II Module

Jisha Kuruvilla P
Senses (meanings) of Engineering Ethics

• There are two different senses (meanings) of

engineering ethics:
• The Normative senses
• The Descriptive senses.
The normative sense includes:
• study of what you should or should not do.
• it is an attempt to figure out what
people should do or whether their current
moral behavior is good.
• Knowing moral values.
• Finding accurate solutions to moral problems.
• Justifying moral judgments in engineering
practices.
• Study of decisions, policies, and values that
are morally desirable in the engineering
practice and research.
• Using codes of ethics and standards and
applying them in their transactions by
engineers.
 Examples
• “Murder is wrong.”
• “Giving to charity is good, but not ethically
mandatory.”
• “Conflict of interest must be handled
carefully.”
• The category of descriptive ethics is the
easiest to understand.
• Descriptive ethics are judgments about the
“rightness” or “wrongness” of things in terms
of people’s opinions.
• It simply involves describing how people
behave and/or what sorts of moral standards
they claim to follow. 
 Examples
• 68% of respondents said they disapprove of
the administration.
• This movie has a pretty bad rating.
 Types of inquiry
• Inquiry means investigation.
• Engineering ethics includes investigation into
values, meanings and facts.
• The three types of inquiries, in solving ethical
problems are:
Normative inquiry
conceptual inquiry
Factual or descriptive inquiry
 Normative inquiry
• Meant for identifying and justifying some
norms and standards of morally desirable
nature for guiding individuals as well as
groups.
 Examples
• How do the obligations of engineers protect
public safety extend in any given situation?
• When should an engineer is expected to blow
whistle on the dangerous practices of their
employers?
• Where are the laws and organizational procedures
that affect engineering practice on moral issues?
• Where are the moral rights essential for engineers
to full fill their professional obligations?
 Conceptual Inquiry

• It is directed to clarify the meaning of

concepts or ideas or principles that are
expressed by words or by questions and
statements. For example,
– (a) What is meant by safety ?
– (b) How is it related to risk?
– (c) What is a bribe?
– (d) What is a profession and professional?
 Factual/Descriptive inquiry
• Provides facts for understanding and finding
solutions to value based issues.
• The engineer has to conduct factual inquiries b using
scientific techniques.
• These help to provide information regarding the
business realities such as engineering practice,
history of engineering profession, the effectiveness
of professional societies, the procedures to be
adopted when assessing risks and pscyhological
profiles of engineers.
VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
 NORMATIVE INQUIRY
• It seeks to identify and justify the morally-
desirable norms or standards that should
guide individuals and groups. It also has
theoretical goal of justifying particular moral
judgments.
 Example: NORMATIVE INQUIRY
• How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend
in any given situation?
• When, if ever, should engineers be expected to blow whistle on
dangerous practices of their employers?
• Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about acceptable
risks in design for a public transport system or a nuclear plant?
• Is it of management, senior engineers, government, voters or all of
them?
• When and why is the government justified in interfering with the
organizations?
• What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligations to
their employees or clients or the public?
 CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY
• It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas
or principles that are expressed by words or by questions
and statements.
• Examples:
• What is meant by safety?
• How is it related to risk?
• What is a bribe?
• What is a profession?
• When moral concepts are discussed, normative and
conceptual issues are closely interconnected.
FACTUAL OR DESCRIPTIVE INQUIRY
• It is aimed to obtain facts needed for
understanding and resolving value issues.
• Researchers conduct factual inquiries using
mathematical or statistical techniques.
• The inquiry provide important information on
business realities, engineering practice, and the
effectiveness of professional societies in fostering
moral conduct, the procedures used in risk
assessment, and psychological profiles of engineers.
 Factual or Descriptive Inquiry
• The facts provide not only the reasons for moral
problems but also enable us to develop alterative
ways of resolving moral problems.
Example 1. How were the benefits assessed?
2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?
3. What are short-term and long-term effects of
drinking water being polluted?
4. Who conducted the tests on materials?
Department of Information Technology
 MORAL DILEMMA
• Dilemmas are certain kind of situations in which a difficult
choice has to be made.
• At times, the situations occur where one cannot make
immediate decisions as the moral reasons come into conflict.
• The moral reasons can be
• Rights
• Duties
• goods
• obligations, which make the decision making complex.
• One moral principle can have two or more conflicting
applications for a particular situation.
 Examples

