1

InIroducIion
1.1 GENERAL
RosIdonfIaI, oducafIonaI, oIIIco and commorcIaI buIIdIngs aro fho common oxampIos oI cIvII
ongInoorIng sfrucfuros. Thoso sfrucfuro consIsfs oI varIous oIomonfs IIko sIabs, boams,
coIumns, IoofIngs and sfaIrcasos. Aparf Irom fho abovo buIIdIngs fho cIvII ongInoors aro
assocIafod wIfh fho dosIgn and consfrucfIons oI rofaInIng waIIs, wafor fanks, brIdgos, dams,
fowors, cooIIng fowors.
!or fho consfrucfIon oI aII fho abovo sfrucfuros vory commonIy usod maforIaI Is roInIorcod
comonf concrofo tR.C.C.), whIch Is a composIfo maforIaI consIsfIng oI concrofo and sfooI.
Whon wafor Is addod fo an InfImafo mIxfuro oI comonf, sand t!Ino Aggrogafo) and joIIy
tCoarso Aggrogafo), If Iorms a pIasfIc mass, popuIarIy known as concrofo. ThIs mass can bo
oasIIy mouIdod fo dosIrod shapo and sIzo usIng Iormworks. Tho concrofo graduaIIy hardons
and achIovos fho shapo and sIzo pormanonfIy. Aparf Irom fho maIn IngrodIonfs comonf, sand,
joIIy and wafor, smaII quanfIfIos oI admIxfuros IIko aIr onfraInIng agonfs, wafor prooIIng
agonfs, workabIIIfy agonfs may aIso bo addod fo Imparf spocIaI proporfIos fo fho concrofo.
Concrofo Is good In rosIsfIng comprossIvo sfross buf Is vory woak In rosIsfIng fonsIIo sfross.
Honco If Is fo bo roInIorcod wIfh suIfabIo maforIaI whorovor fonsIon dovoIops. Tho bosf
roInIorcomonf Is fho sfooI, bocauso fho fonsIIo sfrongfh oI sfooI Is quIfo hIgh and fho bond
bofwoon sfooI and concrofo Is vory good. RoInIorcomonfs aro usuaIIy In fho Iorm oI mIId sfooI
or hIgh sfrongfh doIormod sfooI bars oI dIamofors 6 fo 32 mm. A cago oI roInIorcomonf Is
proparod as por fho dosIgn roquIromonf, kopf In fho Iormwork and concrofo In fho pIasfIc Iorm
Is pourod. AIfor concrofo hardons fho Iorm work Is romovod. Tho composIfo maforIaI oI sfooI
and concrofo tR.C.C.) Is now capabIo oI rosIsfIng comprossIvo as woII as fonsIIo sfrossos.
Tho scIonco oI proporfIonIng fho sfrucfuraI oIomonfs fo rosIsf fho appIIod Ioads and
doformInIng fho numbors and sIzos oI roInIorcIng bars Is caIIod dosIgn oI R.C.C. sfrucfuros.
In fhIs chapfor Imporfanf proporfIos oI concrofo and sfooI aro prosonfod and a brIoI
InfroducfIon Is gIvon fo fho varIous Ioads fo bo consIdorod Ior fho anaIysIs. VarIous mofhods oI
anaIysIs and dosIgn aro vory brIoIIy dIscussod.
1.2 IHPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Tho IoIIowIng Imporfanf proporfIos oI concrofo aro fo bo nofod by dosIgnor:
Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
ti) Though If consIsfs oI dIIIoronf maforIaIs IIko comonf, sand and joIIy fho InfImafo mIxfuro
Is so good fhaf Ior aII pracfIcaI purposos If may bo assumod as homogonoous.
tii) !or concrofo, characforIsfIc sfrongfh Is doIInod as comprossIvo sfrongfh oI 150mm cubo
af 28 days In N/mm
2
, boIow whIch nof moro fhan 5 porconf cubos gIvo fho rosuIf. Basod
on fho characforIsfIc sfrongfh tj
ch
), concrofo Is gradod as gIvon boIow:
Tuble 1.1 Grudes oI Concrete
Oroup Oraoe Designation Characteristic strength
N1nn
2

OrdInary Concrofo M10
M15
M20
10
15
20
Sfandard Concrofo M25
M30
M35
M40
M45
M50
M55
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
HIgh Sfrongfh
Concrofo
M60
M65
M70
M75
M80
60
65
70
75
80
Note: Now a days uIfra hIgh sfrongfh oI grado M500 aro aIso producod In fho IaboraforIos
and M250 concrofo has boon usod Ior fho consfrucfIon oI somo brIdgos.
IS 456 - 2000 rocommonds mInImum grado oI concrofo fo bo usod Ior varIous woafhor condIfIons as
shown In fabIo 1.2.
