Coal

Introduction

Coal was one of man's earliest

sources of heat and light. The
Chinese were known to have
dug it more than 3,000 years
ago.
The first recorded discovery of
coal in this country was by
French explorers on the Illinois
River in 1679, and the earliest
recorded commercial mining
occurred near Richmond,
Virginia, in 1750.
In the 19th century, coal grew
rapidly in importance, and from
1850 to 1950 it was our most
important energy fuel.

 Coal is Black Diamond in more sense

than one! Coal is the main source of
energy not only in our country but also for
most of the countries of the world.
The energy requirement of India is
increasing every year and to meet this
demand the country has to depend to a
large extent on coal.
At present more than 60% of the total
commercial energy requirement is met
from the coal.

 The word coal is a very common term. It was

formerly written as Cole and could be traced to
the Sanskrit root Kala which means black.
According to Stopes and Wheeler (1918),
ordinary coal is a compact, stratified mass of
mummified plants which have in part suffered
arrested decay to varying degrees of
completeness.
Arber (1918) has defined coal, as a solid,
stratified rock, composed mainly of
hydrocarbons and capable of being used as a
fuel to supply heat or light or both.

 Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the

ground by underground mining or open-pit
mining (surface mining).
It is a readily combustible black or
brownish-black sedimentary rock.
It is composed primarily of carbon along
with assorted other elements, including
sulfur.
Often associated with the Industrial
Revolution, coal remains an enormously
important fuel and is the largest single
source of electricity worldwide.

Coal's Past,
Although coal has always been an important and
plentiful fuel source, many people may not realize
just
how long it has been used? or
how much it is used today?.
A look at past and present uses of coal can tell,
what the future of coal might be.
The Past
Coal has been used for nearly as long as mankind
has thrived. In fact, coal was used to provide heat
in caveman times!

Coal's Past,
In the 1300s in what is now the United States,
Native Americans used coal for cooking, making
clay pots, and heating. By the mid-1700s, the first
U.S. coal mining operations opened in Virginia.
Wood charcoal had long been used to provide fuel
in England, but in the 18th century it was
discovered that coal burned cleaner and hotter.
Soon after, coal use skyrocketed during the
Industrial Revolution, when demands for energy
sources increased.

Coal's Past,
In 19th-century, America, Coal was used to fuel
the boilers on steam-powered trains, which
became a popular mode of transportation. At the
same time, coal was being used in the production
of weapons during the American Civil War, and
coke (a coal residue) took charcoal's place as the
primary fuel for making steel.
About one hundred years ago in the United States,
coal's abundance led to its widespread use for
heating homes, generating electricity, providing
cooking heat, powering railroads and boats, and
fueling factories.

Coal's Present,

Although coal may not be as visible today as it was

around 1900, it is even more prevalent as a source
of fuel. Coal production has increased by more
than 70 % since 1970.
If you use electricity, chances are that you are a
coal consumer. Nine out of every 10 tons of coal
mined in the United States today is used to
generate electricity. About 56 % of the electricity
used in this country is coal-generated electricity.

Coal's Present,

Electricity generation is just one use of coal

in the United States. In addition,
manufacturing plants and industries use
coal to make chemicals, cement, paper,
ceramics, and metal products, to name a
few. Methanol and ethylene, which can be
made from coal gas, are used to make
products such as plastics, medicines,
fertilizers, and tar.

Coal's Present,

Certain industries consume large amounts

of coal. For example, concrete and paper
companies burn coal, and the steel industry
uses coke and coal by-products to make
steel for bridges, buildings, and
automobiles.

About 9% of U.S.-mined coal is exported to

some 40 countries, including Canada,
Japan, and western European nations.

Coal's Future

The United States has a 300-year supply of

coal, if it continues to use it at the same rate
as today. This is promising because, in
addition to the many existing ways to use
coal, the future holds new methods and
potential for growth. Products from coal may
soon be part of communications and
transportation systems, computer networks,
and even space expeditions.

