Critical Reasoning

All there is to
know

Questions test your ability to:

Identify the main point or conclusion of an argument

Make inferences or draw conclusions of an argument
Identify assumptions
Assess the effect of additional information on the
argument
Identify the unstated conclusion of an argument
Identify the method of reasoning employed in an argument
Detect reasoning errors

Identify:
Premise
Conclusion
Where they are
positioned
How they are related
Cue words
Type of logic

Understanding the Argument

Premise
facts that support the conclusion
key words: because, since, in the view of, given that
Conclusion
logical outcome supported by the premise
key words: therefore, hence, thus, so, implies,
indicates that
Assumptions:
A logical gap that links the premise and the
conclusion. It is understood, never stated

Identify the premise and the

conclusion through cue words
She cried. She did not pass the test.

She cried because she did not pass

the test.

Understanding the Argument

An auto mechanic who is too thorough in checking a car is
likely to subject the customer to unnecessary expenses.
On the other hand, one who is not thorough enough is
likely to miss some problem that could cause a serious
accident. Therefore, it is a good idea not to have your
car checked until a recognizable problem develops.

Understanding the Argument

Premise:
1. An auto mechanic who is too thorough in checking a car is likely
to subject the customer to unnecessary expenses.
2. On the other hand, one who is not thorough enough is likely to
miss some problem that could cause a serious accident.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it is a good idea not to have your car checked until a
recognizable problem develops.
Assumption:
Most car owners are concerned with the cost of car maintenance
than with safety. Car mechanics are either too thorough, or not
thorough enough. There is no middle ground. Car problems will
manifest themselves before they are serious enough to cause
accidents.

Identify position of conclusion

David was talking during the
lesson so he did not understand
the teachers instructions.
David did not understand the
teachers instructions because he
was talking during the class.

Connecting events to draw

a conclusion
The sun rose this morning. The
sun rose yesterday. Therefore,
the sun will rise tomorrow.
Sara overslept, which caused
her to be late leaving for school;
therefore, she ran all the way,
causing her to be out of breath.

Unstated Conclusions
Identify the main premise
look for links between the premises
look for the answer choice that links the
premises
verify the conclusion against the premisesit must be supported by all of the facts

Unstated Conclusions
When we regard people to be morally responsible
for their actions, we regard them as being the
object of praise or blame with respect to those
actions. But it seems evident that people cannot
be the object of praise or blame for their actions
unless they performed them of their own free will.
Therefore, -----

Unstated Conclusions
People are morally responsible only for actions that they
perform of their own free will.
People are not morally responsible for actions they did
not perform
People can be blamed or praised for actions that they
perform of their free will
People are morally responsible only for actions for
which they can be blamed or praised
People who are not morally responsible for their actions
cannot be blamed or praised for their actions.

Determining what the

writer is trying to say:
Looking for Verbs and
Adverbs:
The ground was wet so it must
have been raining.
The ground was wet so it
probably has been raining.

Determining what the

writer is trying to say:
Look for Adjectives:
Teachers in New York deserve extra pay for the
work they do.
Prisoners in San Quentin rioted today because
they were angry about their condition.

Making Inferences
If all the statements are true which of the following
must be true?
Which of the following conclusions is most strongly
supported by the statements can be properly inferred
from the passage?
With must be true Q, use deductive reasoning
With may be true Q, use inductive reasoning

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

All men are mortals

Brain is a man
Therefore, Brain is a mortal

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT:
Answer should be
supported by all the
premises
Remains within the
scope of the argument.
The scope of the
argument is defined by
its limits, its boundaries.
Linked to the argument

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT:
Freshmen usually find economics I
difficult
Jones is a Freshman
Therefore Jones finds Economics I
difficult

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT:
Argument by Example

Argument by Analogy

Argument by Example
The US gives billions of dollars in foreign aid
to Balonia. Leaders of Balonia resent
foreign aid. The US should discontinue
direct foreign aid to developing countries.

Argument by Analogy
The conservative and labor parties support a
viable economy, including economic growth,
industrialization, a fair wage policy and
unrestricted immigration.
The Conservative Party endorsed free trade.
Therefore, the labor party will endorse free
trade.