TabIo 1.2 MInImum Orado oI Concrofo Ior IIIoronf Exposuro wIfh NormaI WoIghf
Aggrogafos oI 20mm NomInaI MaxImum SIzo. tTabIo 5 IS 4562000)
Tuble 1.2
Exposure Mininun Oraoe oj
Concrete
MIId
Modorafo
Sovoro
Vory Sovoro
Exfromo
M20
M25
M30
M35
M40
Tho moanIng oI fho dIIIoronf oxposuro condIfIons aro as gIvon In AppondIx A.
tiii) 8tress 8train Pe/ationship. Sfross sfraIn curvo dopond on sfrongfh oI concrofo as woII as
on fho rafo oI IoadIng. Tho shorf form sfross sfraIn curvo Is fo bo obfaInod Ior a consfanf
rafo oI sfraInIng oI 0.01 porconf por mInufo or Ior a consfanf rafo oI sfross Incroaso oI 14
N/mm
2
por mInufo. !Iguro 1.1 shows a fypIcaI sfross-sfraIn curvo Ior dIIIoronf mIxos Ior
consfanf sfross and consfanf sfraIn condIfIons.
Inlioduclion !
s
t
= Constant
Strain controlled
Stress controlled
e
t
= Constant
0 2 4
6 10
3
15
30
45
60
S
t
r
e
s
s
Strain
Iig J.J. Stress Strain curve for Different Mixes of Concrete.
tio) Tensi/e 8trength : A dosIgnor may uso fho IoIIowIng oxprossIon Ior IIoxcoraI fonsIIo
sfrongfh oI concrofo:
F
cr
= 0.7 j
ch
N/mm
2
.
Whoro j
ch
Is fho characforIsfIc comprossIvo sfrongfh oI concrofo.
to) Moou/us oj E/asticity. Tho shorf form sfafIc moduIus oI oIasfIcaIIy Ior concrofo may bo
fakon as
E
c
= 5000 j
ch
as por IS 456 2000.
toi) Foisson`s Patio . If may bo fakon as 0.1 Ior hIgh sfrongfh concrofo and 0.2 Ior woak
concrofo. !suaIIy If Is fakon as 0.15 Ior sfrongfh and 0.2 Ior sorvIcoabIIIfy caIcuIafIons.
toii) 8hrinhage . TofaI amounf oI shrInkago In concrofo doponds on fho varIous Iacfors In-
cIudIng fho amounf oI wafor prosonf af fho fImo oI casfIng. In fho absonco oI dafa fho
approxImafo vaIuo oI fho fofaI shrInkago sfraIn may bo fakon as 0.0003.
(oiii) Creep. If doponds on varIous Iacfors IncIudIng fho ago oI IoadIng, durafIon oI IoadIng and
sfross IovoI. Tho croop cooIIIcIonf whIch Is doIInod as rafIo oI uIfImafo croop sfraIn fo
oIasfIc sfraIn af fho ago oI IoadIng may bo fakon as shown In fabIo 1.3. tCIauso 6.5.5.1 In
IS 456 - 2000)
Tuble 1.3 Creep CoeIIlclent
Age at /oaoing Creep Coejjicient
7 days
28 days
1 Yoar
2.2
1.6
1.1
Tho uIfImafo croop sfraIn shown abovo doos nof IncIudIng oIasfIc sfraIn.
1.5 IHPORTANT PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Tho IoIIowIng Imporfanf proporfIos oI sfooI aro fo bo nofod by a dosIgnor
" Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
ti) If Is froafod as homogonoous maforIaI and If Is roaIIy so fo a vory Iargo oxfonf.
tii) Tho characforIsfIc sfrongfh oI sfooI tj
y
) Is Ifs fonsIIo sfrongfh doformInod on sfandard
spocImon boIow whIch nof moro fhan 5 porconf spocImon gIvo fho rosuIfs. Howovor codo
pormIfs uso oI mInImum yIoId sfross or 0.2 porconf prooI sfross as characforIsfIc sfrongfh
oI sfooI. Typos oI sfooI roInIorcomonfs avaIIabIo In fho markof aro shown In fabIo 1.4.
Tuble 1.4 Grudes oI Steel
Type Conjorning to l.8. Cooe Yie/o 8tress 1 0.2% Frooj
8tress
MIId SfooI tIIaIn Bars) IS: 432 1966 26 kg / mm
2

= 255 N/mm
2

HIgh YIoId Sfrongfh
oIormod Bars tHYS)
IS: 1786 1979 ti) 415 N/mm
2
tii) 500 N/mm
2

Hard rawn SfooI WIro
!abrIc
IS: 1566 1967 49 kg / mm
2

= 480 N/mm
2

TakIng fho abovo vaIuos Info consIdorafIon, Bureuu oI IndIan Sfandards has broughf up
dosIgn aId fo IS 456 tSI-16) Ior fhroo grados oI sfooI havIng characforIsfIc sfrongfh j
y
oquaI fo 250 N/mm
2
, 415 N/mm
2
and 500 N/mm
2
. Honco fho dosIgnor usuaIIy grados fho
avaIIabIo sfooIs as !o250, !o415 and !o500.
tiii) 8tress 8train Curoe. Tho fypIcaI sfross sfraIn curvo Ior fho abovo grados oI sfooI Is
shown In !Ig 1.2. If may
0
0.2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
100
200
300
400
500
S
t
r
e
s
s
i
s
N
/
m
m
2
% Strain
Fe - 500
Fe - 415
Fe - 250
Iig J.2. Stress strain curve for Ie 2S0, Ie -4JS and Ie S00 steel
bo nofod fhaf Ior mIId sfooI t!o250) fho yIoId poInf Is cIoarIy vIsIbIo whoroas fhoro Is no
yIoId poInf Ior !o415 and !o500 sfooI. !or fhoso fwo sfooIs, 0.2 porconf prooI sfross Is
fakon as characforIsfIc sfrongfh j
y
.
tio) Tho characforIsfIc sfrongfh j
y
In fonsIon and In comprossIon Is fakon as fho samo.