Coal's Future
Coal will likely continue to be an important source
of electricity generation because it is more
abundant and cost-effective than oil and natural
gas. Compare these energy costs per million
British thermal units (Btus):
Coal$1.20
Oil$4.45
Natural gas$4.30
Although coal is widely used for electricity
generation in the United States and in countries
throughout Europe, there will likely be a significant
increase in the use of coal for electricity generation
in countries such as China and India.

Coal's Future
In addition to these new and increased uses of
coal, new technologies will continue to enhance
our ability to identify the shape and composition of
untapped coal reserves. Core samples and
information about the layers of overburden (the
topsoil, subsoil, and other layers of earth and rock
covering the coal bed) can be analyzed before the
expensive process of coal removal begins. New
technologies will also continue to improve the
effects of the production and use of coal on the
environment.

 For example, the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency's Coalbed
Methane Outreach Program seeks to
work with coal companies to reduce
methane gas emissions associated
with coal mining. Since 1990,
methane recovered and used
productively at coal mines has
increased from 13.8 Billion cubic feet
to 37.2 Billion cubic feet.

Fast Facts about Coal

The United States produces about 20%, or 1.1

billion tons, of the world's coal supplysecond
only to China.
Coal generates about half of the electricity used in
the United States.
More than 2 million acres of mined land have been
reclaimed over the past 25 yearsthat's an area
larger than the state of Delaware.
The United States has about a 245-year supply of
coal, if it continues using coal at the same rate at
which it uses coal today.

Fast Facts about Coal

Montana is the state with the most coal reserves (119
billion tons). But Wyoming is the top coal-producing state
it produced about 400 million tons in 2004.

Texas is the top coal-consuming state. It uses about 100

million tons each year.
The average coal miner is 50 years old and has 20 years of
experience.
Coal ash, a byproduct of coal combustion, is used as filler
for tennis rackets, golf balls, and linoleum.
U.S. coal deposits contain more energy than that of all the
world's oil reserves.
Each person in the United States uses 3.8 tons of coal
each year.

Origin of Coal

Genetic aspects of coal

1. Accumulation of vegetable matter
2. Accumulation of plant debris
3. Transformation of vegetable matter into
coal.

Accumulation of vegetable matter

The presence of various plant structures
as seen under the microscope has proved
beyond doubt that coals are formed from
plant remains.
Coal is formed from the remains of plant
that once flourished in some areas of the
earth where climate was favourable for the
luxuriant growth of flora.
The several kinds of coal represent
different degree in the chemical
decompostion and physical alteration of
the original plant material.

 The change in chemical composition during the

various stages in the formation of coal from the
parent organic debris are: (TABLE-1)
Carbon
%

Hydrogen
%

Oxygen
%

Nitrogen
%

Calorific value
(Kilo Joule/kg)
Range between

Wood

50.0

6.0

43.0

1.0

14,400

17,400

Peat

57.0

6.0

35.5

1.7

13,800

20,000

Lignite

65.0

5.2

28.3

1.5

23,000

29,000

Bituminous
coal

84.0

5.2

9.3

1.5

29,000

35,000

Anthrocite

93.5

2.8

2.8

0.9

35,000

35,400

Accumulation of Plant debris

There are two existing theories on the
accumulation of vegetable matters.
in situ theory
drift theory

in situ theory
Considered that old forests or marshes due
to disturbances on the surface of the earth
were buried at the place of their growth
under a cover of sediments.
In course of time due to overburden
pressure and temperature it was
transformed into coal.
Upright fossil tree trunks or fossil roots
found in coal seams suggest growth in the
original position of the forest and support
this theory.

 The coal seam frequently rests upon a bed of

fireclay.
The constituents (alkalies, lime and iron oxide)
which act as flux in plants that grew on it, when it
acted as soil.
The occurrence of fireclay bed underlying a seam
further supports the in situ theory providing
evidence that the forest grew on it.
Formed due to accumulation of plant materials in
situ are fairly constant in composition over wide
areas; the ash % is also low.
There is also a general absence of detrital material,
sand or clay in coal.

drift theory
Vegetable matters are shifted from the
place of their origin by running water or
glacier and accumulate in deep lake,
estuary, river valleys and afterwards are
covered with sediments like sands or
clays.
Seat earths are often absent in the coal
seams produced by drifting of plant
material and seams lie directly on
sandstone, conglomerate or shale; upright
tree trunks are absent.

