Turquic, crcnt unc situation inditc. Pour
la prcmirc lois, aucunc dcs puissanccs traditionncllcmcnt cngagcs dans lcs
8alkans ncst cn mcsurc dy cxcrccr unc inucncc dominantc. Lcs 8alkans
scmblcnt sctrc aranchis dc toutc domination trangrc, puisquc lc mondc
anglosaxon nc lait prcuvc quc dun intrct sporadiquc pour la rgion. Mais
lc calmc dc cc vidc gostratgiquc ncst cn lait quapparcnt : lc conit lran
coitalicn pour la primaut dans lcs 8alkans cst dja amorc.
La gucrrc mondialc dans sa dimcnsion balkaniquc sc prscntc sous
la lormc dun conit austrorussc. r, unc hgmonic austroallcmandc sur
lcs 8alkans tait au moins aussi inacccptablc pour lcs dcux pays latins quc
la domination russc sur la rgion. Unics dans lc rclus dcs solutions rgio
nalcs proposcs par la oublc Monarchic ou la Russic, lcs dcux diploma
tics latincs taicnt par aillcurs cn complct dsaccord cntrc cllcs. Lc conit
lrancoitalicn nait lors dc la Grandc gucrrc, commc unc consqucncc du
contcnticux tcrritorial cntrc lcs nationalismcs italicn ct yougoslavc quc la
diplomatic lranaisc doit modrcr. Cc conit sc prolongc sous dcs lormcs
nouvcllcs bicn audcla dc la n dcs hostilits. Aprs la disparition dcs dcux
dynastics sculaircs, lcnjcu du conit lrancoitalicn dcvicnt la rorganisa
tion du vastc cspacc dc ccttc uropc ccntralc limitc a lst par la R
publiquc dcs Sovicts ct a lucst par la Rpubliquc dc Vcimar. Lc rctour
dc lAllcmagnc dcvcnuc hitlricnnc dans lc bassin danubicn au milicu dcs
anncs trcntc mct n a cc conit lrancoitalicn. La craintc dunc mainmisc
allcmandc sur luropc ccntralc poussc lcs dcux diplomatics a scntcndrc a
nouvcau. Lcntcntc lrancoitalicnnc cst sccllc par lcs accords Mussolini
Laval dc janvicr +.
8alcanica XXX\! 164
Nous nous proposons danalyscr sculcmcnt un aspcct dc cc conit lranco
italicn : lc volct yougoslavc. n cct, la naissancc dc la Yougoslavic cst la
causc immdiatc du conit lrancoitalicn. c cc lait, lc volct yougoslavc du
conit lrancoitalicn prcnd la lormc dun contcnticux italoyougoslavc, dont
la diplomatic lranaisc dcvicnt cn lait larbitrc attitr. Lcnjcu dc cc contcn
ticux dpassc largcmcnt lc cadrc dun litigc tcrritorial portant sur la rivc
oricntalc dc lAdriatiquc. La particularit dc cc trianglc diplomatiquc (Paris,
Romc, 8clgradc) cst a gomtric variablc : il cntrcmclc lc contcnticux lran
coitalicn ct lc conit italoyougoslavc, avcc scs particularits nationalistcs
a multiplcs laccttcs. Lc caractrc multinational du nouvcl tat slavc (tcint,
ccrtcs didologic yougoslavc), voit la misc cn placc dc son ct dun doublc
agcnda nationalistc, scrbc ct croatc. n consqucncc, lc volct yougoslavc du
conit lrancoitalicn sc translormc cn unc sric dc ngociations paralllcs
cntrc Romc, 8clgradc ct Zagrcb, sous ltroitc survcillancc dc la diplomatic
lranaisc dont lcnjcu tait la survic mcmc dc ltat yougoslavc.
Pour tudicr lc volct yougoslavc du conit lrancoitalicn, nous nous
proposons danalyscr :
+) scs origincs, qui corrcspondcnt a la naissancc dc ltat yougoslavc,
:) lcs objcctils ct lcs stratgics dc l!talic ct dc la Francc dans lc volct
yougoslavc du conit lrancoitalicn.
+
I) Les origines du conit franco-italien dans l espace yougoslave
A loriginc du contcnticux lrancoitalicn dans lcspacc yougoslavc dans un
prcmicr tcmps lcs intrcts conomiqucs taicnt primordiaux. Lcs londs
lranais sont prscnts cn Scrbic dcpuis lcs anncs quatrcvingt du X!X si
clc. La Francc cst, au dbut du XXmc siclc, lc principal baillcur dc londs
du pctit Royaumc.
:
Cc dcrnicr cst cngag a partir dc +o6 dans un conit
conomiquc avcc la Monarchic voisinc, dont lcnjcu cst son indpcndancc
conomiquc ct politiquc. Ccst pourquoi lcs gouvcrncmcnts dcs Radicaux
+
Tout discours sur lhistoirc yougoslavc nccssitc quclqucs prcisions tcrminologiqucs.
Lorsquc nous parlcrons dc la Yougoslavic, il cst souscntcndu quc nous nous rlrons au
Royaumc dcs Scrbcs, Croatcs ct Slovncs qui nc disparait quau dbut dc +:. tant
donn quc lc roi Alcxandrc Karadjordjcvi, ct lcs partis politiqucs scrbcs, ct notammcnt
lcs Radicaux, gouvcrncnt lc pays tout au long dc la priodc qui nous intrcssc, il cst
vidcnt quc lorsquc nous voqucrons lcs vucs ocicllcs dc la Yougoslavic, nous sous
cntcndons lcur point du vuc.
:
Jusqua juillct ++ la sommc totalc dcs invcstisscmcnts lranais cn Scrbic slcvait a
8+,6 millions dc lrancs. ans lcs 8alkans lcs invcstisscmcnts lranais ntaicnt plus
importants qucn Grcc (8:,8o: millions dc lrancs) ct surtout cn Turquic (:8+,:+
millions dc lrancs). Rapport dc Mauricc 8ompard, Paris, lc :+ scptcmbrc ++, AMA,
Sric Z, uropc ++8+o, Yougoslavic, vol. +:+, p. 8.
\. Pavlovi, Lc conit lrancoitalicn dans lcs 8alkans 19151935 165
prsids par lcur chcl cmblmatiquc Nikola Pai, chcrchcnt avant tout unc
possibilit daccdcr aux marchs intcrnationaux par unc voic qui nc sc
rait pas contrlc par lAutrichcHongric.
Ainsi naquit lidc dun chcmin

dc lcr dc lAdriatiquc rcliant 8clgradc a la ctc albanaisc. Cc projct jouit
cn +o8 dcs souticns russc ct lranais mais aussi italicn. Lors dc la misc
cn placc du consortium ccns nanccr cc projct, lc ministrc dcs Aaircs
trangrcs italicn dc lpoquc, Tommaso Tittoni, lait prcssion an dy as
socicr lcs banqucs italicnncs.
Ccst unc dcs prcmircs manilcstations dc

lintrct dc l!talic pour la rgion, dautant plus importantc quc lcsprit dc
lcntrcprisc tait claircmcnt antiautrichicn. r, l!talic tait mcmbrc dc la
Triplc Alliancc.
Ccpcndant, lcxcmplc dc ccttc coopration lrancoitalicnnc ncst
quunc cxccption a la rglc, car tout au long dcs criscs qui sccoucnt lcs 8al
kans avant la Grandc gucrrc, la diplomatic italicnnc sc rangc aux cts dc scs
allis dc la Triplc Alliancc. Ccst notammcnt lc cas aprs la prcmirc gucrrc
balkaniquc. A lpoquc, lors dc la conlrcncc dcs ambassadcurs a Londrcs,
runic an dc dcssincr la cartc dcs 8alkans aprs la dlaitc dcs ttomans,
lc Marquis dc San Giuliano, Ministrc italicn dcs Aaircs trangrcs dans
lc gouvcrncmcnt Giolitti, souticn la cration dun tat albanais voulu par
lAutrichcHongric ct combattu par la Scrbic.
La position italicnnc lors

dc la conlrcncc dc Londrcs ncst pas motivc par lc souci dc soutcnir lcs
projcts balkaniqucs dc son alli. La Consulta a son proprc agcnda dans lcs
8alkans. Ltat albanais doit lui scrvir dc portc dcntrc a unc cxpansion
conomiquc dans lcs 8alkans. Ccst pourquoi San Giuliano sopposc aux rc
vcndications scrbcs ct mcmc grccqucs sur la ctc albanaisc. !l accordc ainsi
unc crdibilit supplmcntairc a lidc, dja trs prscntc dans lcs milicux
conomiqucs ct politiqucs dc l!talic dc lpoquc, dc lcxistcncc dun grand
march balkaniquc rcprscntant un potcnticl immcnsc pour lcxpansion dc
\oirc au sujct du chcmin dc lcr dc lAdriatiquc : Ljiljana AlcksiPcjkovi, !talija i

Jadranska clcznica (L!talic ct lc chcmin dc lcr dc lAdriatiquc), Istorijski asopis
(8clgradc, +8), ::o, imitrijc jordjcvi, Projckat Jadranskc clcznicc u Srbiji
+86++: (Lc projct du chcmin dc lcr dc lAdriatiqc cn Scrbic +86++:), Istorijski
glasnik (8clgradc, +6), .
Aprs unc vivc prcssion italicnnc sur lc ministrc lranais dcs Aaircs trangrcs dc
lpoquc, Stcphan Pichon, lut crc unc socit pour la construction dc la lignc dc
chcmin dc lcr avcc participations lranaisc (8anquc ttomanc) a hautcur dc , itali
cnnc , russc +, ct scrbc . 8arrrc a Pichon, Romc, lc o avril ct lc +: mai +o8,
ocumcnts iplomatiqucs Franais (par la suitc F) (+8+++), sric !!, vol. ++,
doc. ct 6.
Giorgio Candcloro, Storia della Italia Moderna. La Prima guerra mondiale. Il dopoguer-
ra. Lavvento del fascismo (Milan: Fcltrinclli, +8), vol. \!!!, :6.
8alcanica XXX\! 166
lindustric italicnnc. Ccrtcs, lcs cxportations italicnncs occupcnt la prcmirc
placc dans lc nouvcl tat albanais, tandis quc lcs cxportations italicnncs cn
Scrbic, cn 8ulgaric ct cn Roumanic dc +o a ++: sc voicnt multiplics par
cinq. Ccpcndant cllcs rcstcnt largcmcnt inlricurcs aux cxportations ital
icnncs vcrs lAutrichcHongric, ct nc rcprscntcnt quc : dc la totalit dcs
cxportations italicnncs. Nanmoins, lcs cntrcprcncurs italicns dcmcurcnt
convaincus quc lcs 8alkans sont un dbouch naturcl pour lcur industric.
6
Ccpcndant, lcs 8alkans noccupcnt pas unc importancc dcisivc dans
loricntation dc la politiquc trangrc du gouvcrncmcnt Giolitti. Son objcc
til principal tait lcxpansion colonialc. r, la gucrrc contrc lcmpirc ottoman
pour la conquctc dc la Libyc, ravivc dcs tcnsions lrancoitalicnncs dans la
Mditcrranc. Laccord lrancoanglais dc ++: pcrmcttant a la Francc dc
conccntrcr toutc sa ottc cn Mditcrranc, nc lait quaugmcntcr davan
tagc lcs tcnsions cntrc lcs dcux surs latincs. Laccord naval dc ++
avcc lAutrichc, prvoyant unc troitc coopration cn cas dc gucrrc avcc la
Francc, cst la rponsc italicnnc. n rcvanchc, aprs lcs gucrrcs balkaniqucs,
Giolitti sc rclusc a cautionncr la politiquc autrichicnnc dc prcssion sur la
Scrbic, provoquc par dcs contcnticux lrontalicrs cntrc lAlbanic dun ct
ct la Scrbic ct lc Montngro dc lautrc. Qui plus cst, lcxpulsion dcs !talicns
dc ladministration municipalc dc Tricstc ct lcs promcsscs non tcnucs sur la
cration dunc univcrsit italophonc dans la mcmc villc, crcnt dc nouvcllcs
tcnsions cntrc Romc ct \icnnc.

Finalcmcnt la diplomatic italicnnc sc voit contraintc a mcncr unc poli
tiquc dc containmcnt aussi bicn cnvcrs lAutrichcHongric quc la Francc
ct la Scrbic. !l lui tait nccssairc dc limitcr toutc vcllit dunc domination
lranaisc dans la Mditcrranc, tout cn sopposant a la volont autrichi
cnnc dc contrlcr la rivc oricntalc dc lAdriatiquc cn instaurant unc inu
cncc prpondrantc au Montngro ct cn Albanic. Quant a la Scrbic, son
programmc yougoslavc, mcmc sil tait cncorc a lpoquc a ltat dbauchc,
provoquait ccrtaincs proccupations cn !talic. n craignait quunc Grandc
Scrbic, ou un tat yougoslavc puisscnt dcvcnir un advcrsairc lormidablc sur
lautrc rivc dc lAdriatiquc.
8
Lc dclcnchcmcnt dc la Grandc gucrrc modic compltcmcnt lcs
postulats dc la politiquc trangrc italicnnc. ornavant, la qucstion balka
niquc dcvicnt troitcmcnt lic a ccllc dc lavcnir dcs provinccs italophoncs
dc la oublc Monarchic. Lc gouvcrncmcnt dAntonio Salandra, chcl dc
6
n avril ++, lcs chambrcs dc commcrcc dc Milan, \cnisc, Anconc ct 8ari, sc d
clarcnt lavorablcs a cc quc la Scrbic obticnnc un dbouch sur lAdriatiquc. 8runcllo
\igczzi, Da Giolitti a Salandra (Florcncc : \alccchi ditorc, +6), ++.
Candcloro, Storia della Italia Moderna, :.

8
Franco Gacta, Il nazionalismo italiano (8ari: ditori Latcrza, +8+), ++.
lc dc la droitc libralc, cn placc a partir dc mars ++, sc trouvc dcvant
un dilcmmc important. Mcmbrc dc la Triplicc, l!talic nc pcut achcvcr son
intgration nationalc quaux dpcns dc lAutrichcHongric. n rcvanchc,
lc contcnticux avcc la Francc dans la Mditcrranc lcmpcchc dimagincr
unc adhsion a lntcntc, dautant plus quc la vastc coalition dcs libraux
italicns cst toujours majoritaircmcnt triplicistc, car pcrsuadc dc la vic
toirc dcs Puissanccs Ccntralcs. Ccst pourquoi lc Marquis dc San Giuliano,
dcmcurant a son postc dans lc gouvcrncmcnt dc Salandra, chcrchc dans
un prcmicr tcmps a obtcnir dcs compcnsations tcrritorialcs dc lAutrichc
Hongric au cas o ccttc dcrnirc arrivcrait a occupcr voirc anncxcr la Scr
bic. Lc projct italicn visant a obtcnir la ccssion du Trcntin dans lc cas dun
vcntucl largisscmcnt dans lcs 8alkans cst rcpouss catgoriqucmcnt par
la oublc Monarchic.

Aprs la disparition dc San Giuliano cn octobrc ++, Salandra, cn
capacit dc Ministrc dcs Aaircs trangrcs par intrim, dnit loricntation
dc la politiquc trangrc italicnnc commc lc sacro cgoismo.
+o
!l proclamc
ainsi publiqucmcnt la volont italicnnc dutiliscr la gucrrc pour avanccr scs
intrcts nationaux ct gostratgiqucs. ans lanalysc dc Salandra ct dc Sid
ncy Sonnino, son ministrc dcs Aaircs trangrcs,
++
sculc la gucrrc contrc
la oublc Monarchic pcut pcrmcttrc a l!talic daccomplir plcincmcnt son
union nationalc. Audcla dc ccs dcrnicrs vcstigcs du Risorgimento, lcs dcux
hommcs dtat italicns ont dcs objcctils plus vastcs. !ls conoivcnt ltat
italicn non sculcmcnt commc lc cadrc dc lunion nationalc, mais commc
lcxprcssion dc la nation organisc, qui doit accroitrc son tcrritoirc ct r
pandrc son inucncc conomiquc, pour nc pas succombcr lacc a linvitablc
cxpansionnismc dcs autrcs tats.
+:
A lcur avis, lcs 8alkans assurcnt lcs plus
grandcs possibilits pour lcxpansion italicnnc. Ccpcndant, sclon Sonnino,
outrc lAutrichcHongric, lc mouvcmcnt yougoslavc rcprscntc lc princi
pal obstaclc aux projcts italicns. San Giuliano cn tait dja conscicnt. n
Sclon larticlc \!!! dc la Triplc Alliancc il tait prvu qucn cas dclargissmcnt tcrrito
rial dunc partic, lautrc avait droit a dcs compcnsations. San Giuliano aux ambassadcurs
italicns a 8crlin, 8ollati, ct a \icnnc, Avarna, Romc, lc : juillct ++, ocumcnti ip
lomatici !taliani (par la suitc !), sric !\, vol. +:, doc. 68, lc : juillct ++, !,
sric !\, vol. +:, doc. 6, Mmoirc dc lAmbassadc dc lAutrichcHongric a Romc, lc
++ aot ++, !, sric \, vol. +, doc. +6.
+o
Lc discours dc Salandra cut licu lc +8 octobrc ++, Gcorcy A. Haywood, Failure of
a Dream. Sydney Sonnino and the Rise and Fall of Liberal Italy 18471922 (Florcncc: Lco
S. lschki cditorc, +), :.
++
Sonnino dirigcra dc novcmbrc ++ a la n dc la gucrrc la diplomatic italicnnc.
+:
Gcntilc milio, La Grande Italia. Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo
secolo (Milan, +), +o6.
8alcanica XXX\! 168
scptcmbrc ++, il crit a lambassadcur italicn a Pctrograd, Carlotti, cn
rsumant ainsi lcs raisons pour lcsqucllcs l!talic pouvait cntrcr cn gucrrc :
Commc \otrc xccllcncc lc sait, la raison londamcntalc cn vcrtu
dc laqucllc l!talic pourrait sc dcidcr dc changcr compltcmcnt
loricntation dc sa politiquc trangrc cst la mcnacc quc rcprscntc la
politiquc austrohongroisc pour scs intrcts vitaux dans lAdriatiquc.
n nc pcut pas passcr du cauchcmar dc la mcnacc autrichicnnc au
cauchcmar dc la mcnacc slavc.
+
Loricntation antiyougoslavc dc la politiquc trangrc italicnnc cst conr
mc par Sonnino cn mars ++ :
!l nc vaudrait pas la pcinc dcntrcr cn gucrrc pour nous librcr
dc larrogantc domination autrichicnnc dans lAdriatiquc si nous
dcvions rctombcr tout dc suitc aprs dans lcs mcmcs conditions
dinlriorit ct dun dangcr constant lacc a lalliancc dcs jcuncs ct
ambiticux tats yougoslavcs.
+
La volont italicnnc dcmpcchcr a tout prix lunion yougoslavc cst traduitc
dans lcs laits cn lvricr ++ lors dc la lormulation dcs conditions italicnncs
a lcntrc cn gucrrc aux cts dc lntcntc. ans cct cxpos dcs buts dc
gucrrc dc l!talic, Sonnino conrmc sa volont dcndigucr la mcnacc you
goslavc.
abord il vcut lc lairc par ltcnduc dcs rcvcndications tcrritorialcs
italicnncs. Sonnino dcmandc lanncxion dc : Trcntc, Tricstc, Gorizia, Gra
disca, l!stric jusqua \olosca, lcs ilcs dc Quarncro, ct la almatic avcc toutcs
scs ilcs. !l justic limportancc dcs rcvcndications tcrritorialcs par dcs raisons
stratgiqucs. A son avis, la domination sur lAdriatiquc nc pcut ctrc assurc
quc par lc contrlc dc la ctc oricntalc avcc scs ilcs ct scs ports, car la ctc
italicnnc cn cst prcsquc cntircmcnt dpourvuc. Pour justicr lc dcoupagc
dc la rivc oricntalc, Sonnino avancc aussi dcs raisons cthniqucs, armant
quc lcs !talicns taicnt majoritaircs dans lcs villcs cn almatic. r scs rc
vcndications rvlcnt dcs objcctils autrcmcnt concrcts. Sonnino souhaitc
loigncr autant quc possiblc lcs Yougoslavcs dc la ctc, ct lorsquc ccla cst
impossiblc, il dcvicnt primordial dintcrposcr unc almatic italicnnc cntrc
lc littoral croatc au nord ct lcs rivcs oricntalcs dc lAdriatiquc rcvcndiqucs
par la Scrbic ct par lc Montngro. Ccst pourquoi, la ctc cntrc \olosca ct
la almatic cst laissc a la Croatic, soit qucllc dcvicnnc indpcndantc soit
qucllc dcmcurc partic intgrantc dc lAutrichcHongric, ct la ctc au sud
dc la Ncrctva cst conscntic a la Scrbic ct au Montngro. c cc dcoupagc
dc la ctc adriatiquc sc dgagc la stratgic dc Sonnino. !l vcut rcmplaccr
+
San Giuliano a Carlotti, Romc, lc +6 scptcmbrc ++, !, sric \, vol. +, doc. o.
+
Sonnino a !mpriali, Tittoni ct Carlotti, Romc, lc :+ mars ++, !, sric \, vol. ,
doc. +6.
la Monarchic dcs Habsbourg par unc sric dtats susammcnt laiblcs
pour ctrc domins conomiqucmcnt ct politiqucmcnt. Au cas o la oublc
Monarchic scrait diminuc tcrritorialcmcnt ct conomiqucmcnt, cllc pcut
cn lairc partic. A ct dc ccttc dcrnirc, ou dc la Croatic si ccttc dcrnirc
vicnt a la rcmplaccr, la Scrbic, lc Montngro ct lAlbanic dcvront tous avoir
lcur part dc la ctc, mais indpcndammcnt lcs uns dcs autrcs. Ccttc poli
tiquc danncxion ct dc dpcagc dc la ctc Adriatiquc cst sccllc par lc trait
dc Londrcs du :6 avril ++. Par cct accord, l!talic nc posc pas simplcmcnt
scs conditions pour adhrcr a lntcntc, mais cllc dvoilc aussi son ambition
dimposcr sa domination dans lAdriatiquc ct dans lcs 8alkans.
+
Lcs dclarations dc Sonnino ct San Giuliano ainsi quc lcs tcrmcs du
trait dc Londrcs, dsigncnt la Scrbic, ct lc mouvcmcnt yougoslavc, commc
lcs principaux rivaux du programmc dcxpansion italicnnc dans lcs 8alkans.
Sonnino conrmc cct axiomc dc sa politiquc balkaniquc ds lt ++ , il
sopposc rsolumcnt a lunion cntrc la Scrbic ct la Croatic. voquant lc car
actrc sccrct du trait dc Londrcs, il rclusc a cc quc lcs Allis inlormcnt la
Scrbic dc la partic dc la ctc qui lui cst rscrvc par cct accord, ct surtout il
sopposc catgoriqucmcnt a cc quc lcs Allis promcttcnt a la Scrbic dc pou
voir sunir avcc la Croatic. !l sagissait a lpoquc dc promcttrc a la Scrbic la
possibilit dunion avcc la Croatic pourvu qucllc cdc unc partic dc la Ma
cdoinc a la 8ulgaric an dc rccrcr lalliancc balkaniquc, ct dcmpcchcr ainsi
la 8ulgaric dc sc joindrc a la Triplicc. r, Sonnino rcusc catgoriqucmcnt
lidc csscnticllc dc ccttc stratgic, a savoir la volont doricntcr lalliancc
balkaniquc vcrs lucst. Pour Sonnino, lcs dlauts dc ccttc rorganisation
dcs 8alkans sont doublcs. abord la Scrbic scra poussc vcrs lAdriatiquc,
tandis quc son union avcc la Croatic donncra naissancc a cc grand tat
yougoslavc capablc dc rcprscntcr unc mcnacc bicn plus importantc pour
l!talic quc nc ltait la oublc Monarchic.
+6
La dlcnsc inconditionncllc du trait dc Londrcs scra tout au long dc
la gucrrc la proccupation principalc dc Sonnino. Ccttc attitudc tait mo
tivc a la lois par son caractrc, par sa conccption dcs rclations intcrnatio
nalcs, ct par son analysc dcs rapports au scin dc la coalition allic. Sonnino
tait un hommc dc conviction, dur, rcnlcrm ct pcu scnsiblc aux prcssions
ct inucnccs cxtricurcs. Tout au long dc sa carrirc politiquc dans l!talic
+
Sur lcs postions dc Sonnino voirc : Haywood, Failure of a Dream, +8::. Pictro Pas
torclli, Lc rclazioni tra !talia c la Scrbia dal luglio ++ allottobrc ++, in Miscellanea
in onore di Ruggero Moscatti (Naplcs: dizioni Scicntichc !talianc, +8), +6. Lc
tcxtc du trait dc Londrcs sc trouvc dans : !, sric \, vol. , doc. o.
+6
8arrrc a clcass, Romc, lc 8 juillct ++, AMA, Gucrrc ++++8, 8alkans, Scr
bic, vol. , p. , 8arrrc a clcass, Romc, lc +: aot ++, AMA, Gucrrc ++
++8, 8alkans, Scrbic, vol. , pp. 6bis. Pastorclli, Lc rclazioni , 8, .
8alcanica XXX\! 170
libralc, Sonnino luttc pour assurcr a sa patric lc statut dc grandc puissancc
curopcnnc. Sa conccption dc la politiquc trangrc tait ccllc dc la realpo-
litik chrc a Mcttcrnich. Conccvant la politiquc trangrc commc unc con
currcncc politiquc, conomiquc ct militairc sans mcrci, Sonnino tait largc
mcnt ousqu par unc ccrtainc condcsccndancc avcc laqucllc l!talic tait
traitc au scin dc lntcntc. Scs papicrs tmoigncnt dc sa conviction quc
l!talic tait contraintc dc mcncr sa proprc gucrrc contrc lAutrichcHongric
prcsquc sans laidc dc scs allis. aillcurs, scs prvisions pour laprsgucrrc
prvoyaicnt dja unc sric dc conits avcc lcs allis, dont lc contcnticux avcc
lcs Yougoslavcs ntait mcmc pas lc plus important.
+
n consqucncc, sa
mancc cnvcrs lcs Allis donncra licu a unc dlcnsc quasi rcligicusc dcs
tcrmcs du trait dc Londrcs, car cc trait tait a son avis la sculc garantic
pour la ralisation dcs objcctils italicns, ct dc cc lait la sculc justication
pour lcntrc cn gucrrc dc l!talic. Ccttc approchc dlcnsivc, voirc lormalistc,
lacc a dcs conits dc caractrc nationalistc savrcra catastrophiquc lors dc
la misc cn placc dc larmisticc cn novcmbrc ++8.
Par dcision dc la conlrcncc allic du o octobrc ++8, dans lc cadrc
dc larmisticc avcc lAutrichcHongric, l!talic obticnt lc droit doccupcr
tous lcs tcrritoircs prvus par lc trait dc Londrcs.
+8
r, cct accord avait
t sign a lpoquc o la oublc Monarchic tait un dcs pilicrs csscnticls
dc lquilibrc curopcn. n rcvanchc, cn novcmbrc ++8 la Monarchic dcs
Habsbourg ncxistc plus ct lcs lorccs scrbcs commcnccnt lcurs avanccs vcrs
lucst. Qucllcs quc lusscnt lcs disscnsions cntrc lcs Scrbcs, lcs Croatcs ct
Slovncs, ils taicnt tous unis dans lcur volont dc sopposcr a la mainmisc
italicnnc sur la ctc adriatiquc. Ccst pourquoi la tchc dc Sonnino, lors dc
la misc cn placc dcs tcrmcs dc larmisticc ct pcndant la conlrcncc dc la paix,
tait particulircmcnt arduc. Qui plus cst, sa position tait aggravc par unc
lortc agitation nationalistc cn !talic, quil avait lui mcmc lomcntc an dc
mobiliscr lopinion politiquc italicnnc cn dlcnsc du trait dc Londrcs. r,
il scst avr quc Sonnino tait aussi mal a laisc avcc lcs nationalistcs italicns
quavcc lcurs conlrrcs yougoslavcs. ans la surcnchrc nationalistc, il ntait
pas a la hautcur dcs tribuns tcls quc Mussolini ou dAnnunzio. Sonnino,
avcc son cgmc habitucl, ngligca lcurs rcvcndications, lcs jugcant cxccs
sivcs. n rcvanchc \ittorio rlando, prsidcnt du gouvcrncmcnt italicn,
lut contraint dc lcs prcndrc cn comptc ct notammcnt ccllc qui portait sur
lc port dc Fiumc. Prcisons quc Sonnino avait prvu dc laisscr cc port a
lAutrichcHongric ou a la Croatic, dans sa stratgic dc morccllcmcnt dc
+
Robcrto \ivarclli, Il dopoguerra in Italia e l avvento del fascismo (1918-1922), (Naplcs
+6), 6.
+8
Conditions darmisticc avcc lAutrichcHongric, Quai drsay, lc o octobrc ++8,
AMA, Sric Y, !ntrnationalc ++8+o, vol. +, p. .
la ctc Adriatiquc. n consqucncc la dlgation italicnnc sc prscntc cn
janvicr ++ a \crsaillcs cn ordrc dispcrs : Sonnino cxigcant lc rcspcct du
trait dc Londrcs pour dcs raisons stratgiqucs, tandis qurlando ajoutc
aux dcmandcs italicnncs lc port dc Fiumc, voquant lcs droits dcs !talicns
qui y constituaicnt la majorit dc la population.
+
A \crsaillcs, l!talic dc Sonnino sc voit donc contcstcr lcs lruits dc sa
victoirc par unc coalition htroclitc. unc part, lcs Yougoslavcs sc hcurtcnt
sur lc tcrrain a larmc ct a ladministration italicnncs dans lcs tcrritoircs
dsigns par lc trait dc Londrcs. Cc conit prcnd unc dimcnsion nouvcllc
lorsquc lcs Yougoslavcs sc rclamcnt du droit dcs nations a disposcr dcllcs
mcmcs. !ls trouvcnt naturcllcmcnt un champion dc lcur causc dans lc pr
sidcnt amricain, Voodrow Vilson, qui avcc sa dclaration ditc dcs +
points avait, cn janvicr ++8, inaugur unc nouvcllc diplomatic, axc sur lc
rcspcct dcs droits nationaux. n tant quc mcmbrc a part cntirc du Con
scil dc quatrc a \crsaillcs (auqucl lcs Yougoslavcs navaicnt pas accs), Vil
son rclusa dc rcconnaitrc la validit mcmc du trait dc Londrcs.
:o
Audcla
dc lcurs advcrsaircs dirccts, lc gouvcrncmcnt ct lopinion publiquc italicns
lurcnt particulircmcnt contraris par lattitudc dc la Francc. La rsistancc
yougoslavc nc pouvait scxpliqucr, a lcur avis, quc par un souticn ocicux
dc lArmc dricnt ct dc la marinc lranaisc dans lAdriatiquc, rclays par
lcs corts dissimuls dc la diplomatic lranaisc a \crsaillcs. La Francc dc
Clcmcnccau tait donc dsignc commc lc principal rcsponsablc dc cc quon
appclait dja a la lois a Montccitorio ct dans lcs principaux quotidicns ital
icns la vittoria mutilata.
:+
r, lc dnoucmcnt dc la gucrrc boulcvcrsait compltcmcnt lcs axi
omcs dc la politiquc balkaniquc dc la Francc. La disparition dc lAutrichc
Hongric dclcnchant lc conit italoyougoslavc lut la causc dunc instabilit
rgionalc quc la Francc avait voulu vitcr. La survic dc la oublc Monar
chic, cn tant quc Grandc puissancc assurant lquilibrc dcs lorccs cn u
ropc, tait un dcs axiomcs traditionncls dc la politiquc trangrc lranaisc.
+
Sur la stratgic italicnnc lors du Conlrncc dc \crsaillcs voir : Jamcs 8urgwyn,
Sonnino and thc Paris Pcacc Conlcrcncc , Storia delle Relazioni Internazionali \!!/:
(Florcncc, ++), ::. Jocl 8latt, Francc and !taly at thc Paris Pcacc Conlcrcncc,
Te International History Review \!!! (+86), :o.
:o
Sur la politiquc dc Vilson cnvcrs la Yougoslavic voir : \ictor S. Mamatcy, Te United
States and East Central Europe, 19141918 (Kcnnikat Prcss, +:). !vo J. Lcdcrcr, Yu-
goslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: A study in frontiermaking (Yalc Univcrsity Prcss,
+6).
:+
8arrrc a Pichon, Romc, lc : novcmbrc ++8, AMA, Sric Z, uropc ++8+o,
!talic, vol. 88, p. +. 8arrrc a Pichon, Romc, lc dccmbrc ++8, AMA, Sric Z,
uropc ++8+o, !talic, vol. , pp. ++6. Notc dc MA, Paris, lc dccmbrc
++8, AMA, Sric Z, uropc ++8+o, !talic, vol. , pp. ++.
8alcanica XXX\! 172
Lambassadcur dc Francc a Pctrograd, Mauricc Palologuc lc rappcllc cn
janvicr ++ :
Tant quil cxistcra unc Allcmagnc ct unc !talic, nous scrons intrcs
ss au mainticn dc lAutrichc.
::
Lors dc la conclusion du trait dc Londrcs, dcs voix staicnt lcvcs contrc
laaiblisscmcnt dc lAutrichcHongric au prot dc l!talic. Lc prsidcnt dc
la rpubliquc, Raymond Poincar disait cn mars ++ :
Sil cst vrai quc lAutrichc dcmandc la paix a la Russic nous voici
au croiscmcnt dc dcux chcmins. Convicntil dc poursuivrc lalliancc
avcc l!talic : Si ccttc puissancc cntrc cn action, lcs cxigcnccs qucllc
manilcstc risqucnt dc prolongcr la gucrrc, car il laudra crascr
lAutrichc ct la partagcr pour lui donncr satislaction.
Nc vaudratil pas micux obtcnir dc la Russic qucllc sc mon
trc modrc visavis dc lAutrichc, qucllc dcmandc sculcmcnt
quclqucs avantagcs pour cllc ct pour la Scrbic ct qucllc tournc avcc
lAnglctcrrc ct nous, toutcs scs lorccs contrc lAllcmagnc ct contrc la
Hongric !
Si nous suivons lc prcmicr chcmin, nous aurons lc concours, sans
doutc dc l!talic ct probablcmcnt dc la Roumanic ct dc la Grcc,
mais unc multitudc dc problmcs sc poscront cnsuitc. Nous agrand
irons nousmcmcs l!talic, nous dsagrgcrons lAutrichc ct pcr
mcttrons la rsurrcction dunc conldration gcrmaniquc.
Si nous poursuivons la sccondc voic, nous pourrons tourncr toutcs
lcs lorccs dcs Allis contrc lAllcmagnc ct abrgcr la gucrrc.
:
Loptiquc lranaisc rcstait toujours ccntrc sur lc conit avcc lAllcmagnc ct
ctait lc critrc dcisil pour oricntcr sa politiquc balkaniquc. Aprs la pcrcc
du lront dc Saloniquc cn scptcmbrc, la victoirc italicnnc a \ittorio \cncto
cn octobrc ++8, ct la dissolution succcssivc dc lAutrichcHongric, impo
scnt la qucstion dc la rorganisation dcs 8alkans ct dc luropc Ccntralc.
ans ccttc situation inditc, la mcnacc dc la cration dunc conldration
gcrmaniquc ou dAnschluss, tait toujours la proccupation primordialc dc
la diplomatic lranaisc. A ccla il sajoutait lc problmc du conit cntrc lcs
ambitions italicnncs dans la rgion, ct la volont scrbc ct ccllc dc lcurs con
lrrcs vivant dans lcs provinccs yougoslavcs dc la dluntc oublc Monar
chic dc crcr un tat commun. Lcs diplomatcs, lcs hommcs dtats ct lcs
publicistcs lranais, cn analysant loricntation dc la stratgic lranaisc dans
loptiquc dc la doublc mcnacc dAnschluss ct du conit italoyougoslavc, sc
divisrcnt cn dcux colcs dc pcnsc. Lcs partisans dc la cration dun tat
::
Palologuc a Poincar, Pctrograd, lc +6 avril ++, 8ibliothquc dc l!nstitut dc Francc,
Papicrs Stcphan Pichon, vol. MS .
:
Ibid., +.
yougoslavc, ccns ctrc a la lois la barrirc contrc lcxpansionnismc italicn ct
la diguc ccacc contc lavancc dc gcrmanismc, sc hcurtaicnt aux nostal
giqucs dc la oublc Monarchic qui souhaitaicnt la cration dun nouvcllc
conldration danubicnnc, sculc capablc a lcur avis dapportcr la stabilit a
la rgion. Lcs dircnccs cntrc ccs dcux courants scxprimaicnt a propos dc
la cration dc ltat yougoslavc.
s lc mois doctobrc ++8, Paul Cambon, lambassadcur a Londrcs,
ct un dcs diplomatcs lranais lc plus rcnomms dc lpoquc, cstimc quc
la cration dc ltat Yougoslavc cst nccssairc pour modrcr lcs ambitions
italicnncs :
Nous avons intrct a la constitution, a lst dc lAdriatiquc, dun
tat aussi lort quc possiblc, qui scrvc dc contrcpoids a unc !talic
agrandic. La disparition ou laaiblisscmcnt dc lAutrichcHongric
conlraicnt a l!talic unc puissancc cxccssivc ct la cration dc pctits
tats, bicn vitc rivaux, risqucrait dinstitucr avcc dcs nouvcaux 8al
kans unc mcnacc pcrptucllc dc criscs ct dc gucrrcs. Nous dcvons
donc dsircr linstallation dun lort tat Yougoslavc, unc union dc la
Croatic, la Slavonic, la 8osnic, lHcrzgovinc ct la Scrbic.
:
Joscph dc Fontcnay, lcnvoy lranais auprs dc la cour scrbc, a la n doctobrc
++8 considrc quc la Yougoslavic scra susammcnt lortc pour assurcr la
paix dans lcs 8alkans tout cn tant un maillon csscnticl dc la chainc dtats
allant dc 8altiquc a Adriatiquc ct lormant la barrirc dc rcvcrs contrc Allc
magnc.
:
La position dcs partisans lranais dun tat yougoslavc tait pcut
ctrc cncorc micux rsumc par Robcrt dc Caix, un publicistc lranais, rat
tach aux Qui drsay :
Nous avons vidcmmcnt intrct a cartcr lcs obstaclcs a la cration
dun tat sudslavc dont la lorcc nous scrvira contrc lc gcrmanismc
ou contrc l!talic. Mais nous nc pouvons lairc dobscrvations a ccttc
puissancc si cllc rcstc dans lcs limitcs dc cc quc nous lui avons pro
mis par lc pactc dc Londrcs ct, dc plus, nous navons pas intrct :
sils Amricains vculcnt lui dirc bas lcs pattcs tant micux ct si on
laissc lcs !talicns prcndrc a lcst dc lAdriatiquc dcs langucs dc tcrrc
qui lcur assurcront dcs cnncmics ct non dc la lorcc cc scra pour nous
mcmc un gagc dc tranquillit cn lacc dc limprialismc agit dc nos
voisins.
:6
:
Paul Cambon a Pichon, Londrcs, +o.+o.++8, N , AMA, uropc ++8+o,
Autrichc, vol. +, p. 8.
:
Fontcnay a Pichon, Paris, :.+o.++8, AMA, Sric Z, uropc ++8+o, Autrichc,
vol. +.
:6
Lcttrc dc Rohildc Caix: Paris, .++.++8, AMA, Sric APaix +++:o, travaux
prparatil dc la Conlrcncc dc la paix, Politiquc dc la Yougoslavic ct Montngro, vol.
:6, p. 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 174
La position ocicllc dc la diplomatic lranaisc tait bicn plus rscrvc. Lc
gouvcrncmcnt Clcmcnccau nc partagc par lavis dun ccrtain nombrc dc
scs diplomatcs. Li par lc trait dc Londrcs, lc gouvcrncmcnt lranais vcil
lait sur la bonnc application dcs tcrmcs darmisticc. Ccpcndant, la manirc
agrcssivc dont larmc ct ladministration italicnncs scmployaicnt a lcs ap
pliqucr changrcnt progrcssivcmcnt lattitudc lranaisc. Tout dabord, la
volont italicnnc doutrcpasscr lc cadrc prvu par larmisticc, notammcnt
par unc avancc vcrs Ljubljana, sc voit lortcmcnt critiquc par lcs autorits
lranaiscs. Lc contcnticux au sujct du port dc Fiumc voit sc mcttrc cn placc
unc coopration ocicusc cntrc lcs autorits scrbcs ct lranaiscs dans lc
dcsscin dc sopposcr a lintcntion italicnnc dc donncr un caractrc cxclusil
a loccupation dc la villc. La volont italicnnc dc considrcr loccupation dcs
tcrritoircs prvus par lc trait dc Londrcs dans lc cadrc dc larmisticc commc
un proccssus irrvcrsiblc, ct dc laccompagncr par unc campagnc intcnsivc
ditalianisation dc ccs provinccs, sc voit largcmcnt dsapprouvc par lc Quai
drsay.
:
Ccst pourquoi ds lc + octobrc ++8 la diplomatic lranaisc
cxprimc scs rscrvcs lacc a lattitudc italicnnc :
La Francc, cn cct, par sa position, qui la rcnd dsintrcssc, par son
prcstigc dans lcs 8alkans, qui lcmportc sur cclui dc toutcs lcs autrcs
nations, cst larbitrc dsign dcs litigcs yougoslavcs ct macdoni
cns. llc na cn vuc quc la paix dans la pninsulc, ct son intrct cst
dabord quun nouvcl tat lorm par laccord dcs Scrbcs du Royaumc
ct dcs Yougoslavcs dc lAutrichc, saccordc a son tour avcc l!talic si
ccllcci sc rallic a unc politiquc davantagc conomiquc duc a lcsprit
dcntrcprisc ct au travail. Cc point dc vuc cst galcmcnt cclui dcs
tatsUnis ct dc lAnglctcrrc, a qui lcs Yougoslavcs dAutrichc sont
particulircmcnt sympathiqucs. Quant a l!talic, sa politiquc dans
ccttc aairc apparait plutt conlusc quc complcxc, avant tout portc,
avcc laidc vcntucllc du Montngro, a aggravcr lc troublc dont cllc
csprc tircr quclqucs pctits prots par son intriguc. Commc cllc cst a
la lois inccrtainc dcs choix quil lui laut lairc, ct jalousc dc la Francc,
on lcntcndra sc plaindrc dans quclquc scns quc ccttc dcrnirc agissc.
Aussi cstcc principalcmcnt a lcndroit dc l!talic quc la Francc, dans
son rlc dc larbitrc, doit appliqucr sans dlaillancc unc politiquc
src, uniqucmcnt inspirc par la justicc, conccrtc avcc Vashington
ct lAnglctcrrc, quil y a licu dc mcttrc cn gardc contrc unc intcrpr
tation du pactc du Corlou dans lc scns dunc conldration dtats
qui lacilitcra lc jcu dc division italicn.
:8
:
Notc dc MA, Paris, lc +6 novcmbrc ++8, AMA, Sric Z, uropc ++8+o,
Autrichc, vol. :, pp. o. Pichon a 8arrrc, Paris, lc +6 novcmbrc ++8, Sric APaix,
vol. :6, pp. ++. Pichon a 8arrrc, Paris, lc :: novcmbrc ++8, Sric APaix, vol.
:6, pp. +86.
:8
Ibid.
Au scin dc la diplomatic lranaisc, on sopposa a la stratgic italicnnc dc
morccllcmcnt dc lcspacc yougoslavc cstimant quunc tcllc politiquc pou
vait aaiblir lcs 8alkans, ct ouvrir la voic non sculcmcnt a unc cxpansion
italicnnc, mais, cc qui tait bicn plus dangcrcux, au rctour dc lAllcmagnc
dans la rgion. r, ctait cc dangcrla qui proccupa avant tout lcs plus hait
dignitaircs lranais. ans ccttc pcrspcctivc, unc conldration danubicnnc
tait continucllcmcnt considrc commc unc solution bicn plus prlrablc a
un conit italoyougoslavc. Ccst pourquoi, cn octobrc ++8, Poincar cxigc
lorganisation dc plbiscitcs cn Croatic ct cn Slovnic commc pralablc a
toutc union yougoslavc.
:
Lattachcmcnt lranais a unc solution conldralc,
pour dcs raisons gostratgiqucs, cxigcait quc la volont dcs provinccs you
goslavcs dc sc joindrc a la Scrbic soit conrmc par un votc. Clcmcnccau, cn
novcmbrc ++8, conrmc, lors dc son cntrcticn avcc Antc Trumbi, prsi
dcnt du Comit yougoslavc, sa prlrcncc pour unc solution conldralc :
LAdriatiquc nc pcut pas dcvcnir italicnnc. !l ny aura pas dc Marc
Nostrum \ous aurcz votrc tat uni ... Nous nc pouvons
pas pcrmcttrc quc lcs Autrichicns sunisscnt a lAllcmagnc. Pour
lcmpcchcr il laut crcr unc conldration dcs nations dc lancicnnc
AutrichcHongric...
Lorsquc jc parlc dc conldration, jc ncnvisagc pas dcs licns troits
qui pourraicnt mcttrc cn dangcr votrc indpcndancc, mais jc pcnsc
a crcr un londcmcnt sur lcqucl stabliront dcs licns qui pourraicnt
attircr lcs Autrichicns an quils soricntcnt vcrs vous.
o
Lc discours dc Clcmcnccau montrc bicn qucllcs taicnt lcs priorits dc
la politiquc trangrc lranaisc. !l lallait dabord cmpcchcr lAnschluss, ct
sculcmcnt cnsuitc abordcr la qucstion soit dcs cxigcnccs italicnncs soit dc
la cration dun tat yougoslavc. Malgr lcs avis dcs partisans dc la cration
dun tat yougoslavc, tcls Cambon, ou Fontcnay, il tait vidcnt quc ni lc
prsidcnt dc la Rpubliquc, ni lc prsidcnt du Conscil ntaicnt convaincus
quc ltat yougoslavc rcprscntc unc garantic susantc contrc lc rctour dc
lAllcmagnc dans lcs 8alkans. Ccst pourquoi, vu la position dc Poincar
cxprimc cn mars ++, ct ccllc dc Clcmcnccau du novcmbrc ++8, il cst
possiblc dc conclurc quc dans lcs plus hautcs sphrcs dc la Rpubliquc, lc
souticn a unc solution conldralc pour luropc Ccntralc navait pas laibli
tout au long dc la gucrrc. n consqucncc la naissancc dc la Yougoslavic
ntait pas unc dcs priorits dc la politiquc lranaisc. n octobrc ++8, la
position lranaisc tait notic a la lois ct a Pai ct a Trumbi.
:
Procs vcrbal dc convcrsations dc Fontcnay avcc Clcmcnccau, puis dc Pai avcc
Clcmcnccau, Paris, :+..++8, AMA, PAAP, Fontcnay, , vol. +o.
o
ragoslav Jankovi ct 8ogdan Krizman, Gradja o stvaranju jugoslovenske drave
(ocumcnts sur la lormation dc ltat yougoslavc), (8clgradc, +6), vol. !!, 6o+, 6o:.
8alcanica XXX\! 176
La cration, lc +cr dccmbrc ++8 a 8clgradc dc ltat yougoslavc tait lc
lruit dunc collaboration du gouvcrncmcnt scrbc avcc dcs migrs croatcs
ct slovncs runis au scin du Comit yougoslavc. Ccttc collaboration rcs
scmblait a un parcours scm dcmbchcs. u ct scrbc, lclatcmcnt dc la
Grandc gucrrc avait t compris commc unc possibilit uniquc dachcvcr
lintgration nationalc cntamc lors dcs gucrrcs balkaniqucs. s scptcmbrc
++, Pai dsignc commc objcctil principal dc son gouvcrncmcnt la cra
tion dc la Yougoslavic, dlaissant lidc dunc Grandc Scrbic. !l cst alors pcr
suad quc scul un tat runissant tous lcs Slavcs du Sud pcut dnitivcmcnt
cartcr la mcnacc autrichicnnc. Pour Pai, il tait indispcnsablc quc tous lcs
Yougoslavcs soicnt runis au scin dun mcmc tat, car la cration dc dcux
tats aurait cr la possibilit pour dcs intrcts trangcrs dc lomcntcr dcs
contcnticux tcrritoriaux ct dc suscitcr la concurrcncc cntrc plusicurs tats
yougoslavcs.
+
u point dc vuc gostratgiquc, lcs objcctils scrbcs avaicnt
donc indiscutablcmcnt un caractrc yougoslavc. r, la raison pour laqucllc
Pai avait rcnonc a lidc dunc Grandc Scrbic, pour luttcr contrc la misc
cn placc dun tat yougoslavc concurrcnt, accordait a son projct un caractrc
cxclusivcmcnt scrbc. Lc projct scrbc (qui annulait ds lc dbut toutc pos
sibilit dc cration dun autrc tat yougoslavc, voirc dunc solution ldralc),
nc pouvait quctrc considr par lcs autrcs nations yougoslavcs commc un
projct cxpansionnistc visant a lcur imposcr la domination scrbc. Autrcmcnt
dit, lc projct scrbc tout cn tant yougoslavc par scs tcnducs gographiqucs,
par son caractrc tait un projct dc Grandc Scrbic. Lcs mcmbrcs croatcs ct
slovncs du Comit yougoslavc taicnt lcs prcmicrs a scn apcrccvoir.
Ccst pourquoi, lors dc la Conlrcncc dc Gcnvc (6 novcmbrc ++8)
a laqucllc ont particip Pai, lopposition scrbc dun ct, ct Antun Korocc
cn sa capacit dc prsidcnt du Conscil national SHS dc lautrc, Trumbi
sc t avocat dunc Yougoslavic conldralc. Soutcnu par lopposition scrbc,
Trumbi ct Korocc ont russi a imposcr a Pai lcur vision dc lorganisation
intricurc du lutur tat yougoslavc. Lcs dcux cntits la Scrbic ct lcs prov
inccs yougoslavcs dc lancicnnc oublc Monarchic dcvaicnt ctrc dirigs
par unc sortc dc dircctoirc commun compos dc six mcmbrcs qui sigcrait a
Paris, sans quc ni Trumbi, ni Pai ni Korocc ncn lasscnt partic.
:
Sclon cct
accord lcs dcux partics, la Scrbic ct lcs provinccs yougoslavcs, auraicnt con
a cc gouvcrncmcnt commun lc pouvoir dc grcr au quotidicn un nombrc
limit daaircs, gardant la vastc majorit dc pouvoirs cntrc lcurs mains, cn
+
8clgradc, Archivcs dc la Yougoslavic, Papicrs Jovanovi, 8o668:.
:
utasta a Pichon, 8crnc, .++.++8, N +86, AMA, Sric APaix +++:o,
travaux prparatil dc la Conlrcncc dc la paix, Politiquc dc la Yougoslavic ct Montn
gro, vol. :6, p. +o6.
attcntc dc la Constituantc ccnsc dnir la lormc dc ltat commun.
n
mcmc tcmps lc gouvcrncmcnt scrbc a rcconnu Narodno vcc SHS commc
lc gouvcrncmcnt lgal dans lcs provinccs yougoslavcs dc lancicnnc oublc
Monarchic, ct lc Comit dc Londrcs commc son rcprscntant lgitimc dc
ltrangcr.
Ainsi lc gouvcrncnt scrbc, ccst a dirc Pai, a d sinclincr dcvant