Inlioduclion #
to) fho young's moduIus tE) Ior aII grados oI sfooI Is fakon as 200kN/mm
2
= 2 10
5
N/mm
2
.
Tho roInIorcIng bars aro gonoraIIy avaIIabIo In fho markof In fho IoIIowIng sIzos:
Iamofor oI bars In mm.
MIId sfooI 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, and 32.
oIormod sfooI bars 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32
1.4 CODE REUIREHENT OF REINFORCEHENTS
ti) MIId sfooI conIormIng fo IS 432, hIgh sfrongfh doIormod bars conIormIng fo IS 1786 and
hard-drawn sfooI IabrIcs conIormIng fo IS 1566 may bo usod as roInIorcomonfs.
SfrucfuraI sfooI conIormIng fo grado A oI IS 2002 aro aIso pormIffod.
tii) AII bars shouId bo Iroo Irom Iooso mIII scaIos, Iooso rusf, mud, coafs oI paInf or any ofhor
maforIaI whIch dosfroy or roduco fho bond.
tiii) II roquIrod, In oxcopfIonaI casos and Ior rohabIIIfafIon oI sfrucfuros, spocIaI chomIcaI
coafIngs may bo provIdod fo roInIorcomonfs.
tio) !or maIn bars sfooI oI samo grado shouId bo usod as maIn roInIorcomonf. SImuIfanoous
uso oI fwo dIIIoronf grados oI sfooI Ior maIn and socondary roInIorcomonf Is pormIffod.
to) Bars may bo arrangod sIngIy or In paIrs. !so oI 3 or 4 bundIod bars Is aIso pormIffod.
BundIod bars aro fo bo fIod fogofhor fo onsuro fhaf fhoy romaIn fogofhor. Bars Iargor
fhan 32 mm dIamofor aro nof fo bo bundIod.
Ofhor dofaIIIng roquIromonfs Ior roInIorcomonfs aro gIvon In Iaffor chapfors whon fho
dosIgn oI sfrucfuraI oIomonfs Is fakon up
1.5 LOADS
Tho varIous Ioads oxpocfod on a sfrucfuro may bo cIassIIIod Info fho IoIIowIng groups:
ti) oad Ioads
tii) Imposod Ioads
tiii) WInd Ioads
tio) Snow Ioads
to) Earfhquako Iorcos
toi) ShrInkago, croop and fomporafuro oIIocfs, and
toii) Ofhor Iorcos and oIIocfs.
Dead Loads {DL)
oad Ioads In a buIIdIng IncIudos fho woIghf oI aII pormanonf consfrucfIons, IIko rooIs, IIoors,
waIIs, parfIfIon waIIs, boams, coIumns, baIcony`s, IoofIng. Thoso Ioads shaII bo assossod by
osfImafIng fho quanfIfy oI oach maforIaI and fhon muIfIpIyIng If wIfh fho unIf woIghf. Tho
unIf woIghfs oI varIous maforIaIs usod In buIIdIng consfrucfIons aro gIvon In fho codo IS 875
tparf 1) 1987. If IncIudos oxhausfIvo IIsf. !or oxampIo, undor fho hoadIng 'brIck masonry`,
If has Iour fypos IIko common burnf cIay brIcks, ongInoorIng brIcks, gIazod brIcks and prossod
brIcks. !ndor fho hoadIng pIaIn concrofo fhoro aro 10 groups. Tho commonIy usod vaIuos by
fho dosIgnors aro IIsfod In fabIo 1.5.
$ Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
Tuble 1.5 nlt welght oI mportunt Bulldlng Muterluls sed by Oeslgners
8/.
No.
Materia/ Unit Weight
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IIaIn concrofo
RoInIorcod concrofo
BrIck masonry, comonf pIasfor
OranIfo sfono masonry
Asbosfos comonf shoofs
24 kN/m
3

25 kN/m
3
20 kN/m
3

24 kN/m
3

0.130 kN/m
2

mposed Louds (L)
Tho Ioads whIch koop on changIng Irom fImo fo fImo aro caIIod as Imposod Ioads. Common
oxampIos oI such Ioads In a buIIdIng aro fho woIghf oI fho porsons, woIghfs oI movabIo
parfIfIon, dusf Ioads and woIghf oI IurnIfuros. Thoso Ioads woro IormorIy known as IIvo Ioads.
Thoso Ioads aro fo bo suIfabIy assumod by fho dosIgnor. If Is ono oI fho major Ioad In fho
dosIgn. Tho mInImum vaIuos fo bo assumod aro gIvon In IS 875 tparf 2)1987. If doponds upon
fho Infondod uso oI fho buIIdIng. Thoso vaIuos aro prosonfod Ior squaro mofro oI IIoor aroa.
Tho codo gIvos fho vaIuos oI Ioads Ior fho IoIIowIng occupancy cIassIIIcafIon:
ti) RosIdonfIaI buIIdIngsdwoIIIng housos, hofoIs, hosfoIs, boIIor rooms and pIanf rooms,
garagos.
tii) EducafIonaI buIIdIngs
tiii) InsfIfufIonaI buIIdIngs
tio) AssombIy buIIdIngs
to) BusInoss and oIIIco buIIdIngs
toi) MorcanfIno buIIdIngs
toii) IndusfrIaI buIIdIngs, and
toiii) Sforago rooms.