Argument by Analogy
France and England have the same
population size
France has fluoridated drinking water
England will have fluoridated drinking
water.

Determining the logical

sequence of an Argument
Find the conclusion first
Find the premise

Determine if the premise is true.

Determine the logical form of the
argument.

Venn diagram and

deductive argument
All weeds are plants; all daisies are weeds. Therefore,
all daisies are plants.

Weeds

Plants
Daises

All weeds are plants; all daisies are

weeds. Therefore, all daisies are plants.
Plants
Weeds
Daises

Because all dollars are money and all Yen are

money, then all dollars must be Yen.

Money

Dollar

Yen

Dr. Deutchs economics class is difficult.

Dr. Jacks economic class is difficult

Professors Sols economic class is difficult

Therefore all economic classes are difficult.

Difficult
J
D

Analyzing the logical

sequence of an argument
Dear Ann Landers: I am a 21-year-old guy who is perfectly
straight. I like to go to a gay bar in our neighborhood
because the music is good and the people are friendly.
My dad sat me down last night and asked me if I was a switchhitter. I told him absolutely not. He said her was very
relieved because he had heard I was a steady at this place.
When I explained I liked the ambiance, he advised me to find
my fun some place else because everyone assumes that a
guy who goes to a gay bar is gay. I think he is wrong.

Premise and conclusion:

Any person frequenting a gay bar is gay
You are a person frequenting a gay bar
Therefore, you are presumed to be gay.

Gay
Frequenters
You

Strengthening an argument
Support one assumption
Provide additional facts
to support the conclusion

Strengthening an argument
It has recently been proposed that we adopt an all
volunteer army. This policy was tied on a
limited basis several years ago, and was a
miserable failure. The level of education of the
volunteers was unacceptably low, while levels
of drug abuse and crime soared among the
army personnel. Can we trust our national
defense to a volunteer army? The answer is
clearly no.

Strengthening an argument
The general level of education has risen since the first
time an all volunteer army was tried.
The proposal was made by an organization called
Citizens of Peace.
The first attempt to create a volunteer army was carried
out according to the same plan now under proposal and
under conditions as those that exist today.
A volunteer army would be less expensive than an army
that relies on the draft.
The size of the army needed today is smaller than that
needed when a volunteer army was first tried.

Weakening an Argument
The recent turnaround of the LEX corporation is
a splendid example of how an astute chief
executive officer can rechannel a companys
assets towards profitability. With the new CEO
at the helm, LEX has gone, in only three
business quarters, from a 10 million dollar
operating loss to a 22 million dollar operating
gain.

Weakening an Argument
The passage assumes the the new CEO was the
only factor that affected the corporations recent
success.
The recent success of the corporation may be only
temporary.
The chief executive officer may be drawing a
salary and bonus that will set a damaging
precedent for this and other corporations
The author does not define probability.
Rechanneling assets is a short term solution.

FALLACIES:

Guilt by association
Faulty analogy
Causal fallacies
Post hoc ergo hoc
You too

Faulty Analogy:
Tariffs on textiles benefit the textile
industry
Tariffs on steel benefit the steel industry
A tariff on every imported product
benefits the economy.

Causal Fallacies:
Roni develops a rash whenever exposed to
cactus weed. On his way home from a hike,
he breaks out in a rash. Upon applying
some ointment, he exclaims, I must have
brushed by a cactus weed.

Argument:
Rashes are caused by cactus weed

I have a rash
I must have touched a cactus plant.

Post hoc ergo hoc

Event y is followed by x
So x is the cause of y

YOU TOO:
You assert not to do x
But you do x
I can ignore you advice not to do x

More Fallacies
STATISTICAL:
data is drawn from a sample not representative of
population or too small a sample is used to generalize
findings.
UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTION:
has no basis or merit
IRRELEVANT APPEAL:
Validity is judged based on the the belief of very few
people.

More Fallacies
REFUTATION ERRORS:
attacking the author of the argument or any
piece of information irrelevant to the argument

CIRCULAR REASONING:
A premise is restated as the conclusion, or
premise presupposes the conclusion