Glass Construction Manual BALKOW SCHITTICH SCHULER STAIB SOBEK BIRKHAUSER — PUBLISHERS FOR ARCHITECTURE BASEL « BOSTON - BERLIN EDITION DETAIL MUNCHEN“The orginal German ection ef this book was concelved and developed by DETAIL, Revew of Architecture. Authors: (Christian Sohiticn Dipleing, archtect, Chief Eeitor of tho journal DETAIL Gerda Prof pling. freelance architect. Chair of Bulling Structures and Design, Dresden Technical Unversity Dieter Salow Dipl.-Ing, publicly appointed Independent expert for glass in buildings and dayllontng Director oF the Swiss Institute for Glass in Building, Zurich Matthias Schuler Dipl-Ing, Managing Partner of Tranesolar Energictechnik, Stutgart Wamer Sobek Prot Dring Head of the incttute for Lightweight Sructures, Stitgat University Assistants: Eckhard Holtich, Dip-Ing; Mathias Kutterer, Dip!-ings Anja Wits Sike Brumm, Ospina: Frademam Kk, Dpi-Ina; Filedrch Sick, Dipl.-Ing. Peter Vor, Dip-Ing Published by: Institut fir intemationals Arcitel¢u-Dokurmentation GmbH, Munich Editoval services: Christian Scntich, Dip-ing.; Songe Grandi, Dip. -ng. Susanne Funk M.A, Comet Hirt M.A, Drawings: Sabine Drey, Dpl-lng Translators (German/Engish! Peter Groon, Dil. Ach., MunichiLondon (Part $) Gerd Softer, Pip Tit, Hanover (Pans 1-3) [AGP catalogue record for this books avalable tom the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., USA Deutsche Biblithek — Cataloging: in-Pubication Data Gass Construction Merual /[Hrea: Insti fr intemationals Arcttekiur-Dosurrentetion Grol Minehen alow. [Red.: Chistian Schitich .. Transl (GermervEng.) Peter Green (part 4); Gerd Sitter, Phil Tht pars t-3) Zeichn: Sabine Drey]. ~ Basel: Boston; Berin : Birkhauser, 1998 By, Ausg. ud 7: Glasbau-Atas ISBN 3-7645.0077-1 Basel.) ISBN 0-8178.6077-1 [Bosten) “This vexcie eublect to copyright Allrights ara reserved, whether the whole or pat ofthe mate rials concerne, specifically the righ'so! transtaten, reriting,re-uee efillusttions,resilation, ‘broadcasting. renreducton on microfims or n other ways, and storage in data banks. For any kn of use, permission ofthe copyright mut te obtaired. “This bookie also availabe in a Garman language edition #SBN 8-7643-5644-7) © 1989. Brknauser— Publishers for Archtecturs, P.O. Box, 199, CH-4010 Basel, Switzerland Printed on eci-tree parr produced from chicrine-tree pulp. TOF = Printed in Germany ISBN3-7643-0077-1 ISBNO-8!76-6077- 987054321Contents Pest 1 Glass in architecture ‘From the origins to classical modernism Gerad Stib he main stages inthe manufacture of ass ‘The wactional house The Gomi cathedral The town house ‘= Seattonal vapaness house fen —reacting for tne light Fem wallto skin Ths destruction o the box eesing visions with glass Soh ar. sunstine ‘Glass architecture in the second ‘bait of the 20th contury rsten Scnitich Tensparency and ranstucency The cream ofthe glass house Sess skyscrapers and curtain walls Savicht end darkness - aless and licht The now transparency — lass as a symbol Trersusoncy and reflection yrs tacace a5 cisolay Devetopments n glass construction fain walls Suspended glazing and point fixings Gaszed nets (Gisss construction subjected to tension ‘and compression ~ a-giass butlaings Gessand energy The daveloprant of passive solar architecture oiwelent wals and intelligent facades Tre doubleveaf fagade Geodesic shells a 14 7 18 2 26 2 a a6 36 4 42 4a 46 8 8 6 58 56 58 Part 2. Principles Glass as a building material Distor Ballow aes - a detirivon ‘Types of glass Coatings for gass ‘Surface rearrenis Boge works: Thermally treated glass Chemically strenathened glass Laminated glase Laminated safety glass Insulating glace Lowe gas Centalling solar radiation Scattering the light Rediestng the lgit Photovollaie modules and! elements Fire-resistant lass Comoinctions of special function glaceos Appications Glass unrier foot Physccal phienomene: Advice on alazina Cleaning and maintenance Infuence on functional cata Designing with glass — strength and loadboaring behavicur Werner Sobek and Mathias Kulterer Buluing with gas The material Gonetruction deta Solely ana design Structural eysters Glass and energy construction physics Mattias Schuler Gless properties relevant to energy issues and construction physics Gaining energy throug glass ~ soler radiation, lignt Glsee ae thermal irsulstion Glazing polcationsin buildings and systems: 8 BAIIVeAssAees 83 95 90 118 128 180 140 Part 3 + Construction details, Fxngs for glass poring Architeotural details Part 4 - Built example: Cistian Schitteh, Gerald Staio But examples in dtail Examples 1-34 ‘Appendix Standards References Subject Incex Prciue credits 12 153 184 186 187 320 22 ane 27Preface Hardly any othar bullcing material can fraich the currant immense populaity of glace among architecis and engineers, Glass has witnessed 2 long patiod of evolu- tion in arcritecture ~ from the soli. plein veal to the see-through and light-permeable outer skin, ‘A material that gives us the chenee to eract transparent. open and seeminaly weantess buildings clters the cerraiaton between in terlor and exterior, the relationship between humankind, space, ight and nature. itis not Gifficul to understand why glass has such a high priority as an architectural medium. ‘The property of being able to “capture” the warmth of the gun within the bulging was sill a major problem at the beginning of tho 20th century as new structurel solutions ‘were boing explored and tho dosire arose te reach beyond the confining walls of our con. structions. Today we have many diferent ‘options available forthe inteligent control ‘and admission ofthe right amount of ight ‘and heat ito our buildings. And glace io being increasinaly usec 2s a Icadbearng element oy the structural angineer ~ consid erably reducing the proportion of bulky sup- porting construction. Glass has very recenty been given en enor- mous Innovative boos:, We are now in tha ppasition fo comply with the stringant ‘demands of fire protection and safety. The latest thin-im coatings render possible low- emission and solar-contral glasses which at tho same time parmt optimum transparency, ‘nd yet other echnologies can make glass alternately translucent cr transparent, oF — by way of holograms or liguic erysials ~ turn itinto an information medium These diverse innovations lead to an enor: ‘mous thirs! for information among architects and onginesre. ‘This book is intended to quench that thirst. The sim of the Glass Construction Marual is to present the mulifarious aesthetic and engineering possibilities presented by glass ‘a3 a building meterial, Following on in the tradiion of such "construction manuals” from Esition Detail, thi book algo takos an ‘overall [cok at the subject. Basics suon as the properties of glass, its lbadbearing behaviour, thermal, acoustic and firs aspects, glass as en eneroy provider and e systemnatia selection of fixing detalls and construction forms are all covers hate, The first part deals with the history of glass, and illustatee all tho applicetions of the material from its earliest beginnings ight up tothe present day. ‘The tinal seoton contains examples intend ‘230/to show, above al, tha inleraation of aas- ‘hatios and engineering, The projects selected are not ust those where vest ‘expanses of glazing and technical innova~ ‘ions are rominent but also everyday sols- signs, aueh ag the integration of slamentary windows in a wall of timber or exo0se3 clay ‘acing bricks. It remaing to nope that this book wil con- tribute to a beter practical and theoretical ungerstaning of thls multjpurpose material perhans evan to inspiring architects and engineers in shoir cally cuties, The Authore\ Nery \i hf ps Uy i LA , \ v\ le) Bs IO Hf ep. EA , oN Ss PER ee 2 aS INS Gp OE ES CePart 1 - Glass in architecture From the origins to clessicel modernism Gerald Stab ‘Theman stages fr the manufacture of glass ~ a historical perspective The traditional houss The Gothic cathedral -“God i light” Baroque -attermpting to admit the lant ‘Tha town house - the extarnal wail becomes a permeable sructure The traditional Japanese nouse Jron—reashing for the ight From wal to skin releasing the extemal wall from ts loedbearing function ‘The destruction of the box - the fluent tran- ‘ition between inside and outeids (Geeating visions wit glass ~ ‘Without a glass palacs, life becomes a pucn Light, a, sunshine ~ “the house machine’ Glass architecture in the socond half of the 20th century (Chrietian Sehitich ‘Transparency and translucency the glazed skin comes ave “The dream of the glass house Giags skyscrapers and outain walls Deviant anc darkness ~ olass end lignt The new transparency — Gassas a symbol Translucency and reflection ‘Tha fagede as a dsplay— ‘tha glazed alen comes ale Davalopmants in glass consiructcn Curain walls Suspended glazing and point fixings Glazed nets | Glass construction suojected to tension anc ‘compression ~al-glase buildings lass and eneray ‘Tre daveloparent of passive solar architecture Pelwelent walls and inteligan: facades The double leat facade Geodesic shells - man-made spaces under olassFrom the origins to classical modernism Gerald Stal ‘The main stagos in the manufacture of lass ~ a historical perspective “The word lass is derived trom Germanic term meaning “amber “shimmer”. The gless jewellery the Romans impotted closely resembled amber anciwas consequartly named as auch. In Latin, amber is glesum or glaesum. The Romans, on the othar hand, referred to glass ae virur, pro- viaing the root for the French expressions vitre for window pane ard vere for glass. Origins in Mesopotanis ané Eaypt tis ail uncertain where the manufecture of lass criginated, An ash discovered by change when copper wes amelted or when Clay vasses were free was used 10 gaze aramios from eary times. Articos showing guidence of ts and dating back io the Sth contury BC have been found in Mesopotamia, while olhars from the early 4th century BO were excavated in Egypt, When the tems of Egyptian pharaohs were onered, gresrien glass beacs that stemmed from around 3500 BBC came to ight, This marks the beginning of what could be referred 10 as interticnal glass manufacture, From the midle of fha 2nd century BC, rings and simall igures, which had besn produced using bowls as casting moulds, began to appesr. The core wound ‘echnigue also alowad the production of ‘omall glaeees, vase, ete from the vieoous, ‘opaque melt, A sand core containing clay wae fxee © 8 10d, dpaed in tha moltan glass and tamed around its own axis ‘9 create a thick “class thraadt that adhered ‘oi, This, ‘was subsequenty rolled into @ sutable shape (ona fle surface and the core removed after ‘opeling, The oldest blueprint for glass appears on clay tablets nthe great library of tho Assyrian king Ashurbaninel (638-826 BO) in Nineven. the inscriptions in cunetferm read “Take 60 paris o! sand, 160 paris of ash ‘rom marine plants, 5 peris of chak anc! you will obtain glass", In principle, this is stil cr- rect today (s0¢ “Composition”, p. 81) ‘The Syrian blowing ron ‘Onyy ater the invention of the blowing iron ‘round 200 BC by Syrian erafiomen in tre ‘Sidon region did it become possible to pro: ‘duce thin-valled hollow vessels in a wide variety of stapas. The gate’ (blower) gathers ‘molten glass on tne end of a 1.5m hotow roa and blows this nic a thinwalled vessel, ‘Tho Reman age Excavations have revealed that glass was first used as part ofthe bulding envelope in vilas at Pompeii snd Horoulenoum, and at public bains, These panes were installed Sitar without a frame or were given a bronze tr 09d surround; they measured approx, 300 x 500 mm and were between 30 and 60 mim theck. Although cylinder sheet glass was known at this time, these panes were cast and drawn: a viscous paste was frst oured onto @ amed table sprinkled wrth end and then strotohed by drawing it with iron hooks. 4s far as the weathered (ag; ‘ants ciscavarad oan indicate this Roman wadew glass seems to have been a bluish ‘reen and not particularly transparent The Mdcle Ages \With the Romane, this taohniqua of glass pro: uction aiso spread to northern alpine regians. After the patie of migration, the Floman traction was frst revwed by the Merovingian Frarks. Objects preserved from the early Middle Ages nicluds inastos ves: sels, drinking hams and cla beakers. Thase beaver, tote Francona, 6h ean: feeischeshism, Wir, ‘Ma ‘mating eee, engrving om Dera meta, 2 beats onmining and motlurgy, Georse gona (iat 1880) Basel 160? Utensils continued to be produced right into the high Middle Ages, elthough glass pro= ‘uston now revolved more and mere eraund the bulging of churshes and monasteries, ‘he largest alassworks were iovated in forested areas end along rivere, Le. wherever there was an abundancs of wae, ‘o provide snargy end potesh, ane water, fer cooing and transporting tne sand. Wnen the supply cof wood in the vietnty was depleted, the glessworks moved on. Deferestation became Critical, and glass-making was prohibited in many arees. Coal did not replace viood as @ fuel until the 18tn century, fay marking the ‘end af forest gleaaworls. Blewn eynder