Tho codo gIvos unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod Ioad as woII as conconfrafod Ioads. Tho IIoors aro fo bo
InvosfIgafod Ior bofh unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod and worsf posIfIon oI conconfrafod Ioads. Tho ono
whIch gIvos worsf oIIocf Is fo bo consIdorod Ior fho dosIgn buf bofh shouId nof bo consIdorod fo
acf sImuIfanoousIy.
In a parfIcuIar buIIdIng, Imposod Ioad may chango Irom room fo room. !or oxampIo In a
hofoI or a hosfoI buIIdIng fho Ioads spocIIIod aro,
uo/ Conconfrafod Ioad
ta) LIvIng rooms and bod rooms 2 kN/m
2
1.8 kN
tb) KIfchon 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
tc) InIng rooms 4 kN/m
2
2.7 kN
to) OIIIco rooms 2.5 kN/m
2
2.7 kN
te) Sforo rooms 5 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
tj) Rooms Ior Indoor gamos 3 kN/m
2
1.8 kN
tg) Bafh rooms and foIIofs 2 kN/m
2

th) CorrIdors, passagos, 3 kN/m

2
4.5 kN
sfaIr casos ofc.
and ti) BaIconIos 4 kN/m
2
1.5 kN conconfrafod af oufor odgo.
Somo oI fho Imporfanf vaIuos aro prosonfod In fabIo 1.6, whIch aro fho mInImum vaIuos
and whorovor nocossary moro fhan fhoso vaIuos aro fo bo assumod.
Inlioduclion %
Tuble 1.6 Mlnlmum mposed Loud to be Consldered
8/. Occupancy UDL Concentrateo
No. Loao
1. Bofh rooms and foIIofs In aII fypos oI buIIdIng 2 kN/m
2
1.8 kN
2. LIvIng and bod rooms 2 kN/m
2
1.8 kN
3. OIIIco rooms In
ti) HosfoIs, hofoIs, hospIfaIs and busInoss buIIdIng 2.5 kN/m
2
2.7 kN
wIfh soparafo sforo
tii) In assombIy buIIdIngs 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
4. KIfchons In tI) woIIIng housos 2 kN/m
2
1.8 kN
tii) HosfoIs, hofoIs and hospIfaIs 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
5. BankIng haIIs, cIass rooms, x-ray rooms, oporafIon 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
rooms
6. InIng rooms In tI) oducafIonaI buIIdIngs, 3 kN/m
2
2.7 kN
InsfIfufIonaI and morcanfIno buIIdIngs
tii) hosfoIs and hofoIs 4 kN/m
2
2.7 kN
7. CorrIdors, passagos, sfaIr casos In
ti) woIIIng housos, hosfoIs and hofoIs 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
tii) EducafIonaI InsfIfufIonaI and assombIy buIIdIngs 4 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
tiii) MarcanfIno buIIdIngs 5 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
8. RoadIng rooms In IIbrarIos
ti) WIfh soparafo sforago 3 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
tii) WIfhouf soparafo sforago 4 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
9. AssombIy aroas In assombIy buIIdIngs
ti) WIfh IIxod soafs 5 kN/m
2
..
tii) WIfhouf IIxod soafs 5 kN/m
2
3.6 kN
10. Sforo romms In oducafIonaI buIIdIngs 5 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
11. Sforo room In IIbrarIos 6 kN/m
2
Ior 4.5 kN
a hoIghf oI
2.24 + 2
kN/m
2
Ior
ovory 1m
addIfIonaI
hoIghf
12. BoIIor rooms and pIanf rooms In
ti) hosfoIs, hofoIs, hospIfaIs, morcanfIno and 5 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
IndusfrIaI buIIdIngs
tii) AssombIy & sforago buIIdIngs 7.5 kN/m
2
4.5 kN
Imposod Ioads fo bo consIdorod on varIous rooIs aro prosonfod In fabIo 1.7
& Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
Tuble 1.? mposed Louds on vurlous Types oI RooIs
(Tuble 2 oI Nutlonul Bulldlng code - 1983)
8/.No. Type oj Pooj lnposeo Loao Measureo on Mininun lnposeo Loao
F/an Area Measureo on F/an
ti) !Iaf, sIopIng or
curvod rooI wIfh
sIopos up fo and
IncIudIng 10
dogroos
ta) Accoss 1.5 kN/m
2
3.75 kN unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod
provIdod ovor any span oI ono mofro
wIdfh oI fho rooI sIab and 9 kN
unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod ovor fho
span oI any boam or fruss or
waII.
tb) Accoss nof 0.75 kN/m
2
1.9 kN unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod
provIdod oxcopf ovor any span oI ono mofro
Ior maInfonanco wIdfh oI fho rooI sIab and 4.5
kN unIIormIy dIsfrIbufod ovor
fho span oI any boam oI fruss
or waII.
tii) SIopIng rooI wIfh !or rooI mombrano shoofs or Subjocf fo a mInImum oI 0.4
sIopo groafor fhan purIIns 0.75 kN/m
2
Ioss 0.02 kN/m
2
10 dogroos kN/m
2
Ior ovory dogroo
Incroaso In sIopo ovor 10
dogroos
tiii) Curvod rooI wIfh t0.75 - 0.52 =
2
) kN/m
2
whoro Subjocf fo a mInImum oI 0.4
sIopo oI IIno kN/m
2
obfaInod by
joInIng sprIngIng
poInf fo fho crown
wIfh fho horIzon-
faI, groafor fhan
10 dogroos
= = h/ /
h = hoIghf oI fho hIghosf poInf
oI fho sfrucfuro moasurod Irom
Ifs sprIngIng: and
/ = chord wIdfh oI fho rooI II
sIngIy curvod and shorfor oI
fho fwo sIdos II doubIy curvod.