lcs cxigcnccs dcs Yougoslavcs, ct il scst lormcllcmcnt cngag dc dlcndrc
toutcs lcurs aspirations tcrritorialcs lacc a l!talic. !l laut souligncr quc lc
gouvcrncmcnt lranais tait inlorm du contcnu dcs ngociations a Gcnvc
sans quil y ait cu dcs commcntaircs.
r, lc princc Alcxandrc ds + octobrc manilcstc son dsaccord avcc
lcs dcisions dc Gcnvc, car cllcs nc prvoyaicnt pas quc lc lutur tat soit
unc monarchic sous lgidc dc sa maison royalc.
c lautrc ct, a causc

du vcto italicn lc Narodno vcc SHS na jamais t rcconnu par lcs Allis,
ct il dcvcnait dc plus cn plus clair quc lc scul moycn pour lcs Yougoslavcs
dc lAutrichcHongric dc lairc valoir lcurs droits, ctait par lcntrcmisc du
gouvcrncmcnt scrbc. Sous la mcnacc dunc avancc italicnnc, lcs ngocia
tions commcncrcnt cntrc lcs rcprscntants dc Narodno vcc ct lc princc
Alcxandrc luimcmc. Ltat yougoslavc naquit sur lc tcrrain, commc con
squcncc dircctc dc la mcnacc italicnnc qui incita lc Conscil national dc
Zagrcb a abandonncr toutc prcaution ct a acccptcr la cration dun tat
commun sans quc lcs modalits dc lorganisation intricurc soicnt dnics.
Lc mobilc a unc tcllc voltclacc tait la nccssit dopposcr a limprialismc
italicn un lront commun rcprscnt par ltat yougoslavc.
6
r, cct tat
ntait pas rcconnu ct scs lrontircs ntaicnt pas dnics. Un contcnticux
cxistait avcc la plupart dc scs voisins, mais lc conit avcc l!talic sannonait
Sur la conlrcncc dc Gcnvc voir : ragoslav Jankovi, cncvska konlcrcncija o

stvaranju jugoslovcnskc zajcdnicc ++8. godinc (La Conlrcncc dc Gcnvc sur la
cration dc ltat yougoslavc cn ++8), in Istorija XX veka (8clgradc, +6+), :::6:.
8ogdan Krizman, cncvska konlcrcncija o ujcdinjcnju ++8. godinc (La conlrcncc
dc Gcnvc sur lunion dc ++8), Istorijski glasnik +: (8clgradc, +8), .
\csni a Pichon, Paris, .++.++8, AMA, Sric APaix +++:o, travaux prpara
til dc la Conlrcncc dc la paix, Politiquc dc la Yougoslavic ct Montngro, vol. :6, p.
+o.
Fontcnay a Pichon, Paris, +.++.++8, AMA, Sric Z, uropc ++8+o, Yougo

slavic, vol. +.
6
Sur lunion yougoslavc du prcmicr dccmbrc ++8, voir : 8ogdan Krizman, Srp
ska vrhovna komanda u danima raspada AustroUgarskc ++8 (Ltatmajor scrbc
pcndant la dissolution dc lAutrichcHongric cn ++8), Historijski Zbornik + (Za
grcb, +6+), +6:+6. 8ogdan Krizman, Raspad Austro-Ugarske i stvaranje jugoslavenske
drave (La dissolution dc lAutrichcHongric ct la cration dc ltat yougoslavc), (Za
grcb, +).
8alcanica XXX\! 178
commc lc plus gravc. Lcnjcu cn tait la plus grandc partic dc la ctc oricn
talc dc lAdriatiquc.
Lc conit italoyougoslavc lut rsolu par lc Conscil dcs Quatrc a
\crsaillcs. ans lc conit qui lcs opposait a l!talic, lcs Yougoslavcs sc scnt
ant abandonns par la Francc,
sc tournrcnt vcrs lc prsidcnt amricain.

8

Quant au gouvcrncmcnt lranais, son attitudc, cncorc unc lois nc lut pas dic
tc par lcs considrations balkaniqucs, mais par lc problmc allcmand. ans
sa rcchcrchc dcs garantics pour la lrontirc rhnanc, Clcmcnccau privilgia
la coopration amricainc. tant donn quc Vilson laisait dc lAdriatiquc
unc qucstion dc principc, lc choix dc Clcmcnccau tait vitc lait. ans lc
conit opposant Vilson au gouvcrncmcnt italicn, Clcmcnccau sans tats
dmc sc rangca du ct amricain. La raison cn tait la garantic amricainc
dc la lrontirc allcmandc ct non lc souticn a ltat yougoslavc.
Lorsqucn avril ++ la dlgation italicnnc quittc provisoircmcnt

\crsaillcs pour protcstcr contrc lattitudc philoyougoslavc du prsidcnt
amricain, Clcmcnccau ct Lloyd Gcorgc cn protcnt pour rcvcnir sur lcurs
cngagcmcnts coloniaux cnvcrs l!talic, notammcnt cn Alriquc ct cn Asic
Mincurc. n consqucncc, lcs rcvcndications tcrritorialcs du nationalismc
italicn ct lincxistcncc dunc altcrnativc colonialc sc conjugucnt pour crcr,
aussi bicn au scin dc la diplomatic quc dans lopinion publiquc italicnnc,
la conviction quc ccst dans lcs 8alkans quc sc dcidc lavcnir dc l!talic ct
quc ccst la aussi qucllc jouc son statut dc Grandc Puissancc. Qucllcs quc
lusscnt lcs motivations dc Clcmcnccau, son attitudc a \crsaillcs tait ju
gc par lopinion publiquc italicnnc commc hostilc a l!talic ct lavorablc a
la Yougoslavic. r, dans lcs 8alkans, lcs ambitions italicnncs sc hcurtaicnt
a lopposition du nouvcl tat yougoslavc. n consqucncc, la sculc voic
dcxpansion cncorc ouvcrtc pour l!talic tait bloquc par ltat yougoslavc
qui sc trouvait sous locicusc protcction lranaisc. Cc scntimcnt italicn
dctrc asphyxi sinon cnccrcl par unc Francc omniprscntc scrait a loriginc
du conit lrancoitalicn dans lcs 8alkans.
II) Les objectifs et les stratgies des parties concernes
Mcmc si lc Royaumc dcs Scrbcs, Croatcs ct Slovncs cst ocicllcmcnt rc
connu par la Francc, lc juin ++ scs lrontircs nc sont pas xcs par la
Conlrcncc dc la paix, ct lc contcnticux italoyougoslavc ncst pas rsolu
Fontcnay a Pichon, 8clgradc, lc mars ++, AMA, Papicr dAgcnts, Archivcs

privcs, , Fontcnay, vol. 8.
8
ragoljub ivojinovi, Amcrica, !taly, and thc birth ol Yugoslavia (++++),
East European Quarterly (Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss, +:).
8latt, Francc and !taly .

avant la signaturc du trait dc paix avcc lAllcmagnc. Ccpcndant, lc conit
lrancoitalicn dpassc dsormais lcspacc yougoslavc pour sc localiscr sur
lcs projcts dc la rorganisation dc luropc danubicnnc. Qui plus cst, aprs
lc rclus du Snat amricain dc raticr lc trait dc \crsaillcs, lappui italicn
pour lc mainticn dc cc trait prcnd unc importancc accruc pour lc gouvcr
ncmcnt lranais. Ccst dans cc contcxtc gopolitiquc indit quc sc droulcnt
lcs stratgics rcspcctivcs dcs partics conccrncs dont lcs objcctils pcuvcnt
ctrc rsumcs dc la laon suivantc :
+. pour l!talic : cxpansion dans luropc danubicnnc
:. pour la Francc : rcchcrchc dun quilibrc cntrc :
la nccssit davoir la garantic italicnnc pour lc mainticn du systmc
dc \crsaillcs ct
la volont dc modrcr lcs ambitions italicnncs dans luropc danu
bicnnc.
A. Lexpansion italienne dans l Europe danubienne
Sclon lcs circonstanccs, ccttc volont dcxpansion italicnnc sarticulc autour
dc dircntcs priorits. Aprs la conclusion du trait dc \crsaillcs, lcs dcrni
crs gouvcrncmcnts dc l!talic libralc scmploicnt a la lois a :
trouvcr unc solution au conit tcrritorial dans lAdriatiquc, ct
traccr la voic dunc cxpansion italicnnc audcla dc lAdriatiquc vcrs
lc bassin danubicn.
n rcvanchc, Mussolini ct scs ministrcs vont plus loin car ils aspircnt
a la cration dunc zonc dinucncc cxclusivc dans la rgion.
1) Les derniers gouvernements de l Italie librale
Lchcc subit a \crsaillcs provoquc la chutc du gouvcrncmcnt rlando,
rcmplac lc : juin ++ par lc gouvcrncmcnt dc Franccsco Savcrio Nitti
avcc Tittoni commc nouvcau Ministrc dcs Aaircs trangrcs. Lc changc
mcnt dc gouvcrncmcnt apportc un changcmcnt prolond dans loricntation
dc la politiquc trangrc italicnnc. Nitti ntait pas un intcrvcntionnistc dc
la prcmirc hcurc commc Sonnino ou Salandra, ni un partisan convaincu
dunc cxpansion tcrritorialc. mincnt conomistc, Nitti jouit du souticn dc
Giolitti dont il partagc aussi la conviction quaprs unc gucrrc longuc, co
tcusc ct mcurtrirc, il laut accordcr la priorit absoluc a la rcconstruction
conomiquc, socialc ct politiquc du pays. laissant la politiquc trangrc,
Nitti nabandonnc pas lidc dcxpansion ni la volont dassurcr a l!talic lc
statut dc Grandc puissancc. A la dircncc dc Sonnino, il considrc quc la
garantic nccssairc pour lc prcstigc italicn cn uropc nc sc trouvc pas sur lcs
rivcs oricntalcs dc lAdriatiquc mais dans son potcnticl conomiquc. Sclon
8alcanica XXX\! 180
Nitti, lagrandisscmcnt tcrritorial, commc londcmcnt dunc cxpansion dans
luropc danubicnnc, nc scra daucunc utilit pour l!talic si cllc nc disposc
pas dcs moycns pour cn protcr.
o
r, l!talic sortic cxsanguc dc la gucrrc, nc
pcut imagincr unc rcconstruction qua condition dc bncicr dun souticn
nancicr dcs tatsUnis. Ccpcndant, toutcs lcs ligncs dcs crdits amric
ains sont arrctcs ds lc mois du juillct. Qui plus cst, lc dlgu amricain a
Paris, Polk, cxigc quunc solution soit trouvc pour lc conit tcrritorial italo
yougoslavc, avant toutc nouvcllc attribution dc crdits a l!talic. c ccttc
laon, la lignc gnralc dcs gouvcrncmcnts Nitti, puis Giolitti, cst dnic,
ccstadirc : volont dc chcrchcr un compromis dans lAdriatiquc, tout cn
accordant unc priorit absoluc a la rcconstruction du pays. Ccttc nouvcllc
oricntation dc la politiquc trangrc italicnnc cst misc cn pratiquc par Tit
toni, son succcsscur \ittorio Scialoja, ct par lc comtc Carlo Slorza qui cst
dabord sccrtairc gnral dc la Consulta ct cnsuitc Ministrc dcs Aaircs
trangrcs dc Giolitti. Ccpcndant ccttc politiquc ocicllc cst accompagnc
par unc politiquc ocicusc qui continuc dans la voic tracc par Sonnino.
Ccttc politiquc altcrnativc cst ccllc dcs milicux nationalistcs, militaircs, voirc
dcs nostalgiqucs dc ccttc politiquc anncxionnistc dc Sonnino au scin dc
la diplomatic italicnnc. Mcmc si ccttc politiquc altcrnativc rcprscntc unc
mcnacc dircctc pour la survic mcmc dcs dcrnicrs gouvcrncmcnts libraux,
(citons a cc titrc la prisc dc Fiumc par dAnnunzio), ni Nitti ni Slorza nc
sc privcnt dcn lairc usagc, soit pour lairc prcssion sur lcurs intcrlocutcurs
yougoslavcs, soit pour avanccr ocicuscmcnt lc grand projct dcxpansion
italicnnc dans luropc danubicnnc.
a) La politique de compromis territorial dans l Adriatique
s son arrivc a Paris cn juillct, ++, Tittoni scorcc dc rcdrcsscr limagc
dc l!talic ct dc rtablir la conancc auprs dcs Grandcs Puissanccs. Pour
briscr limprcssion dunc !talic nationalistc ct gostc laissc par Sonnino,
Tittoni multiplic lcs contacts cn assurant scs intcrlocutcurs dc la volont
italicnnc darrivcr a un compromis raisonnablc dans lAdriatiquc. Ainsi, la
proposition italicnnc daot ++ abandonnc au Royaumc SHS toutc la
almatic saul la villc dc Zara ct quclqucs ilcs, tandis quc pour Fiumc lc
statut dc villc librc sous la protcction dc la Socit dcs Nations cst pro
pos. Ccttc prcmirc proposition italicnnc tmoignc dunc volont mani
lcstc dapaiscmcnt, mais cllc sc hcurtc a unc n dc non rcccvoir dc la part
o
Sur la politiquc du gouvcrncmcnt Nitti ct la situation conomiquc cn !talic aprs
la gucrrc voir : Candcloro, Storia della Italia Moderna, :::+, Alatri Paolo, Nitti,
DAnnunzio e la questione adriatica (19191920), (Milan: Fcltrinclli, +), Robcrto \i
varclli, Storia delle origini del fascismo (8olognc: !l Mulino, ++).
du prsidcnt Vilson. n rcvanchc, linitiativc Tittoni russit a convaincrc
dnitivcmcnt Clcmcnccau aussi bicn quc Lloyd Gcorgc dc la sincrit
dcs intcntions italicnncs, cc qui modic prolondmcnt latmosphrc dans
laqucllc sc droulcnt dsormais lcs ngociations. Lintransigcancc amri
cainc pcrd unc grandc partic dc son importancc lorsquc lc + novcmbrc
++, lc Snat amricain rclusc dc raticr lc trait dc \crsaillcs, ct la dlga
tion amricainc, cn consqucncc, quittc Paris lc +o dccmbrc ++. ans
ccttc nouvcllc situation lattitudc italicnnc prcnd unc importancc accruc.
Ccst pourquoi, cn janvicr +:o, Nitti pcut travaillcr cn troitc collaboration
avcc Lloyd Gcorgc ct Clcmcnccau pour prparcr la nouvcllc proposition
italicnnc. Ccttc loisci lcs conditions sont bicn plus lavorablcs a l!talic car
la villc dc Fiumc cst ccnsc lui rcvcnir avcc un accs a la villc sous son con
trlc. Lc changcmcnt dans lcs rclations cntrc lcs Puissanccs curopcnncs
cst vidcnt lorsquc Lloyd Gcorgc ct Clcmcnccau cxigcnt avcc insistancc
quc lc gouvcrncmcnt SHS acccptc la proposition italicnnc. Unc dcrnirc
intcrvcntion du prsidcnt Vilson diminuc la prcssion sur lc Royaumc SHS,
mais il cst dsormais manilcstc quc l!talic bncic dun souticn rcl dc la
part dcs gouvcrncmcnts lranais ct anglais. Lcs raisons dc cc souticn sont
multiplcs.
+

La disparition dc la garantic amricainc misc a part, lc gouvcrncmcnt
Millcrand issuc dcs lcctions dc janvicr +:o, cst trs scnsiblc aux con
squcnccs dcs troublcs conomiqucs ct sociaux cn !talic. Pcndant lannc
++ on dnombrc cn !talic +8oo grvcs avcc +, millions dc participants.
Qui plus cst, lors dcs lcctions dc novcmbrc ++ lc parti socialistc obticnt
:, dcs voix cxprimcs, ct avcc + dputs il dcvicnt la plus importantc
lorcc politiquc du pays. Lc parti populairc connait aussi unc russitc rcmar
quablc avcc :o,6 dcs voix ct plus dc +oo dputs.
:
r, Camillc 8arrrc,
lambassadcur lranais a Romc, cstimc quc lcs dcux nouvcllcs lorccs poli
tiqucs sont plus quc dangcrcuscs. A cllcs sculcs cllcs conjugucnt lcs dcux
plus grands dangcrs pour la Francc, ccstadirc la pcur du bolchcvismc ct la
pcur dc lAllcmagnc a laqucllc, sclon 8arrrc, lc parti populairc cst inlod.
Lc dbut dc lannc +:o cst marqu par lc dbordcmcnt dcs conits sociaux
dans lcspacc agrairc. Lcs grvcs dcs journalicrs ct dcs mtaycrs dbouchcnt
sur dcs occupations dc tcrrcs dans Lazio ct dans lc Mczzogiorno. Conlront
a tous ccs prils, ct notammcnt a la possibilit dc rctour au pouvoir dc Gio
litti, 8arrrc considrc Nitti commc lc dcrnicr rcmpart contrc lanarchic cn
!talic, voirc contrc son rapprochcmcnt avcc lAllcmagnc. Pour rcnlorccr lc
+
Allcssandra Rossi, La diplomatic lranaisc ct lc problmc dc la lrontirc oricntalc
italicnnc dc ++8 jusquau trait dc Rapallo , Mmoirc prscnt pour lc A du XX
c

siclc, (Paris : !P, +), +++++8.
:
Candcloro, Storia della Italia Moderna, ooo.
8alcanica XXX\! 182
gouvcrncmcnt Nitti, lc gouvcrncmcnt lranais scmprcssc dc soutcnir lcs
initiativcs italicnncs dans lAdriatiquc.

Malgr lcs disscnsions lrancoitalicnncs apparucs lors dc la con
lrcncc dc San Rcmo cn avril +:o, lc gouvcrncmcnt italicn pcut toujours
sc prvaloir dun souticn sans laillc dc la part dcs gouvcrncmcnts lranais
ct britanniquc dans la qucstion adriatiquc. n consqucncc, lcs prcmircs
discussions dircctcs cntrc lcs rcprscntants italicns ct yougoslavcs pcuvcnt
commcnccr cn mai a Pallanza. Ccs discussions progrcsscnt considrablc
mcnt, mais cllcs sont intcrrompucs par la crisc du gouvcrncmcnt Nitti. Lcs
ngociations nc scront pas rcpriscs avant la chutc dc gouvcrncmcnt Nitti
cn juin +:o. Ccttc tchc incombc dsormais a Slorza qui avancc unc toutc
nouvcllc stratgic balkaniquc.
Lc comtc Carlo Slorza tait, pcndant la gucrrc, lcnvoy italicn auprs
du gouvcrncmcnt scrbc a Corlou. Non sculcmcnt il connait bicn lc dossicr
yougoslavc, mais il a la rputation dctrc un lrancophilc convaincu. Pour
toutcs ccs raisons, il cst considr commc lc garant dcs bonncs dispositions
du gouvcrncmcnt Giolitti cnvcrs la Francc, car cc dcrnicr tait jusqualors
accus par 8arrrc dc gcrmanophilic prononcc. r, Slorza cst dja dcpuis
juin ++8 lc sccrtairc gnral dc la Consulta. n tant quc tcl, il connait dja
lc dossicr ct, qui plus cst, il a unc conccption ocnsivc dans la qucstion you
goslavc. !l obscrvc la tcndancc du gouvcrncmcnt Millcrand a dlaisscr parti
cllcmcnt son souticn aux gouvcrncmcnts hriticrs dc la oublc Monarchic
(commc lc Royaumc SHS ou la Tchcoslovaquic), pour privilgicr : soit la
lormation dunc vastc alliancc conomiquc dans lc bassin danubicn dont lc
pivot doit ctrc la Hongric, soit la cration dunc alliancc antibolchviquc
composc dc la Polognc, dc la Hongric ct dc la Roumanic. Slorza proposc
alors quc l!talic rcprcnnc la placc librc par la Francc. Unc idcntit dcs
intrcts cntrc l!talic ct lcs pays hriticrs, (a savoir lopposition a toutc solu
tion conldralc conomiquc, ou mcmc politiquc avcc lc projct du rctour
dcs Habsbourg cn Hongric), pcrmct a Slorza dimagincr quc l!talic puissc
rcprcndrc linucncc lranaisc dans lcs pays hriticrs. Ctait un projct am
biticux dont lobjcctil tait douvrir a l!talic laccs au bassin danubicn a
travcrs lc Royaumc SHS.
ans cct objcctil, la dcision italicnnc daot +:o dvacucr lAlbanic,

ct dabandonncr lc protcctorat sur cc pays , qui lui tait accord par lc trait
dc Londrcs, cst la prcuvc quc lc gouvcrncmcnt Giolitti dlaissc dnitivc
mcnt toutc vcllit dunc politiquc cxpansionnistc dans lcs 8alkans. n
mcmc tcmps, lc gouvcrncmcnt italicn dcvicnt lc garant dc lindpcndancc
Rossi, La diplomatic lranaisc , +:o.
Carlo Slorza, LItalia dal 1914-1944 quale io la vidi (Romc: Mondadori, +), o
+.
dc ltat albanais. c cc lait, Slorza pcut sc targucr dc suivrc unc poli
tiquc qui rcspcctc scrupulcuscmcnt lc droit dcs pcuplcs a disposcr dcux
mcmcs. Ccst dans ccs tcrmcs quc Giolitti prscntc a Millcrand, lors dc lcur
rcncontrc dc scptcmbrc +:o a Aixlcs8ains, la politiquc italicnnc dans
lAdriatiquc. Commc dans toutcs lcs autrcs grandcs qucstions dc lpoquc,
tcllcs quc lcs rparations ct lc dsarmcmcnt allcmand, lcs dcux hommcs
dtat sont cn parlait accord. Lc gouvcrncmcnt Millcrand scorcc dcxcrccr
toutc son inucncc a 8clgradc an dincitcr lc gouvcrncmcnt dc Milcnko
\csni a rcprcndrc lcs ngociations dircctcs avcc l!talic.
Lcs pourparlcrs dirccts rcprcnncnt cn novcmbrc +:o a Santa Mar

gharita dc Ligurc ct a Rapallo. Ccttc lois, Slorza sc trouvc dans unc position
dc lorcc ct il cst cn mcsurc dimposcr lcs conditions italicnncs : indpcn
dancc dc Fiumc, continuit tcrritorialc cntrc la villc ct l!talic, ct souvcr
ainct italicnnc sur Zara ct lilc dc Chcrso. Ccs conditions taicnt bicn plus
lavorablcs pour lcs Yougoslavcs quc lcs tcrmcs du trait dc Londrcs, mais
cllcs taicnt aussi bicn moins quc lcs solutions dlcnducs par lc prsidcnt
Vilson a lpoquc dc la Conlrcncc dc la paix. n cct, tout lc travail cl
lcctu cntrc tcmps par Tittoni ct Slorza lcur pcrmit non sculcmcnt dc rc
drcsscr limagc dc l!talic, mais aussi dinvcrscr compltcmcnt lattitudc dcs
gouvcrncmcnts lranais ct britanniqucs. ans un cadrc curopcn, l!talic
dc Nitti ct Giolitti rcprcnd sa placc dc Grandc Puissancc raisonnablc, rc
spcctant lcs tcrmcs ct lcsprit dc la Conlrcncc dc la Paix, tandis quc lcs
rcvcndications yougoslavcs apparaisscnt dsormais commc intransigcantcs
voirc nationalistcs. Ccst pourquoi, \csni ct Trumbi, nayant plus aucun
souticn, nont plus dautrc choix quc dc signcr lc +: novcmbrc +:o lc trait
dc Rapallo rcprcnant lcs tcrmcs proposs par Slorza.
6
Lc bilan dc ccttc politiquc ocicllc dapaiscmcnt dans lAdriatiquc
tait plus quc positil. Non sculcmcnt l!talic avait russi a sortir dc lisolcmcnt
diplomatiquc du tcmps dc la Conlrcncc dc la paix, mais cllc avait aussi
rcpris la coopration conomiquc ct politiquc avcc scs allis. c cc lait, lc
contcnticux tcrritorial avcc la Yougoslavic changcait dc naturc, pour dcvc
nir unc qucstion lrontalirc qui scstompait dcvant limportancc rctrouvc
dc l!talic dans lc conccrt curopcn. Qui plus cst, lcs tcrmcs du trait dc
Rapallo taicnt lavorablcs a l!talic, car non sculcmcnt cllc avait conscrv
dcs cndroits stratgiqucs cn Adriatiquc, tcls quc la prcsquilc dc l!stric ct
la pctitc ilc dc Sasscno dcvant \alona, mais cllc jouissait dsormais dunc
inucncc considrablc dans lc Royaumc SHS, cc qui tait nalcmcnt latout
majcur dc sa politiquc balkaniquc.
Franois CharlcsRoux, Souvenirs diplomatiques. Une grande ambassade Rome (1919-