shee nd erown glace “The !wo most important production tec riquse since the early Midala Ages, the blown oylinder sheet and crown glass processes, remained the basis of class pro- ‘cuotion until the late 12h and early 20th cen- tury. While flat class had been produces TIS]Fiom the origins to classiea! modsrismm Using @ blowing iron in the eylinder proses Inthe 1st century AD, the metnod of procuc- ing crown glaos wae not slecovorod unt the 4in century AD. tt wes again Syrian crarts- men who developed bot processes and ois seminated these during thelr tevels in he och In both the Grown glass and! blown cylinder Gass processes. ¢ blob of melten glass is avn off with a blowing iron, preformed into ‘around shape and blown into a "balloon, \whih i centinually roneated to keep it duc- tik for shaping In the blown oylincar sheet glass process, primary applied in Lorraine and along the River Rina, tha oallocn was shaped inio a 0 oylinder, as long and thin-walles as possi bie, by Slowing, swinging and roling ton @ taolo. A dampened iron pin, later a diamond, Was Used to cut off both ends and sit open the stress-relleved, caoled cylinder Iongth- wise betore il was reveated in the flattening furrace and bent into a flat pane. The cimen- sions of the cylinder, and consequent of the pane, were limited only by the power of the blower's lungs! Cylinders measures a maximum cf 2 mong witha dameter oF 200 mim, To produce crown glass, the bubble of glass was “stuck’ tothe iron plate on the glass- ‘maker's pont lion rod) and the élowng ron ccrackod off; the hole was enlarged to form a rim. This bell-shaped object was again feheated anc rotated at speed 12 fom a die, As i wes uneven, the glass-maker cut this “crown” glass into smaller rectangles, rhombuses or hexagons, depending an its quality. The thick centre, the bul’seeys, anc smaller panes were scid as bulls-aye panes without being cut egain, In contrast to cylin dar glass, the crown gass process pro- duced more avon, pursr and mare lustrous Surfaces as the less did) not come into can tect with the rough, hat floor of the furnace, This method was still applied until the rid= 1th century, particularly in Normandy - pre- sumably the ‘eason itis celled verre de France ~ andl in Englane. venice Botioon tho 1th and 17th eanturios, the city Of Venice was he major producer of glass ‘bows, drinking vassals and minors (panes of fiat glass backed with an amalgam of tn land mercury), which were primarly exported le Germany and France. The suscess of Venetian alass was dus to its extraordinary purty and absence of colour, achioved by adding the ash of a marine plant as well 2s manganese and white arsoric as decstouriz. ing agents. {719/10 century ‘The glass 000M In tne 17% century ~ ‘yas ne longer sold sclely to churches anct monasteries but a'so io dzelers In the cites for glazing ralaces and housas - and ine ‘less monopoly held by Venice motivates class-makers 1o seek new metnods of ‘custion. In 1987 the Frenorrran Bernard Perrot developed a vital innovation, ne cast gles process, in which the glaze melt was ourec anio a smacth, ofeheated copp= table and praseed inte a pana by a water ‘cooled metal oer. The thickness of the pane depended an the height ofthe sur- round. The pane, far more even in compar son to previous arocesses, was Sub- saquontly ground with eand and water and polsned witn a paste made trom iron ox “These so-called grandes giaces or “pate” glass panes measured up fo 1.20 x2 mand vere able to be produced in better quality vith fess manpower, leading fo a reduction In costs, The true breakthrough, however, came wih the invention of a casting and rolling method, ine Bicheroux proce: Max Bichorcux in 1919 (220 "Early tury p12). Daaspite this, window glass continued t be en expensive material, perty because bath sides had to be polished. Glass wes so cious atthe end of the 18th century thst coach dhivers, for instanca, replaced the gloss panes in their carriages by wickorwork at ine and o! tne cay. in Englang, tenants removad the window glass wen they house as it dio not constituie part oft fFxed furnishings, Industratstion Gonsigerabie progrese wae made in realms of glass production in the 137 tury In 1886 Friedrich Siemans patented ar Improved version of the melting furnace: th rationalized operations and halved the riount of fuel required. It boosted eificiency In production and prices declined. Tre bblown cylinder sheet glaas process similarlyexperienced major develeament:in 1999 the ‘Chanos brotiers succeeded in adapting the cutting, grinding and pclishing of tho blown cyinder to reduce breakage and improve the Surface finish. With the advant ofthis process 2 1850-51 it became possible 1o produce ‘he enormous number of glass penes for the ‘construction oj the Crystal Palace in just 2 few months. Around the turn of the century, the American, John H. Lubbers, developed a mechanical otacess to comone blowing anc Commsis Dhalepur, Neos te The tracitional houseFrontheailgins class ‘The Gothie cathedral ~ “God is light” the medieval town the bishop tne sovereign, t played on entience tas something sp bby a new light interior end oxteriar, bot Ittransformed the rays ofthe al modium. i able to eon) Denis int Architecture and light oe sprivalzetion and derra 1”Baroque — attempting to admit the light rogue architecture wae essentially coe red wath the rythrric movement an vivid immediacy of space. focussed and extended tointiniy. ht layed a special role in this respect 2 difuse, mystic ight of the Gothic cathed: .ad been superseded by tright sunlight steaming in through ample window and door openings. Light to create space, but elsa ‘a means of dissclung tha limits of ace. in the interaction with painting anc plasterwerk, with fight church walls ~ the abbey church by Balthasar Neuman in Norasheim (begun in 1745) deserves special mention here — and mivrers in palaces, space loses its material characier; t axpands into infinity, the walls begin to dissolve and dena: terialze, The soli outer wall separating inter- i and exterior faces inte the oackarcunc, Architecture and nature, inside and outside, merge to become ona, The achievemanis ‘nanlifested In the baroque bulédings oF this were to gain more and more signit- The increasing trond tewarde opening up architecture prompted a huge demand for lass. The mushrooming glaae industry in the north was stl working wan traditional metn- 3 his time and with the inherent disad- 12 crown glass and blown cylln- der sheet olass processes. With the casting land rolling