 Because of the drifted nature of

accumulation of vegetable matter the
resultant coal seam shows wider variation
in composition, particularly a high amount
of detritus material such as sand or clay in
the coal seams.
As a result the ash contents are high in
coals formed due to accumulation of
drifted vegetable material.
The growth of peat has been found to be
highly variable which depends largely
upon the climate of the region.

 It has been shown that the annual growth

rate of swamp peat in the temperate zone
is about 0.5 to 1 mm. In tropical areas it
has been found to grow at a rate of 3-4
mm/year i.e. 1 m in 300-400 years (Stach
et al, 1982).
The rate of composition from peat to lignite
to bituminous coal has been suggested to
be in the proportion of 6:3:1.
This point that 1 m of peat gives 20 cm of
bituminous coal (Stach et al, 1982).

Transformation of vegetable matter

into coal
It is a very complex process, which occurs in
two distinct stages
1. Biochemical stage and
2. The geochemical (dynamochemical)
stage, which is designated as
coalification process.

Biochemical stage:
During the initial stage of biochemical phase the
decomposition and degradation of plant material
take place due to atmospheric oxidation by fungi
and also by aerobic bacteria.
In nature, the accumulated plant material
subsides under its own weight. At this stage
anaerobic conditions prevail and anaerobic
bacteria take part in decomposing and
degrading the plant material at a slower rate.
The accumulated vegetable matters are covered
by clay or sands brought mainly by the running
water.

 In the near shore environment the sea

may be flooded in and a marine band may
eventually form.
The accumulated vegetable matters are
subsequently transformed into coal by
pressure (compression) and temperature.
Depending on the pressure and
temperature, wood is transformed into coal
in various stages in a series:
Wood

peat

lignite

bituminous coal

anthracite

Coalification

The progressive change in the composition

of organic material in the formation of coal
(W-P-L-B-A) is called coalification. As it
occurs the coal is said to increase in maturity
or rank.
Chemically, two substances-cellulose and
lignin that predominate in plant structure and
make up the entire composition of wood,
contribute significantly in the formation of
coal.
Both cellulose and lignin are complex, high
molecular weight compounds made
essentially of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 After peat is buried and compacted the %

of oxygen is progressively decreased with
coalification.
The decrease in oxygen occurs due to
loss of water and carbon dioxide.
As oxygen content is decreased the % of
carbon is increased, but the % of
hydrogen does not vary greatly until coal
attains 92% C.
After about 92% C the ultimate lowering of
hydrogen % results due to loss of
methane.

 Generally, coal remains non-caking up to 75%

carbon coal are medium caking (Gray-King Coke
type varies from A to G).
Between 75-85% C there is the maximum
development of caking properties which
characterizes coals as prime Coking (G5 to G11).
Between 90-92% coals are considered as weakly
caking (A to G5).
Over 92% carbon the coals are simply noncaking.
There are various theories to explain the physical
and chemical changes during coalification and
thereby different properties of coals. The leading
theories are :

Mechanistic theories
Workers have contributed to explain the chemical change during
coalification.
Regnault (1905) based on analysis of mine gases postulated the
following mechanism:
(C6H10O5)4 C9H6O + 7 CH4 + 8 CO2 + 3 H2O
Cellulose
Bituminous coal
Parr (1906), explained the mechanism of conversion to lignite and
bituminous coal by the following equation
(C6H10O5)5 C20H22O4 + 3 CH4 + 6 CO2 + CO + 8 H2O
Cellulose
(C6H10O5)5 C22H20O4 + 5 CH4 + 8 CO2 + CO + 10 H2O
Cellulose
Since bituminous coal is a further stage of the metamorphosis of lignocellulose, Parr (1909) proposed further the mechanism of formation
of bituminous coal from ligno-cellulose as follow:
3 C12H18O9 C22H20O3 + 5 CH4 + 8 CO2 + CO + 7 H2O
Bituminous coal