The Unfaithful Friend

• You go out with your husband for dinner at a new restaurant you have not
frequented before.
• It is in a part of town you rarely visit.
• You are shocked to see your friend’s spouse having dinner with a very
young, attractive person.
• From the way they are behaving, it is obvious they are more than friends.
• The couple finish their meal and leave without seeing you. They behave
very affectionately on the way out the door. 
• Do you:
• Tell your friend, knowing you probably will not be believed and that it may
ruin your friendship?
• Say nothing about seeing the couple as it is none of your business; they
may even have an open relationship?
A Difficult Choice
• You and your family love the beach and decide to spend a weekend at an isolated
beach cabin. 
• Your teenage daughter often gets bored on your getaways, so you make plans to take
your niece along.
• As soon as you arrive, a storm is looming on the horizon and the water looks rough.
• You tell the girls they can get ready to swim, but to come back and help unload the car.
• They are so excited, they do not pay attention to the last part of what you say and run
down to the beach to swim.
• You do not realize they have done so until you hear your daughter scream.
• You realize they are both caught in a strong current and might be swept out to sea.
• You are a good swimmer and know you can save one of them.
• You have a difficult choice to make. 
• Do you:
• Save your niece first as she is a poor swimmer and will not be able to last as long as
your daughter?
• Save your daughter first, because, although she is a strong swimmer and may be able
to last long enough for you to come back after saving your niece, you cannot stand the
idea of losing her?
An Office Theft
• You are in charge of the petty cash at the office.
• However, a co-worker is responsible for making a weekly trip to the
bank to make the business deposit and obtain petty cash for the
following week.
• In a conversation with your mutual supervisor, you are asked if the
increase in the petty cash amount was enough.
• You, however, have not seen any additional money.
• You realize your co-worker has been pocketing the additional money. 
• Do you:
• Tell your supervisor you have neither asked for nor received any
additional petty cash and that you suspect your co-worker is pocketing
the money?
• Tell your co-worker your suspicions and give them a chance to pay the
money back?
• Say nothing and just wait to see what happens?
Midnight Death
• You have worked years to be successful in your father’s business.
• You felt you were obligated to take over as he worked his whole life to
build the business left to him by his father.
• However, the large businesses in town have seriously cut into profits and
for several years you and your family have just managed to scrape by.
• Your father’s health has declined and he has been hospitalized.
• He has a substantial life insurance policy that expires at midnight.
• If he dies before midnight, you will inherit enough money to pursue a
career you have always dreamed of and provide adequately for your
family. 
• Do you:
• Pinch the oxygen line making it possible for your Dad to die or smother
him with a pillow?
• Tell your Dad the problem and let him suggest a solution and go by what
he says?
• Do nothing as you cannot imagine living with yourself if you terminate
your Dad’s life?
Get Rich
• Your friend offers you an opportunity to make a great deal of
money very quickly.
• He has arranged to set up an off-shore account for your profits.
• He will not tell you exactly how he is making this money, but you
get the impression it is not exactly legal.
• He only wants an investment of $500 and promises you will have
enough from your minimal investment that you will never need