methed, whicn frst appeared ia 1688, lerger and almost pure panes of glass became possible, heraicing tha ora of tha grandes gfaces. These viete combined ina Fomarkable way wih mirrors, familiar since antigulty, but sill made of bronze and copper with a polished surlace and coated with siver slatinum. Convex mrrors tad been por duced sinca the 13th century and backed by lead or terne metal, Venetian mira, coated wth an amalgam, had been knowin since the ‘ate 15th century an continued to be pro: Guced inthis way ito the 1St» century, The Galario das Glacas (1678-84) at tho Palace of Verseilles by Jules Hardouie-Mansert ang Cherles Le Brun is an exemplary display of how class can be combined with mirors, The facade ofthe long iransverse wing cveriook- ing the gardone comprieae a long ropotitive series cf arched windows which almost dis solve the wall, transforming it into a mers ‘rame. These openings reappear cn the opposite internal wall as mierars (civided inta individual ements measuring 020 » 900 mm). The reflections of nature, the tress and the clouds are continued inthe white and coloured marble walls. In tne ight streaming through the large openings, the reflections in the mirrors and the indescant materials, the room itself seems almost to y completely. Baroque —attemting o admit the lightFrom the erigins to classical rogernism‘The town house the external wall fecomes a permeable structure house generally vy, 20d anvelope, The epen- vent tiny, and were note sections: an upper part nt permanently closed by thin, hides and other materials that ter, ane a lower part with at could ba opened. The yas ofton closed by tho shutters id by gratings in the sum- with round panes mounted on to appear only very grad- wet, remained rare and pr ployed, apart from n pale clusivey in the constuction of tries. The Gothic era saw 39 In size with pointed arch fed in groups, not only evident ile, tvs lificultto fo produce large open rehitcture a the proper "ead brick reed on carty- ly in compression, Itwas ee tin the case of timberframe cone 2 distinctionin the struc- .Sbearing and non-joacbear made ine arses between te eSers available for aperings. Within this nd vertcaltnes, it now 3+ tring together 2 series of weocows separated by the timber 9 an early style of cantrucus stip “This generous broakclown and oom. 1088 14 town halls, uid smeatis houses became (of the flourishing ‘ouns of the > century Instone architecture too, #5 were made to open up the wall as far is houses were built very close Dutch towns ilustate this feeture ter val could be reduced io ut afew loacbearing ae. ‘led in with large windows Cespite ry siya, The generous openings to lotved light to penetrate into the rooms. Tha external wall vies ‘hard division between nside itnow became an elemento! the ‘cn; private and public epheres marged. -odelling a! ths Zone looks backon a ‘on, particulary in th Notherlands. es 0n glass and windows In Enganc es the sacly 17h century, and in Franca on 10 windows, led to the development forms forthe outer wal. air, Basra, Amsterdam ‘The town house ~ He external vall becomes a permeable suucture Hisaes ie Tate DOE. y a 0aFrom the origins to classical magamism ‘The tracitional Japanese house “The climatic conattions prevailing inthis group of islands, the abundance of wood as 2 bulding materiel, the risk of earthquakes and the strong adherence to cultural and religious traditions have produced a typo of house in Japan that has folowed the same. rule for earturias The open plan, the bond with the garden, the lightwalart, opening slements reaching up to the calling and the {ul length of the well hac a greet influence on modamist architects ike Frank Lloyd Wright and Bruno Teut The tractiona’ Japanese ouse is a Neuse made of wood, bamboo, frequently clay for the walls, paper toil in tne sliding elements ‘and otraw tlocre; a skelaton construction with lgntwaight, mostly siding wall units. All parts of the house, the wacdan construc- tions, the wall etements end the sliding doors, the arrangement and dimensions of the rooms, the size ofthe straw mets etc. are all defined exactly. Each part relates to the other ~a very eary form of eimencicnal coordination and standardization, Ae the climate normally requires 8 high ‘degree of permeaballiy, ine skeleton con- struction allows the wails, spanned with paper and vansmiting ign, to become st ing doors, Structure and building envelope arg clearly demarcated. Consequentiy, the ‘openings in this house are not holes in te wll, but pact of tha wall, Combined with the {generous overnang of the roof, providing protection from sun 2nd rain, and the sur~ rounding veranda, the large sliding walls ‘shai cn the inner side of the veranda, the oom side, form & deep zone of tranatio. When thse “walls” are open, garden and ilerier are linked by tha veranda to croato an exienced living space. Sliding stutlers made completely of wood, later win glass pane's ico, and fied tothe puter side of ths veranda form a sort of ‘dauble-lea” external wall providing greater protection from the cold. Sheets and barr ‘00 blinds are hung up to cut out the glare ofthe sun, An “outer wal” ensues that can bbe adapted to a whole range of situations and, inthis way, sable to offer ne most dveree interaction between inside and outsige. 1.1.18 Pan ot a drawn fre Jacanese domestc haus ‘ypiealcondricton coals 119 Ketseaoeral la, Kiso, pan, 170 ctu 1fron ~ reaching for the light Up unt the 18th century, architecture was hetly defined by the natural resources =raiable. Buildings woro made of stone, Say 2nd wood, Architectural torm wes Sefned by the properties of these materiale 6 te liitea strangih of humans. As Sones and clay could anly accommodate compressive loads, sclid walls and vaults fxedominaied. In contrast, wood appeared = erchtecture elther a8 a skeleton {frame- ork matnod) or as a sclid construction ung logs). © ine quest for new Dulkding mater, iron ss diecovered at an sarly stage, Yet it was fet abie 10 be used as an indepencent ‘=steril for construction until the late 18th setury when coe was recognized as sult- sabi for smelting iton ore, subsequently easing to better quality ron in larger quanti fedustrial production, boosted by technical ecrovements fo the steam engine, the Seschanical [scm em tha ability {2 produce est Fon, now finaly blossomed. Iron, with fs higher load-carrying capacity, its far ‘spotter performance to the materials eeeloyad praviously, and its abilty to ‘e-commadite tensile loads fer beter than sy material used up until then, opened