Cellulose and lignin theory

Bone (1918) explained the physical changes that occurred

during heating of coals. According to him, coal contains
about 7% cellulose and about 25% lignin.
(TABLE-2) Characteristic Properties of Cellulose and Lignin
Property

Cellulose

Lignin

1 Effect of Heating

Chars and then burns

directly to CO2 and H2O

Softens and melts and

finally decomposes

2 Solubility in

Insoluble

Soluble

3 Texture

Fibrous

Waxy and resinous

4 Chemical

(C6H10O5)n
Six Carbon atom straight
chain structure with four
OH groups

(C6H10O5)n
Six Carbon atom phenolic
ring structure with methoxy
group and glycerol side
chain.

alkalies

structure

 Bone (1918) utilized these differences in

properties of cellulose and lignin to explain
the variation in swelling and coking
properties with rank of coal.
According to Bone plant materials
underwent geochemical changes due to
the weight of the overlying burden
pressure and temperature due to depth.

Coalification concept of Mazumdar (1972)

According to Mazumdar there are three broad but

distinct phases in the coalification path marked off
by two landmarks on transition points, e.g., one at
about 83.5% and the other at about 92% carbon
rank levels. This is evidence when atomic H/C ratios
are plotted against the carbon content.
The phases are:
1. The first phase: Evolution of low rank coals including
lignites brown coals (C 62 83.5% d.m.f).
2. The first phase: Evolution of higher rank coals (C
83.5 92% d.m.f).
3. The first phase: Evolution of semi-anthracites /
anthracites (C 92 96% d.m.f).

Classification of Coal

 Coals are classified or graded for various

purposes.
The objective of coal classification is to
predict the behaviour of unknown coals.
Mostly coals are bought and sold on the
basis of coal classification or grading.
Also classification is used for the selection
of coals for utilization in different inustries.
The coal classification varies from country
to country.
But for international trade, and
international coal classification is used.

 Regnault Gruner-Brne classification (1874)

scientific classification elementary composition
and its oxygen content.
Frasers Classification (1877) Fuel ratio into four
groups.
Seylers Classification (1900) elementary
composition Carbon and Hydrogen.
The North American (ASTM) classification
volatile matter- fixed carbon and calorific value
are the other parameters.
British coal classification - dry, mineral matter
free volatile matter and Gray-King Coke type.
International classification of coal (1956) volatile
matter (dry and mineral matter free basis) and
caking properties. The different varieties of coals
have been divided into Classes, groups and subgroups.

COAL CHARACTERIZATION AND

CLASSIFICATION

Direct and indirect utilization of coals for

production of energy and chemicals as
well as for smelting of base metals is the
foundation upon which our interest in
classifying this resource is built.
However, because of their complex,
heterogeneous nature and the variety of
coals used throughout the world,
classification is a difficult task that is both
time-consuming and expensive.

 Identification of the most advantageous

raw material, whether by quality, cost,
availability or some combination of these
factors has always been one of the driving
forces behind the development of
classification systems.
In fact, many of the systems in use today
were derived specifically from a need to
identify quality coals for coke making, and
in that respect only classify a relatively
narrow range of coals.

 Other systems that have been developed to

address the scientific need to understand the
origin, constitution and fundamental properties
follow the approach that any sound classification
will identify all coals for all potential industrial
uses.
Generally, coals are grouped according to
particular properties as defined by their "rank"
(degree of metamorphism), "type" (constituent
plant materials) and "grade" (degree of
impurities and calorific value).
Of these, rank is a fundamental concept that
involves a qualitative expression of the
coalification sequence and is universal to all
classification schemes.

 Coalification is a term that describes the

maturation of plant tissues from peat
through different stages of lignite/brown
coal, subbituminous and bituminous coals
to anthracites and meta-anthracites.
As demonstrated in Figure 1, many
chemical and physical properties change
during this progression, but unfortunately
there is no single property that changes
uniformly over the complete range.
Furthermore, a coal's type and grade
influence many of the measured rank
parameters.