1925), (Paris : Fayard, +6+), ++.
6
Rossi, La diplomatic lranaisc , ++.
8alcanica XXX\! 184
n rcvanchc, la politiquc dc Sloza ntait pas dpourvuc darrircs pcnss
cxpansionnistcs. Lc rctrait dc l!talic dc lAlbanic tait nalcmcnt un coup
dur pour lc Royaumc SHS. n sc rctirant dc lAlbanic, Slorza anantissait
aussi toutc possibilit dc rcvcndications scrbcs sur lAlbanic scptcntrionalc
ct sur la ctc albanaisc. r, cncorc au dbut dc +:o, Pai ocuvrait pour
laccs scrbc a la ctc albanaisc.
Cc ntait pas sculcmcnt un projct chcr

aux hommcs dtats scrbcs, mais aussi unc altcrnativc viablc a Fiumc dont
lc sort dcvcnait dc plus cn plus inccrtain. n cct, la solution trouvc a
Rapallo mcttait cn qucstion la viabilit gostratgiquc du port dc Fiumc,
car cllc tait conditionnc par lcs bons rapports avcc l!talic. Qui plus cst,
Slorza scorait aussi dc lavoriscr lcs bonncs rclations cntrc lc Royaumc
SHS ct la 8ulgaric an dc lacilitcr la solution du problmc macdonicn, ct
cn consqucncc douvrir laccs a la mcr gc pour lcs cxportations scrbcs
ct yougoslavcs. Lidc sousjaccntc a unc tcllc stratgic tait dc roricntcr
lintrct dc la Yougoslavic pour lAdriatiquc vcrs la mcr gc. Ctait dja la
vision gostratgiquc dc Sonnino qui avait chcrch a limposcr a la Scrbic.
n rcvanchc, Slorza, cn changcant dc mthodc, nc changc pas dobjcctil :
la prpondrancc italicnnc dans lAdriatiquc. c ccttc laon on voit quc la
politiquc dc Slorza ct dc Sonnino sc rcjoigncnt, a linstar dc la politiquc ol
cicllc ct ocicusc dcs dcrnicrs gouvcrncmcnts dc l!talic libralc.
b) La politique ocieuse de l expansion italienne dans les Balkans et dans
l Europe danubienne
Lcs objcctils dc la politiquc dcxpansion italicnnc avaicnt t tracs par Son
nino lors dc la conclusion du trait dc Londrcs. Pour cmpcchcr la cra
tion dun tat yougoslavc, il avait dja chcrch, mcmc pcndant la gucrrc,
a noucr dcs contacts avcc dcs tats dont lcs rcvcndications tcrritorialcs ct
nationalcs taicnt opposcs a ccllcs dc la Scrbic ou dc la Yougoslavic. n
prcmicr licu, lcs Hongrois avaicnt t lcs intcrlocutcurs privilgis dc Son
nino ct dc scs disciplcs. Pcndant la gucrrc, lidc tait dincitcr la Hongric
a conclurc unc paix sparc qui aurait considrablcmcnt aaibli la oublc
Monarchic. 8icn sr, la survic dc la Hongric dans toutc son tcnduc aurait
aussi cmpcch la cration dun tat yougoslavc.
8
Aprs la n dc la gucrrc,
lcs rclations italohongroiscs taicnt bascs sur unc communc hostilit au
Royaumc SHS. Ccpcndant la pcrspcctivc ntait pas idcntiquc dc dcux c
ts. Tandis quc lcs gouvcrncmcnts hongrois, dcpuis cclui dc Karolyi, puis
Andrcj Mitrovi, Jugoslavija na konferenciji mira (1919-1920), (La Yougoslavic a la

Conlrcncc dc la Paix), (8clgradc, +68), +6+.
8
Jamcs H. 8urgwyn, Sonnino ct la diplomazia italiana dcl tcmpo di gucrra nci 8al
cani ncl ++ , Storia Contemporanea X\!/+ (+8), +:8+:.
lc gouvcrncmcnt dcs Conscils, jusqua Horty, chcrchaicnt lc souticn italicn
pour cmpcchcr lc dpcagc dcs tcrrcs dc la couronnc dc Saint Stphanc,
la diplomatic italicnnc, cllc, sc rclusait a adhrcr a unc politiquc ouvcrtc
mcnt rvisionnistc. Lcs contacts dc Sonnino avcc dcs cnvoys hongrois aussi
bicn quc lcs actions dcs militaircs ct dcs diplomatcs italicns a 8udapcst
avaicnt un objcctil bicn plus modcstc. abord, cmpcchcr la disparition ou
laaiblisscmcnt trop important dc la Hongric, ct sassurcr dunc inucncc
considrablc dc l!talic a 8udapcst. Lintrct majcur tait toujours daaiblir
la Yougoslavic a travcrs unc prcssion constantc dc la part dc la Hongric. Lcs
rscrvcs italicnncs lacc au rvisionnismc hongrois taicnt motivcs par la
craintc dc voirc unc Grandc Hongric apparaitrc sur lcs rivcs dc lAdriatiquc.
Nanmoins la Hongric tait llmcnt indispcnsablc dc la coalition anti
yougoslavc (Hongric, Roumanic, 8ulgaric) quc la diplomatic italicnnc chcr
chait a organiscr ds ++.
La cl dc votc dc ccttc stratgic dcnccrclcmcnt dc la Yougoslavic

sc trouvait dans lc contcnticux tcrritorial cntrc la Hongric ct la Roumanic.
r lattitudc dc Nitti, lacc a cc problmc dicilc, rcsta toujours ambiguc.
unc manirc gnralc, Nitti tait oppos a limposition dc conditions trop
durcs aux vaincus dc la gucrrc, notammcnt dans lc domainc conomiquc.
Ccttc approchc tait asscz lavorablcmcnt accucillic par lcs gouvcrncmcnts
hongrois succcssils. n rcvanchc lincapacit, voirc lc manquc dc volont
du gouvcrncmcnt italicn dc mcncr unc politiquc ouvcrtcmcnt rvisionnistc,
notammcnt dans lc cas dc la Transylvanic, incita Horty a chcrchcr a rsou
drc scs conits tcrritoriaux avcc laidc dc la Francc.
o

n mcnant ccttc politiquc ocicusc dcxpansion, la diplomatic ital
icnnc sc dmarqua dcs milicux nationalistcs cn !talic par son rclus dc lo
mcntcr dcs troublcs intricurs cn Yougoslavic, ct notammcnt cn Croatic.
+

Lcs divcrgcnccs cntrc lcs milicux nationalistcs ct lc gouvcrncmcnt Giolliti
apparaisscnt ds lt +:o. Lattitudc trop rscrvc lacc aux conits sociaux,
notammcnt lors dc loccupation dcs usincs cn scptcmbrc +:+, labandon
dc lAlbanic, lcs ngociations avcc lcs Yougoslavcs taicnt lcs gricls lcs plus
gravcs rcprochs au gouvcrncmcnt Giolliti par lcs milicux nationalistcs.
:

Linucncc accruc dcs nationalistcs, dcs lascistcs, ct dc la droitc du parti
libral lut vidcntc lors dcs lcctions dc mai +::. La vastc coalition dcs
Alcssandro 8rogi, !l trattato di Rapallo dcl +:o. La politica danubianobalcanica

di Carlo Slorza , Storia delle relazioni internazionali \ (+8), 6.
o
Franccsco Guida, Unghcria c !talia dalla nc dcl primo conito mondialc al trattato
dcl Trianon , Storia contemporanea X!X/ (+88), 8.
+
Ibid., :.
:
Gacta, Nazionalismo italiano, :o8.
8alcanica XXX\! 186
libraux, nationalistcs, lascistcs, agraircs, socialrlormistcs, rcprscntait la
majorit gouvcrncmcntalc avcc :6 sigcs. Ccpcndant, mcmc au scin dc
la majorit gouvcrncmcntalc, la politiquc trangrc dc Slorza tait lobjct
dc rscrvcs importantcs, cc qui poussa Giolliti a dmissionncr lc : juin
+:+.
n cct, la politiquc balkaniquc dc Slorza tait rcjctc par la majori

t dcs libraux, sans parlcr dcs lascistcs ct dcs nationalistcs. La radicalisa
tion dc la vic politiquc cn !talic a causc dcs actions ct prcssions dcs lascistcs
lut largcmcnt saluc par l!talic libralc commc unc tcntativc dc rinstaurcr
lordrc cn politiquc intricurc bicn sr, mais aussi cn politiquc cxtricurc.
n dcrnirc instancc, ccttc connivcncc avcc lcs lascistcs porta Mussolini au
pouvoir cn octobrc +::, cn lui laissant lc champ librc dappliqucr sa vision
dc la stratgic italicnnc dans lcs 8alkans ct dans luropc danubicnnc.
2) Mussolini et l Italie fasciste
Mussolini ct scs ministrcs dcs Aaircs trangrcs radicaliscnt a la lois lcs
objcctils ct la stratgic italicnnc. Lobjcctil cst dsormais dvinccr linucncc
lranaisc cn Yougoslavic, ct audcla dans lcs 8alkans ct cn uropc ccn
tralc, pour cn lairc unc zonc sous domination italicnnc cxclusivc. n mcmc
tcmps, la stratgic sc radicalisc cn apportant son souticn aux mouvcmcnts
indpcndantistcs cn Yougoslavic avcc lobjcctil soit dc lairc rcntrcr lc pays
dans lc giron italicn, soit dc lc disloqucr cn lavorisant son rcmplaccmcnt par
unc sric dtats plus lacilcs a inucnccr. Lcs rclations dc Mussolini avcc
la Francc ct la Yougoslavic connaisscnt trois tapcs : dc coopration avant
Locarno, dc conlrontation dc +:6 a +:, dc luttc communc contrc lcs
mcnaccs dAnschluss cnsuitc.
a) La coopration
Aprs son arrivc au pouvoir, Mussolini ct lc sccrtairc gnral dc la Con
sulta, Salvatorc Camillo Contarini, continucnt la politiquc tracc par Slorza,
a savoir ccllc dc coopration avcc la Francc. Contarini, a linstar dc Slorza,
tait considr par 8arrrc ct son succcsscur CharlcsRoux, commc un ga
rant a la lois dc la continuit dc la politiquc italicnnc ct dc bonncs disposi
tions du nouvcau gouvcrncmcnt cnvcrs la Francc.
Pourtant, dcs contacts cntrc Mussolini ct la Francc avaicnt t dja
tablis lors dc la campagnc pour lcntrc dc l!talic cn gucrrc aux cts dc
lntcntc. Sclon lcs diplomatcs lranais, latout majcur du nouvcau gou
vcrncmcnt tait sa capacit a arrctcr tous lcs conits sociaux, pratiqucmcnt
du jour au lcndcmain. Lorsquc Mussolini, cn dccmbrc +::, lait savoir a
Candcloro, Storia della Italia Moderna, 6+.

CharlcsRoux son intcntion dc soutcnir la position lranaisc dans lc con
tcnticux portant sur lc montant dcs rparations allcmandcs, lcs bascs dunc
cntcntc lrancoitalicnnc sc voicnt lcrmcmcnt poscs. n cct, lors dc la
conlrcncc dc Paris dc janvicr +:, lc dlgu italicn votc avcc scs col
lgucs lranais ct bclgcs pour la continuation dcs rparations allcmandcs,
ct contrc lc dlgu britanniquc. n consqucncc loccupation lrancobclgc
dc la Ruhr, commc moycn dc prcssion sur Allcmagnc, obticnt lc souticn dc
Mussolini. Limportancc dc lappui italicn dcvicnt ainsi primordialc pour
la Francc, mais du plus mauvais augurc pour lcs intrcts yougoslavcs dans
lAdriatiquc.

Lincapacit a mcttrc cn pratiquc lcs tcrmcs tcrritoriaux du trait dc
Rapallo, laissc cnticr lc contcnticux tcrritorial. Fort du souticn lranais ct
dlc a sa conccption du prcstigc italicn, Mussolini, ds juillct +:, in
lormc lc gouvcrncmcnt dc Pai dc son intcntion dc rsoudrc lc problmc
dc Fiumc, cn anncxant la villc ct cn accordant lc port dc 8aro au Royaumc
SHS.
n abscncc dunc rponsc satislaisantc dc 8clgradc, Mussolini y

nommc lc +6 scptcmbrc lc gnral Giardini. Ccttc prcssion italicnnc nc
provoquc aucunc raction a Paris.
6
ans ccs conditions, conlronts aux
prcssions italicnncs, pcrsuadcs quunc aidc lranaisc, diplomatiquc ou mili
tairc, cst plus quimprobablc, Pai ct lc roi Alcxandrc indiqucnt a Mussolini
quils pcuvcnt, sous ccrtaincs conditions, acccptcr sa proposition sur Fiumc.
r, dsormais Mussolini nc songc pas sculcmcnt a un accord tcrritorial mais
aussi a la conclusion dun trait damiti cntrc lcs dcux pays. Pour ncutraliscr
unc raction lranaisc, daillcurs asscz improbablc, a sa stratgic yougoslavc,
Mussolini, par la voix dc Contarini, proposc a 8arrrc la conclusion dun ac
cord a trois.
A la lccturc du tcxtc dc laccord italoyougoslavc, Poincar sc

limitc a lairc objcction a la clausc prvoyant dcs compcnsations tcrritorialcs
pour lunc dcs partics contractantcs lorsquc lautrc aurait agrandi son tcrri
toirc. A son avis, il sagissait dc la volont italicnnc dc pousscr la Yougoslavic
vcrs lgc, ccstadirc vcrs Saloniquc, an dc pouvoir cxigcr lcs compcn
sations cn Adriatiquc.
8
n cct, lors dc la visitc du roi Alcxandrc a Paris
Villiam !. Shorrock, Te Enigma of Fascist Italy in French Diplomacy, 1920-1940

(London: Tc Kcnt Statc Univcrsity Prcss), ::8.
Ncgroto Cambaisso a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc ++ juillct +:, !, sric \!!, vol. :,

doc. +:6.
6
Spalajkovi a Nini, lc +8 scptcmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:, Antonijcvi
a Nini, Romc, lc :o scptcmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:.
Summontc a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc : octobrc +:, !, sric \!!, vol. :, doc. 6,

Mussolini a Sumontc, Romc, lc : octobrc +:, !, sric \!!, vol. :, doc. .
8
Poincar a Spalaikovitch, Paris, :8.++.+:, AMA, sric Z, uropc, Yougoslavic,
vol. 6, p. ++.
8alcanica XXX\! 188
cn dccmbrc +:, lambassadcur italicn Romano Avcnzana scorcc dc lc
pcrsuadcr dc sc saisir du port dc Saloniquc. Commc on la dja vu, ctait
unc constantc dc la politiquc balkaniquc dc l!talic dcpuis Sonnino.
n labscncc dunc raction lranaisc, lc gouvcrncmcnt dc Pai sc
dcidc cn janvicr +: a signcr lc trait propos par Mussolini, comportant
la clausc laissant Fiumc a l!talic.

Ctait sculcmcnt a cc dcrnicr momcnt
quc lc gouvcrncmcnt Poincar chcrchc a adhrcr a cc trait, mais ccs ouvcr
turcs tardivcs sc voicnt rcpousscs par Mussolini.
6o
Lc trait, sign lc :
janvicr +:, cst unc victoirc importantc pour Mussolini. Non sculcmcnt il
a anncx Fiumc, mais il croit avoir ralis lcs objcctils quc stait dja poss
Slorza, ccstadirc lairc rcntrcr lc Royaumc SHS dans lc giron italicn. Ccttc
russitc non ngligcablc cst duc notammcnt a lcntcntc lrancoitalicnnc, qui
avait pris unc dimcnsion nouvcllc lors dcs prparatils pour la conclusion
du trait rhnan. Lorsqua Locarno Mussolini acccptc lc pactc rhnan, il sc
croit cn mcsurc dcntrcprcndrc unc vastc campagnc dcxpansion a lst. La
tcndancc britanniquc daccordcr a Mussolini unc autorit spcialc dans la
rgion rcnlorcc sa dtcrmination.
!l conoit lc projct dcnccrclcmcnt dc la Yougoslavic a travcrs unc
quadruplc alliancc avcc la 8ulgaric, la Roumanic ct la Hongric. n mcmc
tcmps il rcnlorcc son cmprisc sur lAlbanic par lcs traits dc Tirana dc +:6
ct +:. r, lcs contcnticux lrontalicrs cntrc lcs pays intrcsss cmpcchcnt la
ralisation dunc alliancc a quatrc. Mussolini doit sc contcntcr dallianccs bi
latralcs avcc 8ucarcst (+6//+:6) ct 8udapcst (//+:) dont la dcrnirc
sculcmcnt a lc caractrc rvisionnistc souhait par Mussolini.
b) La confrontation
Lorsquc lcs moycns dc la diplomatic traditionncllc savrcnt insusants
pour lairc plicr la Yougoslavic, Mussolini radicalisc sa politiquc rvision
nistc cn apportant son aidc a dcs mouvcmcnts indpcndantistcs. s +:,
dcs contacts sont tablis avcc lcs Macdonicns dc l!MR. Lattcntat dont
cst victimc Radi cn juin +:8 ct lcs troublcs intricurs quil provoquc cn
Croatic donncnt a Mussolini la conviction quc lc nationalismc croatc cst
lc lcvicr idal pour disloqucr la Yougoslavic. Lorsquc Mack, lhriticr dc
Radi, dclarc aux Hongrois quc lobjcctil du HSS cst lindpcndancc totalc
dc la Croatic, Mussolini dcidc dapportcr tout son souticn aux nationalistcs
croatcs migrs cn Hongric. cs londs ct dcs armcs sont donc cnvoys cn
Mihailovi a Nini, Paris, lc :8 dccmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:, Sum
montc a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc janvicr +:, !, sric \!!, vol. :, doc. .
6o
8arrrc a Poincar, Romc, lc : janvicr +:, AMA, sric Z, uropc, Yougoslavic,
vol. 6, p. 8+8.
Hongric avcc pour objcctil dorganiscr unc rvoltc cn Yougoslavic. r, lcs
Croatcs savrcnt incapablcs dc troublcr sricuscmcnt lordrc intricur dc la
Yougoslavic. Lchcc dc laction croatc cn Lika cn +: nit par convain
crc Mussolini quc la Yougoslavic nc va pas scroulcr sous la prcssion dcs
mouvcmcnts nationalistcs. !l continuc son souticn aux migrs croatcs tout
cn lcur dlcndant dc mcncr dcs actions sur sol yougoslavc, car lc rctour dc
lAllcmagnc sur la scnc danubicnnc translormc la Yougoslavic cn unc allic
potcnticllc contrc lc pangcrmanismc.
c) Lutte contre l Anschluss
Pour contrccarrcr lcs projcts dc lunion douanirc cntrc lAutrichc ct
lAllcmagnc, Mussolini chcrchc a licr lcrmcmcnt la Hongric ct lAutrichc
cn tant quc prcmicr rcmpart contrc lAnschluss. Audcla dc ccttc prcmirc
lignc dc dlcnsc contrc lavancc allcmandc, il cn conoit unc dcuximc dont
la Yougoslavic doit lairc partic. n conccvant dc tcls projcts, Mussolini, unc
lois dc plus, lait abstraction aussi bicn du rvisionnismc hongrois quc dcs
tcnsions italoyougoslavcs. Lorsquc son vastc projct danubicn scondrc, il
nc pcut signcr lcs protocolcs dc Romc quavcc Gmbos ct ollluss. Ccpcn
dant, lassassinat dc cc dcrnicr imposc lcntcntc lrancoitalicnnc commc scul
moycn dc lrcincr lc rctour allcmand dans lc bassin danubicn. Ccst pourquoi
Mussolini signc lcs accords avcc Laval cn dccmbrc +. Ayant obtcnu unc
garantic supplmcntairc pour la stabilit cn uropc il cst cn mcsurc dc sc
consacrcr a lavcnturc thiopicnnc.
B) La recherche franaise dquilibre entre l Italie et la Yougoslavie
Lcs accords MussoliniLaval dmontrcnt quc la mcnacc dc lAnschluss cst
lc principal lactcur dunc cntcntc italolranaisc dans lc bassin danubicn.
aillcurs, commc ccla a t dja dit, dcpuis Poincar la diplomatic lran
aisc nc croit pas l!talic capablc, a cllc sculc, dcmpcchcr lcmprisc allc
mandc sur luropc danubicnnc. Lcs potcnticls conomiqucs ct politiqucs
dc l!talic sont jugs insusants pour rorganiscr lcs 8alkans, voirc pour y
imposcr durablcmcnt la domination italicnnc. n rcvanchc, on cst pcrsuad
quc lincursion italicnnc dans lcs 8alkans nc nirait qucn y lomcntant la
discordc. c ccttc laon, lcs dlcnscs dc la rgion scraicnt davantagc aaib
lics ct unc vcntucllc cxpansion allcmandc lacilitc. r, dcpuis la gucrrc, lc
prcmicr objcctil dc la diplomatic lranaisc tait justcmcnt dcmpcchcr toutc
prscncc allcmandc dans la rgion. ans ccttc pcrspcctivc, dcux tcndanccs sc
dgagcnt ncttcmcnt : +) souticn a unc vastc alliancc rgionalc sous la lormc
dc lalliancc danubicnnc, :) volont lranaisc dapaiscr lc conit italoyou
goslavc an dc crcr unc barrirc ccacc a la vaguc pangcrmanistc.
8alcanica XXX\! 190
1) Lalliance danubienne
Lattachcmcnt dc Poincar ct dc Clcmcnccau a la survic dc la oublc Mon
archic a t dmontr prcdcmmcnt. ans lc mcmc ordrc didcs Palo
loguc, cn tant quc sccrtairc gnral du Quai drsay, sc laissc cntraincr
dans unc sric dc contacts inlormcls avcc lcs Hongrois cn +:o. Lcs agcndas
dcs dcux partics lors dc ccs contacts ntaicnt pas lcs mcmcs. Tandis quc lcs
Hongrois avaicnt dcs objcctils claircmcnt rvisionnistcs, Palologuc, dlc
a scs convictions cxprimcs ds ++, cxplorait lcs possibilits pour la misc
cn placc dunc structurc a lchcllc rgionalc.
6+
Ccttc initiativc pcrsonncllc
conrmait lc manquc dc conancc, dja cxprim aussi bicn par Poincar
quc par Clcmcnccau, dans lcs capacits dcs allis dcs Franais dassurcr la
stabilit dc la rgion. Lcs allis dcs Franais, tcrris par lc rvisionnismc
hongrois, sc coaliscnt pour mcttrc n a toutc vcllit dc solution conl
dralc au scin dc la diplomatic lranaisc. s lt +:+, lcs pays hriticrs
dc lAutrichcHongric, imposcnt a la diplomatic lranaisc lcur alliancc,
la Pctitc ntcntc.
6:
Ccrtcs, dcpuis lautomnc +:o ct lc rcmplaccmcnt dc
Palologuc par 8crthclot, la diplomatic lranaisc cst bicn moins dlavor
ablc a unc solution rgionalc composc cxclusivcmcnt dcs allis lranais.
6

Nanmoins, il laut souligncr quc lc souticn lranais a la Pctitc ntcntc sc
manilcstc aprs quil scst avr impossiblc dorganiscr unc solution com
munc pour toutc luropc ccntralc.
Ccst donc sculcmcnt au dbut dcs anncs vingt quc la diplomatic
lranaisc sc tournc vcrs lcs pays hriticrs dc la oublc Monarchic dans
lc cadrc dcs projcts dunc alliancc dc rcvcrs ou dun cordon sanitairc. r,
mcmc dans cc cas, cllc nc rcgardc quc du ct dc la Polognc ou dc la Tch
coslovaquic, car ccst sculcmcnt avcc ccs dcux pays quc la Francc conclut dc
vritablcs allianccs dotcs dun volct militairc. n rcvanchc, lalliancc avcc
la Yougoslavic cst signc la dcrnirc, sculcmcnt cn +: ct, qui plus cst,
sans aucun cngagcmcnt militairc. Lcsscncc dc la stratgic lranaisc a lcst
dc luropc cst claircmcnt rsumc par lc Marchal Foch lorsquil rclusc dc
prcndrc quclquc cngagcmcnt quc cc soit cnvcrs un tat qui ncst pas limi
trophc dc lAllcmagnc.
6

Lcs limitcs du systmc lranais dans luropc danubicnnc vont ap
paraitrc au dbut dcs anncs trcntc avcc lannoncc, cn mars ++, dc lunion
6+
Vandycz Piotr, France and her Eastern Allies (Minncapolis, +6:), +6.
6:
Notc dc Montillc, La Pctitc ntcntc , Paris, lc + janvicr +:+, AMA, scric Z,
Tchcoslovaquic, vol. 6, pp. +8:+8.
6
Lcygucs a Panacu, Paris, lc o scptcmbrc +:o, AMA, Sric Z, Tchcoslovaquic,
vol. 6, pp. ++:, ++.
6
Notc dc MA, Paris, lc + janvicr +:, AMA, sric Z, uropc, Yougoslavic, vol.
6, pp. +o, +o8.
douanirc austroallcmandc. La rponsc lranaisc prcnd dc nouvcau la lormc
dc dcmandc dunc solution communc pour toutc la rgion. Succcssivcmcnt
Andr Tardicu, puis Louis 8arthou, chcrchcnt a instaurcr unc vastc alliancc
dans lcs 8alkans ct dans lc bassin danubicn cn y incorporant aussi l!talic.
6

Lcs contcnticux pcrsistants cntrc lcs pays rvisionnistcs ct la Pctitc ntcntc
savrcnt unc lois dc plus ctrc linsurmontablc obstaclc a lorganisation dc la
rgion. La sculc altcrnativc possiblc cst lcntcntc avcc l!talic.
2) La France, arbitre du conit italo-yougoslave
cpuis la naissancc dc ltat yougoslavc, cc dcrnicr cst lobstaclc principal a
unc coopration italolranaisc dans lcs 8alkans ct dans luropc danubi
cnnc. Ccpcndant lcs rapports cntrc lcs dcux surs latincs dpasscnt largc
mcnt lc cadrc balkaniquc. Commc ccla a t dja dit, Clcmcnccau a \cr
saillcs chcrchc a assurcr la garantic amricainc pour la lrontirc rhnanc.
Ccst pourquoi il souticnt la position amricainc, ct a causc dcllc dlcnd
lcs intrcts yougoslavcs dans lAdriatiquc. La pcrspcctivc lranaisc changc
considrablcmcnt aprs lc rclus du Congrs amricain dc raticr lc trait
dc \crsaillcs. La disparition dc la garantic amricainc accordc unc nouvcllc
importancc a lattitudc italicnnc. r, lcs troublcs intcrncs qui sccoucnt lcs
dcrnircs anncs l!talic libralc inquitcnt vivcmcnt la diplomatic lranaisc.
n craint larrivc au pouvoir dcs communistcs cn !talic. Ccst pourquoi la
rhtoriquc ct la manirc lortc dc Mussolini rassurcnt. Larrivc au pouvoir
dc cc dcrnicr cst unanimcmcnt saluc aussi bicn par lAmbassadcur 8arrrc
quc par lc gouvcrncmcnt Poincar.
Lcs licns cntrc la diplomatic lranaisc ct Mussolini cxistcnt daillcurs
ds lautomnchivcr ++++ ct lagitation intcrvcntionnistc cn !talic. La
coopration avcc Mussolini savrc protablc, car cc dcrnicr apportc son
souticn au gouvcrncmcnt Poincar lors dc la crisc dc la Ruhr cn +:.
66
A
son tour, Poincar souticnt l!talic lors dc la crisc dc Corlou cn scptcmbrc
+:, malgr lcs protcstations dc la Yougoslavic ct dc la Tchcoslovaquic.
6
!l
mobilisc la diplomatic lranaisc pour donncr satislaction a Mussolini dans
son conit avcc la Grcc, tout cn vitant quc la Liguc dcs Nations condamnc
loccupation italicnnc dc Corlou. La rcconnaissancc lranaisc pour lappui
6
\oir a cc sujct : \ojislav Pavlovi, La Yougoslavic ct lc plan Tardicu , Revue dEurope
Centrale \/: (+), \ojislav Pavlovi, ans lombrc dc Mussolini : lc roi Alcxandrc
ct 8arthou , Revue dEurope Centrale \!!/: (+).
66
Villiam Shorrock, La Francc, l!talic lascistc ct la qucstion dc lAdriatiquc , Revue
dhistoire diplomatique + (+8o), .
6
Spalajkovi a Nini, Paris, lc 6 scptcmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:.
8alcanica XXX\! 192
italicn a loccupation dc la Ruhr nc sarrctc pas la. Poincar nc sopposc non
plus a la conclusion dc laccord italoyougoslavc dc janvicr +:.
68
La tcndancc dc la Francc a donncr dcs gagcs dc bonnc volont a
l!talic a nanmoins dcs limitcs. Aprs Corlou, Poincar lait claircmcnt
comprcndrc a Mussolini quil nc pcrmcttra pas quc la Yougoslavic soit
misc dcvant lc lait accompli a Fiumc, commc la Grcc lavait t a Cor
lou.
6
aillcurs, lcs rclations bilatralcs avcc la Yougoslavic connaissaicnt a
lpoquc dcs avanccs non ngligcablcs. Lc prct lranais a la Yougoslavic a
t approuv par lc Snat cn dccmbrc +: ct laidc militairc lranaisc ar
rivc cn Yougoslavic a partir dc lannc suivantc. Malgr lcs rapprochcmcnts
rcspcctils a la Yougoslavic ct a l!talic, la stratgic lranaisc consistc cn unc
rcchcrchc dquilibrc dcs lorccs dans la rgion. un ct, sur lchcllc curo
pcnnc, tout cst lait pour sassurcr la coopration italicnnc. c lautrc, unc
aidc cst apportc aux Yougoslavcs dc laon a cc quc ccs dcrnicrs soicnt cn
mcsurc dc rsistcr a la prcssion italicnnc.
Ccrtcs, la diplomatic lranaisc accordc toujours plus dimportancc
a la coopration avcc l!talic quavcc la Yougoslavic, cc qui cst naturcl car
lalliancc italicnnc cst jug indispcnsablc pour sopposcr a lAllcmagnc ou
pour la contrlcr. Ctait notammcnt lc cas lors dc la conclusion du trait
dc Locarno. Pour assurcr ladhsion dc Mussolini a cc trait, 8riand tait
prct a accordcr a Mussolini unc ccrtainc prsancc dans lcs qucstions bal
kaniqucs.
o
Pourtant, lorsquc Mussolini ncn lait pas unc condition pour
adhrcr au pactc rhnan, la proposition lranaisc cst immdiatcmcnt rcti
rc. Ccrtcs, lappui italicn cst indispcnsablc, mais la diplomatic lranaisc sc
rjouit quc lc prix a paycr nc soit pas la domination italicnnc dans lcs 8al
kans. Lorsquc lc dangcr dunc cxpansion gcrmaniquc dans lcs 8alkans cst
abscnt, la diplomatic lranaisc scorcc dc modrcr lcs ambitions italicnncs.
Ccst pourquoi, lc souticn lranais a la Yougoslavic cst conrm par lc trait
bilatral dc +:, cn plcinc campagnc mussolinicnnc dc dstabilisation dc
ltat dcs Slavcs du Sud.
+

68
Mihailovi a Nini, Paris, lc :8 dccmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:, Sum
montc a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc janvicr +:, !, sric \!!, vol. :, doc. .
6
Spalajkovi a Nini, lc +8 scptcmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:, Antonijcvi
a Nini, Romc, lc :o scptcmbrc +:, AY, Ministrc a Paris, +:.
o
Jamcs 8urgwyn, Italys foreign policy in the Interwar Period 1918-1940 (London, +8),
o.
+
\ojislav Pavlovi, Laspcct militairc dcs rclations lrancoyougoslavcs dans lcs an
ncs vingt , Actcs du colloquc, Batir une nouvelle scurit : La coopration militaire de la
France avec les pays dEurope centrale dans les annes 1920, Ccntrc dtudcs dhistoirc dc la
dlcnsc ct Scrvicc historiquc dc lArmc dc tcrrc (Paris, :oo+).
Pourtant, lorsquc lcs ambitions allcmandcs sc lont scntir dc nouvcau dans
luropc danubicnnc cn ++, la diplomatic lranaisc chcrchc a sortir dc
limpassc o la mnc lc conit italoyougoslavc. Lc rcnouvcau dc lidc
dunc coopration cntrc la Francc ct l!talic dans lc bassin danubicn tait
conu par lc Ministrc dcs Aaircs trangrcs Joscph Paul8oncour. !l cn
voya Hcnry dc Jouvcncl a Romc cn janvicr +, commc ambassadcur dans
unc mission spcialc dc six mois. Lcs instructions dc Jouvcncl taicnt claircs.
!l dcvait poscr dcs bascs dunc cntcntc durablc cntrc la Francc ct l!talic tout
cn cmpcchaicnt la cration dc dcux blocs rivaux cn uropc ccntralc, la Pctitc
ntcntc ct lc bloc italicn compos dc lAutrichc ct la Hongric.
:
n cct, lcs
craintcs communcs dunc Allcmagnc rcvigorc par larrivc au pouvoir dc
Hitlcr lacilitrcnt la misc cn pratiquc du projct lranais. Lc souci principal,
(ct dc cc lait lc catalyscur dunc alliancc lrancoitailcnnc) tait la dlcnsc dc
lindpcndancc autrichicnnc lacc aux tcntativcs dc dstabilisation dcs nazis.
Lc cadrc dc ccttc alliancc lut pos par Mussolini lorsquil avana lc + mars
lidc dun pactc a quatrc cntrc lAllcmagnc, la Francc, lAnglctcrrc ct l!talic,
dont lobjcctil tait dcncadrcr lAllcmagnc par un bloc lrancoitalianoan
glais. Ccpcndant, lc projct italicn accorda dans larticlc : la lgitimit aux
idcs rvisionnistcs. Ainsi apparut toutc la dicult dc la tchc lranaisc. !l
lallait dun ct modrcr lcs ardcurs rvisionnistcs dcs pays vaincus tcls quc
la Hongric soutcnu par l!talic, ct dc lautrc incitcr scs allis traditionncls
dc la Pctitc ntcntc a cooprcr, dans lc domainc conomiquc au mois, avcc
lcurs advcrsaircs dhicr, an dc crcr unc cntcntc capablc darrctcr la pcrcc
allcmandc dans lc bassin danubicn. La diplomatic lranaisc tait convaincuc
quc la solution dc cc problmc tait unc cntcntc lrancoitalicnnc suivic par
lamlioration dcs rapports cntrc l!talic ct la Yougoslavic. n consqucncc,
dans un prcmicr tcmps ct sous la prcssion dc scs allis, la diplomatic lran
aisc scmployait a ncutraliscr laspcct rvisionnistc du pactc a quatrc, an
dc pouvoir lc paraphcr nalcmcnt lc juin, posant ainsi dcs bascs pour lcs
cntrcticns sur unc alliancc lrancoitalicnnc.

ans ccttc atmosphrc dcntcntc, Jouvcncl, lors dc son cntrcticn avcc
Mussolini, posa lc + juin + la qucstion dcs rclations lrancoitalicnncs,
dont notammcnt ccllcs conccrnant lc bassin danubicn. Aprs avoir constat
lidcntit dc vucs sur la nccssit dc sopposcr a lAnschluss, Jouvcncl proposa
a Mussolini dassocicr lc bloc austrohongrois, jouissant du souticn italicn,
avcc la Pctitc ntcntc, pour micux contrccarrcr lavancc allcmandc. Ccttc
proposition, sous condition quunc tcllc alliancc conomiquc soit oricntc
:
Jcan8aptistc uroscllc, La Dcadence 1932-1939 (Paris, +), +.
Ibid., :, Aloisi a Mussolini, Gcnvc, lc : mai +, !, sric \!!, vol. +, doc. 68,
Pignati a Mussolini, Paris, lc : mai +, !, sric \!!, vol. +, doc. :.
8alcanica XXX\! 194
vcrs Romc, lut lavorablcmcnt accucillic par Mussolini.
Paul8oncour ap
prouva linitiativc dc son ambassadcur cn lui prcisant la tcncur du projct
lranais pour lc bassin danubicn :
Ccst a unc politiquc dcntcntc a cinq cntrc lAutrichc, la Hongric ct
lcs trois tats dc la Pctitc ntcntc quil convicnt dc sattachcr. Aussi
bicn ccttc grandc ocuvrc dc rorganisation conomiquc danubicnnc,
jusquici irralisablc lautc dcntcntc cntrc la Francc ct l!talic, dcvait
ctrcla suitc immdiatc du rapprochcmcnt lrancoitalicn lavoris par
la pactc a Quatrc.
Finalcmcnt la mission dc Jouvcncl aboutit a un accord vcrbal avcc Musso

lini sur lcs points suivants : +) Abandon dc toutc idc rvisionnistc ct dc
toutc rcvcndication tcrritorialc, notammcnt ccllc italicnnc cnvcrs la Yougo
slavic. :) Accord sur la nccssit dc dlcndrc lindpcndancc autrichicnnc.
) Cration dunc alliancc conomiquc homognc cntrc lAutrichc, la Hon
gric ct lc pays dc la Pctitc ntcntc, par lc biais dcs convcntions conomiqucs
cntrc cux.
6
Aprs lc dpart dc Jouvcncl, la diplomatic italicnnc rclana vcrs la n
aot la qucstion du projct danubicn auprs du nouvcl ambassadcur lran
ais a Romc, lc comtc dc Chambrun.
La proposition italicnnc lut chal

curcuscmcnt accucillic a Paris. Paul8oncour conrma la volont lranaisc
docuvrcr cn accord avcc l!talic pour unc coopration conomiquc cntrc lcs
cinq pays du bassin danubicn.
8
Nanmoins, dcs dcux cts dcs Alpcs, on nc pcrccvait pas dc la mcmc
manirc cc projct danubicn. Mussolini cxpliquc a Chambrun, lc scptcmbrc
+, quon pcut arrivcr a unc solution pour luropc ccntralc sculcmcnt par
tapcs. La prcmirc cn tait la sauvcgardc dc lindpcndancc dc lAutrichc.
La dcuximc scrait un accord cntrc lAutrichc ct la Hongric, daillcurs dja
cn prparation, soutcnu par l!talic. nn la dcrnirc tapc aurait t unc
cntcntc cntrc tous lcs pays danubicns, lavorisc par toutcs lcs grandcs puis
sanccs. !l proposc dy inclurc la Francc, cn mcmc tcmps quc lAllcmagnc,
sculcmcnt dans la dcrnirc tapc.
La volont, mcmc pas dissimulc, dcartcr la Francc dc luropc

ccntralc, provoqua immdiatcmcnt la raction dc Chambrun. voquant la
Jouvcncl a Paul8oncour, Romc, lc + juin +, F, sric !, vol. , doc. 86.
Paul8oncour a Jouvcncl, Paris, lc + juin +, F, sric !, vol. , doc. oo.

