ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries

TypesofEquations(AcronymPIGS):
PointSlope:

Chapter1Preliminaries

Intercept:

General:
1
Note:A,B,andCarewholenumbers
SlopeIntercept:

Convertingabsolutevaluefunctionstopiecewise:usesigncharts
|
toabsolutevalue:|

Converting
Even/oddfunctionsandtheirproofsSpellouteachstep:
1
1
Greatestinteger(rounddown)function:
OR

Leastinteger(roundup)function:

Factoringforzeros:
Factortheconstant(
)
Factorthecoefficientofthehighestpower(
)

Determineallpossibilitiesof (bothpositiveandnegative)
Syntheticallydivideuntiltheanswerisreached(remainderofzero)
andparametric:
cos &
Equationofacircle:
Equationofanellipsecenteredattheorigin:

sin

1whereaandbarehalfwidthsoftheaxes

Importanttrigonometricidentities:
cos

sin

cos
cos

sin

TheUnitCircle:

sin sin
cos cos
cos cos
sin sin
s in
cos 2
cos
cos
1andallitssubsidiaries

LawofSines:

LawofCosines:

cos

Shivam Vermas Calculus Summaries

Chapter 2 Limits and Continuity
There can only be one limit per function at any given x-value
Tabular approximation of limits: plug numbers approaching some value = from both sides into a function
A function approaching both positive and negative infinity will have lim () =
A function approaching only positive or negative infinity will have lim () = ( )
lim + () is the right-hand limit; lim () is the left-hand limit
Important limits:
sin
=1

sin
lim
=0

lim0

Instantaneous rate of change:

= lim0

Average rate of change: =

(+ )()

End behavior: lim () = _____

End behavior model cases:
1. Degree numerator > degree denominator
2. Degree numerator = degree denominator
3. Degree numerator < degree denominator
Theta substitution: =

1
lim

long division to find model (discard the remainder)

=

= 0

= lim0 ()

Limit as approaching negative infinity: lim () = lim ()

Sandwich Theorem: if () () () in an interval about some value = , and if lim () =
lim () = , then lim () =
Types of discontinuities:
1. Point discontinuity (can be removable)
2. Jump discontinuity
3. Infinity discontinuity
4. Oscillating discontinuity

lim0

sin

lim0
1

lim0

and lim3

respectively

lim0 sin

Continuity A function is continuous if:

1. () exists
2. lim () exists
3. lim () = ()
Continuity A functions endpoints (in interval [, ]) are continuous if:
1. lim + () = ()
2. lim () = ()
1

2 5+6
3

= is technically a continuous function. However, it has a discontinuity at = 0

If two functions are continuous at = , then they are still continuous if added, subtracted, multiplied, divided
(if the denominator doesnt equal 0), and inserted, like in ()
Polynomial are unconditionally continuous
Proper form of a function with a point discontinuity is a piecewise function covering the point
Absolute (global) extrema are always relative (local). No absolute if a discontinuity where the extreme would be.
Min-Max Theorem: if a function () is continuous in an interval [, ], () must have an absolute minimum
and an absolute maximum in that interval
Intermediate Value Theorem: A function () that is continuous in an interval [, ] takes on every value
between () and ()

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries
Waysofsignifyingaderivative:

Chapter3IntrotoDerivatives
,

lim

Primarydefinitionofaderivative(asinchapter2):
lim

Alternatedefinitionofaderivative:

Differentiablefunctionshavederivativesatallpoints(oratendsofaclosedinterval,left/righthandderivatives)
Numericaldifferentiation(TI83/84)forpointderivatives:

, ,
SymmetricDifferenceQuotient(SDQ),withafixedhvalue:

Functionsarenondifferentiableat:
1. Corners
2. Discontinuities(exceptinthecaseofsomethinglike

| | @

3. Cusps(slopeapproachespositiveANDnegativeinfinity)
4. Verticalasymptotes(slopeapproachespositiveORnegativeinfinity)
5waystoderive:Definition,AlternateDefinition,SDQ,PointnDeriv,GraphednDeriv
0or

Criticalpoints:anypointwith
Whenfindingallderivativesofafunction,usethenotation , , ,
,
,
,,

:Theyareinverses,andthequantities

and

_____

arediscretenumbers(inadefinedratio)

Averagecostistheaveragevalueofthecostfunction.Marginalcost(estimatedcostforonemoreitem)isthe
derivativeofthecostfunction
Chainrule:

;formally:

Implicitdifferentiation:whenderivingafunctionwithnoisolated

portion

Logarithmicdifferentiation:inanequation,takethenaturallogofbothsides.Deriveandisolate .MUSTbe
usedinanycircumstancewith
Slopefields:given ,pluggingin ,