AIfornafIvoIy, whoro sfrucfuraI
anaIysIs can bo carrIod ouf Ior
curvod rooIs oI aII sIopos In a
sImpIo mannor appIyIng fho
Iaws oI sfafIsfIcs, fho curvod
rooIs shaII bo dIvIdod Info
mInImum 6 oquaI sogmonfs
and Ior oach sogmonf Imposod
Ioad shaII bo caIcuIafod
approprIafo oI oach sogmonf as
gIvon In ti) and tii)
Inlioduclion '
Note : 1 - Tho Ioads gIvon abovo do nof IncIudo Ioads duo fo snow, raIn, dusf coIIocfIon, ofc. Tho rooI
shaII bo dosIgnod Ior Imposod Ioads gIvon abovo or snow / raIn Ioad, whIchovor Is groafor.
Note : 2 - !or spocIaI fypos oI rooIs wIfh hIghIy pormoabIo and absorbonf maforIaI, fho confIngoncy oI
rooI maforIaI IncroasIng In woIghf duo fo absorpfIon oI moIsfuro shaII bo provIdod Ior.
Howovor In a muIfI-sforoyod buIIdIngs chancos oI IuII Imposod Ioads acfIng sImuIfanoousIy on aII
IIoors Is vory raro. Honco fho codo makos provIsIon Ior roducfIon oI Ioads In dosIgnIng coIumns, Ioad
boarIng waIIs, fhoIr supporfs and IoundafIons as shown In fabIo 1.8.
Tuble 1.8 Reductlons ln mposed Louds on Floors ln Oeslgn oI Supportlng Struc-
turul Klements
Nunber oj F/oors (inc/uoing the rooj to be Peouction in Tota/ Distributeo
carrieo by Menber Unoer Consioeration lnposeo Loao in Fercent
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 fo 10 40
Ovor 10 50
Wlnd Louds
Tho Iorco oxorfod by fho horIzonfaI compononf oI wInd Is fo bo consIdorod In fho dosIgn oI
buIIdIngs. If doponds upon fho voIocIfy oI wInd and shapo and sIzo oI fho buIIdIng. CompIofo
dofaIIs oI caIcuIafIng wInd Ioad on sfrucfuros aro gIvon In IS-875 tIarf 3) - 1987. BrIoI Idoa oI
fhoso provIsIons aro gIvon boIow:
ti) !sIng coIour codo, basIc wInd prossuro 'V
b
' Is shown In a map oI IndIa. osIgnor can
pIckup fho vaIuo oI V
b
dopondIng upon fho IocaIIfy oI fho buIIdIng.
tii) To gof fho dosIgn wInd voIocIfy V
:
fho IoIIowIng oxprossIon shaII bo usod:
V
:
= h
1
h
2
h
3
V
b
Whoro h
1
= RIsk cooIIIcIonf
h
2
= CooIIIcIonf basod on forraIn, hoIghf and sfrucfuro sIzo.
h
3
= Topography Iacfor
tiii) Tho dosIgn wInd prossuro Is gIvon by
p
:
= 0.6 V
:
2
whoro p
:
Is In N/m
2
af hoIghf Z and V
:
Is In m/soc. !p fo a hoIghf oI 30m, fho wInd prossuro Is
consIdorod fo acf unIIormIy. Abovo 30m hoIghf, fho wInd prossuro Incroasos.
Snow Loads
IS 875 tparf 4) 1987 doaIs wIfh snow Ioads on rooIs oI fho buIIdIng. !or fho buIIdIng fo bo
Iocafod In fho rogIons whorovor snow Is IIkoIy fo IaII, fhIs Ioad Is fo bo consIdorod. Tho snow
Ioad acfs vorfIcaIIy and may bo oxprossod In kN/m
2
or N/m
2
. Tho mInImum snow Ioad on a
rooI aroa or any ofhor aroa abovo ground whIch Is subjocfod fo snow accumuIafIon Is obfaInod
by fho oxprossIon
8 = 8
0
Whoro 8 = osIgn snow Ioad on pIan aroa oI rooI.
Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
= Shapo cooIIIcIonf, and
S
0
= Oround snow Ioad.
Oround snow Ioad af any pIaco doponds on fho crIfIcaI combInafIon oI fho maxImum dopfh
oI undIsfurbod aggrogafo cumuIafIvo snow IaII and Ifs avorago donsIfy. Thoso vaIuos Ior
dIIIoronf rogIons may bo obfaInod Irom Snow and AvaIanchos Sfudy EsfabIIshmonf ManaII
tHI) or IndIan MofooroIogIcaI oparfmonf Iuno. Tho shapo cooIIIcIonf doponds on fho shapo
oI rooIs and Ior somo oI fho common shapos fho codo gIvos fhoso cooIIIcIonfs. Whon fho sIopo
oI rooI Is moro fhan 60 fhIs Ioad Is nof consIdorod.