6
Jouvcncl a Paul8oncour, Romc, lc +: juillct, F, sric !, vol. , doc. 8.
Chambrun a Paul8oncour, Romc, lc : aot +, F, sric !, vol. , doc. +

8
Paul8oncour a Chambrun, Paris, lc : aot +, F, sric !, vol. , doc. +.
Comptc rcndu dc lcntrcticn cntrc Mussolini ct Chambrun, Romc, lc scptcmbrc

+, !, sric \!! (+::+), vol. +, doc. +.
prscncc ct lcngagcmcnt lranais important dans la rgion, lambassadcur
lranais arma quc la Francc dcvrait ds lc dbut ctrc associc avcc lc projct
mussolinicn. Sclon lui, cllc pourrait, cn laisant prcssion sur la Pctitc n
tcntc, lacilitcr son rapprochcmcnt avcc lAutrichc ct la Hongric. Mussolini
acccpta ccttc proposition, tandis quc Fulvio Suvich, lc soussccrtairc au
Ministrc dcs Aairc trangrcs italicn, insistait sur la particularit dc la
position italicnnc, soutcnant quc l!talic, tant, un dcs pays succcsscurs dc
lAutrichcHongric, dcvrait pouvoir tablir dcs accord spciaux avcc lcs au
trcs pays dc la rgion.
8o
Conlront a lintcntion italicnnc dc lavoriscr la cration dun bloc
austrohongrois, la diplomatic lranaisc prscnta lormcllcmcnt a Romc lc
+: scptcmbrc un aidcmmoirc contcntant son projct danubicn. Soulignant
la nccssit docuvrcr cn troitc collaboration avcc l!talic an dc pcrmcttrc
unc alliancc conomiquc cntrc lcs cinq pays danubicns, Paul8oncour y in
sistc particulircmcnt sur lcs dcux points suivants : +) quc lalliancc proposc
doit ctrc dpourvuc dc tout caractrc politiquc, :) quc tous lcs pays doivcnt
ctrc mis sur un picd dc parlaitc galit.
8+
La ncttc volont dc Paul8oncour
dc sopposcr a la cration dun bloc italicn obligca la diplomatic italicnnc a
tcmporiscr. n consqucncc Suvich, proposa cn scptcmbrc a Mussolini la
solution suivantc :
Conlront a la dicult dc lairc avalcr par lcs autrcs lunion doua
nirc (cntrc l!talic, lAutrichc ct la Hongric, avcc ou sans Yougoslavic) il
laudrait dabord commcnccr cn lcur prscntant lc projct danubicn.
Si cclui, ccla cst improbablc tait acccpt, dans lc contcxtc ct
pour lcs raisons prcitcs, ct dans la nccssit dc dcvoir adoptcr
quclquc disposition, il rcprscntcrait unc solution lavorablc. Si lc
projct tait rcjct, on aurait unc raison susammcnt plausiblc pour
rccourir a lunion douanirc, cc qui rcprscntc pour nous la solution
intgralc.
Naturcllcmcnt, mcmc dans lc cas dun accord danubicn, il cst possiblc a
continucr dc travaillcr pour lunion douanirc.
8:
Lcs rscrvcs lranaiscs obligrcnt donc la diplomatic italicnnc a
rcnvcrscr lordrc dcs actions prvucs par Mussolini. Par consqucnt Suvich
prscnta lc o scptcmbrc a Paul 8oncour a Gcnvc son projct danubicn lim
it a la coopration conomiquc cntrc lcs pays danubicns sclon lcs principcs
suivants : a) Accords bilatraux. b) Traitcmcnt prlrcnticl pour lcs cralcs
ct autrcs produits agricolcs dcs pays danubicns. c) Traitcmcnt prlrcnticl
8o
Ibid.
8+
Mmoirc lranais sur lc bassin danubicn, Romc, lc +: scptcmbrc +, F, sric !,
vol. , doc. +.
8:
Mmoirc dc Suvich, Romc, scptcmbrc +, !, sric \!, vol. +, doc. :+.
8alcanica XXX\! 196
pour la production agricolc autrichicnnc. d) Amlioration dc la balancc
commcrcialc dcs pays danubicns ct augmcntation dc lcurs cxportations. c)
Mcsurcs visant a dirigcr lc ot du trac dc ccs pays vcrs scs voics naturcllcs
ct par ccla aptcs a lacilitcr lc trac mcmc. l ) Mcsurcs a adoptcr pour am
liorcr la balancc dc paicmcnt dcs pays danubicns, quc lcs accords dont on
souhaitc la conclusion pourraicnt indircctcmcnt prparcr ct lacilitcr.
8
n lc rcccvant 8oncour salua dabord lbauchc dunc action com
munc italolranaisc dans lc bassin danubicn.
8
Ccpcndant lcs cxpcrts lran
ais soulignrcnt lc rclus italicn dacccptcr un accord collcctil dcs pays danu
bicns, ct la tcndancc italicnnc a sc taillcr unc placc dc choix dans lconomic
dcs pays intrcsss.
8
Ccttc bauchc dcntcntc cntrc Paris ct Romc tait
lc scul bncc du projct italicn, car lcs pays intrcsss, ct notammcnt lcs
mcmbrcs dc la Pctitc ntcntc, sc montrrcnt plus quc rscrvs. Lc prsidcnt
tchcoslovaquc, duard 8ncs, tait lc plus rticcnt, nacccptant pas quc lcs
industrics autrichicnnc ct italicnnc soicnt lavoriscs au dpcns dcs intrcts
dc son pays.
86
La Roumanic par contrc sc montra lavorablc au projct italicn,
mais lc Ministrc dcs aaircs trangrcs, Nicolac Titulcscu, considra impos
siblc un accord conomiquc avant quc toutcs lcs vcllits dc lcsprit rvision
nistc du cot magyar naicnt disparu.
8

cs raisons dordrc politiquc motivaicnt aussi lcs rscrvcs yougo
slavcs. La mancc cnvcrs la rgimc mussolinicn rgnait a 8clgradc, malgr
la prcssion dc la diplomatic lranaisc an darrivcr a un accord avcc l!talic.
Lorsquc 8ogoljub Jclti, lc Prsidcnt dc conscil yougoslavc lut inlorm dc la
tcncur dcs pourparlcrs cntrc Jouvcncl ct Mussolini, il avcrtit lcnvoy lran
ais a 8clgradc, Paul mil Naggiar, lc :o juillct, quunc cntcntc conomiquc
ntait pas possiblc sans quil y ait un accord politiquc au pralablc. n cct,
il rclama quc l!talic abandonnc lormcllcmcnt toutc aspiration rvision
nistc, avant dcnvisagcr un vcntucl accord avcc Romc.
88
!l craignait surtout
quc lcntcntc lrancoitalicnnc sc lassc aux dpcns dcs intrcts dc son pays.
8
Mcmorandum italicn pour l uropc danubicnnc, Romc, lc : scptcmbrc +, !,
sric \!! (+::+), vol. +, doc. ::.
8
Comptc rcndu dc lcntrcticn cntrc Suvich ct 8oncour, Gcnvc, lc o scptcmbrc +,
!, scric \!, vol. +, doc. :.
8
Notc dc GcrmainMartin, dlgu lranais dans la SN, Gcnvc, lc 6 octobrc +,
F, sric !, vol. , doc. :8+.
86
Guido Rocco, cnvoy italicn a Praguc, a Mussolini, Praguc, lc : octobrc +, !,
sric \!!, vol. +, doc. :o.
8
Ugo Sola, cnvoy italicn a 8ucarcst, a Mussolini, 8ucarcst, lc 6 dccmbrc +, !,
sric \!!, vol. +, doc. o.
88
Naggiar a Paul8oncour, 8clgradc, lc :o juillct +, F, scric !, vol. , doc. :.
Ccst pourquoi, il suivait attcntivcmcnt ct avcc apprhcnsion dcpuis juin lcs
contacts cntrc lcs dcux diplomatics latincs.
8
Aprs lchcc dcs corts dc 8oncour ct dc Jouvcncl, la dcrnirc rc
naissancc dunc stratgic dallianccs lranaiscs lut conu par lc vtran dc la
Grandc Gucrrc, Louis 8arthou, avcc commc intcrlocutcur du ct yougo
slavc aussi un ancicn du tcmps du lront dc Saloniquc, lc roi Alcxandrc. Lc
rctour aux aaircs dc la vcillc gnration dcs hommcs dtat lranais avcc lc
gouvcrncmcnt oumcrguc cn lvricr +, amcna au Quai drsay Louis
8arthou. Cc vicux parlcmcntairc lranais tait toujours dans lcs anncs
trcntc proccup dabord par la scurit dc la Rpubliquc, mcnacc dcpuis
pcu par la naissantc lorcc du mouvcmcnt nationalsocialistc allcmand dont
lc chcl tait dcpuis lannc prcdcntc lc chancclicr allcmand. Conlront a
la mcnacc dun rarmcmcnt allcmand, craignant quun contrlc ccacc nc
soit pas possiblc a causc dcs rscrvcs dc lAnglctcrrc, il sc dcida a rcnouvclcr
lc systmc dallianccs lranaiscs.
Lors dcs rcncontrcs cntrc 8arthou ct Litvinov, lc Ministrc dcs Al
laircs trangrcs sovitiquc, lc +8 mai a Gcnvc, lut voqu surtout lc projct
dalliancc runissant lcs voisins dc lAllcmagnc, ct lURSS, ccnsc garantir
la scurit dc luropc oricntalc. Lobjcctil dc ccttc cntcntc tant dc micux
contrlcr lAllcmagnc, 8arthou avana aussi lidc dun pactc mditcrrancn
compos notammcnt dc l!talic, la Francc, ct la Yougoslavic, ct a lortiori la
Roumanic ct lURSS, dont lobjcctil aurait t dc lorticr lc scul point laiblc
du dispositil lranais, lAutrichc. Lobstaclc principal a unc tcllc cntcntc
tant lc dircnd italoyougoslavc, 8arthou chcrcha a lc surmontcr lors dc
scs cntrcticns avcc Jclti ct lc roi Alcxandrc
Lorsquc 8arthou scntrctint avcc Jclti a Paris, son intcrlocutcur avait
t dja inlorm dc la tcncur dun pactc dc stabilit a lst, runissant la
Francc, lAllcmagnc, lURSS ct tous lcs autrcs voisins dc lAllcmagnc. Jclti
prit connaissancc dc cc tcxtc lc o mai a Gcnvc cn mcmc tcmps quc scs
collgucs dc la Pctitc ntcntc. Ainsi, il put sc prononccr sur cc volct dcs al
lianccs lranaiscs, tandis quc 8arthou lui prscntait lc volct mditcrrancn
dc son systmc dcs allianccs. Laccucil rscrv au projct lranais dun Lo
carno dc lst nc lut pas trs chalcurcux. Jclti laccucillit avcc circonspcc
tion, dclarant quc son gouvcrncmcnt ntait pas prct dtablir dcs rclations
diplomatiqucs avcc lURSS, posant commc condition pralablc quc Moscou
arrctc lcs activits dcs communistcs yougoslavcs visant a dstabiliscr lc pays.
autrc part, avant mcmc dacccptcr dc considrcr lcntcntc lrancoitalicnnc,
il dcmanda quc la Francc prcnnc lcs obligations suivantcs : +) dc sopposcr
cn mcmc tcmps a lAnschluss ct a la mainmisc italicnnc sur lAutrichc, :) dc
8
Galli a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc : juin +, !, sric \!!, vol. +, doc. 8.
8alcanica XXX\! 198
contrccarrcr lcs rcvcndications tcrritorialcs italicnncs sur la Yougoslavic, )
dcmpcchcr la rcstauration dc lAutrichcHongric.
o
Lcs projcts lranais lurcnt rcus avcc autant dc rscrvcs par lc sou
vcrain yougoslavc lors dc la visitc dc 8arthou a 8clgradc lcs : a :6 juin.
La visitc sc droula cn grand crmonial. 8arthou lut accucilli avcc unc
attcntion particulirc, ct lcs autorits yougoslavcs rcnt tout pour souligncr
limportancc dc la traditionncllc amiti lrancoscrbc ct yougoslavc. Pour lc
souvcrain yougoslavc, la visitc dc 8arthou conrmait lc souticn dc la Francc
a lordrc tabli par lcs traits ct dc cc lait il conclut quc la Pctitc ntcntc ct
lntcntc balkaniquc taicnt largcmcnt rcnlorccs par lcs visitcs dc 8arthou
a 8ucarcst ct a 8clgradc. n consqucncc, Naggiar crut pouvoir csprcr un
mcillcur accucil au projct mditcrrancn cn disant :
Maintcnant quc nous avons, publiqucmcnt un proposition dc la
manirc la plus clairc contrc lc rvisionnismc, nous pourrons nous
montrcr dautant plus actils a Romc dans un but dc conciliation sans
soulcvcr dinquitudc a 8ucarcst, a 8clgradc ou a Praguc.
+
Lcnvoy lranais a 8clgradc tait ncttcmcnt trop optimistc. A linstar dc
son ministrc dcs Aaircs trangrcs, lc roi Alcxandrc posa plusicurs condi
tions avant dacccptcr lcs projcts dallianccs lranaiscs. Sclon lc souvcrain
yougoslavc, lc pactc mditcrrancn tait cnvisagcablc sculcmcnt a condi
tion quc l!talic garantissc lindpcndancc dc lAutrichc ct dc lAlbanic, ct
rcspcctc lintgrit tcrritorialc dc son royaumc.
:
autrc part il acccpta
lcntrc dc lUnion Sovitiquc dans la Socit dcs Nations.
Mais, cn mcmc
tcmps Puri assura lcnvoy italicn, Galli quc la Yougoslavic navait nullc
mcnt intcntion dadhrcr au pactc oricntal. Sclon lui lamiti avcc la Francc
sc limitait a la participation aux cntcntcs dja cxistantcs.
Malgr lcs rscrvcs dc 8clgradc, Alcxis Lgcr avana lidc dun pactc
mditcrrancn lors dc lcntrcticn avcc lambassadcur italicn a Paris, lc comtc
Pignati. n disant quc la Francc nc voulait pas prcndrc dinitiativc a sc sujct,
nanmoins il lui t comprcndrc qucllc scrait prctc dc suivrc l!talic si cllc lc
laisait.
Ctait daillcurs la manirc dont lc Quai drsay voulait mcttrc sur

picd lc pactc mditcrrancn, ccstadirc, cn incitant l!talic a cn prcndrc la
dircction. 8arthou rcvint a la chargc sculcmcnt aprs avoir obtcnu laccord
dc lAnglctcrrc ct dc l!talic a son projct dc pactc oricntal. Ainsi Chambrun
o
\inavcr, Jugoslavija i Francuska, :6, :6.
+
Naggiar a 8arthou, 8clgradc, lc juillct +, F, sric !, vol. 6, doc. :.
:
Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy, 8.
Ibid.
Galli a Mussolini, 8clgradc, lc : juin +, !, sric \!!, vol. +, doc. :, n. +.
Pignati a Mussolini, Paris, lc : juillct +, !, sric \!!, vol. +, doc. .

tcnta dcn pcrsuadcr Suvich, mais lc soussccrtairc aux Aaircs trangrcs
rcpoussa ncttcmcnt cc projct.
6
Mussolini, lorsquil lut sollicit a son tour
par Chambrun, lui cita lcs accords cxistants cntrc l!talic, dunc part ct a la
lois lURSS, la Turquic, ct la Grcc, dautrc part, an dc dmontrcr linutilit
du projct lranais. Mcmc si Chambrun voqua, dans ccttc pcrspcctivc la
Yougoslavic, Mussolini ncn voulait pas.
Sollicit ct par Romc ct par 8clgradc, 8arthou avana ds lc + juillct

lidc dunc action diplomatiquc communc dc Francc, dc Grandc 8rctagnc
ct d!talic a laqucllc scraicnt associ par la suitc lcs pays dc la Pctitc n
tcntc.
8
Ccpcndant, ccttc grandc alliancc lut mal accucillic ct a Romc ct a
8clgradc. Mussolini voulait unc cntcntc avcc Paris, laissant dc ct lc prob
lmc dc la Yougoslavic. Lc roi Alcxandrc par contrc, craignait prcismcnt
un tcl accord. sormais il tait prct a acccptcr lidc dun rapprochcmcnt
cntrc Paris ct Moscou cn dclarant lc :: aot a Naggiar :
Unc alliancc lrancorussc scrait pour nous autrcs yougoslavcs un trs
grand ct trs hcurcux vncmcnt.
Ayant dc ccttc manirc prouvc son attachcmcnt au systmc dallianccs

lranaiscs, lc roi Alcxandrc ajouta quil nacccptait pas quc lAutrichc dcvi
cnnc un protcctorat italicn. Pourtant il sc dclara prct a signcr la dclaration
lrancoitalobritanniquc dc + lvricr.
+oo
Laccord dc principc dc roi yougo
slavc pcrmit a 8arthou dc sc conccntrcr dabord sur laccomplisscmcnt dun
accord avcc Romc, pour cnsuitc y joindrc la Yougoslavic. !l proposa donc
lc scptcmbrc cncorc unc lois quc lcs accords dc Romc dc + mars soicnt
largis an dy incorporcr lcs pays dc la Pctitc ntcntc. Ccttc proposition
dun politiquc communc cnvcrs luropc Ccntralc lut accompagnc par la
misc cn gardc conccrnant la Yougoslavic. 8arthou scmprcssait a souligncr
quc la Francc accordc unc importancc toutc particulirc aux intrcts dc la
Yougoslavic.
+o+
Tandis quil scorait dc trouvcr rsoudrc lcs dircnccs cntrc lcs
dcux voisins sur lAdriatiquc, lcs journaux yougoslavc ct italicns sc lanaicnt
dans unc virulcntc campagnc dc dnigrcmcnt. ncorc unc lois il a lallu quc
6
Comptc rcndu dc lcntrcticn cntrc Suvich ct Chambrun, lc + juillct +, !, sric
\!!, vol. +, doc. :
Chambrun a 8arthou, Romc, lc :o juillct +, F, sric !, vol. 6, doc. 8.

8
8arthou a Chambrun, Cambon, Naggiar, Paris, lc + juillct +, F, vol. , doc.
:.
Naggiar a 8arthou, 8clgradc, lc : aut +, F, vol. , doc. +.

+oo
Naggiar a 8arthou, 8clgradc, lc : aut +, F, vol. , doc. +.
+o+
8arthou a Chambrun, Paris, lc scptcmbrc +, F, vol. , doc. ::o, 8arthou a
Chambrun, Paris, lc scptcmbrc +, ibid., doc. :.
8alcanica XXX\! 200
la Francc scmprcssc a calmcr lcs csprits.
+o:
Finalcmcnt 8arthou arrivc lc :
scptcmbrc a Gcnvc a obtcnir laccord ct dc Romc ct dc Londrcs pur unc
nouvcllc dclaration rcnlorant ccllc dc + lvricr.
+o
A ccttc occasion il lut
prvu quc 8arthou sc chargcrait dy pcrsuadcr lc pays dc la Pctitc ntcntc
dadhrcr a la dclaration. c ccttc laon lcntcntc dans lc trianglc Romc,
Paris ct 8clgradc dpcndait dc lissu du voyagc du roi Alcxandrc a Paris.
Lorsquc lc roi Alcxandrc arriva a Marscillc, son accord cst indispcns
ablc pour quc lc dcrnicr dcs projcts 8arthou puissc sc raliscr. Lassassinat dc
dcux vtrans dc la Grandc Gucrrc mit un tcrmc au projct 8arthou ct bous
culait prolondmcnt lc systmc dcs allianccs lranaiscs. ja lc rapprochc
mcnt cntrc 8clgradc ct 8crlin prsagcait la n dc systmc dc \crsaillcs.
Limportancc accruc dc l!talic y mit dnitivcmcnt un tcrmc. Scs ambitions
cn uropc Ccntralc savrrcnt incompatiblcs avcc lc vison lranais dc la
stabilit dans la rgion. L!talic mussolinicnnc sc rclusait dctrc partic int
grantc du systmc lranais, chcrchant au mois dcn ctrc autcur a part cntirc
sinon dy instaurcr son systmc altcrnatil. Lc roi Alcxandrc ct 8arthou, rc
lusaicnt, chacun dans sa manirc dc lacccptcr. Lcurs succcsscurs rcspcctils
acccptaicnt ncttcmcnt ccttc nouvcllc donnc dc la politiquc curopcnnc.
III) Les enjeux gostratgiques et conomiques du conit franco-italien
Lcnjcu gostratgiquc cst dc rorganiscr lcs 8alkans ct lc bassin danubicn
aprs la disparition dc la oublc Monarchic. Lc principal obstaclc cst in
discutablcmcnt lc contcnticux cntrc lcs pays hriticrs ct ccux qui sc scntcnt
lss par lc trait dc \crsaillcs. Toutc tcntativc lranaisc dc runir tous lcs
pays dc la rgion au scin dun uniquc systmc dallianccs sc hcurtc a dcs
animosits insurmontablcs cntrc lcs vainqucurs ct lcs vaincus. Aucunc pos
sibilit dcntcntc cntrc la Hongric ct scs voisins ncxistc. Ccst pourquoi la
Pctitc ntcntc cst la sculc solution possiblc, tout cn ntant pas la solution
souhaitc par la Francc.
L!talic a unc position ambiguc. Appartcnant a la coalition victo
ricusc, cllc montrc unc volont rvisionnistc qui la poussc a sc licr avcc la
Hongric. Chcrchant a disloqucr la Yougoslavic ct a travcrs cllc lc systmc
dcs allianccs lranaiscs qui rcposcnt sur la Pctitc ntcntc, l!talic cn arrivc a
ctrc a loriginc dc linstabilit dans lcs 8alkans. r, mcmc scs projcts dunc
alliancc antiyougoslavc sc hcurtcnt aux mcmcs obstaclcs quc lc projct lran
ais dc conldration danubicnnc. La Roumanic, cn tant quc pays dcvant
assurcr lcs licns cntrc la Hongric dunc part ct la 8ulgaric dc lautrc, rclusc
dadhrcr aux projcts italicns a causc dcs contcnticux tcrritoriaux.
+o:
\inavcr, Jugoslavija i Francuska, :.
+o
8arthou a Chambrun, Gcnvc, lc : scptcmbrc +, F, vol. \!!, doc. 6+.
Audcla dcs problmcs gostratgiqucs, la situation conomiquc montrc
toutc lincohrcncc dcs projcts lranais ct dcs projcts italicns. La dissolution
dc la oublc Monarchic cntrainc la disparition dc rscaux conomiqucs
tablis au l dcs siclcs. Lcs disparitions du march allcmand, ct jusqua un
ccrtain point autrichicn, laisscnt lcs pays agraircs sans dbouchs. Aucunc
altcrnativc viablc ncst proposc par lcs dcux surs latincs qui sc disputcnt
la primaut dans la rgion. Laction conomiquc lranaisc rcstc cantonnc
a la logiquc dcs prcts intcrgouvcrncmcntaux. La dlit dcs classcs diri
gcantcs, tcllc quc ccllc dcs Radicaux scrbcs, cst ainsi assurc, mais lcs pro
blmcs conomiqucs rcstcnt cnticrs. Lcs tcntativcs italicnncs dcxpansion
conomiquc, a linstar dcs invcstisscmcnts dc la 8anca Comcrcialc cn Hon
gric, vont dans lc bon scns mais savrcnt largcmcnt insusants.
n dcrnirc instancc, lcs dcux surs latincs navaicnt ni lc potcnticl
conomiquc ni la lorcc politiquc pour imposcr unc solution durablc a la
rgion traditionncllcmcnt dominc par lcs Habsbourg. La complmcntarit
du march allcmand avcc lcs conomics agraircs dcs pays balkaniqucs rcnd
plus crdiblc la rcnaissancc du projct allcmand dc Mittclcuropa. aillcurs,
lAllcmagnc cst la sculc a proposcr dcs arrangcmcnts dchangcs cn naturc,
ct dc cc lait dcvicnt la sculc prctc a sinvcstir dans lc commcrcc avcc lcs
8alkans. Pour dcrirc unc situation complcxc, on cst tcnt dc conclurc quc
la Francc avait pcutctrc dcs moycns, mais la volont dc sinvcstir dans la
rorganisation dcs 8alkans lui laisait dlaut. n rcvanchc, la volont ital
icnnc ncst pas cn qucstion tandis quc scs moycns taicnt simplcmcnt insul
sants.
UDC 94(497.1:4)1915/1935:327.5
Jovan Zamctica
Sir Austen Chamberlain and the Italo-Yugoslav Crisis over Albania
February-May 1927
Tc lamous 8ritish historian A. J. P. Taylor dcscribcd Mussolini as a vain,
blundcring boastcr without cithcr idcas or aims. !n rcspcct ol Mussolinis
lorcign policy, howcvcr, this asscssmcnt can bc disputcd. vcn Taylor him
scll gocs on to add: Fascist lorcign policy rcpudiatcd lrom thc outsct thc
principlcs ol Gcncva.
+
!l thcrc is a singlc arca ol Mussolinis activitics whcrc
hc dcmonstratcd idcas, aims and indccd consistcncy, it is to bc rclatcd to !t
alys lorcign policy lrom +:: whcn hc assumcd powcr. Hc provcd this vcry
quickly, in +:, whcn his cct bombardcd Corlu, blaming this incidcnt on a
complctcly innoccnt Grcck govcrnmcnt and showing uttcr contcmpt lor thc
Lcaguc ol Nations which hc was known to considcr as an acadcmic organi
zation. Among his bombastic carly dcclarations stands out thc onc in which
hc argucd that trcatics wcrc not ctcrnal, that thcy wcrc not irrcvocablc.
Mussolinis carly lorcign policy aimcd, somcwhat implausibly givcn
thc awcsomc naval powcr ol 8ritain and Francc (notwithstanding thcir ri
valry), at making thc Mcditcrrancan !talys mare nostrum. 8ut thc ambi
tion was rcal cnough, loundcd as it was on Mussolinis vision ol crcating
a ncw Roman mpirc, somcthing which could only mcan aggrandizc
mcnt, pcacclul or not, in Alrica and thc 8alkans. As rcgards thc 8alkans,
Mussolinis policy was bound to bring !taly into an carly disputc with thc
ncwlycstablishcd Kingdom ol Scrbs, Croats and Slovcncs, just across thc
Adriatic. Alrcady rclcrrcd to as Yugoslavia cvcn bclorc thc ocial changc
ol its namc in +:, thc country had clashcd with !taly at thc Paris Pcacc
Conlcrcncc ovcr thc socallcd Adriatic Qucstion in which !taly had dc
mandcd lrom thc Allics (in thc sccrct Trcaty ol London) largc chunks in
thc castcrn Adriatic as a rcward lor hcr cntry into thc war in ++. 8ut
Prcsidcnt Voodrow Vilson, known lor opposing sccrct trcatics, would havc
nonc ol that and !taly bccamc, cvcn bclorc thc advcnt ol thc Fascist rcgimc,
+
A. J. P. Taylor, Te Origins of the Second World War (Harmondsworth: Pcnguin 8ooks
Ltd, +), 8.
8alcanica XXX\! 204
a rcvisionist powcr sccking to improvc on its mutilatcd victory.
:
!n +:o
Francc and 8ritain camc up with a proposal that would lorm part ol a
gcncral compromisc to rcsolvc thc Adriatic Qucstion whcrcby northcrn
Albania should bccomc an autonomous provincc ol Yugoslavia, Grcccc bc
ing rcwardcd gcncrously in thc south, with thc rcmaindcr bccoming !talys
mandatcd arca. 8ut Prcsidcnt Vilson prcdictably objcctcd.
Tc Adriatic Qucstion draggcd on lor a whilc, but a signicant

achicvcmcnt was rcachcd in +:o whcn !taly and Yugoslavia signcd thc
Trcaty ol Rapallo which scttlcd thc lronticr bctwccn thc two countrics,
although thc disputcd city ol Fiumc continucd to constitutc a problcm. Tis
mattcr was solvcd in January +: whcn thc Yugoslav primc ministcr Niko
la Pai signcd with Mussolini thc Pact ol Romc by which !taly rcccivcd
Fiumc and its port. 8ut thc Pact also containcd an undcrtaking that !taly
and Yugoslavia should in thc cvcnt ol intcrnational complications consult
togcthcr bclorc cithcr country took mcasurcs likcly to acct thc intcrcsts ol
thc othcr. Tis, as will bc sccn, was to provc a highly contcntious issuc bc
twccn !taly and Yugoslavia. Anothcr signicant diplomatic dcvclopmcnt in
thc carly +:os was thc cstablishmcnt ol what bccamc known as Tc Littlc
ntcntc, a scrics ol CzcchoslovakYugoslavRomanian dclcnsivc convcn
tions, concludcd bctwccn August +:o and Junc +:+, and aimcd against
thc rcvisionism ol thc dclcatcd Hungary and 8ulgaria. Tis scrics ol trcatics
was strongly backcd by Francc.
!taly, in lact, also had a good rcason to sup

port thc Littlc ntcntc as it ccrtainly did not wish to scc a rcstoration ol thc
Habsburg mpirc, though its subscqucnt policy provcd vcry dicrcnt as it
was to cxtcnd support to Hungary and 8ulgaria.
Vhat brought !taly on a

collision coursc with Yugoslavia, howcvcr, was thc Albanian qucstion.
6
:
For an carly account ol this qucstion, scc dward Jamcs Voodhousc and Chasc Go
ing Voodhousc, Italy and the Jugoslavs (8oston: Richard G. 8adgcr, Tc Gorham Prcss,
+:o). Scc also ragan R. ivojinovi, America, Italy and the Birth of Yugoslavia (1917-
1919), (Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss, ast uropcan Quartcrly, 8ouldcr,
+:), !vo J. Lcdcrcr, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: A Study in Frontiermaking
(Ncw Havcn and London: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +6), and Rcn AlbrcchtCarri,
Italy at the Paris Peace Conference (Hamdcn, Conn.: Archon 8ooks, +66).
Scc C. A. Macartncy and A. V. Palmcr, Independent Eastern Europe: A History (Lon

don: Macmillan, +66), +.
Scc Robcrt Machray, Te Little Entente (London: Gcorgc Allcn & Unwin Ltd., +:).
Scc \uk \inavcr, Jugoslavija i Maarska 1918-1933 (8clgradc: !nstitut za savrcmcnu

istoriju, ++), and thc samc authors Jugoslavija i Francuska izmeu dva rata (8clgradc:
!nstitut za savrcmcnu istoriju, +8).
6
Among contcmporary 8ritish, almost uncritically proAlbanian accounts, thc lollow
ing should bc mcntioncd: J. Swirc, Albania: Te Rise of a Kingdom (London: Villiams &
Norgatc Ltd., +:), Ronald Matthcws, Sons of the Eagle: Wanderings in Albania (Lon
J. Zamctica, Chambcrlain and thc !taloYugoslav Crisis 205
Now, just as 8clgium had bccn sccn historically by 8ritain as a country ol
thc utmost stratcgic importancc as Napolcon had rcmarkcd, thc city ol
Antwcrp bcing a pistol pointcd at thc hcart ol ngland Albania has bccn
dcncd as thc !talian 8clgium.
Tis actually madc a lot ol scnsc. Vith

a highly indcntcd castcrn Adriatic coast, not to mcntion thc unparallclcd
possibilitics ol stationing major naval lorccs in thc Gull ol Cattaro, !taly
had a lcgitimatc stratcgic intcrcst in prcvcnting a major powcr cstablishing
itscll across thc Adriatic with only so lcw nautical milcs away lrom its prac
tically dclcncclcss castcrn shorcs. !t was thus not without rcason that !taly
had bccn against Austrias attack on Scrbia in ++. For this was scrious
political and military busincss, cntircly undcrstood by thc !talian politicians
who ncgotiatcd thc sccrct Trcaty ol London. Conccrning Albania, Articlc
6 ol thc Trcaty stipulatcd: !taly shall rcccivc lull sovcrcignty ovcr \alona,
thc island ol Sascno and surrounding tcrritory ol sucicnt cxtcnt to assurc
dclcncc ol thcsc points. Articlc lurthcr stipulatcd: Should !taly obtain
thc Trcntino and !stria togcthcr with almatia and thc Adriatic islands
and il thc ccntral portion ol Albania bc rcscrvcd lor thc cstablishmcnt
ol a small autonomous ncutralizcd statc, !taly shall not opposc thc division
ol northcrn and southcrn Albania bctwccn Montcncgro, Scrbia and Grcccc
should Francc, Grcat 8ritain and Russia so dcsirc. !taly shall bc chargcd
with thc rcprcscntation ol thc Statc ol Albania in its rclations with lorcign
powcrs
8
don: Mcthucn & Co. Ltd., +), J. Swirc, King Zogs Albania (London: Robcrt Halc
and Company, +), and Nigcl Hcscltinc, Scarred Background: A Journey through Alba-
nia (London: Lovat ickinson Limitcd, +8). To this should bc addcd contcmporary
8ritish proFascist works such as that by !on S. Munro, Trough Fascism to World Power
(London: Alcxandcr Maclchosc & Co., +). A proYugoslav 8ritish work, which
unlortunatcly stops in +::, is that by Hcnry 8acrlin, A Dicult Frontier (Yugoslavs and
Albanians), (London: Lconard Parsons, +::). For a sympathctic contcmporary Scrbian
vicw ol Zogu, accompanicd by a sharp criticism ol 8clgradcs policy towards Albania, scc
Milosav Jcli, Albanija: zapisi o ljudima i dogaajima (8clgradc: Gcca Kon, +). Most
modcrn accounts undcrstandably conccntratc on Kosovo rathcr than Albania propcr.
Two usclul works arc Nicolas J. Costa, Albania: A European Enigma (Ncw York: ast
uropcan Monographs, +), and Miranda \ickcrs, Te Albanians: A modern History
(London: !. 8. Tauris, +). Scc also Ramadan Marmullaku, Albania and the Albanians
(London: C. Hurst and Company, +). Nocl Macolms cclcbratcd Kosovo: A Short
History (London: Macmillan, +8), which covcrs Albania to a considcrablc cxtcnt, is
rcmarkablc only by its grotcsquc distortions, prcsumably motivatcd by thc authors wcll
known antiScrbian vicws. Tis work is bcst lclt to gathcr dust on bookshclvcs.
Maxwcll H. H. Macartncy and Paul Crcmona, Italys Foreign and Colonial Policy 1914
1937 (London: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +8), 6.
8
Quotcd in Gcorgc Slocombc, Te Dangerous Sea: Te Mediterranean and its Future
(London: Hutchinson & Co., +6), 8.
8alcanica XXX\! 206
Tus !taly cannot bc accuscd ol cxaggcratcd grccd rcgarding Albania: it
mcrcly sought to obtain thcrc a small clicnt statc, a bridgchcad lor somc
luturc cxpansion in thc rcgion, whilc thc rcst ol thc country could bc con
vcnicntly dividcd bctwccn its small 8alkan ncighbours prcciscly in ordcr to
kccp any strongcr powcrs out. Vhat, howcvcr, thc !talians lailcd to cnvisagc
in ++ was that a potcntially strong Yugoslavia would cmcrgc at thc cnd
ol thc war. And il !taly had valid rcasons to bring Albania into its sphcrc
ol inucncc, so did Yugoslavia, and cspccially Scrbia. !n thc rst placc,
sincc its crcation in ++, Albania provcd uropcs most unstablc coun
try, somcthing that 8clgradc could not contcmplatc with cquanimity. And
sccond, thc Scrbian provincc ol Kosovo, bordcring on Albania, containcd a
largc population ol cthnic Albanians dccply hostilc to thc Scrbs.
Alrcady
in ++, bclorc thcy wcrc lorccd to rctrcat in thc lacc ol thc combincd
AustrianGcrman8ulgarian onslaught, thc Scrbs had succcsslully invadcd
Albania whcrc thcy rcccivcd at lcast a partial wclcomc.
Hardly surprising, thcn, that 8clgradc was always going to takc a
dccp intcrcst in thc chronically chaotic aairs ol Albania. Tc country had
changcd govcrnmcnt no lcwcr than six timcs bctwccn +:o and +::.
+o
!ts
rst hcad ol statc, thc young and hopclcssly incompctcnt Princc Vilhclm
ol Vicd, abandoncd his ncw country altcr only six months in Scptcmbcr
++, ncvcr to rcturn again to such a hotbcd ol cloak and daggcr politics.
++