up Seta now horizons fer beth building moth fos and architectural design. Tne forces ereously borne by solid stone walls were Sow concentiaied ina slender skeleton (ist st ron, later mainly wrought iton) of Sous and beema: intoriora now became ecbstructeo, extended and could be shaped in many ways. With this, the wall lost ‘© ‘sedbearing function and could be sepiaced by a glace shin to admit the light Soom, hardly “contined" any longer, became largar and brighter. During the cou'se of the enormous secial, Sectural and industial upheavals of the 2) century, numerous new tacks for erch Secture 31056, ¢.9. markst nals, cepartmant S285, railway statons otc. Tho buildings Ssraled Ne(e are just ¢ few representative examplee. ‘re laige glass dome suited or domed constructions made of Sere 29 well a9 wae flocrs or open rca! constructions wityaristie wood carvings ers matneds af covering large, grand inter ne passage of light through a deme was Sally defined by the inherent character of “s constuction and was only possible ‘Svoush the apex (Penthson) or through smaller openings at the dase of the dome Hagia Sophia). Vaults could now be oroken exygen (0) (SiO; tetrahedra) with estons contained inthe interstices. It glass peated to 800 ~ 1100°C and this tempara- see maintained fr a while, then a proves seoun as devitrfcation hagins. Tais pra- 8 silicon crystals which ere leached out ‘om the glass mass. en effect which leads so milky, opaque glass. Natural glass, e.9. obsidian. is produced as sult ef volcaric ectivity. ti formed by niense heat in the Earth's core and is, ected by ths energy of voloanic erations, Searier times, natural glass was used as sewellery, for vessele cr for other everyday stots of manvtastare About 5000 years ago the Mescpotamians, Sscovered that whon heated together 900°C), siligon, Ime, sodium cerbonate, #ossium carbonate end metal oxides coud be worked into e glessy mass. But this, Sethod was extremely complicated and so ess remained a coveted, rare commodity ‘The first written record of a recipe is found en 8 clay tablet from tha Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, dated c, 850 EC, Flat glass panas were already osing pro- cused by casting during the tine of the Romans, as wall as blown cylinder sheet lass. By the 14th century the erovin class method allowed bul’s-eye glasses to be produced forthe first time withaut a rim ‘around the circumference. Improvements in ne 18th century lad to the Irst large panes produced by the blown ovlinder sheat glass process The Englisiimen Alastair Pilkington dever oped the fost glass meitvad in the 18508 The viscous glass melt is pessed over a bath of matten tin, floating on the level sur- face. Owing fo the suriace tensions together ‘uth the viscosities of the glass melt and the motion tin tho quid glee forme a layor 6 mmihick. The temperature of the moten tin on tha ilet sida is 1090°C, en the autlat side €00°C. Alter leaving the bath the glass is slowly cooled in a carefully controlled process to ensure no recicual streeaes — before being cut to size, (See “The main stagos i the manufacture of glass", p. 9.) Composition “The glass produced these days Is made up as shown in Tab, 21.2, Besides those Iistad here, smail propsrtions of other substances ‘may be introcuced in order to influence propertise end selaur. Tha manufacture of bogy-tited glass requires the adalton of ‘minimal amounts of evtabla adestives: these do not however alter the mechanical strength urabitty Sode-lime-slice glass is generally resistant toacids and alkaline solutions. Likewise, the surface is suticlontly hard (coraien nerd- ness 6 - 7 on the Wions scale}. This property ‘ascribes the soratch resistance of the glass surface. Therefore, sharp, Nard objects. ¢9, small sand particles in claan- ing water, can cause hailline crecks on the surfece if adequate care is not taken when cleaning. 11 fim of water remains stanciing on @ glass surface for a long time, leachings form, The bond between the silicon and the ‘exygen in tha watar is stronger than thai to the components in the lattice interstices in 2.1.4 Gantt pha properties of glass abe Prope Symbol Deneve pCa Harness 6 uns onthe Mohs eos acute of osteiy E 7x 10°Pa Poisson's rato ry 02 6 OTHE TIX) Chern expanse a 94108" ‘Thormal eoractuiy a 1 Wire varage rtactive nex fvhavblerange of sareerahs 212 Conrestionst ass tear doi 10) Ta Calcium ond (Gad) 18 Sadun oxae 0) ia i0% Nagnesim odo (lg0)—O%- OX ‘Aan do Gh oR 8 This conpestion Fas bee stanearazee fo ope NEN S72 Fan 243. Race pate! afcst iss pare 214 Factus patanot ‘aie gasspane 61215 Fou less carat now nists us nase Tern 23.85.60m iam i25nm The properiasol cand Foayiinied bal gavsoro ‘Stout in Burgeo eondlard EN S72 Port 28 Ughiwanimusnee vaues oat ah argon snoatalass Biase hiewrose am com nm ven 088 ‘097 sen nm 24,7 Brann shoe! gat is naiibie ese thio Gass hickness: Taerance 020m == 20d Yom = 200m Diawn stent lassi coverod W Euopeby EWSTE Pans 218 Patered dassisavalabe m ese frases Gasihones S48 6mm inm ator lass covere i Eioba by ENT? Pa 5 219 Bocacate gas fe avnabie h Nes Iicenesses the glass, to sodium, ealsium and mag- nasium ions. This means that these ‘orm solutions with the water more quickly. In tho minute quantity of weter inthe frm the alka- ling concentration risae andl attacks the residual acigic lattice, leading to corrosion of tha glass surface Such atiacks on the glass surface do not ‘nermally occur on windows and fecaces unless water cenaot drain from a horizontal surface. Leachings from glaes aro also caused by ‘contact with mineral plasters, wet concrele or extromely alkaline cleaning agents. Types of glass Foo! ass Today float lass is the most widely used type of glage and is procuced by way of the float procass described above (Fig. 2.1.11) The induetral process rrakes it possible to produce large quantiles of nigt-quatty loa glase with virualy flat suriaces in thicknesses from 2 to 181mm (Tab. 2.1.5). Mosern faat glass plants turn out anprox. 