,thatis,anyfunctiontothevariablexpower
coordinatestographslopesatcommoncoordinatesofagraph

Hereafter,thearrow willbeusedtoinformallysignifyderivation,withthearrowheadpointingtothederivative.
Importantderivativestoknow:
sin
tan
sec

cos
sin
sec
sec tan

sin

sin
cot
csc

tan
log

ln

ln

| |

cot

csc

| |

csc
csc cot

cos

sec

cos

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries

Chapter4ApplicationsofDerivatives
FirstDerivativeTheoremforLocalExtrema:ifafunction
hasaminimumormaximumat
and
exists,
0.Takenote,theoppositeisnotnecessarilytrue(caseofinflectionpoints).
Informalcorollary: If changessignsfrompositivetonegative,anunconditionalmaximumoccurs.

If changessignsfromnegativetopositive,anunconditionalminimumoccurs.
SecondDerivativeTheoremforLocalExtrema:Ifafunction
hasfirstderivative
0,andif
Thesecondderivative, ispositive,anunconditionalminimumoccurs
Thesecondderivative, isnegative,anunconditionalmaximumoccurs
MeanValueTheoremforDerivatives:ifafunction
isbothcontinuousanddifferentiableinaclosedinterval
,

,thereisatleastonepoint

intheintervalwhere

RollesTheorem:Ifafunction
iscontinuousanddifferentiableonaclosedinterval , ,and
0,thereisatleastonepoint
where
0
,thereis
RollesTheoremExtension:Iftheaforementionedfunction
has
atleastonepoint
where
0
Whendescribingfunctions:findfirstandsecondderivatives.Indicatewhenthefunctionisincreasingor
decreasing,hasaminimumormaximum,isconcaveupordown,andhasaninflectionpoint
. isthearbitraryconstant,ortheconstantofintegration
Definitionofanantiderivative:

.ThisisjustafirstorderTaylorseries,asyoulllearnlaterinchapter9
Linearization:
Differentialsseparatepartsofthederivativeratio(e.g.
Errorisdefinedas:

|;%

4
100,where

Maximization(MUSTbeshownforfullAPcredit):
1. Developaplanofthesituation.Oftenthisnecessitatesadrawing.
2. Mathematicallymodelthesituation
3. Identifydomainofmodel
4. Identifycriticalpointsandendpoints
5. Solvemodel,takingintoaccountbothcriticalpointsandendpoints
RelatedRates(MUSTbeshownforfullAPcredit):
1. Developaplanofthesituation.Thisalmostalwaysrequiresdrawing(s)
2. Mathematicallymodelthesituation
3. Differentiatemodel,relativetoanarbitraryvariable, ,fortime.
4. Solvemodel,asdictatedbytheproblem

isanyapproximationof

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries

Chapter5IntrotoIntegrals

RectangularApproximationMethod(RAM).Casual:LRAM,RRAM,MRAM.Formal:(Type)RiemannSum.
0

LeftRiemannsumtoinfinity:lim

RightRiemannsumtoinfinity:lim

Informalnotation:
lim

meanstakeLRAMwithnrectanglesontheclosedinterval ,

, , ,

TrapezoidalApproximationMethod:
MaximumTrapezoidalError:| |

,whereMisthemaximumvalueof

ontheinterval ,

beingintegrated

NomenclatureofIntegration:
integrationisusually
Somedefinitions:

or

,wherethevariableof

0
0

,onlywhen

MinMaxRule:Ifafunction

hasanabsolutemaximumandminimumvalueintheinterval ,
max

min

MeanValueTheoremforDefiniteIntegrals:Ifafunction
suchthat

iscontinuouson ,

,thenatsomepoint

FundamentalTheoremofCalculus,Part1:Iftheantiderivativeof
interval ,

isdifferentiableintheclosed

RemembertheChainRule:Iftheaboveconditionsaremetandthefunction
,

iscontinuousin ,

EulersMethodforApproximatingfunctionvalues:
,

,
,

isalsocontinuousin

FundamentalTheoremofCalculus,Part2:Ifafunction
of

,then

,
,

and

istheantiderivative

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries
MethodsofIntegration:
usubsitution: sin cos
.Define

Chapter6TypesofIntegrationandApplications

sin

cos

.Plugin:

sin

Parts:
.
sometimes,notablyinthecaseof ln
and tan

Tabular(samethingasparts,butorganized):
Derivatives Integrals
2 +

2
2

PartialFractions(onlywhenthedegreeofthenumeratorissmallerthanthatofthedenominator):
StandardCase:

.SolveforAandB.Plugthem

intothepartialfractionstep(locatedabovetheunderlinedword)andintegrateeachfractionseparately.
2x 3