Tc Scrbs had, alrcady during thc First Vorld Var, an important ally in Al
bania. Tis was ssad Pasha Toptani who had dcclarcd himscll Prcsidcnt at
urazzo. His chicl domcstic rival was Ahmcd 8cy Zogu, a political oppor
Tc Kosovo Albanians had cstablishcd a Kosovo Committcc with a military wing

(thc socallcd kaak movcmcnt), carrying acts ol violcncc against thc Scrbs.
+o
Tc Frcnch uscd to dcscribc Albania thus: Pays balkanique, pays volcanique. For a mas
sivc documcntary background to Scrb (and Yugoslav)Albanian rclations, scc Ljubod
rag imi and jordjc 8orozan, cds., Jugoslovenska drava i Albanci, : vols. (8clgradc:
Slubcni list SRJ, vol. !, +8, vol. !!, +). Scc also milija Alcksi, cd., Iz istorije
Albanaca (8clgradc: Zavod za izdavanjc udbcnika SR Srbijc, +6), joko Slijcpcvi,
Srpsko-arbanaki odnosi kroz vekove sa posebnim osvrtom na novije vreme, th rcv. cd.
(Himmclsthur |V. Gcrmany|, +8), Radovan Samardi et al., Kosovo i Metohija u
srpskoj istoriji (8clgradc: Srpska knjicvna zadruga, +8), uan T. 8atakovi, Te
Kosovo Chronicles (8clgradc: Plato, +:), jordjc 8orozan, Velika Albanija: porijeklo,
ideje, praksa (8clgradc: \ojnoistorijski institut \J, +), Miodrag Marovi, Balkanski
doker: Istorijska hronika nastajanja i razvoja albanskog pitanja (8ar: JP Kulturni ccntar,
+), imitrijc 8ogdanovi, Knjiga o Kosovu, th cd. (8clgradc: Narodna knjiga and
\ojnoizdavaki zavod, +), and Srctcn raki, Evropa i albansko pitanje (8clgradc:
Mala bibliotcka SKZ, :ooo).
++
Tc majority Muslim Albanian population harbourcd suspicions ol this Protcstant
princc.
tunist ol thc rst rank, a truc acionado ol thc art ol realpolitik
+:
who, just
likc Toptani, was not abovc ocring his political scrviccs to Scrbia. Toptani
was in ++6 lorccd to cc to !taly, thus lcaving Zogu to ll thc gap which
hc did by ingratiating himscll to thc occupying Austrians who awardcd him
thc rank ol Coloncl and apparcntly also gavc him gold to nancc battlcs
against thc !talians who had landcd with thcir lorccs in thc southcrn port
ol \alona in thc south claiming compcnsation lor thc Austrian invasion ol
Scrbia.
+
8ut during thc First Vorld Var, although Albania was lormally
ncutral, thc country had no govcrnmcnt as such, and it was only in January
+:o that a provisional administration camc into cxistcncc at thc Congrcss
ol Lushnjc. Zogu bccamc thc intcrior ministcr and commandcr in chicl ol
thc army. !n thc samc ycar Albania bccamc a mcmbcr ol thc Lcaguc ol Na
tions. !n Novcmbcr +:+ thc Conlcrcncc ol Ambassadors (8ritain, Francc,
!taly and Japan) madc a curious but in any casc pragmatic dccision whcrcby
it rccognizcd that any violation ol thc lronticrs or indcpcndcncc ol Alba
nia might constitutc a dangcr lor thc stratcgic salcty ol !taly, and agrccd
that, should such a dangcr arisc, it would instruct its rcprcscntativcs on thc
Council ol thc Lcaguc ol Nations to rccommcnd that thc rcstoration ol thc
tcrritorial lronticrs ol Albania should bc cntrustcd to !taly. Tis, it has to bc
said, rcprcscntcd a major diplomatic triumph lor Romc lor !talys protcc
toratc ovcr Albania had thus bccn cxplicitly acknowlcdgcd and Mussolini
latcr uscd this to good ccct.
Toptani was in Junc +:o assassinatcd in Paris by a lcllow Albanian,
somcthing which could not havc displcascd Zogu. 8ut thc Yugoslavs thcn
invadcd northcrn Albania in August, rcaching as lar as Mati, Zogus homc
turl. An important rcsult ol this, it sccms, was Zogus sccrct undcrstand
ing with 8clgradc not to mcddlc in Kosovo, somcthing which thc Kosovo
Albanians dcscribcd as an act ol trcason.
+
8clgradc rcally mcant busincss
in Albania. !n July +:+ it hclpcd organizc thc scccssion lrom Albania ol
thc northcrn provincc ol Mirdita (inhabitcd largcly by Catholics), and its
Rcpublic ol Mirdita clicnts wcrc by ctobcr +:+ within thirty milcs ol
Tirana, causing Lloyd Gcorgc to gct considcrably upsct by thc Yugoslavs
who wcrc lorccd to withdraw.
+
Alrcady in ++ Zogu had cstablishcd rcla
tions with thc Scrbs at Ni. Altcr thc assassination ol ssad Pasha Toptani,
+:
. Garrison Valtcrs, Te Other Europe: Eastern Europe to 1945 (Ncw York: orsct
Prcss, +o), :66.
+
8y lar thc bcst, though not awlcss, account ol Zogu is thc rcccnt biography by Ja
son Tomcs, King Zog: Self-made Monarch of Albania (Phocnix Mill: Sutton Publishing
Limitcd, :oo).
+
Scc Tomcs, King Zog, :.
+
Tomcs, King Zog, 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 208
8clgradc was looking at Zogu as its ncxt ally and hclpcd him to cstablish
himscll in powcr towards thc cnd ol +::.
+6
!t did not know thcn that Zogu
was thc mastcr in a policy ol doublccross.
8ritains inucncc on Zogu was considcrablc at this timc, cspccially
through its ministcr Harry yrcs (8ritains rcprcscntativc in Albania sincc
January +:+) who was rccommcnding Zogu to dcvclop closcr rclations
with !taly to osct thc prcssurc lrom thc Scrbs.
+
8ut not cvcn yrcs
could hclp his lricnd Zogu to stavc o a major rcbcllion against him in
+: which lorccd him, in Junc, to scck rclugc in Yugoslavia, thc hclms
ol powcr bcing now takcn by Fan Noli, a controvcrsial rthodox bishop,
Harvardcducatcd and known lor his pro!talian, antiLcaguc ol Nations
and anti8ritish vicws, but morc important, somconc who was talkcd about
as a politician not avcrsc to sccking thc hclp ol thc Sovict Union, which
particularly irritatcd thc intcnscly anti8olshcvik 8clgradc.
+8
!n 8clgradc,
Zogu waitcd lor his ncxt opportunity to rcturn to powcr. 8y latc cccm
bcr +:, thanks to Yugoslav arms and moncy (and to Gcncral Vrangcls
Vhitc Russian lorccs bascd in Yugoslavia), Zogu managcd to ovcrthrow
Fan Noli and thus acquircd thc rcputation ol Scrbias man.
+
!n January
+: hc bccamc Albanias dictatorprcsidcnt. Howcvcr, as C.L. Sulzbcrgcr
wrotc about Zogu: Ambition is an inlcctious discasc.
:o
For Zogu lost no
timc in turning against his crstwhilc allics, although, in lairncss to him, hc
gavc 8clgradc thc villagcs ol St. Naum and \crmash in a display ol not
particularly cxaggcratcd gratitudc lor bcing ablc to carry out his coup de
main in Tirana. Hc had rclicd at this timc on advicc ol Coloncl Stirling, a
8ritish cxoccr, who saw Yugoslavia as Albanias obvious ally, a country
that could hclp him consolidatc powcr. 8ut 8clgradc lailcd to producc thc
ncccssary moncy (and Grcccc, in intcrnal turmoil, was cvcn lcss capablc to
+6
ivko Avramovski, Akcija jugoslovcnskc vladc protiv Zoguovog rcima u Albaniji
prcko Ccna bcga Kryziu (+:6+:.), Albanoloka istraivanja (Prishtina: Filozolski
lakultct, +6), ::.
+
Tomcs, King Zog, 6. Compctcnt studics dcaling with Yugoslavias intcrwar intcrna
tional rclations includc csanka Todorovi, Jugoslavija i balkanske drave 19181923
(8clgradc: Narodna knjiga and !nstitut za savrcmcnu istoriju, +), unja Hcrcigo
nja, Velika Britanija i spoljnopolitiki poloaj Jugoslavije 19291933 (8clgradc: !nstitut za
savrcmcnu istoriju, +8), and ncs Milak, Italija i Jugoslavija 19311937 (8clgradc:
!nstitut za savrcmcnu istoriju, +8).
+8
Tomcs, King Zog, 6o. !n 8clgradc, Zog took up rcsidcncc in Hotcl 8ristol whcrc
hc quickly gaincd thc rcputation as a lion with thc ladics. Tomcs, King Zog, +.
+
Ibid., +.
:o
C. L. Sulzbcrgcr, A Long Row of Candles: Memoirs and Diaries 19341954 (London:
Macdonald, +6), 6.
hclp at this stagc), so thcrc is a scnsc in which Zogu rcally had no choicc.
:+

Tc loyalty ol an Albanian 8cy, it has bccn so rightly obscrvcd, was worth
no morc than thc moncy with which it was bought, and lastcd as long as
thc moncy.
::
Givcn thc pcrmancnt intcrnal instability in Albania, Mussolinis
ncw Roman mpirc could most casily bcgin to takc shapc in that country.
8ut it was only in +:, altcr vicwing with suspicion Gcrmanys cconomic
attcmpts to cstablish a loothold in Albania, that !taly took thc dccision to
build a scrious cconomic and political position in Albania, rccciving conccs
sions rcgarding thc woodlands and sccking to obtain pcrmission lor oil cx
ploration. Tc +st Tirana Pact (Novcmbcr +:6) bctwccn !taly and Albania
cntailcd an cvcn grcatcr cconomic pcnctration. And much morc than that:
Articlc ! dcclarcd: !taly and Albania rccognisc that any disturbancc thrcat
cning thc political, lcgal and tcrritorial status quo ol Albania is contrary to
thcir common intcrcst.
:
Tus a ncw !talian protcctoratc ovcr Albania had
bccn dc lacto cstablishcd (lollowing thc practically lormal dccision ol thc
+:+ Conlcrcncc ol Ambassadors to givc !taly a lrcc hand in Albania), caus
ing thc rcsignation in 8clgradc ol lorcign ministcr Momilo Nini who
corrcctly saw thc Pact ol Tirana as an csscntially hostilc mcasurc against
Yugoslavia, in agrant contradiction to thc Pact ol Romc.
:
!taly could
now thrcatcn |Yugoslavia| lrom hcr two lronticrs, north and south, and
also lrom across thc Adriatic.
:
!n truth, howcvcr, Nini and 8clgradc had
also violatcd thc Pact ol Romc whcn thcy hclpcd Zogu, in +:, to rcturn to
powcr, timing this dccision brilliantly as Mussolini had thc Mattcoti aair
on his hands. 8ut Zogu now dumpcd his lormcr Yugoslav protcctors and
sought, pcrhaps not unwiscly, but ccrtainly trcachcrously, !talys support to
dcvclop his backward country cconomically. Alrcady in January +: hc ad
drcsscd Mussolini with an ocr ol strcngthcning rclations bctwccn Albania
and !taly. And by Scptcmbcr ol that ycar !talian banks had providcd capital
lor thc National 8ank ol Albania.
:+
M. V. Fodor, South of Hitler (London: Gcorgc Allcn & Unwin Ltd, +8), +o:.
::
Gactano Salvcmini, Prelude to World War II (London: \ictor Gollancz Ltd, +),
+o.
:
Quotcd in Muricl Currcy, Italian Foreign Policy 19181932 (London: !vor Nicholson
and Vatson Ltd, +:), +8. For usclul dctails on thc !talian sidc, scc Gabriclc Parcscc,
Italia e Jugoslavia dal 1915 al 1929 (Florcncc: R. 8cmporad & Figlio, +). For a still
usclul contcmporary Frcnch account, scc Jacqucs Anccl, Les Balkans face l Italie (Paris:
Librairic clagravc, +:8), +:8.
:
Scc Milak, Italija i Jugoslavija, 8+.
:
oros Alastos, Te Balkans and Europe (London: John Lanc Tc 8odlcy Hcad, +),
+o+o.
8alcanica XXX\! 210
Tings with Zogu, howcvcr, wcrc ncvcr as simplc as that. Vhilst sccking
cconomic aid lrom !taly, hc also playcd a parallcl gamc with 8ritain. Harry
yrcs was succccdcd carly in +:6 by dmund Rcilly. Also at this timc a
ncw !talian rcprcscntativc arrivcd in Albania. Tis was thc notorious wom
anizcr 8aronc Pompco Aloisi, Mussolinis darling diplomat, but also thc
darling ol thc wivcs in thc Tirana diplomatic corps hc had no problcm in
charming thcm. !n any casc, thc othcr main prcoccupation ol Aloisi was to
convincc Zogu to acccpt an !taloAlbanian trcaty, a task in which hc suc
cccdcd in thc cnd whcn thc Pact ol Tirana was signcd. 8ut Zogu had bclorc
thcn attcmptcd to intcrcst Rcilly in an AngloAlbanian commcrcial trca
ty. Lord \ansittart rccalls pcrccptivcly in his mcmoirs: Rcilly said dryly
that thc Pact was incompatiblc with Albanian indcpcndcncc. Tc ucc was
in turn lurious and protcstcd to Austcn, who rcmovcd Rcilly and got us
a bad namc.
:6
Vhcn Rcilly adviscd Zogu not to yicld to Mussolinis
prcssurc, thc rcaction in London was cool. Sir Austcn Chambcrlain, thc
ncw lorcign sccrctary, saw no dircct 8ritish intcrcst in Albania cxccpt that
hc wantcd to avoid !taloFrcnchYugoslav complications and cxtricatc 8rit
ain lrom any such possibilitics. Rcilly was soon succccdcd by Villiam
Sccds.
:
Vhat was ccrtainly not thc casc, as will bc sccn, was that Cham
bcrlain had dccidcd that stability in thc Adriatic was bcst scrvcd by trcating
Albania as an !talian sphcrc ol inucncc.
:8
Tat is lar too simplistic a way
ol dcscribing Chambcrlains policy. And what Chambcrlain could not havc
known at thc timc (August +:) was that Mussolini had concludcd with
Zogu a sccrct military trcaty which providcd lor coopcration in war with
Yugoslavia, complctc with a promisc ol Kosovo to Albania. !n lact, both
thc !talian lorcign ministry and Mussolini himscll bcgan to havc sccond
thoughts about this arrangcmcnt: why should !taly risk bcing draggcd by
Zogu into a war lor Kosovo:
:
Tc position ol Grcat 8ritain in thc ongoing !taloYugoslav aair
ovcr Albania must bc vicwcd primarily in political rathcr than cconomic
tcrms. Truc, oil cxploration was not a ncgligiblc lactor. Alrcady in +:+ Al
bania signcd a prcliminary agrccmcnt with Arcy xploration, a subsidiary
ol thc AngloPcrsian il Company in which 8ritain owncd a controlling
stakc. Howcvcr, this palcd into insignicancc in comparison with 8ritains
political considcrations. Tc 8ritish govcrnmcnt was lrom Novcmbcr +:
again hcadcd by Stanlcy 8aldwin, pcrhaps thc dominant 8ritish politician
:6
Lord \ansittart, Te Mist Procession (London: Hutchinson, +8), :. \ansittart was
Stanlcy 8aldwins Principal Privatc Sccrctary.
:
Tomcs, King Zog, 888.
:8
Ibid., 86.
:
Ibid., 8:.
in thc intcrwar pcriod, thrcc timcs primc ministcr (+::, +::,
+) and Lord Prcsidcnt ol thc Council lrom ++ to +. Subsc
qucntly blamcd lor thc lailurc ol 8ritain to rcarm in thc lacc ol thc growing
mcnacc ol Gcrmany undcr Hitlcr, hc was lamous lor not bcing intcrcstcd in
lorcign aairs in thc slightcst. His knowlcdgc ol uropc hardly cxtcndcd
bcyond Aixlcs8ains, thc Frcnch spa to which hc and his wilc wcrc in thc
habit ol rcsorting cach ycar to takc thc watcrs.
o
Just as wcll that his lorcign
sccrctary (+::) was thc Cambridgccducatcd Sir Austcn Chambcr
lain, a man with considcrablc prcvious govcrnmcnt cxpcricncc and a dccp
knowlcdgc ol uropcan aairs.
+
Chambcrlains chicl diplomatic achicvcmcnt is gcncrally rcgardcd to
bc thc conclusion, in +:, ol thc Trcatics ol Locarno, which brought Gcr
many back to thc mainstrcam ol uropcan aairs and gcncrally sccmcd to
hcrald a ncw, prolongcd cra ol pcacc. l coursc, Franccs Aristidc 8riand
and Gcrmanys Gustav Strcscmann wcrc no lcss rcsponsiblc lor Locarno,
but Chambcrlain had dcmonstratcd gcnuinc intcrcst in intcrnational coop
cration. Signcd by Francc, Gcrmany and 8clgium, Locarno was guarantccd
by 8ritain and signicantly Mussolinis !taly, until thcn hardly trcatcd
as a rst class powcr. 8ut what did Locarno rcally mcan: Vhilc it scttlcd
thc FrancoGcrman dicrcnccs in thc Vcst, it lclt thc lronticrs ol Poland,
Czcchoslovakia and Austria complctcly unguarantccd against Gcrmany
and hcrcin lay thc sccds ol thc Sccond Vorld Var.
:
8ritain and !taly, as
thc guarantor powcrs, in ccct guarantccd nothing, thcy only had a moral
obligation, a mcrc lorm ol words. Tcy could not undcrtakc to prcparc lor
thc lullmcnt ol thcir guarantccs sincc thc aggrcssor would not bc known
until hc actually appcarcd.
And this was pcrlcct lor 8ritain play thc bc

ncvolcnt pcaccmakcr, but makc surc your own vital intcrcsts arc not thrcat
cncd. !t was realpolitik ol thc rst ordcr. No wondcr that Hughc Knatch
o
. Royston Pikc, Britains Prime Ministers (Fcltham: Hamlyn Publishing lor dham
8ooks, +68), 88. According to Lord Homc, 8aldwin was ill at casc with lorcigncrs,
going so lar as to contrivc that hc nccd not sit ncxt to thcm at mcals. !n May +6,
8aldwin told Anthony dcn, thc Forcign Sccrctary: Vc must gct ncarcr to Gcrmany,
and whcn dcn askcd him How: 8aldwin rcplicd: ! havc no idca, that is your job.
Quotcd in Frank Longlord, Eleven at No. 10 (London: Harrap, +8) :.
+
Austcn Chambcrlain was thc son ol Joscph Chambcrlain, thc lamous 8ritish impc
rialist who bccamc thc Colonial Sccrctary in thc Unionist govcrnmcnt ol +8. Ncvillc
Chambcrlain, thc unlortunatc 8ritish primc ministcr who succumbcd to Hitlcr at Mu
nich in +8, was Austcns hallbrothcr. For a good biography ol Austcn Chambcrlain,
scc avid utton, Austen Chamberlain: Gentleman in Politics (8olton: Ross Andcrson
Publications, +8).
:
Richard Lamb, Te Drift to War 19221939 (London, +8), :o.
Scc Taylor, Te Origins, 8:8.

8alcanica XXX\! 212
bullHugcsscn, a Forcign cc diplomat, commcntcd on Locarno that,
whcrcas Chambcrlain was jubilant, thc Frcnch wcrc morc mattcrollact
and morc sccptical.
!taly, too, was in lact somcwhat sccptical as Mussolini

wishcd thc FrancoGcrman problcm to stay on thc Rhinc, lcaring that Gcr
many would ncxt turn to Austria and thc qucstion ol Alto Adigc.
vcn morc important lor an undcrstanding ol 8ritish postwar policy

(and this would latcr bc dcmonstratcd by Chambcrlain in his nal handling
ol thc !taloYugoslav crisis ovcr Albania in +:) is its rcjcction, bclorc
Locarno, ol thc Gcncva Protocol which attcmptcd to makc morc ccicnt
thc instrumcnts ol thc Lcaguc ol Nations in prcscrving pcacc and dctcrring
aggrcssion or, broadly spcaking, to makc cvcry mcmbcr ol thc Lcaguc guar
antcc thc lronticrs ol uropc (in othcr words to commit itscll to waging
war), and this was mcant to bc donc by mcans ol compulsory arbitration ol
all disputcs. Although thc initiativc lor thc Gcncva Protocol lay with thc
Labour primc ministcr Ramsay Maconald, thc truc guardians ol 8ritish
lorcign policy wcrc thc Conscrvativcs who rcturncd to powcr in Novcmbcr
+:. Tc 8ritish ominions wcrc dcad against thc Gcncva Protocol, but
this only scrvcd thc ncw lorcign sccrctary Chambcrlain as an cxcusc to rcjcct
it. Although hc paid lipscrvicc to 8ritain as a country only twcnty milcs
o thc Contincnt ol uropc which should not cngagc in shortsightcd
isolation,
6
hc was lully awarc ol thc dangcrs ol undcsircd lorcign cntanglc
mcnts in which 8ritain had no intcrcst whatsocvcr. Hc kncw pcrlcctly wcll
that 8ritain was much morc an impcrial than a contincntal powcr: why
acccpt somcthing that would only incrcasc thc burdcn ol its obligations:

KnatchbullHugcsscn again: Tc Gcncva Protocol was stillborn: it was
quitc impossiblc lor us to acccpt its liabilitics. !l Gcrman and !talian policy
dcvclopcd on thc lincs lcarcd and il thc Lcaguc rcmaincd unarmcd and
powcrlcss, Francc would bc drivcn to somcthing morc practical. Shc alrcady
had hcr lricnds in thc Littlc ntcntc, a systcm ol allianccs rcminisccnt ol
prcwar mcthods. !taly lor hcr part showcd signs ol collccting all thc mal
contcnts undcr hcr wing.
8
Sir Hughc KnatchbullHugcsscn, Diplomat in Peace and War (London: John Murray,
+), :.
Sally Marks, Te Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 19181933 (Lon

don: Tc Macmillan Prcss Ltd, +6), 86.
6
Quotcd in G. M. GathorncHardy, A Short History of International Relations 1920
1939, th cd. (London: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +68), +.
For this, scc also A. P. Tornton, Te Imperial Idea and its Enemies: A Study in British
Power, :nd cd. (London: Macmillan, +8), :88:8.
8
KnatchbullHugcsscn, Diplomat, .
!ndccd, this was thc kcy to Chambcrlains subscqucnt 8alkan policy. As
F. S. Northcdgc has writtcn, through thc Gcncva Protocol 8ritain might
bc involvcd in conicts which ncithcr 8ritish opinion nor opinion in thc
mpirc could rcgard as having as thcir issuc thc lilc or dcath ol 8ritain.
Tc Protocol, Northcdgc rcmarks, was contrary to thc approach to lorcign
policy to which 8ritain, by cvcry inclination and intcrcst, was committcd
and which shc had lollowcd at lcast sincc thc Frcnch Rcvolution. And
hc quotcs Chambcrlain himscll: nly in thc casc whcrc hcr intcrcsts arc
immcdiatcly at stakc and whcrc hcr own salcty must bc dircctly ol any
changc has Grcat 8ritain cvcr conscntcd to bind hcrscll bclorchand to spc
cic cngagcmcnts on thc contincnt ol uropc. Tc Protocol, according to
Chambcrlain, multiplicd ocnccs but did nothing to strcngthcn rcmcdics.

!n March +: Chambcrlain lormally inlormcd thc Council ol thc Lcaguc
ol Nations that 8ritain would not acccpt thc Protocol.
!taly and Yugoslavia had in thc mcantimc workcd hard on improving
thcir rclations. n :+ July +:, altcr cxtcnsivc prcvious ncgotiations, thcy
signcd at Ncttuno (ncar Romc) a scrics ol agrccmcnts dcaling with mat
tcrs nancial, lcgal and political. Howcvcr, thc Croats (and cspccially thc
almatians) considcrcd that 8clgradc had givcn away too much, and in thc
lacc ol thcir opposition thc agrccmcnts wcrc not raticd in Yugoslavia.
o

Tis put an cnd to any hopcs Chambcrlain may havc cntcrtaincd ol crcating
a 8alkan Locarno.
+
Tcrc is no qucstion that hc had dcvclopcd a ccrtain
londncss lor thc !talian dictator. 8ut hc was lar lrom starrycycd about him.
Hc wrotc in cccmbcr +:6: ! am disposcd to say that Mussolini nccds
tcn ycars ol pcacc bclorc hc undcrtakcs any advcnturc |a rcmarkably corrcct
prcdiction|. !n vc ycars ! shall bcgin to watch him closcly which is not to
say that ! kccp my cycs shut now.
:
!n lact, as things turncd out, hc had to
bcgin to watch him vcry carclully only a lcw months latcr.
F. S. Northcdgc, Te Troubled Giant: Britain Among the Great Powers 19161939

(London: G. 8cll & Sons Ltd, +66), :::.
o
Scc Currcy, Italian Foreign Policy, +:.
+
Scc \uk \inavcr, nglcska i italijansko zaokruivanjc Jugoslavijc +:6+:8 in Is-
torija XX veka, Zbornik radova \!! (8clgradc, +66), 8. \inavcrs articlc, howcvcr,
should bc trcatcd with a dcgrcc ol sccpticism as hc cannot rcsist, without lully cxplain
ing, to lambastc what hc sccs as an csscntially pro!talian 8ritish policy. His usc ol Yu
goslav, !talian, Frcnch, Gcrman and Russian sourccs considcrably outwcighs his 8ritish
matcrial which is in any casc constitutcd by sccondary sourccs (mainly ncwspapcrs)
and worsc still, hc rclics too hcavily on Yugoslav diplomatic accounts lrom thc lcgation
in London. Primary 8ritish matcrial is conspicuous by its abscncc in this articlc. For a
morc balanccd account, scc ivko Avramovski, Balkanska antanta (19341940), (8cl
gradc: !nstitut za savrcmcnu istoriju, +86), +:.
:
Quotcd in utton, Austen Chamberlain, :, n. +8.
8alcanica XXX\! 214
Tc Forcign cc was alcrtcd about thc last dctcriorating !taloYugoslav
rclations ovcr Albania towards thc cnd ol Fcbruary +:. Howard Kcn
nard, thc 8ritish Ministcr at 8clgradc scnt to London a dcspatch in which
hc drcw attcntion to thc lact that thc !talian Lcgation wcrc sprcading thc
most alarmist rcports lor which, according to Kcnnard, thcrc appcarcd to
bc but slight justication. Kcnnard notcd that cvcn Gcncral \isconti, thc
!talian military attach, took a lar modcratc vicw than his collcagucs. 8ut it
is clcar that Kcnnard himscll was lar lrom surc about what was rcally go
ing on. Hc allowcd lor thc possibility that thc Yugoslav military wcrc about
to spring a coup dtat in Albania sincc in thc 8alkans onc ncvcr knows
what lolly thc soldicrs may bc up to. His dcspatch to London, howcvcr, rc
ally amountcd only to gucsswork. Tus hc spcculatcd that Gcncral 8odrcro,
thc hcad ol thc !talian Lcgation, who was quitc kccn to stay on in 8clgradc,
was dclibcratcly scnding cxaggcratcd rcports to Romc in ordcr to contradict
thc vicw which may bc hcld in Romc that hc was too conciliatory towards
thc Yugoslavs. Hc also addcd that onc could not judgc !talian diplomacy by
ordinary standards as thc !talians oltcn wishcd to larc gura (to makc an
imprcssion) without thcrc cxisting any Machiavcllian plots. !n truth, Kcn
nard just had no idca, but hc was in a pcssimistic mood. Vhilc hc notcd that
poor littlc |Ninko| Pcri, thc ncw Yugoslav Ministcr ol Forcign Aairs,
sccmcd to bc showing good scnsc, hc also considcrcd thc Yugoslav prcss and
public opinion to bc so !talophobc that it was usclcss to try to control this
tcndcncy. And hc lcarcd that Romc8clgradc rclations wcrc drilting to thc
channcls cxisting bctwccn \icnna and 8clgradc bclorc thc war.
nly a lcw days latcr, on + March, Chambcrlain was pcrsonally told

about thc statc ol !taloYugoslav rclations by Marchcsc dclla Torrctta, thc
!talian Ambassador to London. Tc widcr contcxt ol this mccting rclatcd
to Prcsidcnt Calvin Coolidgcs invitation to a conlcrcncc which would nc
gotiatc a lurthcr trcaty on naval disarmamcnt, lollowing thc Vashington
Trcaty ol +::. Mussolinis position was that !taly should not participatc
unlcss thc basis lor discussions should bc acccptcd whcrcby Francc and !taly
would cnjoy parity in rcgard ol smallcr naval cralt. Chambcrlain had no
intcntion ol supporting Mussolini on this, knowing that thc Frcnch would
ncvcr agrcc to thc principlc ol parity, and hc diplomatically discouragcd
Torrctta. Tc lattcr, incrcdibly, argucd that Yugoslavia, lor cxamplc, had no
navy lor thc timc bcing, but was showing indications ol an intcntion to
crcatc a naval lorcc to which !taly could not bc indicrcnt. Chambcrlain
Kcnnard to Sargcnt, : Fcbruary +:, in V. N. Mcdlicott, ouglas akin, and M.

. Lambcrt, cds., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 19191939, scr. !a, vol. !!!, u
ropcan and Naval Qucstions, +: (London: Hcr Majcstys Stationary cc, +o,
hcrcaltcr rclcrrcd to as DBFP), No. :.
uscd this opportunity to cnquirc whcthcr thcrc had bccn any improvcmcnt
in !talys rclations with 8clgradc sincc thc appointmcnt ol Milan Raki, thc
ncw Yugoslav Ministcr to Romc. Prcdictably, Torrctta gavc a ncgativc rcply,
blaming thc military inucnccs which hc claimcd dominatcd thc Yugoslav
govcrnmcnt, and which wcrc hostilc to any accommodation and consti
tutcd a scrious dangcr to pcacc. 8ut Chambcrlain was not going to swal
low this without disscnting commcnt which, charactcristically, hc couchcd
in assuaging languagc. Hc statcd that hc had ncvcr doubtcd !talys pcacc
lul intcntions towards Albania, and yct at thc samc timc it was clcar to
him that thc suspicions and apprchcnsions cntcrtaincd in Yugoslavia about
!talian policy wcrc not a mcrc cxcusc. Howcvcr illloundcd this was, hc
pointcd out, it had takcn posscssion ol a largc part ol Yugoslav opinion, and
this was somcthing which statcsmcn had to takc into account. At thc cnd,
Chambcrlain warncd Torrctta that it was dangcrous to allow thc Yugoslav
suspicions rcgarding !talian aims to grow until thcy bccamc convictions
which nothing could shakc, somcthing which placcd othcr acctcd nations
in a considcrablc dilcmma.
cspitc such admonitions to !taly by 8ritain, in thc lollowing days

thc tcnsions bctwccn Yugoslavia and !taly continucd to incrcasc. n
March Kcnnard tclcgraphcd to Chambcrlain that thcrc wcrc incidcnts o
thc Yugoslav coast rcgarding !talian shing vcsscls, prompting thc !talian
Lcgation in 8clgradc to practically issuc an ultimatum thrcatcning that
shing vcsscls would bc cscortcd by warships. Kcnnard also rcportcd that
hc was lavourably imprcsscd by Raki, who was about to takc up his post
in Romc, and who assurcd him thc !talian rumours about Yugoslav military
activity wcrc without loundation.
!ndccd, Coloncl Gilcs, thc 8ritish mili

tary attach to 8clgradc, conrmcd at this timc his prcvious vicw that thc
rumours ol Yugoslav ocnsivc military action wcrc groundlcss.
6
Ncvcr
thclcss, thc !talians kcpt up thc prcssurc rclcntlcssly. n +8 March Torrctta
callcd on Chambcrlain again, handing him a mcmorandum (prcscntcd also
to thc govcrnmcnts ol Francc and Gcrmany) which citcd a numbcr ol mca
surcs ostcnsibly bcing takcn by Yugoslav military authoritics with thc aim ol
prcparing lor carly hostilitics against !taly, with thc bulk ol lorccs conccn
tratcd on Albanian and Slovcnc lronticrs. Torrctta told Chambcrlain that
powcr in Yugoslavia had by now passcd wholly into thc hands ol thc army
and thc King, and that Signor Mussolini wishcd to draw thc attcntion ol
His Majcstys Govcrnmcnt to thc scrious situation that was arising.
Tis,
Chambcrlain to Sir Ronald Graham (Romc), + March +:, DBFP, No. o.
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, March +:, DBFP, No. .

