Chapter 2

Review of Laplace Transforms

Complex Variables
Complex variable

imaginary
s= + j
real

Complex function

imaginary
G ( s=
) Gx + jG y
real

(s)
Gx 2 + G y 2
Magnitude: G=
= tan 1 ( G y Gx )
Phase:
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s= j
conjugate
j

Recall the powers of j:

j0 = 1
j1 = j
j 2 = 1

j=

j3 = j
4
0
j=
j=
1

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Definition:
G (s) 0
G (s)

zeros
poles

Example:

( s + 2 )( s + 10 )
G (s) =
2
s ( s + 5 )( s + 15 )
.but also:
1
G ( s ) 2 0
s
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zeros at:

s = 2
s = 10

s=0
s = 5
poles at:
s = 15 (double pole)
(double zero at )

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Eulers Theorem:
cos =
1
sin =

2 4
2!

3 5
3!

1 + ( j ) +
cos + j sin =
but

Hence,

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4!
5!

( j )
2!

( j )
3!

2
3
x
x
e x =1 + x + + +
2! 3!

=
e j cos + j sin
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Laplace Transforms
L [ f=
(t ) ] F=
(s)

f (t )e st dt

where
f (t ) = 0 if

t<0

Also, the inverse operation is defined:

L

s)]
[ F (=

f=
(t )

c + j

2 j c j

c + j

F ( s )e st ds

c j
where c is a real chosen larger than all singular points
of F(s).
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Linearity
L [ f1 ] = F1
L [ f1 + f 2 ] = F1 + F2
L [ f 2 ] = F2
1
L
also applies for the inverse operator,

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Important Pairs
L e t =

1
s +

s
L cos ( t ) = 2
s +2

1(t)
t

L sin ( t ) = 2
s +2
1
L [1(t ) ] =
s
L [ (t ) ] = 1

unit step

(t)

Area = 1
0

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unit impulse
(Dirac delta)
t
0, t t0
(t t0 ) =

t0
, t =

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Important Properties of F ( s) = L [ f (t )]
1)

L [ f (t )1(t ) ] =
e s F ( s )

f (t )1(t )

translated function

f (t )1(t )

>0

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2)

3)

t ) F ( s + )
L e t f (=

shift property

Lf

change of time scale

t
= F ( s )

4)
dn

n
n 1
n 2 df
t ) s F ( s ) s f (0) s
L n f (=
dt
dt

d n1 f
s n1
dt
t =0

t =0

differentiation
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Final and Initial Value Theorems

The final value theorem is important for addressing the
steady state behavior of f(t):
if all poles of sF(s)
lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s ) lie on the left half
t
s 0
complex plane
The initial value theorem is the final values
counterpart and states:
f (0+ ) =lim sF ( s )
s

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Partial Fraction Expansions

B( s)
F (s) =
A( s )
F ( s ) = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s ) +
useful not only to compute the inverse Laplace transform:
L 1 [ F ( s ) ] = f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) +
but also for control design (will see later)

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Case 1: Distinct Poles

s + z1 )( s + z2 ) ( s + zm )
(
B( s)
F=
(s) = K
; m<n
A( s )
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )( s + pn )
an
a1
a2
B( s)
F ( s=
)
=
+
+ +
A( s ) s + p1 s + p2
s + pn
ak is called the residue of the pole s = pk

B( s)
a=
k
( s + pk ) A( s )

s= pk
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Case 2: Multiple Poles

F ( s=
)

bn
b1
b2
B( s)
=
+
+
+

n
2
A( s ) s + p1 ( s + p1 )
( s + p1 )

Example: n = 3. Multiply by ( s + p1 )

( s + p1 )
and get:

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B( s)
2
= b1 ( s + p1 ) + b2 ( s + p1 ) + b3
A( s )

3 B( s)
b3
=
( s + p1 ) A( s )

s= p1

d
3 B( s)
2b1 ( s + p1 ) + b2 s= p= b2
s
p
=
( + 1)

1
ds
A( s )
d2
3 B( s)
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4500:
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s
p
+
=[ 2b1 ]s= p =2b1
1)

2 (
1
ds
A( s )

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Complex Conjugate Poles

(Alternative)
It is often preferable to have a sinusoidal damping solution.
Example:
2 s + 12
=
F (s) =
s 2 + 2s + 5

2 s + 12
=
( s + 1 + 2 j )( s + 1 2 j )

2 s + 12

( s + 1)

+ 22

L e sin t =
2
2
+
+
s

(
)
s + 1)
(
2
=
+2
F ( s) 5

2
2
2
2
+
s

1
2
1
2
s
+
+
s
+
+
t
(
)
(
)

L e cos t =
2
( s + ) + 2
f=
(t ) 5e t sin 2t + 2e t cos 2t
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MATLAB Partial Fraction

Expansions
B ( s ) num b0 s n + b1s n1 + + bn
= =
A( s ) den
s n + a1s n1 + + an
where

num = [b0 , b1 , , bn ]
den = [1, a1 , , an ]

Use the command in MATLAB: [ r,p,k ] = residue ( num,den )

to get:
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B( s)
r (1)
r (2)
r ( n)
=
+
+ +
+k
A( s ) s p (1) s p (2)
s p ( n)
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MATLAB Zeros, Poles and Gain

Use the MATLAB command:
to get:

[ z,p,K ] = tf2zp ( num,den )

s z (1) )( s z (2) ) ( s z (m) )

(
B( s)
=K
A( s )
( s p(1) )( s p(2) )( s p(n) )

The reverse command is also available:

[ num,den ] = zp2tf ( z,p,K )

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Notes
See Appendix A for the Laplace Transform Tables
See Appendix B for partial-fraction expansions
First Assignment will be posted this week
Hand in one assignment for two students
Student groups (of two) should be fixed

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