to work again. 
• Do you:
• Give him the $500, deciding if you don’t know how he is making
it, you’re in the clear?
• Demand to know the details before getting involved?
• Decide you want no part of this deal, as you trust your instinct
that the offer is shady and you might even get in legal trouble?
Telling a Secret
• Your friend tells you that they committed a crime.
• They explain that they are having trouble sleeping at
night and feel you are the only one they can trust with
their confession.
• A few days later, you read in the paper that someone has
been arrested for your friend’s crime. 
Do you:
• Go to the police and tell them what you know?
• Encourage your friend to confess and warn him if he
does not do so, you will tell?
• Say nothing because you will not betray a friend’s
confidence?
The Life Boat
• You are on a cruise and the ship encounters an unexpected
storm.
• The storm continues to rage and eventually you and the
other passengers are told you must head to the lifeboats and
abandon ship.
• As people begin to line up, you realize some lines have fewer
people, some have families, and some seem to have
younger, single people.
• You know you are strong and capable.
• Do you choose to help a group composed of three families
with a few young children, a group of seniors who obviously
could use your help, or go with the young, strong people,
with whom you might have a better chance of survival?
Sarcastic Friend
• Your friend has a great sense of humour.
• However, sometimes his jokes involve making fun of others in
inappropriate ways.
• He will point out a physical flaw or look for something odd or
different about a person and make an unkind comment.
• You feel uncomfortable when your friend does this. Do you
say something or just laugh along with him?
Hit and Run
• Late one night you are driving home in a bad rainstorm.
• A drunk reels out in front of your car and you try to stop, but
hit him.
• Nobody sees you.
• The guy looks and smells as if he is homeless.
• You check to see how badly he is hurt and realize he is dead.
• You have never even had a speeding ticket and are an
upright, professional, with a family and are well-known and
respected in your community.
• Do you make a report anonymously, confess your crime, or
drive on home and forget about it, knowing no one is going
to pursue the death of a homeless drunk?
Third Strike
• Your teenager has had a rough few years. First came an arrest
for shoplifting.
• The item was of little value, so it was only a misdemeanour.
• Then your teen was with some friends who were smoking pot
and driving too fast.
• Your teen has promised they are turning over a new leaf and
seem to be on the right track, doing better in school, coming
home by curfew, and generally having a much better attitude.
• Now you get a call from the local police station saying your son
was with a group of kids who broke into a liquor store and stole
beer.
• Do you go to the station and see how you can get your teen out
of this jam or let him accept whatever consequences befall him?
Reward a Job Well Done
• You understand the importance of team work in your job.
• You share ideas and responsibilities with your team members
on a daily basis.
• In your weekly team meeting with your supervisor, one of your
co-workers takes credit for a time and money saving change in
operating procedures you devised.
• Your supervisor erroneously thinks your co-worker came up
with the change and your co-worker does not correct the
misinterpretation, but allows the boss to not only commend
him, but offer a bonus.
• Do you go to your co-worker and demand he correct the
situation, go to your supervisor and explain you should receive
the commendation and reward, or keep quiet as you do not
believe in ownership of ideas?
 Moral Dilemma