1900 tof glass @ mm thick each dey. Max mum ribbon sizes of 82 x 60m are then avallabie fer further processing (coe EN 672 Part 2) Float glace can be coloured during the man Ulacturing process; the ight tansrittance values aller accerdingly By choosing the raw materials caretuly, lower amaunts 0 Fa;Os, itis possible to reduce of even virtually olminate the natural ‘teen tint of tloat glass, in such cases ine (giaee ie clmost colourless anc is designated low-lron or clear-nnite glass. The thermal tigue resistance is about 40°C (max 420°O). It terrparature zones are present across the glass surface, the differences botwoon which lie in this range, the glass ‘can fracture. The warm zone tries to expand but is prevanted from doing so by tha calc one, Siesses bulld up which can lead to breakage, especially # this diference is to a covered edge. The tracture pattern of float Glass can be sean in Fig. 21.3 (p. 61). Drawn sheet glass “There are sti a few drawn sheet glass plants producing very thin to (in some cases) thick glass, These use either the ver: tical mathod (Fwvented by Emile Fourcaut in 1902) or the horizontal method (Libby Owens, 1805) Orawn sheet class and float glass have tne ‘same chomicel aomposition as wall as the ‘same general physical properties. Never- theless, in comparieon fo float glaes, crawn sheet glass sxhiois slignt waves and “pattar" in the surtace porpandicular to the iraction of drawing, These are sometimes \isible when looking through the glass, 9 teny case in the distorted reflection. ‘The cht teansmittance values for drawn heet and flast glacs aro chown in Tab, 216. “Tho iraciure pattorn of drawn sheet glass is Iemmical vith that of foal glass (Fig. 2.1.9, p. 51), The thicknesses available are given InTeb, 2.17. Patterned or rolled gles In the manufacture of patterned or rolled gloas (Fig. 2.1.12), tha liquid glass melt, Ike an overfiawung bath, '$ fed between one cr ‘mere pairs of rllers fo Ove ita character's tic surface texture as required. Therofore, the glass o€n ba given bvo smooth surfaces, ‘one smooth and one textured surface or two textured sidas depending on tne design ct the roll’ or tebio eurfaces, ellec classes are translucent ~ they cannot Optend eine coulng J q sus anecton lasathicinese Taeance a4 5, 85. 75mm 16 smn 04/05 2140 Main corsttunt of Bos ‘Seon cove a Baron ORG fe Fotassimonide ‘ures oie nck @ ey] woking Separate Hot bangiquasire U lo —1 uss ‘aresivgiche 21.11 The prinopal stepsinite ma facture oat lass Patemed less °|| ating ari Fotecs to ae ‘gass ispaten ‘reainglott Pao Tech gaan seesreproduce the transparency of float or drawn sheet, The various surface textures scatter the light to varying dagrees. This ‘abies interiors to be provided with natural lighting while maintaining privacy. Certain surface texlures can direct the ight in a seecitic direction, 2.9. to brianten the cei- ing of a room, The thermal fatgue resistence for patterned orralied glass 's, ike for float glaes, about 30°C (max, 40°C), The fracture patiern of iis type of glass is Identical with that of toa! gless (Fig. 2.1.8, p. 61). Itis possible to insert a wire mesh into the glass while itis stil liquid, This is then krown as wired pattemed olass or, with two smooth surfaces, simply as wired glass, The ‘hormal fatigue resistance of this glass is about 20K, The fracture patiem of wired glass is snown in Fig. 2.7.4 (p. 61). The thicknesses available are given in Teb. 2.1.8. ‘The physical properties of patternad and lical glass are identical, The ultimate bend ing strength lies slightly oelow that of oat glass because of the surface pattern, Boreoicatesleoe ‘This glass contains approx, 7 - 18% boron oxide, In comparison to drayin sheet andl oat glass, the coefficient of thermal exoan- sion is lower and so the thermal fatioue resistence is considerably higher. Ithas & high resistance to alkaline solutions and ‘ese days, porosticate glass can ne man: lfactured like drawn shast and feat glass or Fhe rolled and cast gass. tis used where high thermal fatique resistance is neces- sary, ¢.g. for fire protection, The relevant processing and installation clrectives must be atriotly adhered to, ‘The fracture pattern of borosilicate glass is ‘dentica! with that of float glase (Fig. 2.1.3, 9.61). The thicknesses avallable, main con stituents and light transrritianca valuas of borcslicate glass ere given intebies 2.1. 2.4.10, 2.1.18 and 2.1.14, Glass coranies| Modern mathads alse rendor it possible to procuce materials with cortrated crystal- Ization. These are no longer glasses ac ‘such Dut Instead can exhibit a pantie! or complete microcrystalline structure, while ‘remaining peitectly wansparent Glass ceramics are produced just like float. of glass that can he tasted with the mpact ‘body faling from a lower height. A crcp height of 700 men has esiablished itset 9 practice, Neverthalsss, cletinetions must be ‘mad between the individual applications. ‘A drop he'gat of 1200 mm may algo be usec for testing alustrade constructions anc thoir clasees. ‘The sack of lead shot is veplaced in Euro pean standard prEN 12600 by two smaller ‘ear tyres, one on top of the other. The mass ff the impact badly may yet be increased by about § kg in order to take aacount of the inereesing average weight of the Euopsen pepulation. PVE (polyvinyl butyral oll, suitable casting rosing or other organic or inorganic mater Fished laminae salty lass 2192 ‘Te propa tens nthe mentctré nine slaty sage wih PVB lrayerlals may be used as the intermesiate layer provided that, in conjunction with the lass, the necosaary safety roquiromante aro eats: ties, ‘The olese units musi be stable with respect {0 solar radiation. Their macnanical and ‘optical pronertias should not alter during er alter being subjected lo raciation or a defined moisture load. When using a PB interlayer, the fois placed between the panes and the whole unit pressed together in-an autoclave under the action of hast and pressure (Fig. 2.1.32), The bond at the adga of a laminated safely gaass with a PVB interlayer can suler I sub- Jecied to moisture permanently. As the fail is initially very dry, itcan absorb hurilty end hence weaken the bond at the edge. There- fre, ike wth Insulating glass, the edges must be set ina glass rebate which permits vapour-preacure equalization and provente permanent humidity. Neverteless, his Stfect cannot be entiely rulae aut in the long term, Even during transport and sior- age, care must he takan to ensure that he edges are protected from excess moisture However. this is only an optical defect and whole. The bonding of the gloee reamente ta the \nterlayar in lamineted (safery) glass is tested using the matnods laid dawn in EN 12937 Part Casting resin can be introduced between the panes in several ways. Mult-ply compe- nents cure by themselves or under the action of UV radiation. Special caro is required at the exiges wnen using casting resin, The soiteners in sealing rmaterials can penetrate the edge cover stips, seep into tha resin and attack this chemically Antivendal, antlniruder and bullat-esistnt ola wing