PerfectSquareCase:

x3

dx

x3

x3

dx

IncompletelyFactorableDenominator:

LongDivision(onlywhenthedegreeofthenumeratorisgreaterthanthatofthedenominator).Divideand
separateanswerintoindividualintegrals
TrigSubstitution(completingthesquaremightbenecessary):
4 sec

2 tan

1
2 sec

tan

toln| |

to

Separation:

to

to

ApplicationsofIntegration:
LawofExponentialChange:

and

ContinuousCompounding:
YearlyCompounding:

(kispositivewhenincreasing,negativewhendecreasing)
(ristherate,P0istheinitialamount)
1

(ristherate,P0istheinitialamount,nisthe

numberofcompoundingsperyear)
Halflife:
LogisticGrowth:

and

NewtonsLawofHeating/Cooling):

and

(kispositivewhenwarming

andnegativewhencooling,Tisthetemperatureoftheobjectattimet,T0istheinitialtemperatureofthe
object,andTsisthetemperatureofthesurroundingatmosphere)

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries

Chapter7SolidsandLengths
Solidswithdefinedcrosssections:
1. Drawthebasegraphwithalineresemblingthecrosssection(givenintheproblem):

2. Drawthecrosssection,labelthedimensions,relativetothebasefunction:

3. Writeaformulafortheareaofthecrosssection.Determinethevolumeofthecrosssection:

&

4. Integrate(totalsum)thecrosssectionalformulaoverthebasesdomainneeded:
1
2

DiskMethodofRevolutions:
1. Drawtheoriginalgraphwithaline(perpendiculartotheaxisofrotation)resemblingtheradiusofthecircular
crosssection
2. Modelthelinesdistance(
),relativetotheoriginalgraphfunction.Thelinewillbetheradiusofthegraph.
Note:ifthecrosssectionsarehorizontalcircles,theentireintegral/functionwillberelativetothevariabley
3.

or

WasherMethodofRevolutions:
1. Drawtheoriginalgraphwithaline(perpendiculartotheaxisofrotation,betweenthetwofunctions)resembling
thedifferencebetweeninnerandouterradiiofthe2Ddoughnutcrosssection
2. Modeltheouterdistance(
)andtheinnerdistance(
),relativetotheoriginalgraphfunctions
or

3.

ShellMethodofRevolutions:
1. Drawtheoriginalgraphwithaline(paralleltotheaxisofrotation)resemblingthethinthicknesscylinderthat
willbesweptout
2. Drawthecylinderandlabeltheradius(r)/height(h)/thickness(dxordy),relativetotheoriginalgraphfunction
3. Redrawthecylinderintoarectangle(withonesideas2 andtheotheras ),withfunctions/variables
relativetoxorypluggedin
4. Writeafunctionrepresentingtheareaoftherectangleandanotherrepresentingthecrosssectionalvolume
5. Integratethecrosssectionalvolumeformulaoverthedomainasneeded

LengthsofCurvesforContinuousFunctions:

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries
SequencesandtheirConvergence:

Chapter8Sequences,LHpital,RatesofGrowth,ImproperIntegrals

Sequencesareplottedasaseriesofunconnectedpoints(e.g.

Sequencescanbeeitherfiniteorinfinite(infinitesequenceshaveellipsisattheend)
Convergenceofsequences:Iflim
exists,thesequenceconvergesatthesolution.Ifnot,itdiverges
Ifasequenceoscillatesbetweenpositiveandnegativevaluesanddoesntapproachavalue,itdiverges
ArithmeticSequence: ,
,
2 ,
3 , ,
1 ,

,
, ,
,

GeometricSequence: , ,
SandwichTheorem:ifsequences
forallvaluesofninthedomainandiflim
lim
,thenlim
.Usethistoproveconvergence(definetheupperandlowerbounds)
|
| 0,thenlim
0
AbsoluteValueTheorem:iflim

LHpitalsRule:
0 0 , :lim

),xvaluesusuallyasallintegers

lim
sin

0 :lim

.(generalrule)

lim

.Thendothegeneralrule.

:Findacommondenominator,thendothegeneralrule.
ln
,dothegeneralrule,andfindlim
1 , 0 , :lim

RelativeRatesofGrowth,giventwofunctions
lim

lim

,(0
lim

lim

and

and

lim

,if:

growsfasterthan

lim

growatthesamerate

1,thentheexactsameendbehaviormodel
0:

growsslowerthan

Whendealingwithany
lim

lim

lim

lim

,disregardk
,sofindlim

,whicheverisfasterthereisfasterintheoriginalproblem

ImproperIntegrals:

lim

lim

lim

(forsomefunctionundefinedat

0)

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries

Chapter9InfiniteSeriesandtheirConvergence
Aninfiniteseries(alsocalledaninfinitesum)isasumofaninfinitesequenceofnumbers.Denotedby
Aseriesissaidtoconvergeifitssumequalssomevalue.Ifaseriesdiverges,itssumisinfinity.
GeometricSeries:

.(e.g.