If may bo nofod fhaf rooIs shouId bo dosIgnod Ior fho acfuaI Ioad duo fo snow or Ior fho
Imposod Ioad, whIchovor Is moro sovor.
EarIhquake Forces
Earfhquako shocks causo movomonf oI IoundafIon oI sfrucfuros. uo fo InorfIa addIfIonaI
Iorcos dovoIop on supor sfrucfuro. Tho fofaI vIbrafIon causod by oarfhquako may bo rosoIvod
Info fhroo mufuaIIy porpondIcuIar dIrocfIons, usuaIIy fakon as vorfIcaI and fwo horIzonfaI
dIrocfIons. Tho movomonf In vorfIcaI dIrocfIon do nof causo Iorcos In suporsfrucfuro fo any
sIgnIIIcanf oxfonf. Buf movomonf In horIzonfaI dIrocfIons causo consIdorabIo Iorcos.
Tho InfonsIfy oI vIbrafIon oI ground oxpocfod af any IocafIon doponds upon fho magnIfudo
oI oarfhquako, fho dopfh oI Iocus, fho dIsfanco Irom fho opIconfor and fho sfrafa on whIch fho
sfrucfuro sfands.
Tho rosponso oI fho sfrucfuro fo fho ground vIbrafIon Is a IuncfIon oI fho nafuro oI Iounda-
fIon soII, sIzo and modo oI consfrucfIon and fho durafIon and InfonsIfy oI ground mofIon.
IS:1983 1984 gIvos fho dofaIIs oI such caIcuIafIons Ior sfrucfuros sfandIng on soIIs whIch wIII
nof consIdorabIy soffIo or sIIdo approcIabIy duo fo oarfhquako. Tho soIsmIc accoIorafIons Ior
fho dosIgn may bo arrIvod af Irom selsmlc coeIIlclents, whIch Is doIInod as fho rafIo oI
accoIorafIon duo fo oarfhquako and accoIorafIon duo fo gravIfy. !or fho purposo oI doformIn-
Ing fho soIsmIc Iorcos, IndIa Is dIvIdod Info IIvo zonos. opondIng on fho probIom, ono oI fho
IoIIowIng fwo mofhods may bo usod Ior compufIng fho soIsmIc Iorcos:
ta) SoIsmIc cooIIIcIonf mofhod
tb) Rosponso spocfrum mofhod
Tho dofaIIs oI fhoso mofhods aro prosonfod In IS 1983 codo and aIso In NafIonaI BuIIdIng Codo
oI IndIa. AIfor fho Oujaraf oarfhquako t2000) Oovornmonf oI IndIa has roaIIzod fho Impor-
fanco oI sfrucfuraI dosIgns basod on consIdorIng soIsmIc Iorcos and has InIfIafod fraInIng oI
fho foachors oI fochnIcaI InsfIfufIon on a Iargo scaIo tNIEEE). In fhIs book dosIgns aro basod
on normaI sIfuafIons and honco oarfhquako Iorcos aro nof consIdorod.
Thoro aro Iargo numbor oI casos oI Ioss Imporfanco and roIafIvoIy smaII sfrucfuros Ior
whIch no anaIysIs bo mado Ior oarfhquako Iorcos provIdod corfaIn sImpIo procaufIons aro
fakon In fho consfrucfIon. !or oxampIo
ti) IrovIdIng bracIngs In fho vorfIcaI panoIs oI sfooI and R.C.C. Iramos.
tii) AvoIdIng mud and rubbIo masonry and goIng Ior IIghf maforIaIs and woII bracod fImbor
Iramod sfrucfuros.
OIher Forces and EIIecIs
As por fho cIauso 19.6 oI IS 456 2000, In addIfIon fo abovo Ioad dIscussod, accounf shaII bo
fakon oI fho IoIIowIng Iorcos and oIIocfs II fhoy aro IIabIo fo aIIocf maforIaIIy fho saIofy and
sorvIcoabIIIfy oI fho sfrucfuro:
Inlioduclion
ta) !oundafIon movomonf tSoo IS 1904)
tb) EIasfIc axIaI shorfonIng
tc) SoII and IIuId prossuro tSoo IS 875, Iarf 5)
to) VIbrafIon
te) !afIguo
tj) Impacf tSoo IS 875, Iarf 5)
tg) ErocfIon Ioads tSoo IS 875, Iarf 2) and
th) Sfross conconfrafIon oIIocf duo fo poInf Ioad and fho IIko.
1.6 LOAD COHBINATIONS
A judIcIous combInafIon oI fho Ioads Is nocossary fo onsuro fho roquIrod saIofy and oconomy
In fho dosIgn koopIng In vIow fho probabIIIfy oI
ta) fhoIr acfIng fogofhor
tb) fhoIr dIsposIfIon In roIafIon fo ofhor Ioads and sovorIfy oI sfrossos or doIormafIons
causod by fho combInafIon oI varIous Ioads.