tots ability to bond glass iraoments logethor and its stueturs comprising ind vidua! panes with fol In between, laminated safety glass is ideal for provicing protection against altacks with blunt objects 01 projec- tlas fora eartain length of time. Throwing stones at glass or sriking it with an axe isa combination of large mass and ‘ow velecity, whereas a bullet from a gun ie 2 combination of small mass and high velo ¥y, acting on a small area af glass. Those concepts must be considered when choos: ‘9g beth lass and fall When specitying Such pens itis essemial fo remember that ine actual olass prapertias of the window cen only be reclized ifthe construction com: lies with the requirements and is maicned tothe glass. To provide effective protection against intruders, a window must be designed in such a way that ii canno! be levered out ent Laminates safety glass blo6 oF the panes eemoved without demag- ing the olaes. External Glazing bars should rt bs Used. Tho recommendations of craft German standara DIN V 19054 and drait European standards prEN 1522 and 1523 should be observed, Ant-vandat glazing These class units, classified as tyne “A’, are Intended to prevent stones thrown at ther ‘rom penetrating the glass, Ins property is tasted by dropping a 4.11 kg stoo! ball threo limes in succession onto the glass trem var ‘ous heights. DIN 52290 Part 4 dascribes the lest. The classifications Ai, AZ and Aa refer {othe drop heights of 25, 5 and &.6m respectively and are awarded depending on ‘whether or not the ball penetrates the glass What this means in practice is that glazing at ground floor level should be chosen to provide a high arti-vardal protection level, indesd evan anti-inirucer protection, while for upper floors a lowor lovel of protaction is sufficient, wing to the diminisning impect energy of a stone which thrown. Laminat- ec safety glass, including several layers of foll or a suitable resin, can give the glass unit an appropriate degree of resistance. Antiintruder glazing ‘Ihase giass nits, classiied as type "3", are intended fo prevent an opening larger than 409 x 400 min being smesiied in the gless with an axe in a short space of time, This property is tested in accordance with DIN 52290 Part or prEN 358. ‘The olacsiication dopende on the time taken {9 produce an opsning 400 x 409 mm A long-nancled axe fitad ta a machina simulates the attack conditions end provides objective, comparable test results. In tha gless/ll or glsssiresin combinations ths elastic intermeciate layers are held together and protected by the glass, The elasticity of the whole system allows the glass unit to absorb the ehack o! the impacts. 69Glass as ¢ buiding material ax, overreasice Duration Diretace siaok ofover Gave bir 33) Bresre pha rs) a aT ras 20 a 1 itarpane 2 toro pane 3 Metal apacer 4 seairgiee! fpuylsest 5 Descent © Soalngiovol polis soa / Q 2.1.96 Beige sealer nung glass = i= 21.38. Tro etectot altering ana cust gass nck nesses en nouitirg lass uns 2. osltof Srpreceine ustons Builer-resistant glazing ‘These glass units are classilied as type °C”. A bullt fired from 8 pistol or rife produces fa very small mass acting with 2 high velocity (ona small impact area, Crucial tothe pro: fective function of the class in ins instance. is ite mace and not its elasticty. Conse- ‘quant, bullet-rasistant glazing units con tain 4 high proportion of glass. DIN 52280 Fait 2 and prEN 259 stipulate the test pro ‘cedures which provice comparable results, ‘The classification is based on the type of vweapen and ammunition used. Maximum security is achiavad whan tho pro~ Jectle does not panetrate the glass and no ‘plintere cf glace are flung olf irom the rear face of te glass unit, According to tne the- ‘ory of alaetic mpact, the impact energy is, ‘ransmities through the material anc rlassec at the ofner end, Additional layers, cf glass, preferably thermally or chercally strengthened. as Well as orotective films or plastic layers can prevert this psling of fraamerts, Such glass Is dasignated “Zero spall; glaaces in waish fragments are eject: ‘9d from tne rear of the unit by the force of projectile are callad “imitediunlimited spall” as appropriate, For euch a window or fagade to offer effeo- tiva resistance, the frame must also comply ‘wilh the same or a higher specitication Explosionresistant glazing Those glass unte are classified as type “D and ate Irtenied to protect against attacks from cusida using explosive devices. Lam nated safely glass can be used in euch cir cumstances. Testing the propertiaa of the glazing ie cov. ered by DIN 6220 Fart 8. which assumes a aphorical proscure wave acting perpendic: las to the glass. The new European standard rEN 1099 with is thrae classas £1, E2 and 3 is comparable with DIN 2290 Part 6 The oassifications D1, D2 and 03 to DIN 52280 Part § depend on the moximum overpressure of He rellected shock wave for 1 presoribed duration of the overpressure phase (Tab. 2.1.33). The elastic propery of glaze, copecially lerrinatod safety olase, makes isafnoticsable fete, OF course, He Frame holding the glass must De suitebly designed and fixed to the masonry or fagade, During the test the olass is held at tha edges by the test rig with a presaure of 1423 Nom? Alarm glass Fine silver wires can be placed within the make-up o the laminated safety glass. Ifthe glass is peretrated or even subjected 10 Sevare deformations, breaking one of thes= vires vill cause a clroul ib be intemupied ‘and an alarm signal to be triggered. The “Ohmic resistance of a pane” depends on its dimensions, The same effact can be achieves vihon thermally toughonod glass is provided with a conductive loop in one cor nor, If the glass ig damaged, than the can- ductive pane Is mieirupied, The position of the connacting cable must be carefully planned and Incorporated so thai the eainage of tha rebate Is act hindered and the connection to the glass cannot become ‘wel, Therefore, fis best to incorporate the leap at the top. Hosted Heated glass cen be produced by applying ‘a conductive coating to the surface of the glass cr by placing a fine wire within the make-up of the laminated (safety) glass. ‘With the coating method the size of the pane eterminas the electrical resistance anc hence the heating capacity. With the wirs method the heating capacity can be deter- mined through appropriate dacign ai tho Serles/parallel Grcut ‘oF the elecirical con ctor Insulating gless coneral Insulating glass consists of at least two seperate panes kept apart by spacers fited around the edge. These