• A moral dilemma is a conflict in which a person must choose

between two or more actions, all of which they have the
ability to do.
• There are moral reasons for each choice. No matter which
choice you make, someone will suffer or something bad will
happen.
SITUATIONS LEADING TO MORAL DILEMMA

• The three complex situations leading to moral dilemmas are:

The problem of vagueness
• One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right
or wrong) principle.
• Good means an action that is obligatory.
• For example, code of ethic specifies that one should obey
the laws and follow standards.
• Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain
confidentiality
 Situations leading to Moral Dilemma

The problem of conflicting reasons

• One is unable to choose between two good moral solutions.
• One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.
• The problem of disagreement •
• There may be two or more solutions and none of them mandatory.
• These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not
in all aspects.
• One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze
and rank the decisions.
• Select the best suitable, under the existing and the most probable
conditions.
 Situations leading to Moral Dilemma

The problem of disagreement:

• There may be two or more solutions and none of them
mandatory.
• These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but
not in all aspects.
• One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and
analyze and rank the decisions.
 STEPS TO SOLVE DILEMMA
• Identification of the moral factors and reasons.
• Collection of all information, data, and facts .
• Rank the moral options.
• Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the
dilemma.
• Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives,
priorities, and suggestions on various alternatives.
• Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority
fixed or assumed
 MORAL AUTONOMY
• Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions
exercised on the basis of moral concern for other
people and recognition of good moral reasons.
Alternatively, moral autonomy means ‘self determinant
or independent’. The autonomous people hold moral
beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection
rather than on passive adoption of the conventions of
the society or profession. Moral autonomy may also be
defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about
the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern.
 MORAL AUTONOMY
• If management views profitability is more
important than consistent quality and
retention of the customers that discourage the
moral autonomy, engineers are compelled to
seek the support from their professional
societies and outside organizations for moral
support.
 KOHLBERG THEORY
• Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of
moral development, based on the type of
reasoning and motivation of the individuals in
response to moral questions Pre-conventional
Conventional Post-conventional 
 Pre-Conventional
• Right conduct for an individual is regarded as
whatever directly benefits oneself. At this
level, individuals are motivated by obedience
or the desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy
their own needs All young children exhibit this
tendency. Conventional – People respect the
law and authority Post Conventional – People
begin to account for the differing values,
opinions and beliefs of other people.
 KOHLBERG THEORY
• The following is one example of the dilemmas
Kohlberg presented. "Heinz Steals the Drug” In
Europe, a woman was near death from a special
kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors
thought might save her. It was a form of radium that
a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but
the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2, 000 for a small dose of the drug.
 Kohlberg Theory
• The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew
to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,
000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay
later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm
going to make money from it. " So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should
the husband have done that? • Kohlberg was not interested so
much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was
wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's
decision. The responses were then classified into various stages
of reasoning in his theory of moral development.
 KOHLBERG THEORY
• Level 1. Preconventional Morality Stage 1 - Obedience and
Punishment The earliest stage of moral development is
especially common in young children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage,
children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is
important because it is a means to avoid punishment. Stage 2 -
Individualism and Exchange At this stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs.
Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.
• Kohlberg Theory • Level 2. Conventional Morality Stage 3 -
Interpersonal Relationships often referred to as the "good
boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development
is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There
is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice, " and
consideration of how choices influence relationships. Stage 4
- Maintaining Social Order At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law
and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and
respecting authority. Department of Information Technology 
• Level 3. Post conventional Morality Stage 5 - Social
Contract and Individual Rights At this stage, people begin
to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs
of other people. Rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of the society should
agree upon these standards. Stage 6 - Universal
Principles Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is
based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and
rules.
• GILLIGAN’S THEORY • • Gilligan observes that
Kohlberg's stages were derived exclusively from
interviews with males, and she charges that the
stages reflect a decidedly male orientation. For
males, advanced moral thought revolves around
rules, rights, and abstract principles. The ideal is
formal justice, in which all parties evaluate one
another's claims in an impartial manner. This
conception of morality, Gilligan argues, fails to
capture the distinctly female voice on moral matters.
• GILLIGAN’S THEORY Gilligan says morality
centers not on rights and rules but on
interpersonal relationships and the ethics of
compassion and care. The ideal is not
impersonal justice but more affiliative ways of
living. Women's morality, in addition, is more
contextualized; it is tied to real, ongoing
relationships rather than abstract solutions to
hypothetical dilemmas.
• GILLIGAN’S THEORY Understanding the needs,
interests, and welfare of another person, and
understanding the relationship between oneself and
that other requires a stance toward that person
informed by care, love, empathy, compassion, and
emotional sensitivity. It involves, for example, the
ability to see the other as different in important
ways from oneself, as a being existing in her own
right, rather than viewing her through a simple
projection of what one would feel if one were in her
• KOHLBERG’S THEORY VS. GILLIGAN'S THEORY • • For
Kohlberg the mode of reasoning which generates
principles governing right action involves formal
rationality alone. Emotions play at most a remotely
secondary role in both the derivation and motivation for
moral action. For Gilligan, by contrast, morality
necessarily involves an intertwining of emotion,
cognition, and action, not readily separable. Knowing
what to do involves knowing others and being connected
in ways involving both emotion and cognition.