The recommended loud comblnutlons by nutlonul bulldlng ure codes
1. L 7. L + IL + EL
2. L + IL 8. L + IL + TL
3. L + WL 9. L + WL + TL
4. L + EI 10. L + EL + TL
5. L + TL 11. L + IL + WL + TL
6. L + IL + WL 12. L + IL + EL + TI
whoro L = doad Ioad IL = Imposod Ioad
WL = wInd Ioad EL = oarfhquako Ioad
and TL = fomporafuro Ioad.
Note: Whon snow Ioad Is prosonf on rooIs, ropIaco Imposod Ioad by snow Ioad Ior fho purposo oI abovo
Ioad combInafIons.
1.7 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
SfrucfuraI anaIysIs Is nocossary fo doformIno fho sfross rosuIfanfs IIko bondIng momonf,
shoar Iorco, forsIonaI momonf, axIaI Iorcos acfIng af varIous cross socfIon oI sfrucfuraI oIo-
monfs. IS 456 pormIfs fho anaIysIs oI aII sfrucfuros by IInoar oIasfIc fhoory. !or sfrucfuraI
anaIysIs ono can uso cIassIcaI mofhods. Codo aIso pormIf uso oI approxImafo mofhods IIko
subsfIfufo Iramo mofhod, uso oI cooIIIcIonfs Ior fho confInuous boams and sIabs.
NumorIcaI mofhods aIso may bo usod Ior fho anaIysIs. !InIfo oIomonf mofhod Is bocomIng
a popuIar mofhod oI anaIysIs, sInco sfandard commorcIaI packagos aro avaIIabIo. ThIs mofhod
boIng vorsafIIo any compIox sfrucfuro may bo anaIyzod wIfh accopfabIo accuracy. Somo oI fho
popuIar packagos aro STAAIRO, OTSTR!L, NISA - CIVIL, NASTRAN and ANSYIS.
Dcsign of R.C.C. Sliucluial Elcmcnls
1.B HETHODS OF RCC DESIGN
Tho aIm oI dosIgn Is fo docIdo fho sIzo oI fho mombor and provIdo approprIafo roInIorcomonf
so fhaf fho sfrucfuros boIng dosIgnod wIII porIorm safIsIacforIIy durIng fhoIr Infondod IIIo.
WIfh an approprIafo dogroo oI saIofy fho sfrucfuro shouId
ti) susfaIn aII Ioads
tii) susfaIn fho doIormafIons durIng and aIfor consfrucfIon
tiii) shouId havo adoquafo durabIIIfy and
tio) shouId havo adoquafo rosIsfanco fo mIsuso and IIro.
VarIous mofhods oI R.C.C. dosIgns can bo groupod Info oxporImonfaI and anaIyfIcaI mofhods.
In cIvII ongInoorIng experlmentul methods oI dosIgns havo suporsoodod fho anaIyfIcaI
mofhods. Whonovor now maforIaIs havo boon dovoIopod, fhoy havo boon fosfod and usod on
oxporImonfaI basIs. Onco fhoy havo boon Iound suIfabIo fhoorofIcaI mofhods havo boon dovoI-
opod fo oconomIzo. II fho sfrucfuros aro foo compIox modoI sfudIos aro carrIod ouf and fhon
profofypos aro buIIf. Howovor fhIs mofhod oI dosIgn Is fImo consumIng and cannof bo accopfod
Ior fho dosIgn oI oach and ovory sfrucfuro.
Anulytlcul methods aro basod on IdonfIIyIng IaIIuro crIforIa basod on maforIaI proporfIos.
Expocfod Ioads quanfIIIod, anaIysIs carrIod ouf and fhon basod on IaIIuro crIforIa saIo dosIgns
aro Iound. SInco fhoro aro IImIfafIons In osfImafIng dosIgn Ioads, maforIaI bohavIour and
anaIyfIcaI mofhods, workIng condIfIon Is kopf af a IracfIon oI IaIIuro condIfIons. Tho dosIgn
phIIosophIos usod In R.C.C. aro IIsfod boIow In fho ordor oI fhoIr ovoIufIons and fhon fhoy aro
brIoIIy oxpIaInod:
ti) WorkIng sfross mofhod tWSM)
tii) Load Iacfor mofhod tL!M) or !IfImafo Ioad mofhod t!LM), and
tiii) LImIf sfafo mofhod tLSM)
working SIress HeIhod {wSH)
ThIs mofhod oI dosIgn was ovoIvod around fho yoar 1900. ThIs mofhod was accopfod by many
nafIonaI codos. IndIa's codo IS 456 1953 was basod on fhIs mofhod. If was rovIsod In 1957 and
1964. ThIs mofhod Is basod on elustlc theory oI R.C.C. socfIons. Tho IoIIowIng assumpfIons
aro mado In fhIs mofhod:
ti) Af any cross socfIon, pIano socfIon boIoro bondIng romaIns pIano ovon aIfor bondIng.
tii) AII fonsIIo sfrossos aro fakon by roInIorcomonfs and nono by concrofo.
tiii) Tho sfross sfraIn roIafIon, undor workIng Ioads, Is IInoar bofh Ior sfooI and concrofo.
tio) Tho moduIar rafIo bofwoon sfooI and concrofo romaIns consfanf and Is gIvon by
n =
E
E
s
n cbc
=
280
3
Whoro I
cbc
Is pormIssIbIo comprossIvo sfross In bondIng.