6
Ibid., n. :.
Chambcrlain to Graham, + March +:, DBFP, No. .

8alcanica XXX\! 216
howcvcr, was a vicw cntircly dismisscd by thc 8ritish Lcgation in 8clgradc.
Kcnnard had bccn inlormcd about Chambcrlains mccting with thc !tal
ian ambassador, and in thc carly hours ol :+ March, hc scnt his commcnts
to London, which, point by point, cntircly dismantlcd Torrctttas mcmo
randum on Yugoslav military prcparations. And it was, Kcnnard thought,
hardly justiablc to say that powcr in Yugoslavia is chicy in thc hands ol
thc army and thc King. Prcscnt govcrnmcnt is wcak and thc King no doubt
cxcrciscs morc inucncc undcr thcsc circumstanccs. Kcnnard also cmpha
sizcd that it would bc natural lor thc Yugoslavs to cndcavour to bring up
thcir army to somc standard ol ccicncy lollowing thc conclusion ol thc
pact ol Tirana, but that this army was lamcntably dccicnt in cvcrything
cxccpt manpowcr to undcrtakc military opcrations on a largc scalc.
8
nly a lcw days carlicr Kcnnard had alrcady rccommcndcd to Lon
don that thc rcmcdy lor thc Yugoslav!talian mutual suspicion was to scnd
cxpcricnccd ncutral obscrvcrs who would inspcct thc lronticr on both thc
Yugoslav and Albanian sidcs and producc an unbiascd rcport.
Tc Yugoslav
govcrnmcnt thought along thc samc lincs, and Chambcrlain now wclcomcd
thc suggcstion which J. T. Markovi, thc Yugoslav assistant Ministcr lor
Forcign Aairs, had madc to Kcnnard, that various military attachs should
bc invitcd to procccd to thc Albanian lronticr with thc task ol rcndcring an
objcctivc rcport. Chambcrlain thcrclorc instructcd Kcnnard to act on this
mattcr in 8clgradc.
o
Hc had alrcady bccn vcry disturbcd by rcports that it
was actually thc Albanian govcrnmcnt, not Yugoslav, that was conccntrating
troops on thc lronticr (thc gurc in circulation was +o,ooo Albanian troops
on thc lronticr towards Prizrcn) and had askcd Sccds to invcstigatc this
mattcr. Sccds did so, inlorming Chambcrlain that both thc !talian claims
about Yugoslav military prcparations, and thc rumours ol Albanian troop
conccntrations wcrc bcing cxaggcratcd. 8ut hc also rccommcndcd that
unlcss stcps wcrc takcn soon to sccurc a Scrbian!talian accommodation
to put a mistrust arising out ol Tirana trcaty prcscnt situation is inlallibly
bound to rcsult in an cxplosion.
+
Chambcrlain subscqucntly ordcrcd Sccds
to kccp quict in Albania pcnding lurthcr instructions. Tc situation, hc
wrotc to Sccds, is cngaging my scrious attcntion.
:
Tus, sincc thc vcry bcginning ol thc !taloYugoslav crisis ovcr Al
bania, thc Forcign cc and all its rcprcscntativcs in thc rcgion gcnuincly
8
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, :+ March +:, DBFP, No. o.
Ibid., n. .
o
Chambcrlain to Kcnnard, :+ March +:, DBFP, No. +.
+
Sccds to Chambcrlain, :+ March +:, DBFP, No. :.
:
Ibid., n. .
bclicvcd that thc wholc aair amountcd to a storm in a tcacup, a totally
manulacturcd crisis. !t was cspccially sccptical about thc !talian claims. 8ut
at thc samc timc it was morc than scnsitivc to thc possiblc rcpcrcussions ol
a crisis which could casily slip out ol control. And this was thc csscncc ol
8ritains policy: to try to dclusc a crisis which it had absolutcly no intcrcst
in bcing suckcd into. 8ut now it was thc turn ol thc Yugoslav govcrnmcnt
to bc unhclplul. For Pcri, laccd with sharp parliamcntary criticism ovcr
thc proposal that a commission ol military attachs should conduct an cn
quiry, cxplaincd to Kcnnard that it would bc prclcrablc to havc this cxcrcisc
conductcd by thc Lcaguc ol Nations. Tc 8ritish rcaction was bordcring on
hclplcss impaticncc as Kcnnard suggcstcd to thc Yugoslav Forcign Ministcr
that whatcvcr thc dccision, it should bc takcn at oncc.
Tc ncws ol dircct
!talianYugoslav talks was also discouraging. Raki had sccn Mussolini in
Romc on + March and Graham rcportcd to London that no hcadway had
bccn madc.
Tis was a particular disappointmcnt to Chambcrlain who

had hopcd, pcrhaps naivcly, that thc arrival ol Raki in Romc would lcad
to thc rcsumption ol lricndly rclations bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia on thc
basis ol thc rcarmation ol thc +: Pact ol Romc. Hc thcrclorc instruct
cd Graham to scck an immcdiatc intcrvicw with Mussolini, inlorming thc
Ambassador at thc samc timc that scctions ol public opinion in 8ritain wcrc
alrcady dcmanding that thc 8ritish govcrnmcnt should invokc Articlc ++ ol
thc Covcnant ol thc Lcaguc ol Nations.
Mussolini, howcvcr, was not at all kccn that thc crisis should bc han
dlcd by thc Lcaguc ol Nations, somcthing which Gustav Strcscmann in
Gcrmany was alrcady hinting should bc donc. Tc Quai drsay was in
lormcd that Mussolini considcrcd such an action as cntircly inadmissiblc.
Tc Frcnch position in this crisis, in lact, was innitcly morc conciliatory
towards !taly than 8ritains. !t can cvcn bc argucd that thcrc can bc no
comparison. Philippc 8crthclot, thc Frcnch Gcncral Sccrctary ol Forcign
Aairs, told thc Marqucss ol Crcwc, thc 8ritish ambassador to Paris, that
Francc had bccn counsclling thc Yugoslavs cxtrcmc modcration. !ndccd.
vcn thc Marqucss ol Crcwc was so shockcd by thc Frcnch that hc lclt it
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, :: March +:, DBFP, No. 8.
DBFP, No. , n. :.
Chambcrlain to Graham, :: March +:, DBFP, No. . Articlc ++ ol thc Covcnant

statcd: Any war or thrcat ol war, whcthcr immcdiatcly accting any Mcmbcrs ol thc
Lcaguc or not, is hcrcby dcclarcd a mattcr ol conccrn to thc wholc Lcaguc, and thc
Lcaguc shall takc any action that may bc dccmcd wisc and ccctual to salcguard thc
pcacc ol nations. For thc lull tcxt, scc Arthur 8crricdalc Kcith, cd., Speeches and Docu-
ments on International Aairs 19181937 (London: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +8), vol.
!, ++.
8alcanica XXX\! 218
ncccssary, in his tclcgram to Chambcrlain inlorming him ol his convcr
sation with 8crthclot, to italicizc what thc lattcr had told him about thc
Frcnch cort to convincc thc Yugoslavs to show thc utmost rcstraint even
in the event of an armed Italian landing in Albania. Tc Frcnch had cvcn got
thc Czcchoslovak lorcign ministcr dvard 8cnc to urgc modcration in
8clgradc. Morcovcr, as 8crthclot told Crcwc, Francc had alrcady inlormcd
!taly that it was not going to concludc thc lricndly trcaty ol undcrstanding
with Yugoslavia (March +:) which had bccn initiallcd, but not signcd,
bccausc it did not wish to raisc !talys suspicions that such a trcaty was di
rcctcd against it, bcing dcsirous that bclorchand !taly and Yugoslavia should
sign thcir own trcaty. Paris thought it advisablc, and prcssurizcd Miroslav
Spalajkovi, thc Yugoslav Ministcr in Paris, that Yugoslavia should ratily
thc +: Ncttuno agrccmcnts with !taly. !t was thus not a littlc contradic
tory ol 8crthclot to, admittcdly corrcctly, idcntily thc Trcaty ol Tirana as
somcthing unlortunatc, in that !taly could intcrvcnc in Albania in thc
cvcnt ol thc political status quo bcing changcd, which in ccct mcans,
as hc told Crcwc, in thc cvcnt ol thc lorciblc ovcrthrow ol thc Albanians
thcmsclvcs ol Ahmcd Zogu.
6
!n othcr words, thc Frcnch wcrc blowing
hot and cold.
Chambcrlain was at this stagc almost complctcly prcoccupicd by thc

!taloYugoslav aair. Vhat hc could still not undcrstand was thc rcason
ing bchind Mussolinis mcmorandum which Torrctta had givcn him on +8
March, a documcnt listing thc !talian vicw ol Yugoslav military prcpara
tions. Givcn that thc !talian papcr had also bccn scnt to Paris and 8cr
lin, Chambcrlain naturally lclt that hc had bccn placcd in an cmbarrass
ing position. Hc opcnly told Torrctta on :: March that hc was considcr
ably pcrplcxcd and puzzlcd by this lormal communication ol thc !talian
govcrnmcnt. Vhat cxactly, hc askcd thc !talian ambassador, had bccn in
Mussolinis mind: Sinccrcly or not, Torrctta rcplicd that hc himscll had no
answcr to this qucstion. Tc 8ritish Forcign Sccrctary was subtlc cnough to
point out to Torrctta that thc !talian govcrnmcnt had not appcalcd to thc
Lcaguc ol Nations, somcthing which suggcstcd that it did not want this
coursc to bc adoptcd. At thc samc timc, hc praiscd Pcri lor using modcratc
languagc which appcarcd to him cntircly commcndablc.
8
At long last Mussolini providcd somc answcrs. Graham saw him in
thc cvcning ol : March. Il Duce cxplaincd that his mcmorandum to thc
6
Crcwc to Chambcrlain, :: March +:, DBFP, No. 6o.
A commcndablc account ol Franccs intcrnational policy during this pcriod is by J.

Nr, Te Foreign Policy of France from 1914 to 1945 (London: Routlcdgc & Kcgan Paul,
+). Tc original Frcnch vcrsion was publishcd in +.
8
Chambcrlain to Graham, :: March +:, DBFP, No. 6+.
govcrnmcnts in London, Paris and 8crlin scrvcd thc purposc ol avoiding
an immcdiatc cxplosion. Vithout ocring any hard cvidcncc, hc told Gra
ham that thc !talian govcrnmcnt had known ol Yugoslav aggrcssivc prcpa
rations and organization ol bands on north Albanian lronticr lor incursion
during thc spring. Tis, hc claimcd, was thc work ol thc Yugoslav military
party. 8ut his communication to thc thrcc Powcrs had had thc dcsircd cl
lcct, and thc dangcr, hc said, was alrcady diminishing as shown by prcss in
both Romc in 8clgradc. Hc lurthcr argucd that, in this ncw contcxt, thcrc
was no nccd to go thc Lcaguc ol Nations, somcthing that would mcrcly
cntail undcsircd public dcbatc and prcss polcmics. Mussolini thcn rcvcalcd
what hc was csscntially altcr. Tc bcst solution, hc suggcstcd to Graham,
would bc il thc Yugoslavs madc somc lricndly gcsturc, such as ratication
ol Ncttuno convcntions.
Tc 8ritish, howcvcr, wcrc lrankly sccptical, and

indccd vcry rcalistic, about Mussolinis proposal. n : March Graham
rcportcd to Chambcrlain that hc had alludcd to Mussolini about thc lccl
ing ol ncrvousncss in 8clgradc, pointing out to him that thc Yugoslavs had
had cnough ol a problcm in thc past prcscnting thc Ncttuno convcntions
to thcir parliamcnt, a problcm that was cvcn grcatcr now in thc light ol thc
currcnt tcnsion bctwccn thc two countrics. Graham bluntly told Mussolini
that thc govcrnmcnt in 8clgradc could not bc cxpcctcd to givc thc appcar
ancc ol yiclding to !talian prcssurc.
6o
Howcvcr, thc Yugoslav govcrnmcnt now bcgan to soltcn up. Pcri,
who had prcviously cxprcsscd misgivings about a commission ol cnquiry
madc up ol lorcign military attachs to inspcct thc YugoslavAlbanian
lronticr, succumbing prcviously to parliamcntary prcssurc to lavour thc rolc
ol thc Lcaguc ol Nations instcad, surpriscd thc 8ritish and !talian ministcrs
at 8clgradc by tclling thcm that military cxpcrts could procccd with this
task, thus catching thc !talian ministcr in a statc ol conlusion.
6+
8ut this
was hardly Pcris own initiativc. !n Paris thc Marqucss ol Crcwc lound out
lrom Aristidc 8riand, thc Frcnch lorcign ministcr, that it was Francc which
had discouragcd thc Yugoslavs lrom pursuing thcir complaint against !taly
at thc Lcaguc ol Nations. 8riand told Crcwc that aairs had not rcachcd
thc point at which such an action could propcrly bc takcn. Ncvcrthclcss,
8riand rcitcratcd what London had alrcady known about thc Frcnch vicw
ol thc Trcaty ol Tirana. Tis trcaty 8riand asscsscd as a dangcr point, givcn
that it could cnablc !taly to act not only in thc cvcnt ol an attack on Albania
lrom outsidc, but also in thc cvcnt ol thc cxisting rcgimc bcing thrcatcncd
intcrnally. Hc took thc vicw that thc tcrms ol thc Trcaty should in somc way
Graham to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. 6.

6o
Ibid., n. :.
6+
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. 6.
8alcanica XXX\! 220
bc altcrcd to arrivc at its intcrprctation which would ncutralizc this dangcr.
Unlcss this is donc, hc told Crcwc, thcrc must bc pcrpctual unrcst in
that quartcr ol uropc.
6:
Vhat 8riand did not tcll Crcwc was that within
thc Frcnch govcrnmcnt thcrc wcrc scrious misgivings about 8ritains policy
towards thc !taloYugoslav conict. Sir Charlcs Mcndl, thc 8ritish prcss at
tach in Paris, inlormcd London, in strict condcncc, that Louis 8arthou
and Andr Tardicu, rcspcctivcly Ministcr ol Justicc and Ministcr ol Public
Vorks, bclicvcd that 8ritish lorcign policy was, oltcn without rcason, run
ning contrary to that ol Francc. As thc main cxamplc, Mcndl rcportcd thc
vicw hcld by 8arthou and Tardicu that 8ritain had allowcd without protcst
thc signaturc ol thc Trcaty ol Tirana, which thcy bclicvcd had dcmonstratcd
Londons lavour towards !taly to lay hands on Albania.
6
8ut this was somc
what rich ol thc Frcnch who convcnicntly lorgot that thc Novcmbcr +:+
Ambassadors Conlcrcncc in Paris, which ol coursc includcd Francc, had al
rcady practically givcn !taly a lrcc hand in Albania, and that it was prcciscly
this movc which had givcn risc to subscqucnt tcnsions bctwccn !taly and
Yugoslavia. For good mcasurc, Mcndl also rcportcd about thc Frcnch un
happincss ovcr Londons uncasincss ovcr thc FrancoGcrman rapprochc
mcnt, somcthing which, according to thc Frcnch, 8ritain now wishcd to
osct by a ncw cntcntc with !taly.
6
Upon rcading this dcspatch, Chambcrlain was lurious to say thc lcast.
Hc protcstcd that Mcndls notc about thc Frcnch vicw that 8ritain was
sccking a ncw cntcntc with !taly bccausc ol thc FrancoGcrman rapprochc
mcnt was so silly that it is rcally dicult to dcal with it, and that 8ritain
had in lact workcd hard lor that rapprochcmcnt. Vriting about 8ritains
rclations with !taly, hc addcd bittcrly: Tcy arc not an osct to a lricnd
ship with Francc, nor a countcrpoisc to thc FrancoGcrman rapprochement.
Tcy arc a ncccssary conscqucncc ol thc Trcaty ol Locarno, and but lor thcm
Francc would bc in dangcr ol sccing !taly lall oncc morc undcr purcly Gcr
man inucnccs. n thc !talianYugoslav dicultics, hc cxplaincd that his
policy had bccn to cxcrt inucncc stcadily but quictly to prcss modcration
on !taly. And hc did not vicw thc Trcaty ol Tirana in such alarmist tcrms as
thcy wcrc rcad in Francc. Hc cmphasizcd that hc ncvcr lost an opportunity
to rcmind Mussolini ol what thc lattcr had told him alrcady during thcir
rst mccting in cccmbcr +:, that !taly had no aggrcssivc dcsigns on
Albania. My inucncc, hc cxplaincd, was uscd towards sccuring lricndly
6:
Crcwc to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. 66.
6
Mcndl to Grcgory, : March +:, DBFP, No. o.
6
Ibid. For thc Novcmbcr +:+ Ambassadors Conlcrcncc in Paris, scc . H. Carr,
International Relations Between the Two World Wars 19191939 (London: Macmillan,
+), 6o.
cxplanations ol thc tcrms ol thc Trcaty. Chambcrlain was lclt wondcring, in
thc cnd, whcthcr thc Frcnch actually rcalizcd what thc truc intcrcsts ol thcir
policy wcrc.
6
!t has to bc said that, lar lrom wishing to cstablish any ncw
lricndly rclationship with !taly, as thc somcwhat paranoid Frcnch sccmcd to
bc implying, thc 8ritish lorcign sccrctary was displaying rcmarkablc rm
ncss in not giving an inch away to Mussolini, and in particular so ovcr Yugo
slavia. Hc rcgardcd Mussolinis suggcstion that thc Yugoslavs should at oncc
prcparc lor ratilying Ncttuno Convcntions as impossiblc. Tc proposcd
ratication, hc wrotc to Crcwc in Paris, was unobtainablc by itscll, but might
bc sccurcd by !talian lricndly cxplanations to thc Scrbs that thc Trcaty ol
Tirana was not mcrcly a vcilcd protcctoratc ovcr Albania dcsigncd to main
tain Ahmcd Zogu both against cxtcrnal and intcrnal thrcats to his rulc.
66
Tus, thc most that can bc said about Chambcrlains attitudc towards
Mussolini is that hc was prcparcd to givc him thc bcnct ol thc doubt,
whilst at thc samc timc hc not only clcarly undcrstood Yugoslav lcars and
apprchcnsions, hc actually activcly dclcndcd thcm. And not just Chambcr
lain, but thc 8ritish ministcrs on thc ground hcld practically idcntical posi
tions on this qucstion. From urazzo Sccds rcportcd to Chambcrlain that
cvcn thc Albanian govcrnmcnt was not so much prcoccupicd with any Scr
bian military prcparations. Hc suggcstcd that thc scarc about thosc prcpara
tions in lact cmanatcd lrom !talian sourccs in Yugoslavia and lrom Romc
itscll, anxious as it was to dcmonstratc to world in gcncral and to Albanian
public opinion thc bcncts ol an !talian protcctoratc ovcr Albania. Sccds
agrccd with Kcnnard in 8clgradc who had rightly minimizcd thc allcgcd
Scrbian military activitics. And hc addcd that Zogu himscll had told him
thc Scrbian main attack would not dcvclop bclorc August.
6
Kcnnard was
also in total agrccmcnt with Chambcrlain. Hc thought it impossiblc at
this juncturc to sccurc ratication ol Ncttuno Convcntions unlcss Yugo
slavia rcccivcd adcquatc compcnsations. Hc considcrcd that thc Yugoslav
govcrnmcnt was too wcak, adding that public opinion in thc country was
angry about Mussolinis attack not only against thc govcrnmcnt, but also
against thc King pcrsonally. And Kcnnard also took thc vicw that, in thc cir
cumstanccs, lricndly gcsturc should comc lrom Romc in thc rst instancc
rathcr than lrom 8clgradc.
68
His pcrsonal vicw was that thc cxisting and
clcarly troublcsomc Pact ol Tirana should bc scrappcd, to bc rcplaccd by
a ncw onc.
6
Similarly, Graham in Romc, in lrcqucnt contact with Raki,
6
Mcmorandum by Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. .
66
Chambcrlain to Crcwc, : March +:, DBFP, No. .
6
Sccds to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. 6.
68
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. .
6
Ibid.
8alcanica XXX\! 222
dcscribcd thc situation to Chambcrlain as a vicious circlc: Mussolini was
prcparcd to ocr satislactory cxplanations ol thc Tirana pact, but only il
8clgradc raticd Ncttuno Convcntions. No doubt with truth, Graham
obscrvcd, thc Yugoslavs wcrc saying that immcdiatc ratication was impos
siblc.
o
8ut Graham also warncd Chambcrlain that Kcnnards privatc idca
ol doing away with thc pact ol Tirana was a nonstartcr sincc Mussolini was
in thc habit ol using his lorcign policy to cnhancc his prcstigc lor purposcs
ol intcrnal aairs: Hc will not contcmplatc anything in thc naturc ol a
climbdown.
+
Towards thc cnd ol March, howcvcr, Chambcrlains attitudc towards
Yugoslavia bcgan to shilt, ccrtainly not dramatically, but a shilt was ncvcr
thclcss clcarly cvidcnt. !n a lcttcr markcd Privatc, hc conlcsscd to Kcnnard
that hc was morc conccrncd about what was happcning in Yugoslavia than
in !taly. ! am convinccd, hc wrotc, that Mussolini contcmplatcs no ag
grcssion on Albania, but ! would not bc answcrablc lor thc conscqucnccs
il anothcr rcvolution brokc out thcrc and abovc all il it startcd lrom Yugo
Slavian tcrritory. !n part, thcrc was a scnsc in which Chambcrlain was
mcrcly stating thc obvious: no rcports, no intclligcncc rcaching thc Forcign
cc had suggcstcd that !taly was about to go into Albania with military
lorcc. Tcrc was simply no rcason lor such an action givcn thc pro!talian
policy ol Ahmcd Zogu. For thc timc bcing, it did not cvcn suit Mussolini
to rcsort to arms givcn that hc had bccn dcclaring to thc world his pcacc
lul intcntions. l coursc, what thc Trcaty ol Tirana had givcn Mussolini
was thc option to usc lorcc il and whcn hc dccmcd such action ncccssary.
Rcalistically, this could only takc placc in thc cvcnt ol an intcrvcntionist
coursc adoptcd in 8clgradc towards Albania. 8ut all thc inlormation that
Chambcrlain had bccn rccciving was prcciscly that 8clgradc was not con
tcmplating an intcrvcntion. Vhat, thcn, was his latcst thinking: Tc only
cxplanation, such as it was, that hc ocrcd to Kcnnard was that hc had
ccrtain rcscrvations about thc intcntions ol King Alcxandcr !, and this only
lrom his mcmory about a convcrsation thc King had with Kcnnard back
in cccmbcr +:6, whcn thc King, according to Chambcrlain, had uscd
vcry ominous languagc. Tc qucstion thus ariscs: had thc 8ritish lorcign
sccrctary lallcn lor thc rcccnt !talian propaganda idcntilying thc King as
lalling prcy to thc socallcd Yugoslav military party: Tc answcr must bc
a cautious no. As Chambcrlain claboratcd to Kcnnard: thc wcakncss ol thc
govcrnmcnt in 8clgradc makc thcm dicult pcoplc to hclp, but ! do not
wish you to think that ! havc thrown myscll unconditionally into thc !talian
camp and am pursuing an !talian policy to thc dctrimcnt ol YugoSlavia.
o
Graham to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. .
+
Graham to Chambcrlain, : March +:, DBFP, No. 88.
n thc contrary, ! havc stcadily sought to bring Mussolini to a conciliatory
and rcasonablc lramc ol mind. And hc also madc thc lollowing important
point to Kcnnard: My capacity lor usclulncss dcpcnds upon my rctaining
Mussolinis condcncc and lricndship.
:
uring thc month ol March thcrc had bccn much talk in thc trianglc
LondonParis8crlin about scnding to thc YugoslavAlbanian lronticr a
commission ol cnquiry madc up ol 8ritish, Frcnch and Gcrman occrs
(joincd by an !talian and Scrbian occr). Tis was csscntially Chambcrlains
idca. Mussolini was against, 8clgradc would rathcr havc nothing to do with
it, but thc Frcnch govcrnmcnt acccptcd thc proposal, and thc Gcrmans had
nothing against it, cithcr. Ncvcrthclcss, Paris was rightly sccptical about
what this could achicvc at all. Tus thc diplomatic initiativc passcd on to
thc Frcnch who suggcstcd to Chambcrlain that thc proposcd commission
would not bc solution ol rcal causc ol !talianScrbian dicrcnccs i.c. provi
sions ol trcaty ol Tirana. And so, whilc thc govcrnmcnt ol Francc had no
objcction that thc commission should procccd with its work, this would
not in any way prcvcnt dircct convcrsations bctwccn !taly and Scrbia with
a vicw to rcaching a pcrmancnt agrccmcnt. Tc govcrnmcnt in Paris at thc
samc timc acknowlcdgcd that 8ritain was bcst qualicd to spcak to Romc
on this subjcct, whilc lor its part it promiscd to usc its inucncc in 8clgradc
in ordcr to bring about rstly thc ratication ol Ncttuno convcntions and
sccondly dcsircd intcrprctation ol trcaty ol Tirana.
!t can bc obscrvcd
that, apart lrom thc suggcstcd ordcr ol prioritics (rst thc Ncttuno Con
vcntions, and only thcn thc Trcaty ol Tirana), thc Frcnch had got it cxactly
right, lor thcy addrcsscd thc substancc ol thc !taloYugoslav problcm, rathcr
than its manilcstations.
Chambcrlain likcd 8riands proposal and inlormcd Graham in Romc
to that ccct. Hc also scnt him a pcrsonal mcssagc to pass on to Mussolini,
authorizing thc 8ritish ambassador to makc at his discrction any modica
tions to thc mcssagc il hc considcrcd it ncccssary. !n this mcssagc hc lrankly
inlormcd Musssolini that as long thc cxisting straincd rclations bctwccn
!taly and Yugoslavia continucd, thcrc could bc no guarantcc that lurthcr
incidcnts could not occur at any timc. Hc was convinccd, hc continucd,
that thc obvious and indccd thc only curc was an unconditional dialoguc
bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia, including thc clarication ol thc ambigu
ous provisions ol thc trcaty ol Tirana.
And not only did Chambcrlain

urgc Mussolini that thcsc convcrsations should bcgin as soon as possiblc,
:
Chambcrlain to Kcnnard, : March +:, DBFP, No. o.
Crcwc to Chambcrlain, :6 March +:, DBFP, No. 8:.
Chambcrlain to Graham, + March +:, DBFP, No. . Graham lclt lrcc to

changc Chambcrlains asscssmcnt ol thc ambiguous provisions ol thc trcaty ol Tirana,
8alcanica XXX\! 224
hc also suggcstcd that !taly should bc thc country to takc thc initiativc in
opcning thc discussions without imposing prcliminary rcstrictions or con
ditions. Tis, ol coursc, constitutcd potcntially a big lavour to 8clgradc on
thc part ol 8ritain, as Mussolini had consistcntly insistcd that Yugoslavia
should rst ratily thc Ncttuno Convcntions. !ndccd Chambcrlain prcsscd
this point. Hc argucd that Yugoslavia should not bc askcd to makc any prc
liminary gcsturc with rcgard to thc Ncttuno Convcntions which, as hc cor
rcctly obscrvcd, dcal with mattcrs cntircly lorcign to thc qucstion at issuc.
To swcctcn this bittcr pill lor Mussolini, Chambcrlain undcrtook to ask thc
Frcnch to advisc 8clgradc to givc !taly an undcrtaking that thc Convcn
tions should bc submittcd to thc Parliamcnt as part of a general settlement.
8cyond this, Chambcrlain wrotc to Mussolini, it would bc unrcasonablc to
prcss thc Yugoslav govcrnmcnt.
!n othcr words, within days Chambcrlain had rcvcrtcd to his prcvi

ous position ol dclcnding thc Yugoslav casc, and now morc so thcn cvcr.
Tc lact that thc Frcnch had playcd a rolc in this makcs littlc dicrcncc.
Tcy had not writtcn his pcrsonal mcssagc to Mussolini, thcy had mcrcly
idcnticd thc main problcm, lcaving it to Chambcrlain to articulatc it most
cloqucntly. Morcovcr, Chambcrlain had thrown out 8riands rccommcnda
tion that thc Ncttuno Convcntions should bc madc thc starting point ol
discussions.
Most prcdictably, Mussolini did not cmbracc Chambcrlains mcssagc
with any cnthusiasm to say thc lcast. uring thc night ol + April Gra
ham communicatcd Chambcrlains missivc to Mussolini. His xccllcncy,
Graham tclcgraphcd to his lorcign sccrctary, was in a dicult mood. ! did
not cxpcct him to rclish mcssagc and hc rcad it with ill conccalcd irritation.
!n a dark mood indccd, il Duce told Graham that il thc cxpcctation cxistcd
that 8clgradc should bc ocrcd an cxplanation rcgarding thc Pact ol Tirana,
hc would do nothing ol thc kind, sincc thc Pact was pcrlcctly clcar and
rcquircd no cxplanation. 8ut thc 8ritish ambassador was not having any ol
this nonscnsc: ! said this was to put it mildly an cxaggcration. Graham
cvcn put this to Mussolini: thcrc wcrc points in thc Pact ol Tirana which
no onc undcrstood, lor cxamplc to what cxtcnt thc provision to uphold
Albanias political, juridical and tcrritorial status quo committcd !taly to
support Ahmcd Zogu pcrsonally in all circumstanccs: Undcr attack, Mus
solini produccd an answcr ol a kind. Hc said that in a country likc Albania
thc chicl ol statc mcant thc statc itscll, il Zogu wcrc ovcrthrown, his suc
substituting this with words including al outstanding bctwccn thc two countrics,
on thc grounds that Mussolini had ncvcr sccn anything ambiguous in thc Trcaty. Scc
Graham to Chambcrlain, : April +:, DBFP, No. +o.
DBFP, No. .
ccssor would probably dcnouncc various pacts, convcntions, ctc., bctwccn
!taly and Albania, and this !taly could ncvcr tolcratc. 8ut Musssolini was
also quick to say that il a succcssor to Zogu rccognizcd thc cxisting arrangc
mcnts, that would bc quitc a dicrcnt mattcr. Tis was, it has to bc admit
tcd, opportunism ol a vcry high ordcr on thc part ol Mussolini. And thcn
hc playcd on 8ritish stratcgic scnsitivitics: Albania, hc said, was as a vital
point lor !taly as wcrc Gibraltar and Malta lor 8ritain, and !taly could ncvcr
allow Albania to lall into thc hands or undcr thc inucncc ol potcntially
hostilc powcrs such as Yugoslavia or Grcccc. !n good mcasurc, Mussolini
tricd to imprcss Graham with his statcsmanship. Not so long ago, hc told
Graham, thc lormcr Yugoslav lorcign ministcr Nini had proposcd to him
a partition ol Albania, whcrcby !taly would gct \alona, and Yugoslavia Scu
tari. Hc, Musssolini, claimcd that hc had rcjcctcd this proposal.
6
Hc also
boastcd that it was only his rcccnt pull ol alarm bcll which had prcvcntcd
an immcdiatc uropcan conagration causcd by Yugoslavia.
8ut Graham was lar lrom convinccd by thc !talian dictators statcs
manship. Hc opcnly told him that his attitudc would causc Chambcrlain
much disappointmcnt: thc Yugoslavs sinccrcly dcsircd thc rcstoration ol
bcttcr rclations, but il things wcrc lclt as thcy wcrc, thcrc cxistcd thc dan
gcr ol an incidcnt at any momcnt. Mussolini did admit to Graham that
thc Albanian govcrnmcnt had takcn mcagrc dclcnsivc mcasurcs on thc
lronticr against Yugoslavia, but was it rcally scrious, hc askcd, that Albania
would attack Yugoslavia: qually, how could onc bclicvc that !taly contcm
platcd aggrcssion against Yugoslavia: !n what was possibly a momcnt ol
carclcssncss, Mussolini said that, il !taly unlortunatcly did havc to attack
Yugoslavia, it would choosc a vcry dicrcnt linc lor such an attack, lcaving
thc ruggcd and inhospitablc tcrrain ol thc AlbanianYugoslav lronticr wcll
alonc. Vhat Graham also discovcrcd was that Mussolini was absolutcly
lurious with thc Frcnch, complaining about thc virulcnt Frcnch prcss, and
about Francc conccntrating largc numbcrs ol troops and tanks on thc !tal
ian lronticr. Francc, hc thundcrcd, cndcavourcd to thwart !taly at cvcry
turn. Graham protcstcd that 8riand was doing all hc possibly could at
8clgradc, but privatcly concludcd that it was this Mussolinis irritation with
Francc which may wcll havc causcd him, at lcast partly, to bc dicult ovcr
Yugoslavia. Hc thcn told his host in no unccrtain tcrms that thcrc sccmcd
no altcrnativc to thc !taloYugoslav problcm ovcr Albania cxccpt to bring
6
Graham to Chambcrlain, : April +:, DBFP, No. +o. !n lact, thc Ccntral cpart
mcnt ol thc Forcign cc had rccordcd that Nini had atly dcnicd this. Ibid., n. .
According to a dicrcnt account, it was in lact Mussolini who had (probably in +: ac
cording to DBFP, No. +o, n. ) ocrcd Nini a division ol Albania, but Nini rcluscd
this. Scc C. F. Mclvillc, Balkan Racket (London: Jarrolds Publishcrs, n.d., ca +:), :.
8alcanica XXX\! 226
thc wholc qucstion to thc Lcaguc ol Nations. vidcntly gctting lcd up with
his 8ritish gucst, Mussolini now produccd a charactcristic outburst: His
xccllcncy rcplicd, Graham rcportcd to Chambcrlain, that Albania was
ol such vital importancc to !taly that not cvcn thc Lcaguc ol Nations could
prcvcnt hcr lrom dclcnding lcgitimatc intcrcsts thcrc and il Lcaguc at
tcmptcd to do so so much thc worsc lor thc Lcaguc.
So much lor Mussolinis vicw ol thc ncw world ordcr. Noncthclcss,

this important mccting lclt Graham satiscd up to a point. For hc rclcnt
lcssly kcpt prcssing Mussolini on thc qucstion ol thc Pact ol Tirana, bcing
carclul cnough to cmphasizc that thc immcdiatc ratication ol thc Ncttuno
Convcntions was not in thc cld ol practical politics. bviously tircd,
Mussolini nally gavc in to this 8ritish diplomatic assault. Hc dcclarcd
that il Raki camc to him with instructions lrom 8clgradc asking cithcr in
a writtcn notc or vcrbally lor cxplanations rcgarding thc Pact ol Tirana, hc
was pcrlcctly rcady to givc thcm. Morcovcr, Mussolini addcd, il Rakis
cnquiry wcrc couchcd in lricndly tcrms, thc answcr would bc in a similar
spirit. Graham could hardly bclicvc what hc had just hcard and jumpcd at
this: was it thc casc, hc askcd Mussolini, that hc no longcr insistcd on a
lricndly gcsturc lrom 8clgradc in thc rst instancc: Signor Mussolini rc
plicd in thc armativc. Tis was, Graham rcportcd modcstly, all thc rcsult
hc could achicvc, but it may bc a rst stcp.
8
Not only in Romc, but also in 8clgradc things appcarcd to bc mov
ing in a positivc dircction. Kcnnard inlormcd Chambcrlain on April that
Pcri thought thc ratication ol Ncttuno Convcntions could bc sccurcd,
and also that, lollowing Grahams talk with Mussolini, hc would scnd rcq
uisitc instructions to Raki in Romc.
Morcovcr, thcrc was now agrcc

mcnt bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia that military occrs (8ritish, Frcnch
and Gcrman) could inspcct thc YugoslavAlbanian lronticr il thc occasion
arosc. Chambcrlain himscll dcncd such an occasion: (a) unrcst on thc
lronticr, or (b) allcgations rcgarding military movcmcnts madc by any ol
thc govcrnmcnts conccrncd.
8o
At thc samc timc, clcarly vcry cncouragcd
by Grahams rcccnt account ol his cncountcr with Mussolini, Chambcrlain
askcd Kcnnard to tcll Pcri that Raki should bc givcn carly instructions to
approach Mussolini vcrbally on thc lincs suggcstcd. Possibly lacking com
DBFP, No. +o.

8
Ibid. Graham strongly rccommcndcd to Chambcrlain that, should Raki approach
Mussolini on lincs suggcstcd, hc should do so vcrbally and not in writing.
Kcnnard to Chambcrlain, April +:, DBFP.

8o
Chambcrlain to Crcwc, April +:, DBFP. n 8 April Kcnnard rcportcd that hc
and his Frcnch and Gcrman collcagucs had alrcady constitutcd a committcc and wcrc
cxamining thc qucstion ol proccdurc. Ibid., n. .
plctc condcncc in Rakis diplomatic skills, hc wantcd Kcnnard to strongly
urgc thc Yugoslav lorcign ministcr that his man in Romc should bc guidcd
by Sir R.Graham as to thc timc and manncr ol his rcprcscntations.
8+
Vhat
now complicatcd mattcrs, howcvcr, was thc panic that had sct in Albania, or
to bc morc prccisc, thc lcar that had grippcd Ahmcd Zogu himscll. From
urazzo, Sccds inlormcd Chambcrlain that Zogu and his adviscrs wcrc
cxtrcmcly unhappy at thc prospcct that !talianScrbian convcrsations could
rcdcnc thc Trcaty ol Tirana in a way that could wcakcn thc lorcc ol words
political and juridical status quo. 8ut Sccds was no lool. Hc cxplaincd to
Chambcrlain that thc rcal mcaning ol thcsc words was support thcrcby
givcn to Ahmcd 8cy pcrsonally. Tc rcgimc ol Zogu, as thc lattcr had
opcnly conlcsscd to Sccds, might cnd rapidly should !talys support bc
withdrawn, or cvcn il thc imprcssion gaincd ground, cspccially among his
political opponcnts, that this was going to happcn.
8:
!n Romc, Graham sharcd thc thinking ol Sccds, which hc passcd on
in a dcspatch to Chambcrlain. Hc had talkcd to A. C. 8ordonaro, thc Scc
rctaryGcncral ol thc !talian Ministry ol Forcign Aairs, thc man whom
Mussolini was about to scnd to London as thc ncw ambassador. 8ordonaro
told Graham that Mussolini was considcrably upsct ovcr Chambcrlains
mcssagc to him ol + March a piccc ol inlormation that could hardly havc
bccn ncws to Graham. 8ut 8ordonaro also said to Graham that any wcak
cning ol !talys support to Zogu mcant that lattcr would losc not only his
position but probably his lilc. Typically, thc 8ritish diplomat was not going
to shcd tcars ovcr such a possibility. !n thc samc dcspatch, Graham noticd
Chambcrlain that Raki had got thc ncccssary instructions lrom 8clgradc
and thcrclorc askcd Mussolini whcthcr hc would bc rcady to bcgin convcr
sation with thc Scrbian ministcr. Il Duce, howcvcr, rcplicd that hc was tak
ing a holiday and would not bc rcady until altcr astcr. And hc could not
rcsist tclling Graham that, according to thc inlormation hc had, 8clgradc
was alrcady cclcbrating a diplomatic victory, but hc was going to disillusion
thc Scrbs. \cry coldly, Graham commcntcd that hc would much rcgrct il
His xccllcncy approachcd discussions in this lramc ol mind, adding that
thc Yugoslav govcrnmcnt scriously dcsircd to arrivc at a lricndly undcr
standing. Far lrom bcing ovcrawcd by Mussolini, Graham mcrcly displaycd
politc contcmpt lor a sccondclass powcr which !taly, dcspitc all its prctcn
sions undcr a Fascist dictator, had bccn and still rcmaincd.
8
8+
Chambcrlain to Kcnnard, April +:, DBFP, No. ++.
8:
Sccds to Chambcrlain, 6 April +:, DBFP, No. ++.
8
Graham to Chambcrlain, April +:, DBFP, No. +6. !n 8clgradc, Kcnnard disa
grccd about Mussolinis claim about a Scrb diplomatic victory. Ibid., n. :.
8alcanica XXX\! 228
8y now Graham had takcn Raki complctcly undcr his wing. !t can cvcn
bc argucd that it was 8ritish diplomacy that was in important ways shap
ing Yugoslavias troublcsomc rclations with !taly. Graham had convinccd
Raki to drop thc idca ol commcncing talks with Mussolini by dclivcring
a notc this, as has bccn sccn, had alrcady bccn agrccd bctwccn Graham
and Chambcrlain. To start procccdings with a notc would bc latal accord
ing to Graham: thc only rcsult would havc bccn an cxchangc ol mutually
unsatislactory notcs which would havc rcndcrcd lurthcr convcrsations dil
cult il not impossiblc. Graham notcd with cvidcnt plcasurc that, happily,
no onc was morc pcrsuadcd ol this than Raki who had managcd to obtain
lrom a rcluctant 8clgradc govcrnmcnt pcrmission to procccd along thc linc
suggcstcd by 8ritain. Graham also gavc Raki a pcp talk on thc !talian posi
tion: (+) !taly had sccurcd by thc Pact ol Tirana a privilcgcd position which
it would not rcadily surrcndcr, (:) whilst thc !talians would probably givc
satislactory gcncral assuranccs rcgarding thc Pact, it would bc dicult to
inducc thcm to ocr dctailcd cxplanations, () thc intcrcsts ol thc !talians
wcrc bound up with Ahmcd Zogu, and thcy would ncvcr willingly agrcc
not to intcrvcnc on his bchall bclorc hc had bccn comlortably disposcd ol,
and () thc !talians would not conscnt to bring thc qucstion ol Albania to
thc Lcaguc ol Nations, and although this could actually bc lorccd on thcm,
thc rcsult would put an cnd to all hopc ol lricndly rclations bctwccn !taly
and Yugoslavia.
8
Tc intcrcsting thing hcrc was that Francc, gcncrally bclicvcd to bc
Yugoslavias grcatcst ally, sccmcd in lact to bc almost totally out ol thc pic
turc. Howcvcr, truc gcntlcman that hc was, Chambcrlain had scnt a privatc
lcttcr to 8riand via c Flcuriau, thc Frcnch ambassador to London, com
mcnting on aspccts ol Frcnch policy. 8riand rcplicd in thc samc inlormal
and condcntial manncr, addrcssing his main points to !taloYugoslav rcla
tions. Hc wishcd to inlorm Chambcrlain that thc Yugoslav govcrnmcnt
wcrc in a statc ol grcat ncrvousncss and wcrc particularly suspicious ol
8ritish policy. Tcy thought that thc 8ritish Govcrnmcnt was hclping and
cncouraging Signor Mussolini in an unlricndly policy to YugoSlavia.
8riands vicws wcrc cithcr hopclcssly ignorant or malicious. Tis was not
a commcnt on what 8clgradc actually lclt, it was a thinly disguiscd attack
on thc Forcign cc. Prcdictably, Chambcrlain was lcss than imprcsscd
by this mcssagc, but kcpt his calm. For throughout thc !taloYugoslav cri
sis, hc madc surc to kccp Paris inlormcd about 8ritish policy. Hc told c
Flcuriau, who had communicatcd to him 8riands thoughts, that, surcly, hc,
c Flcuriau, should know how hc had spokcn to him with such lrankncss
about his communications with !taly, and that hc should also know how
8
Graham to Chambcrlain, ++ April +:, DBFP, No. ++.
unjusticd thcsc suspicions wcrc and how hard ! had workcd to hclp Yugo
Slavia. ! had in lact straincd whatcvcr inucncc ! posscsscd with Mussolini
to thc vcry limit.
8
Apart lrom not bcing ablc to rcsist pricking Chambcrlain, thc Frcnch
wcrc ncvcrthclcss scriously alarmcd about thc dcvclopmcnts in thc 8al
kans. Nikola Uzunovis govcrnmcnt in 8clgradc rcsigncd on +6 April, to
bc succccdcd by that ol \clja \ukicvi, with \ojislav Marinkovi as thc
ncw Forcign Ministcr. Two days carlicr !taly issucd an ocial communiqu
which statcd that thcrc could bc no qucstion ol ncgotiations rcspccting thc
Trcaty ol Tirana, as this did not conccrn thc ScrbCroatSlovcnc statc.
86