TelescopingSeries:

and

.Iftheseriesiswrittentermbyterm,themiddlevalueswillcancel

Threewaystofindthesumofaseries:
1. Estimation(writethevaluesandsubtotal1050times)
2. GeometricSeriesEquation:

(orusingthedefinedfunctionsinTaylorSeries)

3. PartialSums:Inatelescopingseries,takethefirsttermandthelimit(napproachesinfinity)ofthelast
term.Sumthemfortheanswer.
TaylorSeries:

,centeredat

MacLaurinSeries(specificTaylorseriescenteredat
1.

2.

0):

3.

1
1

4. sin

5. cos

6. tan

1
!

| |

| |

Allrealvaluesofx
1

7. ln 1

modelsafunction

1
1

Allrealvaluesofx
Allrealvaluesofx
| |

Aseriesissaidtoconvergeifitssumequalssomevalue.Ifaseriesdiverges,itssumisinfinity.
nthTermTestforConvergence:iflim
0,theseriesmightconverge.Ifnot,diverges.
GeometricSeriesConvergence:ageometricseriesconvergesifandonlyif| | 1
RatioTest:lim

.If

1,converges.If

1,diverges.If

1,inconclusive(useanothertest)

Ifallxcrossoutinratiotest,theserieseitherconvergeseverywhereordivergeseverywhere
Ifthelimitsimplifiestosomethinglikelim
1 | |,theradiusofconvergenceis0at
lim

nthRootTest:lim

.If

DirectComparisonTest:Givensequences , ,
convergesif convergesand
,

1,diverges.If

1,inconclusive.

havenonegativevalues(comparetermbyterm):
forall
,where isapositivestartpoint.

,etc.allconverge.Whencomparingserieslike and ,add1onto .Itllstillconverge.

!

divergesif

PSeries:

1,converges.If

divergesand

convergesif

HarmonicSeries:

forall

1anddivergesif

diverges,asdo

or

,where

isapositivestartpoint. diverges.

1
,etc.

AlternatingSeriesTheorem(LeibnizsTheorem):Aseries
1
convergesifall arepositive,
forallnvalues,lim
0
IntegralTest:ifasequence
,where
iscontinuous,positive,anddecreasingfor
,then

and

eitherbothconvergeorbothdiverge

ShivamVermasCalculusSummaries
LimitComparisonTest:ifsequences
iflim

,where0

and

,then

Chapter9InfiniteSeriesandtheirConvergence
arepositiveforall
,where isapositivestartpoint,and
and

eitherbothconvergeorbothdiverge

Determiningconvergenceatendpoints:
1. Findtheintervalofconvergenceusingtheratiotest(e.g.

convergesin 1

1)

2. Pluginendpoints:
a.

b.

diverges(harmonicseries)
converges(alternatingharmonicseries)

Absoluteconvergence:Ifaseriesanditsfamily(regardlesswhetheritsalternating)converges(geometric)
Conditionalconvergence:Ifaseriesdoesntconverge,butitsalternatingcounterpartdoes(harmonic)
|
|
DefinitionofRemainder:ifaseriesisapproximated
,
RemainderEstimationTheorem(akaLagrangeRemainder):

inthegivenintervalofconvergence

isthemaximumvalueofthe
1 derivativeof
AlternatingSeriesEstimationTheorem:Ifanalternatingseriesconverges,thesumoftheseriesapproximatedto
thefirst termshasamaximumerrorofthe n 1 term.

.
.Cmustcomefirst.
Termbytermintegration:series

Shivam Vermas Calculus Summaries

Parametric:

2
2

( )

Chapter 10 Parametric, Vectors, and Polar

= , where

is the derivative of , relative to t

2

Arc Length: = 2 + . Remember, 2 = ||

1

Vectors:
Vectors dont say where something originates, only where it goes. They are represented as = ,
Head minus tail rule: If originating coordinates and ending coordinated are (1 , 1 ) and (2 , 2 ) respectively, the
vector created between them is 2 1 , 2 1 = ,
| | = 2 + 2

Converting to polar

= tan1

Vectors can be added, multiplied with a constant, or subtracted (take the negative and add)
A Vector and its Components:
(2 , 2 )

(1 , 1 )

Polar:

Coordinate system: (, )
= cos and = sin
2 = 2 + 2

tan =

Converting to rectangular
1

Polar Areas: = 2 = ()2

2
2

(() sin

(() cos