 The types of analytical procedures needed

to characterize and classify coals can
roughly be divided into those that describe
chemical composition/properties,
petrographic composition and those that
describe mechanical/physical properties.
Some of these procedures are basic to the
evaluation of all coal materials, whereas
others are employed in the evaluation of
their use in specific processes, like coke
making.

 Classification of coals requires some

methodology for measuring their chemical,
physical and industrial properties.
For this purpose, a variety of standard
analytical procedures are available world
wide from reputable standards
organizations.

 Some of the more familiar ones include the

International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), the British Standards
Institution (BS), the Standards Association of
Australia (AS), the Association Francaise de
Normalisation (AFNOR), etc.
Because these organizations may support
different standards for the same test, the
standard practice used always should be
identified, but more importantly the procedures
described in these standards should be followed
to the letter.

The parameter or criteria used for

classification varies in different countries.
For example:
In German and American Standard
Testing Materials (ASTM) classification,
VM is used as a main parameter.
In the NCB (National Coal Board, Gt.
Britain) classification, VM and Gray-King
Coke Type have been used.
In India Coal Classification, heat value,
calorific value and moisture have been
taken into consideration.

a) Rank
The classification system used in North America
and that is fairly universal is maintained by the
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) and designated D388.
This approach uses standard methods of
measuring and reporting the calorific value on a
moist, mineral-matter-free basis and volatile
matter and fixed carbon on a dry, mineralmatter-free basis to classify coal rank.
Implicit in this characterization is the fact that the
amount of moisture, yield of ash and total sulfur
must be measured to obtain the correct basis of
comparison.

Table 3 - Some of the Parameters Used by ASTM for the Classification of Coals by Rank

 Table 3 defines the rank classes and groups with regard

to the appropriate ranges of calorific value, volatile
matter and fixed carbon, whereas Figure 1 demonstrates
how these values change with increasing metamorphism
and compares them to other rank measuring
parameters, such as moisture and maximum vitrinite
reflectance.

Figure 1 also helps to explain

why the ASTM method employs
different parameters to classify
coals.
For example, calorific value
varies linearly with increasing
rank from sub-bituminous to
medium volatile bituminous rank
and then becomes unreliable.
Volatile matter content on the
other hand is quite variable until
medium volatile rank and then
changes sufficiently to become a
good measure of the degree of
coalification through anthracite
coals.

 Another very important rank parameter that is

useful in the characterization of coking coals is
the measurement of the mean maximum
vitrinite reflectance.
As shown in Figure 1, this analytical technique is
sensitive, persistently changing throughout
coalification and is particularly important for
accurately measuring minor differences in those
coals used for coke making, i.e., high volatile A
bituminous through low volatile bituminous.
The technique measures the amount of incident
light reflected from a polished surface of the
main component of coal. Vitrinite is that
component of coal principally derived from
woody tissues and, at least in coals from North
America, represents the dominant component.

 Rank is the most fundamental concept

relating both coalification history and
utilization potential of a coal.
Volatile matter and maximum vitrinite
reflectance are important values used to
determine the worth of coking coals.
However, because volatile matter is
dependent on both rank and composition,
coals of different composition may be
assigned to the same rank value even
though their levels of maturity may differ.

b) Type
As discussed previously, coal is composed
of the sum of all the organic vegetable
matter preserved and buried as peat.
Changes in the chemical and physical
properties of whole coal are the
summation of changes to the coal
constituents.
There are three main groups of materials
that constitute coals and that are used to
define coal type.

 These material groups identified under an

optical microscope in reflected white light
are referred to as vitrinite, liptinite and
inertinite and are composed of individual
constituents called macerals.
The three maceral groups are
characterized by materials that belong
together because of their similar origin or
mode of preservation as well as by their
gross chemical composition.