Clcarly, thc !talian position was hardcning, and Mussolini had cvidcntly
and shamclcssly licd to Graham during thcir convcrsation in Romc on +
April whcn hc promiscd that hc would givc Milan Raki a lricndly intcr
prctation ol thc Trcaty ol Tirana. Now c Flcuriau hastcncd to scc rmc
Sargcnt in thc Forcign cc, bringing along a lrcsh tclcgram lrom 8riand.
Tc lattcr bclicvcd that thc changc ol govcrnmcnt in 8clgradc was duc
to thc King who intcndcd that thc ncw govcrnmcnt, rcprcscnting a dc
nitc Scrbian bloc without admixturc ol Croats or Slovcncs, should adopt a
rmcr and boldcr lorcign policy than its prcdcccssor. c Flcuriau also told
Sargcnt that, according to Frcnch rcports lrom 8clgradc, thcrc wcrc in thc
ncw govcrnmcnt clcmcnts opposcd to avoiding a war with !taly on thc
ground that !talian military opcrations in Albania would bc so unpopular
as to undcrminc and possibly bring about thc collapsc ol thc wholc Fascist
rcgimc. 8riand, according to c Flcuriau, trustcd that thc Yugoslavs would
not rcally cmbracc thc lantastic bclicl that thc rgimc in !taly could in any
way sucr by a war ovcr Albania. And 8riand lclt that Chambcrlain was
thc only pcrson ablc to inucncc Mussolini. Hc cxprcsscd thc bclicl that,
il Chambcrlain thrcatcncd Mussolini by tclling him that 8ritain would not
countcnancc an !talian policy in Albania which could at any momcnt lcad
to war, Mussolini would back down.
8
Howcvcr upsct Chambcrlain may havc lclt about thc rcccnt Frcnch
criticisms ol 8ritish policy, it did not rcally mattcr what 8riand and thc
Frcnch thought or bclicvcd about Londons handling ol thc !taloYugoslav
qucstion. And Chambcrlain could now lccl thc satislaction that Paris was
8
Rccord by Sir A. Chambcrlain ol a convcrsation with thc Frcnch Ambassador, +
April +:, DBFP, No. ++. Apart lrom Frcnch ignorancc about 8ritish corts to hclp
8clgradc, at this timc Chambcrlain also had a gricvancc towards Paris conccrning lack
ol Frcnch support lor 8ritish policy in China. Ibid., n. +.
86
Chambcrlain to Graham, + April +:, DBFP, No. +, n. +.
8
Rccord by Mr. Sargcnt ol a convcrsation with thc Frcnch Ambassador, + April +:,
DBFP, No. +6.
8alcanica XXX\! 230
lrankly invcsting all its hopcs in thc Forcign cc, implying that its inu
cncc in Romc was practically noncxistcnt. !n thc cnd it turncd out that it
was not a grcat powcr likc Francc, nor indccd Chambcrlain himscll, but
rathcr a rclativcly minor 8ritish diplomat who provcd dccisivc in dctcrmin
ing thc nal outcomc ol thc crisis. Tis was Villiam Sccds. Hc wrotc, on
+8 April, what must bc sccn as a most important lcttcr to Chambcrlain,
although thc Forcign cc rcccivcd it as latc as : May. Sccds discusscd
thc intcrnal situation in Albania, amusing himscll in particular with ob
scrvations on Fan Noli, thc lormcr hcad ol thc Albanian govcrnmcnt. Fan
Noli, hc rcportcd to Chambcrlain, would bc justicd in adding thc titlc
ol Prophct to his highly irrcgular dignity ol 8ishop as hc is apparcntly not
without honour savc within thc lronticrs ol his own country. Noli had
givcn an intcrvicw to a ncwspapcr in \icnna, in which hc said that thc
Pact ol Tirana was imposcd on Albania by !taly and 8ritain, and that in
thc cvcnt ol a war bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia thc Albanians would bc
ghting on thc sidc ol Yugoslavia. Ahmcd 8cy, Noli addcd corrcctly, was
thoroughly unpopular, maintaining his position only thanks to !taly. Tc
cxisting situation in Albania, Sccds notcd, was such that ambitious politi
cians anticipatcd thc lorthcoming !taloScrbian convcrsations wcakcning,
or ol somc morc violcnt cvcnt wiping out, thc rcgimc ol Ahmcd 8cy. And
this was prcciscly what worricd Sccds. Hc was himscll convinccd that !taly
would support Zogu through thick and thin, but thcrc always cxistcd thc
dangcr that somc accidcnt would dcprivc Albania ol its prcscnt hcad. !n this
conncction, Sccds rclcrrcd to an unsucccsslul plot against Zogu towards thc
cnd ol March. And sincc, Sccds argucd, Zogus cncmics may bclicvc that
this was thc timc lor action, it is advisablc to considcr at any ratc thc pos
sibility ol Ahmcd 8cys disappcarancc, and its conscqucnccs.
88
Sccds did not cvcn try to hidc his warm rcgard lor Zogu, but placcd
his cntirc lcttcr to Chambcrlain in thc contcxt ol a scrious calamity that
would bc cntailcd by Zogus downlall. Ahmcd 8cy, hc dcclarcd, was ir
rcplaccablc, no onc clsc was t to stcp into his shocs. Tc only altcrna
tivc pcrson whom Sccds could idcntily was Musa 8cy Juka, thc ministcr
ol public works and prcviously thc intcrior ministcr, but hc thought that
Jukas pcrsonal unpopularity was a latal obstaclc. Conscqucntly, Sccds
wrotc, hopcs ol nding a suitablc succcssor to Ahmcd 8cy givcn Alba
nian mcthods ol rgimcchanging must bc loundcd on thc mcrc possibil
ity that out ol thc incvitablc chaos and turmoil somc outstanding though
hithcrto unrccognizcd pcrsonality may in timc cmcrgc. 8ut parturition will
bc dicult, and Albania would not bc givcn usclul hclp by hcr !talian and
Scrbian midwivcs whosc corts will most probably rcsult in thc produc
88
Sccds to Chambcrlain, +8 April +:, DBFP, No. +.
tion ol twins curscd with a gricvous incompatibility ol tcmpcr and with no
vcry sound constitutions. !n thc past, Sccds obscrvcd, Albanian rgimcs
altcrnatcd rcgularly bctwccn thc adhcrcnts ol !taly and Scrbia. 8ut now, hc
argucd, conditions had complctcly changcd: it was no longcr a qucstion ol
what !taly or Yugoslavia may hopc to gain lrom a ncw prcsidcnt, but quitc
dcnitcly ol what !taly may bc almost ccrtain to losc. !n Sccds vicw, thc
advantagcs that Zogu had promiscd thc Scrbs in rcturn lor rcturning him
to powcr at thc closc ol +: wcrc paltry in comparison with what !taly
had sincc gaincd and must prcscrvc at all costs. Hc thought that thc ac
tion which !taly would takc in thc cvcnt ol a rcvolution against Zogu was
too obvious to discuss. Sccds concludcd his lcttcr thus: !n Ahmcd 8cy
thc !talians havc now a valuablc and uniquc instrumcnt, lor no othcr man
posscsscs thosc pcrsonal qualitics which can kccp him in powcr without
an unduly provocativc display ol !talian lorcc. Should hc disappcar, thcrc
sccms no prcscnt chancc ol cithcr thc !talians or thc Scrbians nding any
candidatc who would bc much abovc puppct rank. Tc strugglc bctwccn
thcsc puppcts and thcir lorcign supportcrs may, or may not, rcsult in thc
cxtinction ol Albania as an indcpcndcnt Statc, but bids lair in any cvcnt to
mcan thc succcss ol an individual dcpcndcnt lor his cxistcncc on vcry obvi
ous alicn bayoncts.
8
Tc impact ol Sccds latcst thinking on Chambcrlain was truly
considcrablc and is cxamincd bclow. 8ut on : April Signor 8ordonaro
handcd Chambcrlain a major mcmorandum by Mussolini on thc subjcct ol
!taloYugoslav rclations, datcd :o April. !n this documcnt il Duce accuscd
8clgradc, lor thc umptccnth timc, ol a dccidcdly anti!talian tcndcncy,
cvidcnt, hc claimcd, by an intcnsc military prcparation. Hc wrotc, most
vagucly, ol ccrtain political and military circlcs in Yugoslavia posscssing
grcat inucncc, both opcn and sccrct, somcthing which constitutcd a gravc
dangcr to pcacc but hc namcd no onc in particular. Hc wcnt to contradict
himscll immcdiatcly, as it now sccms improbablc that Jugoslavia dcsircs
to pcrsist in stimulating thc proposcd spring invasion ol Albania. And hc
pcrsistcd that any discussion conccrning thc Pact ol Tirana was absolutcly
inadmissiblc. Staying on this subjcct, hc wondcrcd why Chambcrlain at
tachcd so much attcntion to thc clausc in which !taly dcclarcd its intcrcst
in thc maintcnancc ol thc political status quo in Albania, a clausc, hc ob
scrvcd, intcrprctcd as an obligation to support thc prcscnt intcrnal rgimc.
Hc addcd cynically: !taly has no rcasons ol hcr own lor intcrlcring in thc
intcrnal politics ol thc Albanian Statc, whcrcas Yugoslavia dcsircd to makc
Albania, practically, politically and pcrhaps tcrritorially, a vassal. Vhat
cvcr Yugoslavias aims in Albania, it must havc occurrcd to Chambcrlain
8
Ibid.
8alcanica XXX\! 232
that Mussolini was actually stating his own countrys ambitions in Albania
lor which thcrc alrcady cxistcd all thc cvidcncc.
o
A lcw days latcr, rmc Sargcnt argucd in a Forcign cc mcmo
randum that 8ritain had no dircct intcrcst in Albania othcr than a gcncral
conccrn to prcvcnt lriction in uropc. Tis was ol coursc stating thc obvi
ous. 8ut Sargcnt also cxprcsscd sccpticism about Mussolini, bclicving that
in his convcrsation with Raki (which still had not takcn placc) hc would
atly rclusc to givc assuranccs that thc Trcaty ol Tirana did not cndangcr
thc indcpcndcncc ol Albania and was not dircctcd against Yugoslavia, or
that hc might arguc that thc Trcaty cntitlcd him to intcrvcnc in Albania
in thc support ol thc cxisting govcrnmcnt against intcrnal opposition and
insurrcction. !n thcsc circumstanccs, Sargcnt obscrvcd, thc Yugoslav gov
crnmcnt would bc lully cntitlcd to takc thc mattcr to thc Lcaguc.
+
Vith rcgard to Sccds lcttcr Chambcrlain gavc his commcnts not
to hi man in Tirana, but to Graham in Romc in a lcttcr datcd May. Hc
rclcrrcd to thc mcmorandum which Mussolini had scnt him on :o April.
And hc did not hidc his displcasurc: M. Mussolini, lor thc rst timc, dc
nitcly statcs in writing that hc intcrprcts Articlc ! ol thc Trcaty ol Tirana
as cntitling him to intcrlcrc to protcct and dclcnd any lricndly rgimc in
Albania, not mcrcly against lorcign aggrcssion, but prcsumably against in
tcrnal opposition. Tis claim to intcrlcrc in thc intcrnal administration ol
Albania is prcciscly thc claim which thc Yugoslav Govcrnmcnt havc all
along lcarcd, and which thcy considcr would constitutc a thrcat to thcir own
sccurity by convcrting Albania lrom an indcpcndcnt country into an !talian
protcctoratc his xccllcncy now dcncs this claim in such a manncr that
it bccomcs impossiblc lor mc to trcat it othcrwisc than as rcprcscnting thc
ocial and considcrcd policy ol thc !talian Govcrnmcnt. And this, Cham
bcrlain cxplaincd to Graham, put him in a position ol somc diculty.
:
Chambcrlain thcn outlincd thrcc possiblc courscs opcn to him: (+)
hc could kccp silcnt and rcscrvc thc right to protcst il and whcn !taly took
somc action which could bc hcld to constitutc unjustiablc intcrlcrcncc in
thc intcrnal mattcrs ol Albania, (:) hc could rcmind Mussolini that 8ritain
was unablc to acccpt or approvc thc prcscnt !talian claim, and () hc could
tacitly acquicscc in thc !talian claim. Tc rst option did not appcal to
Chambcrlain sincc it could casily lcad to troublc lor 8ritain at a latcr datc.
Tc sccond option hc at rst thought thc most consistcnt and logical,
but hc also had to considcr Mussolinis possiblc violcnt rcaction and, morc
importantly, il 8clgradc lound out about 8ritains rcjcction ol Mussolinis
o
DBFP, No. +6:, cnclosurc.
+
Mcmorandum by Mr. Sargcnt, :6 April +:, DBFP, No. +6.
:
Sir A. Chambcrlain to Sir R. Graham, May +:, DBFP, No. +8.
claims, it might cncouragc it to adopt an uncompromising attitudc, and
possibly lcad to a lrcsh rcvolution in Albania.
Hc thcn addrcsscd Sccds vcry illuminating dcspatch. Hc cxplaincd

that hc had always hcld that 8ritain had no dircct intcrcst in Albania, and
that thc only rcason hc wantcd to scc !talys pcnctration in Albania conncd
within ccrtain limits was that, il such pcnctration wcrc unlimitcd, it would
arousc thc lcar ol ncighbouring statcs and thcrcby cndangcr pcacc. Vhat
Sccds had convinccd him ol, howcvcr, was that thc lactor which was cvcn
morc likcly to cndangcr pcacc would bc thc disappcarancc ol Ahmcd 8cy
and his govcrnmcnt sincc: Should Ahmcd 8cy disappcar, thc rcsult is likcly
to bc civil war, during which Albania as a scparatc Statc might ccasc to cxist
or bccomc subjcct to a puppct Govcrnmcnt still morc dcpcndcnt on lorcign
bayoncts than thc prcscnt onc Vcrc His Majcstys Govcrnmcnt now
to vcto M. Mussolinis policy ol supporting Ahmcds Govcrnmcnt against
both intcrnal and cxtcrnal aggrcssion, and wcrc hc subscqucntly to bc ovcr
thrown, it is not dicult to lorcscc thc !talian argumcnts whcrcby His Maj
cstys Govcrnmcnt would bc hcld rcsponsiblc lor thc rcsulting chaos and
thc conscqucnt damagc to vital !talian intcrcsts, and cvcn lor thc cvcntual
conict bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia.
Chambcrlain also cncloscd a mcmorandum addrcsscd to Mussolini

a sickcning piccc ol work in which hc bcnt ovcr backwards to makc con
ciliatory statcmcnts to thc !talian dictator, concluding thus: ! takc notc
with particular satislaction ol thc vcry lrank and prccisc assuranccs with
which Signor Mussolinis mcssagc concludcs, namcly, that thc situation crc
atcd by thc Ambassadors Conlcrcncc rcsolution ol +:+ and by thc Trcaty
ol Tirana guarantccs thc indcpcndcncc ol Albania and docs not thrcatcn in
thc lcast Jugoslavia or any othcr Statc bordcring upon Albania, that !taly
casts no aggrcssivc glanccs cithcr in thc ncighbourhood ol thc Adriatic or
clscwhcrc, and lastly, that !taly will do nothing which might disturb thc
pcacc ol uropc. !t is so that ! havc throughout undcrstood and intcrprctcd
his policy.
Vhcn 8riand mct Chambcrlain at thc Forcign cc and

cnquircd about !taloYugoslav rclations, to his crcdit Chambcrlain at lcast
rcplicd that onc could ncvcr spcak condcntly about so tcmpcramcntal a
pcrson as Signor Mussolini.
6
Tc qucstion thus ariscs: did Chambcrlain actually dccisivcly shilt
8ritains policy towards thc Albanian rilt bctwccn !taly and Yugoslavia:
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., cnclosurc.
6
Rccord by Sir A. Chambcrlain ol a convcrsation with M. 8riand at thc Forcign cc
on +8 May, +:, DBFP, No. :o+.
8alcanica XXX\! 234
And thc answcr, surcly, is that hc did not do so in any mcaninglul scnsc.
As hc and his diplomats kcpt cndlcssly rcpcating, 8ritain had no intcr
cst in Albania cxccpt to kccp thc country pacicd lcst 8ritain lound itscll
involvcd in a crisis, or a conict which scrvcd hcr no purposc whatsocvcr.
Hcrc, 8ritain was actually morc suspicious ol Francc with hcr Littlc n
tcntc systcm than ol !taly. And, il anything, as thc rccords show, thc Forcign
cc was lar morc lrcqucntly backing Yugoslav complaints against !taly
than thc othcr way round. !n this casc at lcast, it was not thc casc what Pro
lcssor Slobodan Jovanovi told Villiam Strang, thc young 8ritish diplomat
at 8clgradc in thc carly +:os: No allicd country, hc said, had bccn morc
gcncrously lricndly to Jugoslavia than Grcat 8ritain, and no allicd country
politically so hostilc.
Vhat so lrightcncd Chambcrlain in May +: was

thc possibility that Zogu could casily bc rcmovcd, that no suitablc rcplacc
mcnt could bc lound lor him, and that a 8alkan conagration could cnsuc,
somcthing which 8ritain absolutcly wantcd to avoid. Tis was shccr prag
matism on 8ritains part, hardly a changc ol policy. !t should bc rcmcmbcrcd
that 8ritains rcjcction ol thc Gcncva Protocol in +: had crcatcd thc cs
scntial basis lor hcr postwar intcrnational bchaviour: avoid all lorcign com
mitmcnts at all costs unlcss your own dircct intcrcsts arc undcr thrcat. And
it is wrong to arguc that thc Trcaty ol Tirana was madc possiblc by 8ritish
acquicsccncc: Having just blockcd any substantial !talian gains at thc cx
pcnsc ol thiopia and Turkcy, 8ritain was glad cnough to allow Mussolini a
littlc balm lor his cgo in Albania which, lrom +:+ on, had bccn rccognizcd
by thc Conlcrcncc ol Ambassadors as a spccial !talian sphcrc ol intcrcst.
8

!ndccd, it was prcciscly thc Trcaty ol Tirana which conrmcd an alrcady
cxisting statc ol aairs bctwccn !taly and Albania, and 8ritish prcoccupa
tions in thiopia and Turkcy had nothing to do with it: thcy wcrc cntircly
scparatc issucs with cntircly scparatc possiblc conscqucnccs. 8ritain was an
impcrial powcr with vast intcrcsts in thc Ncar and Middlc ast. Shc had
had no prctcnsions in thc Adriatic at lcast sincc thc Napolconic pcriod.
And thus thc almost hystcrical !taloYugoslav crisis ovcr Albania in
thc spring ol +: soon pctcrcd out. YugoslavAlbanian rclations dctcrio
ratcd lurthcr, with diplomatic rclations bcing brokcn o in Junc +:, only
to bc rcstorcd again in August.
8ut Yugoslavia, cconomically and militar

ily lar wcakcr than !taly, had long sincc lost Albania which now bccamc
!talys satcllitc statc in all but namc, this bcing a statc ol aairs which in
rcality rcprcscntcd mcrcly a political tcchnicality at lcast sincc thc Trcaty
Lord Strang, Home and Abroad (London: Andrc cutsch, +6), .

8
Marks, Te Illusion of Peace, 8.
Scc Mirko Avakumovi, Prekid i obnova diplomatskih odnosa izmeu Kraljevine Srba,
Hrvata i Slovenaca i Albanije 1927. godine (8clgradc: tamparija Privrcdnik, +).
ol Tirana.
+oo
Vhich, it may bc argucd, was just as wcll. As a contcmporary
8ritish obscrvcr wrotc, thc Albanians havc givcn convincing prool that
thcy arc unttcd to govcrn thcmsclvcs, whcrcas a protcctoratc would rcsult
in bringing pcacc to a distractcd land.
+o+
Tc rcst ol thc story is wcllknown. Zogu madc himscll King in
+:8, thus rounding o his somcwhat cincmatic carccr. 8ut thcrc cxistcd
no constitutional monarchy in Albania to spcak ol. Hc madc attcmpts to
modcrnizc his country, whilst in lorcign policy hc prctcndcd to bc indcpcn
dcnt ol !taly a claim that loolcd no onc. And it was thc rivalry bctwccn
Mussolini and Hitlcr that ultimatcly dccidcd thc latc ol Zogu and Albania.
Tc Gcrmans marchcd into Praguc in March +, an action that thrcw il
Duce into an inlantilc mood and, inucnccd by his lorcign ministcr Contc
Ciano, hc scnt his troops to occupy Albania in April, a military opcration
not particularly distinguishcd by its brilliancc, but ncvcrthclcss succcsslully
complctcd by thc middlc ol April whcn thc crown ol Albania was ocrcd to
thc !talian King \ictor mmanucl. Zogu wcnt to cxilc, rumourcd to carry
+,ooo,ooo in trcasurc.
+o:
Altcr thc Sccond Vorld Var Titos Yugoslavia bricy asscrtcd somc
inucncc ovcr Tirana, but thc Pcoplcs Albania prclcrrcd to try othcr vcr
sions ol thc Socialist cxpcrimcnt rst Sovict, thcn Chincsc bclorc sct
tling on hcr own isolationist and lamously paranoid modcl.
UDC 94(4)1927:327.82(420)
+oo
Alan Palmcr, Te Lands Between: A History of East-Central Europe since the Congress of
Vienna (London: Vcidcnlcld and Nicolson, +o), ::.
+o+
. Alcxandcr Powcll, Embattled Borders: Eastern Europe from the Balkans to the Baltic,
(London: John Long Limitcd, +:8), ++o+++.
+o:
Joscph S. Roucck, Balkan Politics: International Relations in No Mans Land (Stanlord:
Stanlord Univcrsity Prcss, +8), ++.
Tanos \crcmis
Western Amateurs in the Balkans and the End of History
Tc 8alkans ol thc ninctccnth and twcnticth ccnturics havc attractcd Vcst
crn amatcurs ol grcat varicty. Somc ocrcd thcir lilclong dcvotion to thc
subjccts ol thcir acction, as did dith urham to thc Albanians (High Al-
bania, +o), or Rcbccca Vcst to thc Scrbs (Black Lamb and the Grey Falcon.
A Journey Trough Yugoslavia, ++). thcrs unlcashcd crcaturcs ol darkncss
in thc 8alkan habitat as did 8ram Stokcr with his lamous Dracula and ric
Amblcr with Te Mask of Dimitrios. Anothcr catcgory ol amatcurs madc
hcadway in an unsuspccting rcadcrship with much sound and lury disguiscd
as history. Robcrt Kaplans Balkan Ghosts cvcn pcnctratcd thc inncr sanctum
ol thc Vhitc Housc.
+
Tc casc ol thc Princctonbascd scholar ol antiquity ugcnc 8orza is
morc complicatcd. !n his own 8alkan past hc partook in thc local sport ol
appropriating thc past or dcnying it to oncs cthnic rivals. His bricl cxcur
sion into modcrn history is both sly and innoccnt. Sly in intcnt but innoccnt
ol thc modcrn tcrrain. 8orza was stunncd (p. :+) by thc discovcry ol a
gravcstonc in thc 8aldwin ccmctcry ol Stcclton Pcnnsylvania, dcscribing
its inhabitant as a Maccdon. Tis hc concludcd was cvidcncc ol cthno
gcncsis. Had hc visitcd othcr immigrant communitics in thc northwcstcrn
Unitcd Statcs hc would havc discovcrcd a plcthora ol Maccdonian (Grcck,
8ulgarian or Albanian), Pcloponncsian, Crctan ctc, appcllations signilying
local, rathcr than cthnic origin. Such dcsignations ol clubs, ncwspapcrs and
tombstoncs sincc thc carly twcnticth ccntury abound throughout thc habi
tat ol immigrants with a strong attachmcnt to thcir localc ol origin.
:
+
For morc cxamplcs, scc Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (xlord, +) and
\csna Goldsworthy, Inventing Ruritanie. Te Imperialism of the Imagination (Yalc Uni
vcrsity Prcss, +8).
:
ugcnc N. 8orza, Maccdonia Rcdux, in Franccs 8. Titchcncr and Richard F. Moor
ton, Jr, Te Eye Expanded (Univcrsity ol Calilornia Prcss, +), ::66.
8alcanica XXX\! 238
Formcr US cputy Sccrctary ol Statc, Strobc Talbots articlc Scllctcr
mination in an !ntcrdcpcndcnt Vorld
is indicativc ol how oncs lorcign

policy can lcad to uncxpcctcd dcvclopmcnts whcn thc diagnosis ol thc ail
mcnt is bascd on qucstionablc prcmiscs. Mr. Talbots attcmpt to apply thc
conccpt ol sclldctcrmination in a way that is conducivc to intcgration and
not to disintcgration succccdcd in producing thc oppositc outcomc. vcn
altcr thc cvcnts ol +, hc bclicvcs that his administration is trying to rc
makc thc politics ol thc rcgion without, this timc, having to rcdraw thc map,
without splitting up largc, rcprcssivc, or lailcd statcs into small, lractious
ministatcs that arc ncithcr cconomically nor politically viablc. A quick look
at thc Vcstcrn 8alkans conrms Mr. Talbots worst lcars.
His vicw ol 8os

nia is that this country has tricd to givc all citizcns rcason to lccl that thcy
bclong to a singlc statc not so much a nation statc, as a multicthnic lcdcral
statc. Tcrc is rcason lor cautious optimism about rcaching this goal.
Yct
8osnia rcmains as scgrcgatcd as cvcr. n Kosovo hc insists that thc Kos
ovars havc historically wantcd and undcr Yugoslav Prcsidcnt Josip 8roz
Tito cnjoycd a high dcgrcc ol autonomy. Tcn, undcr Prcsidcnt Slobodan
Milocvi, thcy sucrcd a dccadc ol Scrbian opprcssion and morc than a
ycar ol cthnic clcansing. Now thcy want morc than just sclldctcrmina
tion: Tcy want total indcpcndcncc.
6
Howcvcr, thc history ol thc Albanian
Kosovars sincc thcy lound thcmsclvcs unwillingly in thc Kingdom ol Scrbia
(++) docs not conlorm with Mr. Talbots vicw that thcir option lor indc
pcndcncc is thc cxclusivc outcomc ol Milocvis rcprcssion.
Tc lact that thc unication ol Kosovo with Albania during thc Scc
ond Vorld Var was wcll rcccivcd by thc Albanian population and thc sub
scqucnt uprisings ol thc Albanian clcmcnt against Titos arrangcmcnts, dcly
Mr. Talbots intcrprctation. His asscssmcnt that autonomy is still an option
lor thc Kosovars within a largcr dcmocratic, lcdcralizcd, multicthnic statc,

il Scrbia bccomcs dcmocratic, is widc o thc mark. A dcmocratic rcgimc
could havc matcrializcd in Scrbia il thc Kosovar Albanians had choscn to
throw thcir lull clcctoral wcight against Milocvi in past and rcccnt clcc
tions. Tcy chosc to abstain, to avoid lcgitimizing a statc thcy did not want
to bc part ol. Somc, according to rumours, cvcn sccrctly votcd lor Milocvi
to prccipitatc thc brcakdown that would lcad to thcir indcpcndcncc.
Mr. Talbots linc is sharcd by many Vcstcrn commcntators. Most
rclusc to comc to tcrms with a rcality ol warring cthnic nationalisms that
Foreign Policy (Spring :ooo), +:+6.
Ibid., +.
Ibid.
6
Ibid., +6.
Ibid.
T. \crcmis, Vcstcrn Amatcurs in thc 8alkans 239
rcsist rcconciliation through dcmocratic symbiosis. Vhcn, lor cxamplc,
this author put thc qucstion to Gcorgc Soros whcthcr a dcmocratic Scrbia
would inducc thc Kosovars to rcturn to thc lold ol FRY as an autonomous
cntity or a Rcpublic, hc did not gct a clcar answcr. Vcstcrn ocials pay
lipscrvicc to thc goal ol acculturating multicthnic statcs to thc ways ol thc
lrcc markct cconomy and multicultural cxistcncc without cxplaining how
this will comc to pass. According to lormcr US Ambassador to Yugoslavia,
Varrcn Zimmcrmann, !l thc world is to support thc idca ol multicthnicity
as an organising principlc lor statcs thcn it will havc to do morc to cnsurc
thc protcction ol minoritics within multicthnic statcs.
8
Yct vc ycars altcr
ayton, 8osnia is morc ol a scgrcgatcd, aiddcpcndcnt protcctoratc than
cvcr.
Mr. Talbots unhistorical mantra is rcpcatcd by thc authors ol Win-
ning Ugly.
Tc lact that Kosovos Albanians arc now ccctivcly in chargc

ol thc provincc and that thcy should rcmain in control ol at lcast most ol
it, whcthcr through autonomy within Scrbia, rcpublic status within Yugo
slavia, or cvcntual indcpcndcncc has nothing to do with original claims to
thc land. !t has instcad to do with thc trcatmcnt ol thc Kosovar Albanians
by Slobodan Miloscvic and his lcllow Scrb nationalists in rcccnt timcs.
Tc ovcrlapping and conicting irrcdcntisms ol Scrbs and Albanians havc
cvcrything to do with thc prcscnt statc ol aairs in Kosovo. To say that
lattcrday nationalists in Scrbia bcar thc solc rcsponsibility lor currcnt dc
vclopmcnts is likc saying that thc FrancoGcrman rivalry was invcntcd by
Hitlcr.
A bricl rcvicw ol 8alkan dcvclopmcnts may bc ncccssary to placc this
authors prcmiscs in pcrspcctivc.
Tc 8alkans
+o
havc ncvcr constitutcd a rcgional continuum, cxccpt
during thc ccnturics ol ttoman rulc that gavc thcm thcir namc. !n cthnic
and cultural tcrms thcy havc bccn as divcrsicd as any gcographic rcgion
ol uropc bc it Vcstcrn, Northcrn, Southcrn or Ccntral. !n cthnic and
linguistic tcrms, Croatia, 8osnia and Scrbia arc similar, whilc FYRM and
8ulgaria sharc linguistic and cultural lcgacics. Although Romania, Grcccc,
8ulgaria, Scrbia and FYRM havc Christian rthodox majoritics, this has
not prcvcntcd thcm lrom ghting on oppositc camps. Tc Muslim clcmcnt
in 8osnia, Albania, Scrbia and FYRM havc not coopcratcd in thc past,
cxccpt as cthnic Albanians. Having rcmaincd outsidc uropcs mainstrcam
8
Varrcn Zimmcrmann, Origins of a Catastrophe (Ncw York: Timcs 8ooks, +), :.
!vo H. aaldcr and Michacl . Hanlon, Winning Ugly. NATOs War to Save Kosovo
(Vashington C: 8rookings !nstitution Prcss, :ooo), 8.
+o
Tc tcrm hcrc includcs Yugoslavia (and its succcssor statcs), Albania, Grcccc, Roma
nia and 8ulgaria.
8alcanica XXX\! 240
lor ccnturics, 8alkan socictics lailcd to synchronizc thcir dcvclopmcnt with
thc statcbuilding proccss ol Vcstcrn uropc.
Tc disparatc rccord ol cmcrging 8alkan statcs in attaining indcpcn
dcncc throughout thc ninctccnth and cvcn as latc as thc twcnticth ccntury
and thcir intcrmittcnt corts at constructing administrativc and parliamcn
tary institutions, wcrc ncvcr lrcc ol uropcan politics. Tcir irrcdcntist wars
against ttoman rulc and thc rcsultant bordcrs wcrc closcly supcrviscd by
lorcign patrons and rcgulatcd by thc principlcs that govcrncd uropcan
rclations. !l thc First Vorld Var rcstructurcd thc boundarics ol thc 8alkans
and aordcd a pcriod ol rclativc lrccdom lrom grcat powcr involvcmcnt,
thc communist cra that lollowcd thc Sccond Vorld Var imposcd Sovict
inucncc and impcdcd 8alkan dcvclopmcnt along Vcstcrn lincs.
Tc proccss ol Yugoslavias disintcgration bcgan a dccadc bclorc thc
lall ol thc 8crlin Vall whcn thc nccd lor cconomic and administrativc rc
lorm camc at odds with long standing trcnds ol thc Fcdcrations dcccn
tralization. Yugoslavias acccss to Vcstcrn capital markcts throughout thc
sixtics and scvcntics, and its inability to scrvicc its Vcstcrn dcbts altcr thc
sccond oil shock, conlrontcd thc Fcdcral lcadcrship with a dirc prcdica
mcnt. Tc mcasurcs dictatcd by thc !ntcrnational Monctary Fund (!MF)
rcquircd constitutional rclorm to strcngthcn thc ccntral Govcrnmcnts abil
ity to implcmcnt an austcrity policy. !n +8 thc Lcaguc ol Communists ol
Yugoslavia (LCY) lcadcrship appointcd a party commission to discuss thc
political systcm. Tc Commissions prcliminary proposals lor amcndmcnts
to thc + Constitution soon cntcrcd public dcbatc which rcvcalcd thc
antilcdcralist scntimcnts ol thc morc prospcrous Rcpublics. Furthcrmorc
thc prcssurc ol thc Vcst, lavourcd lcss, rathcr than morc, govcrnmcnt in
tcrlcrcncc in thc cconomy, lrccmarkct rclorm and privatization. !n othcr
words, Yugoslavia was gctting mixcd mcssagcs lrom its Vcstcrn crcditors
and its Vcstcrn political lricnds to incrcasc and to rcducc ccntral author
ity at thc samc timc.
++
Tosc Rcpublics whosc vicws on this mattcr sccmcd
morc libcral and Vcstcrn wcrc in lact catcring to thc intcrcsts ol thc cthnic
groups thcy rcprcscntcd. Tcy wcrc ol coursc thc rst to bolt thc Fcdcra
tion.
+:
l thc statcs and institutions outsidc thc rcgion ol Southcastcrn u
ropc, thc uropcan Union initially wicldcd thc grcatcst inucncc. From
its carly support lor thc unity ol Yugoslavia as a prccondition lor luturc
++
Susan Voodwards analysis, among thc many that attcmptcd to tracc thc causcs ol
Yugoslavias implosion, is pcrhaps thc most obscrvant ol thc Fcdcrations history. Balkan
Tragedy. Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Vashington C: Tc 8rookings !n
stitution, +), , +, o, 6o6:.
+:
Ibid.
application to thc 8russcls PS mccting ol thc twclvc Forcign Ministcrs
on +6+ cccmbcr ++, thc U pcrlormcd an about lacc. Vithin hall
a ycar thc C had movcd lrom a unicd position on thc maintcnancc ol
thc Yugoslav statc, to a common but harshly discordant policy on inviting
thosc rcpublics sccking indcpcndcncc to submit applications and undcrgo
thc proccdurc idcnticd.
+
Tis dccision was promptcd by Gcrmanys insis
tcncc on thc immcdiatc rccognition ol Slovcnia and Croatia which initiatcd
a trcnd that could not bc conncd to thc two Rcpublics.
Vashington at rst supportcd Scrbian rcluctancc to abandon Yugo
slav unity. Howcvcr, in his July ++ visit to Yugoslavia, Sccrctary ol Statc
Jamcs 8akcr statcd that his govcrnmcnt would not objcct to a pcacclul pro
ccss lcading to indcpcndcncc, howcvcr unlikcly that was. 8y thc Spring ol
+:, thc US had cast its lot lor thc rccognition ol thc Rcpublics.
Politicians and diplomats, wcllvcrscd in rcgional politics and irrc
dcntist strilc, warncd thc U ol thc violcncc that a brcakup ol Yugoslavia
would unlcash. Tcir prcdiction was that rccognition ol scccssionist unitary
statcs, in which prcpondcrant cthnic lorccs hcld sway ovcr thcir own minor
itics, would provokc a chain rcaction until, cvcntually, thc proccss ol disintc
gration lcd to a plcthora ol cthnically purc but unworkablc ncighbourhood
cntitics. !n a conlcrcncc on 8alkan dcvclopmcnts, jointly sponsorcd by thc
Voodrow Vilson Ccntcr and thc SudostcuropaGcscllschalt in Potsdam
(::6 Junc +:), this author cxprcsscd his own worrics ovcr thc luturc ol
thc rcgion:
Tc most ominous dcvclopmcnt in Yugoslavia is thc prolilcration ol
wcak and mutually hostilc statc cntitics in a rcgion, which docs not
at thc prcscnt momcnt constitutc a high priority lor thc Vcst. !n
that scnsc thc 8alkans arc no longcr thc powdcr kcg ol uropc but
a dccaying backwatcr cut o lrom thc prospcct ol communication
with thc Vcstcrn Community. Tc implosion ol nationalist strilc
ol Yugoslavia can still crcatc a chain rcaction ol dcvclopmcnts that
would undcrminc thc cconomics ol adjaccnt statcs and dctcrminc
thc luturc ol thc 8alkans as thc third world ol uropc.
+
Sincc ++, thc adjaccnt statcs havc lost valuablc tradc and, as a rcsult,
smuggling and corruption havc prcvailcd in a sizcablc black markct ccon
omy. Furthcrmorc thcy wcrc cut o lrom thc rcst ol uropc, as a rcsult ol
cmbargocs and political dccisions that dircctly acctcd thcir capacity lor
growth.
+
Jamcs Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will. International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War
(London: Hurst, +), 66.
+
T. \crcmis, inc Ncudcnition dcr Sichcrhcitsbchangc in Sudostcuropa, Sdosteu-
ropa Mitteilungen :/ (+), ++.
8alcanica XXX\! 242
Tc + bombings by NAT put an cnd to Scrbian advancc in 8os
nia. Tc ayton Agrccmcnt ol :+ Novcmbcr + that lollowcd was cn
ginccrcd by a supcrpowcr whosc timing was pcrlcct. !n thc summcr that
prcccdcd thc bombings, thc Croatian lorccs cvictcd thc Scrbs lrom Krajina,
whilc thc Scrbs clcanscd most ol astcrn 8osnia. Tc contours ol an cth
nically scgrcgatcd 8osnia wcrc ocially scttlcd on papcr. Tc Amcrican
succcss in pacilying thc rcgion may havc bccn partly a qucstion ol good
timing but it also signicd thc lailurc ol thc U to producc and cnlorcc a
viablc solution.
Tc ayton achicvcmcnt in lrcczing thc 8osnian conict madc 8os
niaHcrzcgovina totally dcpcndcnt on thc Vcst. vcn thc dcvclopmcnt ol
its dcmocratic institutions is supcrviscd by outsidc lorccs and somc ol its
clcctcd lcadcrs arc sackcd whcn thcy lail to mcct Vcstcrn standards. Tc
thrcc cthnically clcanscd scctors ol thc statc, howcvcr, continuc thcir scpa
ratc livcs without promoting thc multicultural cocxistcncc which bccamc
thc hallmark ol Vcstcrn intcrvcntion.
For Amcricans thc rolc ol arbitcr in Vcstcrn 8alkan aairs has bccn
a novcl cxpcricncc. Vith an administration that considcrs thc rcgion an
cmbarrassmcnt rathcr than a stratcgic assct, thc US has sincc tricd to apply
its panacca ol lrcc markct and dcmocratic institutions with littlc paticncc.
So wc arc now bcginning to rcalizc that such institutions takc timc to dcvcl
op and that thcrclorc a prcmaturc withdrawal ol thc SFR or thc KFR
could causc havoc to rccur.
Scrbias supcrior command ol rcpowcr had bccn its grcatcst wcak
ncss in thc dcpiction ol thc Yugoslav conict by thc Vcstcrn mcdia. Hav
ing committcd thc largcst pcrccntagc ol atrocitics among thc bclligcrcnts,
shc stcadily bccamc thc main targct ol CNN and US attcntion. As a rcsult,
thcrc was a markcd changc in Vcstcrn policy lavouring thc advcrsarics ol
Scrbia as thc wcakcr parts in thc conict. Naturally, thc Kosovo Albanians
wcrc thc wcakcst ol all thc victims.
Vas it only a qucstion ol principlcs that lcd to military involvcmcnt
in 8osnia, or did this also scrvc spccial intcrcsts ol thc U and thc USA:
Tc rcport ol thc International Commission on the Balkans, in onc ol its morc
candid momcnts, cxplains why thc latc ol !slam in 8osnia is ol importancc
lor rcasons going bcyond thc country or cvcn thc 8alkans: +) it has bccomc
a lactor in thc Vcsts rclations with thc !slamic world, :) it might bccomc
important lor Turkcys rclationship with uropc, and ) it has implications
lor thc !slamic communitics ol Vcstcrn uropc.
+
Tcrc is no mcntion in
thc rcport as to why thc Scrbs should considcr thc Vcsts rclations with thc
+
Unnished Peace, Rcport ol thc !ntcrnational Commission on thc 8alkans (Vashing
ton C: Carncgic ndowmcnt lor Pcacc and Aspcn !nstitutc, +6), +8.
!slamic world thcir own priority.