IormIssIbIo sfross In concrofo Is doIInod as uIfImafo sfross dIvIdod by a Iacfor oI saIofy. In
concrofo a Iacfor oI saIofy upfo 3 Is usod. In caso oI sfooI, fho pormIssIbIo sfross Is doIInod as
yIoId sfross or 0.2 por conf prooI sfross dIvIdod by Iacfor oI saIofy. SInco sfooI Is moro roIIabIo
maforIaI, Iacfor oI saIofy usod Is 1.75 fo 1.85 onIy. Basod on elustlc theory and assumIng fhaf
fho bond bofwoon sfooI and concrofo Is porIocf sfrossos aro osfImafod In roInIorcod comonf
concrofo. Tho dosIgnor wIII aIm af koopIng fhoso sfrossos as cIoso fo pormIssIbIo sfrossos as
possIbIo buf wIfhouf oxcoodIng fhom.
Inlioduclion !
The LimiIaIion oI Ihis HeIhod are
ti) If assumos sfross sfraIn roIafIon Ior concrofo Is consfanf, whIch Is nof fruo.
tii) If gIvos fho ImprossIon fhaf Iacfor oI saIofy fImos fho workIng Ioad Is fho IaIIuro Ioad,
whIch Is nof fruo. ThIs Is parfIcuIarIy so In caso oI IndoformInafo sfrucfuros. In fhoso
sfrucfuros fhoro wIII bo rodIsfrIbufIon oI Iorcos as pIasfIc hIngos aro Iormod af crIfIcaI
socfIons.
tiii) ThIs mofhod gIvos unoconomIcaI socfIons.
The advanIages oI Ihis meIhod are
ti) If Is sImpIo
tii) RoasonabIy roIIabIo and
tiii) As fho workIng sfrossos aro Iow, fho sorvIcoabIIIfy roquIromonfs aro aufomafIcaIIy
safIsIIod and fhoro Is no nood fo chock fhom.
Howovor fhIs mofhod has boon doIofod In IS 456 2000, buf fho concopf oI fhIs mofhod Is
rofaInod Ior chockIng sorvIcoabIIIfy sfafos oI doIIocfIons and crackIng. Honco knowIodgo oI
fhIs mofhod Is ossonfIaI and IS 456 2000 gIvos If In appondIx. In fhIs book, fhIs mofhod Is
brIoIIy oxpIaInod In AppondIx B and Iow probIoms havo boon soIvod.
Load FacIor HeIhod {LFH) or UlIimaIe Load HeIhod {ULH)
In fhIs mofhod uIfImafo Ioad Is usod as dosIgn Ioad and fho coIIapso crIforIa usod Ior fho
dosIgn. !IfImafo Ioad Is doIInod as Ioad Iacfor fImos fho workIng Ioad. Honco If gIvos boffor
concopf oI Ioad carryIng capacIfy oI fho sfrucfuro. Ifs saIIonf Ioafuros aro:
1. !sos acfuaI sfross sfraIn curvo and uIfImafo sfraIn as IaIIuro crIforIa.
2. RodIsfrIbufIon oI Iorcos Is accounfod sInco If works In fho pIasfIc rogIon.
3. If aIIows varIod soIocfIon oI Ioad Iacfors, a Iowor vaIuo Ior Ioads known wIfh moro cor-
faInfy IIko doad Ioad and hIghor vaIuo Ior a Ioss corfaIn Ioads IIko IIvo Ioad and wInd
Ioads.
ThIs mofhod gIvos vory oconomIcaI socfIons. Howovor If Ioads fo oxcossIvo doIormafIon and
crackIng. ThIs phonomonon Is moro prodomInanf whon hIgh sfrongfh doIormod bars aro usod.
Thus fhIs mofhod IaIIod fo safIsIy fho sorvIcoabIIIfy and durabIIIfy crIforIa. To ovorcomo fhoso
probIoms codos sfarfod adopfIng Ioad Iacfor mofhod tL!M) In whIch Ioad Iacfors woro modIIIod.
A Ioad Iacfor oI 2 was usod Ior dosIgn. AddIfIonaI Iacfor oI saIofy oI 1.5 was usod Ior dosIgnod
concrofo mIxos Ior caIcuIafIng fho pormIssIbIo sfrossos fo confroI sorvIcoabIIIfy roquIromonf.
As moro and moro rosoarch confInuod fo InvosfIgafo fho probIoms roIafod wIfh uIfImafo
Ioad mofhod If was IoIf Insfoad oI ropaIrIng fhIs mofhod fhoro Is nood Ior comprohonsIvo
mofhod fo fako caro oI dosIgn roquIromonfs Irom sfrongfh and sorvIcoabIIIfy crIforIa. ThIs
gavo rIso fo IImIf sfafo mofhod and aII codos ropIacod fhIs mofhod by IImIf sfafo mofhod.
Honco fhoro Is no nood fo mako a soparafo sfudy oI fhIs mofhod.
LimiI SIaIe HeIhod {LSH)
ThIs Is a comprohonsIvo mofhod whIch fakos caro oI fho sfrucfuro nof onIy Ior Ifs saIofy buf Ifs
IIfnoss fhroughouf fho porIod oI sorvIco oI fho sfrucfuro. ThIs mofhod Is fhoroughIy oxpIaInod
In chapfors II and III and many sfrucfuraI oIomonfs aro dosIgnod In fho ofhor chapfors.