 In general, vitrinite group macerals are derived

from the humification of woody tissues and can
possess remnant cell structures or may appear
structureless. Typically, this material contains
relatively more oxygen than the other macerals
at any given rank level.
The vitrinite group macerals are usually the most
abundant maceral group occurring in higher rank
coals.
Liptinite group macerals are derived from plant
resins, spores, cuticles and algal remains that
are fairly resistant to bacterial and fungal decay.
They are characterized as having higher
hydrogen content than the other macerals,
particularly at lower rank.

 However, at the boundary between

subbituminous and bituminous coal there is a
marked decrease in their volatile content and
increase in carbon.
By medium volatile rank a further decrease in
hydrogen and volatile content occurs which
makes them nearly indistinguishable from
vitrinite.
The inertinite group macerals are derived mostly
from woody tissues, plant degradation products
or fungal remains, and are characterized by a
high carbon content resulting from thermal or
biological oxidation.
Inertinite group macerals are found in variable
abundance in coals, but are characteristically
higher in those from the Southern Hemisphere.

 With regard to coke making, vitrinite macerals

constitute the principal reactive components of a
coking coal.
That is, during heating in a reducing
atmosphere, vitrinite will become plastic,
devolatilize and then solidify to form the porous,
carbonaceous matrix of a metallurgical coke.
Liptinite macerals are also highly reactive during
coke making, but owing to their higher volatile
content they contribute more to the by-products
than to the coke product.
Inertinite macerals are basically inert during the
carbonization process, as they do not possess
or have only limited thermoplastic properties and
volatile contents.

 However, they do serve a very important

function as a filler phase for the other
reactive macerals of coal.
Small-size inertinite particles thicken the
walls between vacuoles in coke thus
improving the overall strength of the coke.
Consequently, an understanding of the
composition or type of coal can be very
important to evaluating the quality and
value of a coking coal.

c) Grade
Coal grade is a term used to indicate the
value of coal material as determined by
the amount and nature of ash yield and
the sulfur content following the complete
oxidation of the organic fraction.
Calorific value is one of the principal
measures of a coal's value as a fuel and is
directly influenced by mineral impurities.

 Coal mineralogy is not only important to

combustion characteristics, but also as materials
that can be passed on to secondary products
such as metallurgical coke.
Alkalis-containing compounds derived from coal
minerals can contribute to excessive gasification
of coke in the blast furnace and attack of blast
furnace refractories, whereas phosphorus and
sulfur from coal minerals can be passed on to
the hot metal, thus reducing its quality for
steelmaking.

 Mineral matter may occur finely dispersed

or in discrete partings in coal and is
generally grouped according to origin.
A certain amount of inorganic matter and
trace elements are derived from the
original plants.
However, the majority is implaced either
during the initial stage of coalification
(being introduced by wind or water to the
peat swamp) or during the second stage of
coalification, after consolidation of the coal
by movement of solutions in cracks,
fissures and cavities.

 Mineral components of plant origin are not easily

recognized in coals because they tend to be
disseminated on a submicron level.
The primary mineral components incorporated
during plant deposition tend to be layered with
and intimately intergrown with the organic
fraction,
whereas the secondary mineral matter tends to
be coarsely intergrown and associated with
cleat, fractures and cavities.
Therefore, secondary minerals may be more
readily separated (cleaned or washed) from the
organic matrix to improve the value of the
material.

d) Industrial Properties
Most of the ancillary mechanical and
physical tests used to characterize coals
and often included in classification
schemes, were developed in support of
efforts to identify coals for coke making.
As stated earlier, the unique property that
sets coking coals apart from other coals, is
caking ability.

 There has been much effort to characterize the

swelling, contracting and thermoplastic
properties of coals using techniques that allow
for the comparison of different coals and how
these properties influence coke production and
quality.
Laboratory tests such as the crucible or free
swelling index, Gray-King coke type, Roga
Index, Audibert-Arnu Dilatometer and Gieseler
Plastometer, provide some means of evaluating
the relative strength of swelling, degree of
contraction and how fluid a coal will become
under heating conditions similar to those
encountered during coke making.