!l thcrc had bccn, thc Scrbs could havc
bccn gcntly ushcrcd into a communality ol intcrcsts with a uropcan com
munity that thcy aspircd to join.
Vcstcrn policy visavis Kosovo was promptcd by thc 8osnian prcc
cdcnt, and thc ayton Accord. Unlikc 8osnia, howcvcr, Kosovo has bccn a
provincc ol Scrbia sincc thc 8alkan Vars ol ++:+ and a tcrritory rcplctc
with Scrbian history and rcligious shrincs. Vhcrcas ayton conrmcd a
lait accompli in thc cld, Kosovo had rcmaincd undcr rm Scrb adminis
tration, until thc Kosovo Libcration Army (UCK) bcgan to challcngc thc
authority ol 8clgradc. Apparcntly thc goal ol thc UCK was to provokc
thc Scrb authoritics into violcnt rcprisals that would capturc thc attcntion
ol thc Vcst and compcl it to act. !n thc catandmousc gamc that cnsucd
bctwccn thc Scrb lorccs and thc UCK, an outsidc intcrvcntion could only
kccp thcm apart by committing ground troops ol thc SFR typc.
Mr. Holbrookcs agrccmcnt with Milocvi in ctobcr +8 lor
a partial Scrb withdrawal lrom Kosovo lailcd to addrcss thc abscncc ol
ground troops that could havc prcvcntcd thc UCK lrom lling thc vacu
um in thc cld. Although Miloscvic was advcrsc to thc prcscncc ol lorcign
troops in what hc considcrcd to bc Scrbian sovcrcign tcrritory, at thc samc
timc hc was compcllcd by UCK action to launch largcscalc opcrations that
compromiscd Scrbia intcrnationally. 8clorc thc Vcst camc to Rambouillct,
thc possibility ol committing an SFR typc ol contingcncy to supcrvisc
thc ctobcr +8 agrccmcnt had not bccn cxhaustcd. Tc participation ol
Russians in a lorcc that would havc cnsurcd thc ordcrly dcparturc ol largc
numbcrs ol Scrb troops and thc passivity ol thc UCK, might havc bccn
possiblc il thc Amcricans had not pcrsistcd in cxcluding thc Russians. Tc
HolbrookcMiloscvic agrccmcnt brought back displaccd Albanians to thcir
homcs, but thc abscncc ol an cnlorccmcnt mcchanism cxposcd thc agrcc
mcnt to contravcntions by thc advcrsarics. An accuratc picturc ol thc cx
ccsscs committcd bctwccn ctobcr +8 and March + whcn thc bomb
ing bcgan, is probably includcd in thc rcport ol thc +,oo SC obscrvcrs
in Kosovo. Tc Canadian Ambassador to Yugoslavia Jamcs 8issctt
+6
notcd
that this valuablc piccc ol cvidcncc, which has so lar cscapcd thc attcn
tion ol commcntators, has not bccn givcn to thc public by thc SC.
+

Rcgardlcss ol whcthcr thc rcport is damning to Scrb opcrations, or not, thc
Rambouillct ultimatum was sccn by Milocvi as a violation ol his countrys
tcrritorial intcgrity. NATs dcmand to bc grantcd acccss to thc cntirc FRY
+6
!n thc Canadian Globe and Mail, +o January :ooo.
+
Ncithcr Tim Judah, Kosovo-War and Revenge (London: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo),
nor aaldcr and Hanlon, Winning Ugly, mcntion this lacuna.
8alcanica XXX\! 244
gavc thc thcn Fcdcral Prcsidcnt thc opportunity to prcscnt his rclusal as an
act ol rcsistancc against lorcign occupation.
+8
!l actions arc not to bc judgcd by intcntions but by outcomcs, thcn
thc opcration ol bombing thc FRY was a mistakc. NAT dcvastatcd a
ccntrally locatcd 8alkan statc in ordcr to rid its pcoplc ol Milocvi, to savc
thc impcrillcd Kosovar Albanians and to sccurc multicthnic cocxistcncc in
an autonomous provincc. Howcvcr, it succccdcd in achicving thc oppositc
on all counts. Altcr 8osnia, Kosovo is (or will soon bc) yct anothcr cthni
cally clcanscd protcctoratc ol thc Vcst with a Libcration Army (UCK) that
has dcclarcd its irrcdcntist dcsigns against thc ncighbouring statcs.
+
!n thc
cthnic antagonisms ovcr tcrritory, NAT has clcarly takcn sidcs
:o
and thc
US agcnda lor a multicthnic, multicultural Vcstcrn 8alkans has lailcd.
l all thc commcntators ol US policy in Kosovo, Hcnry Kissingcr
is thc grcat cxccption that vcrics thc rulc. His Hobbcsian vicw ol hu
man naturc, his historical crudition and his carclul computation ol national
intcrcst, makc him pcrhaps thc most accomplishcd ol thc antiLockcan
mavcricks ol Amcrican ocialdom. Vith a scrics ol articlcs (April +, May
+ and Junc :+, +) Kissingcr strovc to salvagc uropcan history lrom
thc administrations onslaught. !n thc grand tradition ol ninctccnthccntury
conscrvativc statcsmcn that hc admircs, hc is wary ol humanitarian causcs
with unprcdictablc outcomcs. His criticism ol Mrs. Albrights achicvcmcnt
in Kosovo and his rcmcdy to thc prcscnt impassc ccrtainly challcngc main
strcam vicws on thc subjcct, !l wc try to implcmcnt thc UN rcsolution
lor any lcngth ol timc, wc will cmcrgc as thc pcrmancnt party to arcanc
and bittcr 8alkan quarrcls. !t would bc lar wiscr to cut thc Gordian knot
and conccdc Kosovar indcpcndcncc as part ol an ovcrall 8alkan scttlcmcnt
pcrhaps including sclldctcrmination lor cach ol thc thrcc cthnic groups
ol 8osnia. !n such an arrangcmcnt, thc bordcrs ol Kosovo and its ncigh
bours should bc guarantccd by NAT or thc rganization lor Sccurity and
Coopcration in uropc. As in 8osnia, thc intcrnational lorccs would thcn
patrol both sidcs ol thcsc bordcrs lor at lcast a substantial intcrim pcriod.
:+

Kissingcrs admonitions do not sound hollow. 8y intcrvcning, thc US has
madc its prcscncc a dctcrmining lactor in shaping thc luturc ol thc rcgion.
Tc Vcstcrn 8alkans havc thcrclorc bccomc again a grcat powcrs protcc
+8
Tc accounts ol thc Rambouillct dclibcrations, cspccially that ol Judah, lcavc littlc to
bc dcsircd. Judah, Kosovo-War, +::6, aaldcr and Hanlon, Winning Ugly, 8o.
+
Chris Hcdgcs, As UN rganizcs, Rcbcls arc Taking Chargc ol Kosovo, Te New
York Times, : July +.
:o
Scc vicw ol cputy Commandcr in Chicl ol US uropcan Command, Charlcs G.
8oyd, Making Pcacc with thc Guilty, Foreign Aairs (Scpt/ct +), ::8.
:+
Hcnry Kissingcr, As thc Chccrs Fadc, Newsweek, :+ Junc +.
toratc, as thcy havc bccn so oltcn in thc past. Tc paradox in this cxccptional
Vcstcrn involvcmcnt in an cvcr growing numbcr ol protcctoratcs (8osnia,
Kosovo, FYRM, Albania) is that unlikc thc Cold Var pcriod, thc rcgion
docs not constitutc a US, NAT or U priority, but is morc ol an cxportcr
ol immigrants and a gcncrator ol troublc lor thc rcst ol uropc. Givcn thc
scarcity ol Vcstcrn rcsourccs allocatcd lor thc rcconstruction ol thc rcgion,
thc Yugoslav black holc may bccomc thc causc ol a widcr contagion ol cco
nomic dccay.
::
Tc miraculous changc ol rcgimc in thc FRY lollowing thc Scptcm
bcr :ooo clcctions has bccomc thc singlc most hcartcning dcvclopmcnt in
thc Vcstcrn 8alkans lor a vcry long timc.
A pcrmancnt slidc into barbarism is not among thc likcly contingcn
cics that thrcatcn thc Vcstcrn 8alkans. Such strilc as wc havc sccn through
out thc Kosovo crisis will rcccdc. Vc should also not lorgct that nation statcs
in most uropcan cascs havc bccn unicultural institutions promoting thcir
own cxclusivity at thc cxpcnsc ol thc othcrs. !t was thc immcnsc, matcrial
and moral dcvastation ol VV!!, as wcll as thc Sovict thrcat, that induccd
thc uropcans to takc up thc cxpcrimcnt ol multilatcralism and multicul
turalism in thc postwar pcriod. Tc 8alkans as an appcndagc ol Vcstcrn
uropc adoptcd thc statcbuilding proccss and thc idcological trappings
ol its Vcstcrn prototypc with somc dclay. Tc dissolution ol Yugoslavia
rcvcalcd thc othcr sidc ol irrcdcntism cthnic clcansing. !l a statc cannot
cxpand its tcrritory, it can ccrtainly clcansc it lrom its undcsirablc cthnic
minoritics, cspccially il thcy arc pcrccivcd as a sccurity thrcat.
Tc US did not intcrvcnc in 8osnia and Kosovo to lacilitatc cthnical
ly purc microprotcctoratcs, but multicultural dcmocratic lcdcrations, altcr
its own imagc. Tc Amcricans arc dcdicatcd to multiculturalism although
thcy rcmain a multicthnic socicty with a singlc political culturc. Tcir virtu
ous undcrtaking in thc Vcstcrn 8alkans loundcrcd in this misconccption
and in thc structural Amcrican contcmpt lor history. Vhcn thc lounding
lathcrs turncd thcir backs to thc nglish thronc, ccnturics ol convolutcd
history lrozc and thc luturc was illuminatcd by thc manilcst dcstiny ol thc
ncw nation. Tc cnd ol history happcncd in thc cightccnth ccntury lor thc
Amcricans, thcy cxpcctcd it to occur at thc cnd ol thc twcnticth ccntury lor
thc rcst ol thc world.
Vhat can thc Vcst do to prcvcnt thc rcgional rilt lrom widcning:
+) Qualily cconomic aid and channcl it to thc rcstoration ol thc inlra
structurc. (Tc Marshall plan altcr all was about dcvclopmcnt not nancing
::
Martin Slctzingcr, Tc Conscqucnccs ol thc Var in Kosovo, in Kosovo & NATO.
Impending Challenges (Vashington C: Tc Voodrow Vilson !ntcrnational Ccntcr
lor Scholars, ast uropcan Studics, +), .
8alcanica XXX\! 246
Vcstcrn adviscrs and NGs.) :) Stop bclicving that cmocracy can bc
transplantcd on lallow ground. ) ncouragc rcgional and local coopcration
initiativcs as an antcchambcr to luturc U acccssion. ) Kccp a Vcstcrn
military prcscncc in 8osnia and Kosovo to maintain ordcr and hclp thc
locals rcstorc a stablc and prcdictablc statc ol aairs. Tc UNM!K should
gradually givc way to local authoritics. ) !l Scrbia rcmains thc cconomic
black holc it is today, its population will continuc to lcavc a land that can
no longcr support thcm. 6) Vcstcrn and cspccially Amcrican policymakcrs
should bccomc morc rcvcrcntial ol history. !ts cnd is nowhcrc in sight.
Hellenic Foundation UDC 94:327.8(100)](497)199
for European and Foreign Policy
Athens
ABSTRACTS
Nikola Tasi
nvoxzv ~xu ivox ~cv si:vs ix svv: ~xu
:nv s:v~:icv~vnv ov co:oi~v~
Systcmatic cxcavation at Gomolava conductcd almost intcrruptcdly bc
twccn + and +8 providcd an almost lull insight into thc human oc
cupation ol thc southcrn Pannonian Plain lrom thc arly Ncolithic to
thc succcssivc arrival ol Cclts and Romans. Tis lact makcs it possiblc lor
many ol thc cxcavatcd shortlivcd or horizontallystraticd scttlcmcnts to
bc dcncd in rclation to Gomolavas stratigraphic scqucncc. As a rcsult,
thc papcr attcmpts to cstablish a rclativc chronology lor 8ronzc and !ron
Agc sitcs in thc arca bctwccn thc Sava and anubc rivcrs. 8y way ol il
lustration, it ocrs lour maps suggcsting synchronous dcvclopmcnts. Tus
Map + shows chronological parallclism bctwccn thc arly 8ronzc Agc lay
crs and latc \ucdol and \inkovci sitcs (such as Pcinc ncar \rdnik, or
8clcgi, \ojka and 8atajnica) bclonging to thc nal ncolithic and arly
8ronzc, whilc Map : shows synchronisms bctwccn Gomolava !\bc and
thc \inkovci laycrs at thc sitcs ol Gradina on thc 8osut, Gradac at 8clcgi,
Pctrovaradin Fortrcss, and Aslaltna 8aza on thc outskirts ol Zcmun. Tc
cnd ol thc 8ronzc Agc rcprcscntcd by Gomolava !\b+ to !\c is shown to
bc synchronous with thc scttlcmcnts, nccropoliscs and hoard horizons ol an
Ha A+ and A: datc. Finally, arly !ron Agc sitcs arc casy to t in with thc
Srcm sitcs owing to systcmatic cxcavations at Gradina on thc 8osut ncar
id, Kalakaa ncar 8cka and numcrous hoards ol bronzc artclacts marking
a clcar boundary bctwccn thc 8ronzc and arly !ron Agcs. At Gomolava
this transition is rccctcd in horizons \a to \d: thc carlicst is rcprcscntcd
by black channcllcd pottcry ol thc Gava typc, whilc thc othcr thrcc arc con
ncctcd with thc cvolution ol thc 8osut8asarabi complcx.
8alcanica XXX\! 248
Ivan Jordovi
uiu :nv ~xcivx: cvvvxs xxow ov coiivc:ivv :vv~xxv-
Tc signicancc ol thc qucstion as to whcthcr thc ancicnt Grccks had thc
notion ol collcctivc tyranny rcsults not only lrom thc lact that thc answcr
may hclp us undcrstand thc cvolution ol Grcck political thought, but also
lrom thc lact that thc study ol thc opprcssivc rcgimcs whosc cxact naturc
was opcn to controvcrsy should not considcr thcm only in tcrms ol oligar
chy or tyranny, sincc contcmporary attitudcs to such rcgimcs wcrc oltcn
powcrlully inucnccd by stcrcotypcs. For that rcason this study locuscs on
thc notion ol dynasteia and shows that it, not idcntical but vcry similar to
thc modcrn notion ol collcctivc tyranny, was known to thc Grccks.
Minna Skafte Jensen
vnovxix, ~cniiivs ~xu ~ x~vv~:ivv v~::vvx
8ook ol thc Iliad, univcrsally considcrcd onc ol thc most marvcllous in thc
pocm, has also bccn a bonc ol contcntion in many scholarly dcbatcs. Sug
gcsting that an important aspcct ol thc spccch Phocnix gavc as a mcmbcr
ol Agamcmnons cmbassy to Achillcs has ncvcrthclcss bccn ovcrlookcd by
scholars, thc papcr makcs it thc locus ol its intcrcst. Unlikc most rcscarch
crs, who havc takcn thc sidc ol thc cnvoys, thc author casts a dicrcnt light
on Achillcs rcasons lor dcclining thc cmbassy and suggcsts that thc tcxt
invitcs thc rcadcrs to sharc thcir sympathics bctwccn thc charactcrs.
ivko Miki
~x:nvovoiocic~i :v~cvs ov si~v vvvsvxcv ix
xosovo ~xu :v:ocni~
At thc currcnt lcvcl ol anthropological rcscarch on mcdicval populations ol
Kosovo and Mctochia, thc total ol vc skclcton scrics is availablc: Matianc,
jonaj, Rczala, Kulinc and, partly, Novo 8rdo. Tc nccropoliscs roughly
covcr thc pcriod bctwccn thc tcnth and sixtccnth ccnturics. Tcir anthro
pological contcnts indicatc curvoccipital dolichocranial Slavs, and a planoc
cipital brachycranial population buricd mostly around rthodox churchcs.
Sonja Petrovi
cn~vi:v, coou uvvus ~xu :nv voov ix
svvni~x vvic vov:vv
Tc analysis ol rclation bctwccn thc poor and thc conccpt ol charity in
Scrbian cpic poctry is initiatcd as part ol thc rcscarch projcct thnic and
Abstracts 249
social stratication ol thc 8alkans, which includcs study ol social margins
and subculturcs in oral litcraturc. Charitablc activitics dircctcd toward thc
poor arc discusscd as social modcls, but also as a complcx way ol social
intcraction bctwccn thc clitcs and thc poor, which lclt its mark on oral tra
dition and cpic poctry. Carc lor thc poor, almsgiving and charitablc dccds
wcrc a rcligious obligation, and in thc coursc ol timc, thc rcpctitivcncss and
habitual charactcr ol poor rclicl bccamc an important issuc in structuring
cultural pattcrns. thical, cducativc and humanistic potcntial ol charity, and
its bcing loundcd on cascs witncsscd in rcal lilc, dircctly conncct charity to
thc shaping ol poctic narrativc modcls. pic modcls rccct and pocticizc
sociocultural pattcrns and charactcrs, which is rcprcscntcd both in mc
dicval documcnts and in cpic tradition, in similarity ol thcir thcmcs and
lormulas on thc lcvcl ol contcnts and structurc. Tis rcscmblancc has lcd to
thc conclusion that charitablc giving, carc lor thc poor and salvation ol soul
cxistcd as spccic pattcrns and intcrgcncric symbols, which wcrc handcd
down in various oral and writtcn lorms.
Bojan Jovanovi
:nv cn~iivxcv ov viuv~i iuvx:i:v
Tc complcxity ol collcctivc cxistcncc is cxprcsscd through an awarcncss ol
its rcal idcntity, which thcn cntails an appropriatc attitudc towards its own
ncgativity. Vithin thc hicrarchically structurcd idcntity, dicrcnt lcvcls ol
its gcncrality makc it possiblc to considcr thcm as lactors ol a plural rcal
ity. !l ncgativity is raiscd to consciousncss, thcn its dark sidc is dismantlcd.
Tus, instcad ol bcing a lactor ol conict, ncgativity bccomcs an clcmcnt ol
complcmcntarincss and a lactor in thc construction ol a sharcd idcntity at a
highcr lcvcl ol gcncrality.
Helena Zdravkovi
:nv vvvx~cui~v uiscouvsvs ov
nis:ovic~i vic:i:~cv ov
xosovo svvns ~xu ~in~xi~xs
Tis idcological criticism study cxamincs thc vcrnacular discourscs ol his
torical victimagc ol Kosovo Scrbs and Albanians. Tc participants amal
gamatc pcrsonal and collcctivc mcmorics with ocial national historics to
cxplain prcscnt victimization as a continuancc ol historical victimagc. Tis
usc ol thc past lcgitimizcs thcir national and political claims, and also justi
cs violcncc against thc othcr group. Historical victimagc ocrs a rationalc
lor hating thc thcr and pcrpctuating a vicious cyclc ol violcncc in intrac
tablc conict.
8alcanica XXX\! 250
Duan T. Batakovi
~ n~ix~xs:viv vvvxcn vvvoiu:iox-
:nv +8o svvni~x uvvisixc ix vuvovv~x vvvsvvc:ivv
Tc Scrbian uprising ol +8o+, initially a pcasant rcbcllion against abuscs
ol powcr by local janissarics, turncd into a national and social rcvolution
lrom +8o6. uring its sccond phasc (latc +8o6 carly +8o), Scrbian in
surgcnts opcnly proclaimcd thcir dcmand lor indcpcndcncc. ncouragcd
by thcir military achicvcmcnts, thc insurgcnt lcadcrs bcgan to scck widcr
8alkan support lor thcir strugglc against ttoman domination. Although
its political claims wcrc a mixturc ol modcrn national and romantic historic
rights, thc uprising gavc hopc to all 8alkan Christians that thc ttoman
dclcat was an achicvablc goal. For thc 8alkan nations it was a Frcnch Rcvo
lution adaptcd to local conditions: thc principlc ol popular sovcrcignty was
opposcd to thc principlc ol lcgitimism, a ncw pcasantdominatcd socicty
was crcatcd in which, duc to thc lack ol thc aristocracy and wcllcstablishcd
middlc classcs, agrarian cgalitarianism was combincd with thc rising aspira
tions ol a modcrn nation. !ts longtcrm cccts on thc political and social
landscapc ol thc wholc rcgion justicd thc asscssmcnt ol thc cmincnt Gcr
man historian Lcopold von Rankc who dcscribcd thc uprising, by analogy
with thc Frcnch cxamplc, as thc Serbian Revolution.
Milan St. Proti
:nv svvni~x v~uic~i :ovv:vx: +88++o
~ nis:ovic~i ~svvc:
Focusing on thc initial stagc (until +o) ol thc Scrbian Radical movcmcnt,
thc papcr attcmpts to dclincatc and cxplicatc thc main phascs ol its political
maturation. !n its initial stagc Scrbian Radicalism passcd through scvcral
signicant phascs. Tc carlicst phasc (+868o) may bc namcd thc pcriod
ol rudimcntary Radicalism. Tc movcmcnt was unorganizcd and oscillatcd
bctwccn thc idcas ol socialism, anarchism and pcasant dcmocracy. Tc ycar
+88+ saw thc lounding ol thc Radical Party as thc rst organizcd political
party in Scrbia with its own intcrnal structurc and programmc. !t opcncd
thc sccond phasc, known as a pcriod ol militant Radicalism (+88+86),
markcd by its organizcd and uncompromising opposition to thc cxisting
systcm and thc pcrsonal rcgimc ol king Milan brcnovi, culminating in
thc Timok rcbcllion in +88. Tc pcriod ol pragmatic Radicalism (+886
) saw a rccupcration and rcorganization ol thc movcmcnt, its inclusion as
a lcgitimatc political lorcc into thc cxisting ordcr, thc passing in +888 ol a
ncw constitution prcdominantly inucnccd by Radical political vicws and
thc Partys rst compromiscs with othcr lactors on thc domcstic political
Abstracts 251
sccnc. Finally, thcrc was a pcriod ol ovcrpowcrcd Radicalism (+8+o).
Vithout abandoning thcir lundamcntal idcological tcncts, thc Radicals
wcrc lorccd to makc somc scrious political compromiscs and modcratc thcir
political programmc in ordcr to rcmain in thc racc lor powcr.
edomir Anti
cvisis ~xu ~v:~:vx:
vcoxo:ic vvi~:ioxs nv:wvvx cvv~: nvi:~ix ~xu svvni~
++o++:
n thc cvc ol thc +++8 war, Grcat Powcrs had compctcd lor inucncc
in thc 8alkans. Vhilc prcparing lor thc war with thc ttoman mpirc thc
8alkan statcs wcrc rcady to takc hugc war crcdits and to placc big ordcrs lor
wcapons and military cquipmcnt. Forcign cc did not show any intcrcst
in involving 8ritish capital and industry in this compctition. 8ritish diplo
macy cvcn discouragcd invcstmcnts in Scrbian military programmc bclorc
++.
Vojislav Pavlovi
iv coxvii: vv~xcoi:~iivx u~xs ivs n~ix~xs +++.
iv viv uv i~ voucosi~viv
Tc conict bctwccn Francc and !taly in thc 8alkans in lact was an attcmpt
at rcorganizing thc 8alkans and Ccntral uropc lollowing thc disappcar
ancc ol thc Habsburg and Romano. Tc two Latin powcrs now had a
uniquc opportunity to dictatc a rcarrangcmcnt ol thc 8alkans, but thcir po
sitions wcrc diamctrically opposcd. !taly sought to cstablish domination in
thc Adriatic and thc 8alkans, whcrcas Francc sought to rcorganizc thc rc
gion with thc vicw to prccluding Gcrmany lrom rccovcring its lormcr inu
cncc. At thc samc timc, altcr Vilsons political dclcat in thc Scnatc in ++,
!talian guarantccs ol thc FrcnchGcrman bordcr bccamc vitally important
to Francc. A compromisc bctwccn Paris and Romc turncd out to bc unlca
siblc lor scvcral rcasons. xpansionism ol both thc last libcral govcrnmcnts
and Mussolini mct with rcsolutc opposition lrom 8clgradc. Morcovcr, Paris
was convinccd that !talian domination not only would not bring stability to
thc 8alkans, but on thc contrary, that it would shattcr thc rcgions Littlc n
tcntcbascd inncr cohcsion and lacilitatc Gcrmanys comcback. Tus most
ol diplomatic initiativcs coming lrom Paris and Romc wcrc mutually ncu
tralizcd, whilc Gcrman cconomic inucncc in thc rcgion irrcsistibly grcw
lrom thc carly +os. Tc agrccmcnt MussoliniLaval rcconcilcd thc two
Latin powcrs, but it was now in thc ncw circumstanccs crcatcd by thc risc ol
Nazi Gcrmany as a dominant lorcc in Ccntral uropc and thc 8alkans.
8alcanica XXX\! 252
Jovan Zametica
siv ~us:vx cn~:nvvi~ix ~xu
:nv i:~iovucosi~v cvisis ovvv ~in~xi~
vvnvu~vv:~v +:
!n thc Spring ol +: a major uropcan crisis was dcvcloping in thc 8al
kans. !t conccrncd thc rivalry bctwccn Mussolinis !taly and thc Kingdom ol
thc Scrbs, Croats and Slovcncs ovcr Albania in which, though a small and
backward country, both Romc and 8clgradc claimcd to havc lcgitimatc po
litical and sccurity intcrcsts. At thc timc, thc !taloYugoslav crisis was sccn
by many obscrvcrs as containing thc potcntial ol turning into a war, thc !tal
ian govcrnmcnt in particular insisting that 8clgradc was cngagcd in military
prcparations in ordcr to launch an invasion ol Albania. An important lactor
that madc thc !taloYugoslav rivalry ovcr Albania possiblc in thc rst placc
was thc countrys pcrcnnial political instability. Tus thc crisis attractcd con
sidcrablc attcntion in uropc. Givcn thc lact that Francc and !taly cxpcri
cnccd straincd rclations, and that thc Vcimar Gcrmany had only rcccntly
rcturncd to thc mainstrcam ol thc aairs ol uropc lollowing thc trcatics ol
Locarno, it was Grcat 8ritain that cmcrgcd as thc chicl playcr in attcmpts
to dclusc thc cmcrgcncy. Historians havc paid rclativcly littlc attcntion to
this, by now largcly lorgottcn, cpisodc in thc diplomatic history ol intcrwar
uropc. Tc cxisting litcraturc, howcvcr, mistakcnly tcnds to intcrprct thc
corts ol Grcat 8ritain as lavouring thc !talian claims in Albania. Tis ar
ticlc, which makcs cxtcnsivc usc ol primary sourccs lrom thc Forcign cc,
dcmonstratcs that Forcign Sccrctary Sir Austcn Chambcrlain and all his
rclcvant ocials handlcd thc crisis in an cvcnhandcd manncr throughout
and that, at timcs, il London cxhibitcd any sympathy and undcrstanding at
all lor cithcr sidc, it was towards 8clgradc rathcr than Romc.
Tanos Veremis
wvs:vvx ~:~:vuvs ix :nv n~ix~xs ~xu
:nv vxu ov nis:ovv
Tc articlc dcals with thc imagc ol thc 8alkans and its politics during thc
+os as pcrccivcd by Vcstcrn politicians, publicopinion makcrs and cvcn
scholars. Tc author makcs an attcmpt to rccognizc thc origins ol misintcr
prctations and stcrcotypy, and to rccommcnd changc ol political approach.
Publishcr
!nstitutc lor 8alkan Studics
8clgradc, Kncz Mihailova 35/!\
www.balkaninstitut.com
cmail: balkinstCsanu.ac.yu
ditorial assistant
Kranislav Vrani
Layout
Branimir Markovi

Covcr dcsign
Aleksandar Palavestra
Printcd by
igoja tampa
8clgradc
CIP
,
930.85
949.7
BALCANICA : Annual of the Institute for Balkan Studies = :
/ editor-in-chief Duan T. Batakovi.
- 1970, . 1- . - Belgrade : Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Insti-
tute for Balkan Studies = : .
, 1970- (Belgrade : igoja tampa). - 24 cm
Godinje
ISSN 0350-7653 = Balcanica (Beograd)
COBISS.SR-ID 6289154

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BALCANICA XXXVI

BALCANICA XXXVI, Belgrade 2006, 1254

Final Eneolithic Early Bronze Age (Gomolava IIIc/IVa)

Tc study has callcd attcntion to

N. Tasi, Stratigralski i rclativnohronoloki odnos Gomolavc kod Hrtkovaca i Gra

M. Garaanin, Praistorija na tlu SR Srbije, vol. !! (8clgradc, +), +++, R. \asi,

Pctrovi and Jovanovi, Gomolava, .

Pctrovi, Grob ranog bronzanog doba, and T. !.

!rus, rtygcs and charus, assistcd by a hetaireia, man

Altcr thc dcath ol Jason

Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +oo, dc Libcro, Tyrannis, +:.

Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, 6, dc Libcro, Tyrannis, 6.

Cl. 8crvc, Tyrannis, +, :::.

Cl. Adam, Republic, 8, J. Hirmcr, ntstchung und Komposition dcr platonischcn

Tc notion ol dynasteia is givcn tyrannical connotations by !socratcs,

Hc rclcrs to thc Athc

!n +8,:o cmosthcncs dcncs Philips intcrnational political domination as dynas-

cmosthcncs statcmcnt that Philip

Cl. K. Raaaub, Polis Tyrannos. Zur ntstchung cincr politischcn Mctaphcr, in

Cl. Chr. Mcicr, cr Vandcl dcr politischsozialcn 8cgriswclt im . Jahrhundcrt v.

!n othcr writcrs this contrast is cvcn morc

Furthcrmorc, this tcrm can bc a synonym lor oligarchy or

!t is oltcn synonymous with thc word

So many dicrcnt mcanings ol thc tcrm must

l that numbcr, it oncc rclcrs to Tcssaly and oncc to barbarians.

Cl. also Aischin. Ctcs. , +, cmosth. or. :,, cp. :,+, 6.

Cl. also cmosth. or. ,:, +8,6, :o, :o,o.

Jordovic, Anfnge, +6:+.

And thc sccnc is at thc hcart ol thc Homcric study by

Adam Parry, Tc languagc ol Achillcs, TAPA 8, +. A summary ol thc discussion,

Svcn clblanc, Homerisk hemkomst. Tv esser om Iliaden och Odyssen (Stockholm:

!n thc lollowing ! shall arguc that an important aspcct ol Phocnix

J. T. Kakridis, Homeric Researches (+, Skrifter utgivna av Kungliga Humanistiska

As it was not archcologically cxcavatcd, thc anthropo

Tc anthropological matcrial was ana

Anthropological analysis was not pcrlormcd.

Tc ostcological matcrial was submittcd lor analysis to

\. S. Jovanovi, Arheoloka istraivanja, ::.

\. S. Jovanovi, Arheoloka istraivanja, :6.

. Miki, Antropolokc karaktcristikc srcdnjovckovnc nckropolc jonaj kod Prizrc

!n this proccss, thc

!n Judaism, charity is a ccntral and

!n !slam, charity is lcgally organizcd in thc lorm ol

!t was lulllcd in scvcral lorms ccclc

M. Curti, Philantropy, in Te Dictionary of the History of Ideas, lcctronic Tcxt Ccntcr

8iographcrs praiscd thc Scrbian Grand Zupan Stclan

(+). !n spitc ol a prcdomi

8yzantinc cmpcror Constantinc \ Copronymus was rcmcmbcrcd primarily as a lcr

Tc rcsponsc ol 8anovi Strahinja is lormulaic and can bc lound in othcr

thc pcoplc ol Kosovo,

Marko Kraljcvi i Mina od Kostura |Marko Kraljcvi and Mina ol Kastoria|, in

shows that idcntity prcsupposcs

or Ronald Laings complcmcntary idcntity

McMillan Dictionary of Anthropology, cd. C. ScymourSmith (London: McMillan

. rikson, Omladina, kriza, identikacija |!dcntityYouth & Crisis| (Titograd:

Raising this blind

8. Jovanovi, Karakter kao sudbina (8clgradc: Narodna knjiga, :oo), 8.

Scllconrmation ol nationally homogcnizcd cntitics through thc

T. Stojanovi, Balkanska civilizacija (8clgradc: Gcopoctika, +), +o8.

Tc narrativcs in this study can bc rcgardcd as compcting

rcprcscntativc ol Scrbs and Albanians in Kosovo. Tc

Cclcstc Condit, cmocracy and civil rights: Tc univcrsalizing inucncc ol public

Howcvcr, most ol thc studics on Kosovo and lormcr Yugoslavia havc