 Another important mechanical test

designed to provide a measure of the ease
of pulverization of a coal in comparison
with other standard reference coals is the
Hardgrove grindability index, (HGI).
Ease of grinding is an important economic
consideration for all industrial processes.
Grindability changes with coal rank, i.e.,
coals of very low and very high rank are
more difficult to grind than middle-rank
coking coals.

 Other factors that influence HGI include

the presence of different maceral
components, the presence of even small
proportions of hard minerals (like quartz)
and variations in moisture content.
Of these factors, changes in inherent
moisture content cause the most variation
in the HGI index, particularly for lower rank
coals.

Indian Coal Grading

 Different grading systems for coking and non-coking

coals of India have been adopted. Coking coals are:
Nomenclature

Ash Ranges

Steel Grade I

Not exceeding 15%

Steel Grade II

Above 15% but not exceeding 18%

Washery Grade I

Above 18% but not exceeding 21%

Washery Grade II

Above 21% but not exceeding 24%

Washery Grade III

Above 24% but not exceeding 28%

Washery Grade IV

Above 28% but not exceeding 38%

Table. 4 Showing Grading of Indian Coking Coals

 Non-coking coals are graded according to

moisture, ash and useful heat value
(UHV). UHV can be calculated from
moisture and ash percentage as follows:UHV = 8900-138 (ash and moisture %) Kcal/kg.

The grading of non-coking coals as per

Government of India notification No.
280112/9/92 CA, dated 16th February,
1993 and subsequent revision with effect
from 17th June 1993 is given in Table - 5

Table 5: Grading of Non-coking coal

Type

Grade

Long flame coal produced in collieries in

all the states except in Assam,
Arunachala Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Nagaland and Singareni collieries in the
state of Andhra Pradesh

Exceeding 6200.

Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200.

Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600.

Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940.

Exceeding 6200.

Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200.

Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600.

Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940.

Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200.

Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360.

Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400.

Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600.

Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940.

Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200.

Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360.

Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400.

Coal ( other than long flame) produced in

all states except in the state of Assam,
Arunachala Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Nagaland

Useful Heat Value (K.Cal./kg.)

TYPES OF COAL

Depending on the origin, coals have been

grouped in to
(a) Sapropelic coal, and
(b) Humic coals.
(c) Unusual coal types:

(a) Sapropelic Coal:

Sapropelic coals are formed by putrefaction
process.
These coals are essentially non-banded in
character and are rich in resins, waxes or fats
and therefore richer in hydrogen than the humic
coals.
They are usually lenticular in shape, local in
extent and occur at the top of a coal bed.
Two types of Sapropelic coals have been
recognized:
(i) Boghead (Torbanite)
(ii) Cannel.

(b) Humic Coal:

Unlike Sapropelic coals the humic coals are
banded in character and the constituent bands
are distinct in their physical appearance.
Humic coals have a series of rank starting from
wood-peat-lignite-bituminous coal to anthracite.
In humic coals, the remains of wood and bark
predominate.
Over the time, geological processes apply
pressure to peat , which is transformed
successively into the following ranks:

 Lignite - also referred to as brown coal, is

the lowest rank of coal and used almost
exclusively as fuel for steam-electric
power generation. Jet is a compact form of
lignite that is sometimes polished and has
been used as an ornamental stone since
the Iron Age .
Sub-bituminous coal - whose properties
range from those of lignite to those of
bituminous coal and are used primarily as
fuel for steam-electric power generation.

 Bituminous coal - a dense coal, usually

black, sometimes dark brown, often with
well-defined bands of bright and dull
material, used primarily as fuel in steamelectric power generation, with substantial
quantities also used for heat and power
applications in manufacturing and to make
coke .
Anthracite - the highest rank, used
primarily for residential and commercial
space heating.

(c) Unusual coal types:

These coal types include paper coal and colored
coal. Paper coal look like accumulated sheets of
soiled light brown semitransparent papers.
These coals consist almost entirely of cuticles
(outerskins of plants).
The coals being carboniferous in age are of
lignite rank.
Humic coals may show bright variegated colors
like peacock, a mixture of blue, green yellow or
red. Miners call this as Peacock coal.