deys, the first sea {s located batween the spacers and the panes of gless; this prevents moisture from entering the cavity between the penes. In ‘edilkion, enother ae! is positionad behind the spacers and between the panes; this serves ab a secondary seal and as an ache. sive, keeping the panes and spacers joined together (Fig. 2.138). Tha spacers contain an adsorbent substance that dehumicii ‘the cavity, which is harmetically sealed against the autsice air. This reduces the dew point oi the enclosed ait to Delow “90°C, Tha sealing aysioms pravent an ‘exchange o! gases between the cavity and the outside air and the ingress of moisture Into the cavity, tthe seals are damaged and moisture enters the cavity, then the relative humidity in the cevity rises as soon as the desiccant is saturated, When the alt cools to below the dew point, thie damp air condone 8: We say the pane 's “fogged or "steamed Up". The cieoimiler moisture contents of the cavity ar and the outside alr give rse to @ high vapour-pressure gracient. Thetefare, i Is necassary (0 febrigate insulating glass.Unite with the utmost care and, once Installed, to make sure that the rebate is not packed full of sealant but instead remains free of sealant and dry, achieved by way of ‘a functioning vapour-atessure equalization ‘and drainage arrangement. Permanent humidity must be avoided at all costs, The edge seal of an insuleting glass unit if rot made trom silicone, must ba protected ‘againe! colar radiation, Panos which aco not ‘ited into a rebete wll need to be given an ‘enamel or other type of coating in order fo provide the necessary shading for ihe seal- ing system. Edge seal eystoms employing silicones should mot be used with cavities filed with, for example. argon, krypton and xenon as Well as OF, because the perme- ability of siicane is 100 high for these dases. ‘Cave in the production and inetatatien oF Insulating glass units, 6.9, rebate tree of sealant, adequate vapcur-pressure equal- {zation (no permanent dampness) and no additional, undefined mechanical losds on tHe edge seal, ill result in service lives of 20 years or even longer. ‘The air pressure in the cavity corespends to the atmosoheric pressure prevailing at the time of manufacture. After installation, whan the stmospheric pressure rises bboyond that in the cavity, both panae aro pressed inwards; when the outside pressure reps. the panes bulpe outwards (Fig 2.4.85). These movements can be readily perceived as distortions. Special attention should be given to this “pumping” action ‘wnen oesigning large panes wit reflective properties, Merely optimizing the giass thicknesses in ine wit structural require- ments is nat encugh to copa with this offact ‘Current methods of calculating the glass thickness distribute the loads aver both ‘pangs. The result ofthis is that the panes ‘can be thinner, and hence the stiinesses lower and the pumping movements greater. Gee wrest ano-festeatremeay ss co make te Gute ano, og. te ona wih the raflactive Seaton. thicker and the ier ane thiener. Pea scsogacyschthn!atteseonatha nied, ‘S eeicsiation. Optimizing the glass thiok- “Sees Snes not simoly maan salecting the = pene but, on tbs contrary, employ” ee Sess thicknesses which are matched to sry different prysical phenomena that be e1pecied. More than ever befcre, seowiedge of specialists, who under 1 te interaction of thase phenomena, is ‘orusial for today’s arplications and combina tions. Hete tco, the rule is that not everything that can be produced may be used every sere witnout restitions, -Eage seals for insutaing glass units Fig, 2.1.34 shows the customary edge seal detail of an insulating glass unit. Otver sys: tems ara also current available: All-gtass edge seat Inthe past the usual way of creating an all. glass edge seal was to weld together the ‘adges of the spaced panes anc fil the cave ity with dty ar. This croated a rigid edge seal. The all-glass edge seal might wall ‘become popular again wits the development of "vacuum insulating glass’, in which 2 cay- ity of just 0.2 mom ie sufisiort Buty! adge seal with sufiening The siitened butyl edge seal nes been round fer over 20 years. The spacer hare is ot a tubular proille but stead a thin metal stip placad perpendicuiar to the glass. The butyl seal with integral adso:bent is post tions ground the strip to scak up the meist- ture in the cavity. The metel strip too sois as 2 caulty seal. Another sealant is added to provide meshanioal strength (Fig. 2.1.26). Butyl edae seal without stifening The solid butyl edge s2el, in use for over 25 veats, has been undergoing something oF 3 cemeback af Iste. The butyl with intogral adsorbent is injected hot into tne sage, A second vanqur basrier is applied ‘othe out: side of ihe seal. This edge seal Is aivays black (Fig. 2.1.37). The sealant on its own provides a stable edge. Physical propertos The physical oropertics of insulating glass are cierermined rrom measurements ana car cculatione snd are subject to the customsry fluctuations encountered in production. The mralensio.cl tha nlpsa.oadithetbialnnas. pte haps with coatings, have a decisive influ ‘ance, The figuras specified should always be lreated with a eertain amount af aaution, Thermal ineulation The thermal Insulaton effect ot nsulating glass comprising float glass panes is mainly Uependent on bie cavity anc its fling, anc in the case of enated float glass on the tyoe of costing. Thermal tranemittance value (U-valuo}* ‘Tre thermal transmittance value (U-value) of an insulating glass unit consisting of two oat glass panes and a 12 mm cavity is 3.0 Winek. Ifthe cavity is enlarged to 20 mim, then the value drops to 2.8 Wir Inauatng glass 2137 Buty cope sea! 2.195 Sut adge sea yee va sien ‘ath sifenee Insteung gues wn soredge ass oene cavty [Bi eoscer nt ess) wth rere adsorbent 2rclaeolordachecie etal sets coreg (Gass ote: | Ceomvetin 23 2 eaviwe and | ius Het coi Hee sanateten a Heat ater, Heat wanstr, enemnal ey vier a 2189 Pysicalattorsbpsct te Uaskeitran Pulating glass wrth oo cai: 1) The herr raranitance aa U bran irsuatng pssisiaunninad yt folowing raha yScal Pranorora: *"oanooton the cat (VU ‘Pamalcencucten mush te aes * fat ange boteor tha toast pos nV —depandanton the missy tthe oats wea) + ama venemsser batvenn gs anaouisaw dear fn a iceliaedt= UL = Vay i cain, 14. and bec ager vale omnale, Teiterma heulaon bet, nGlass as # building material 229 Usa varus insu ls units Doscestion ay wth Trae rderg gies ri ets fot ss ae Emm serv mm at 2ply(teaviy) Ammecaviye Gen 32 Ziyi cauiy) Jomm- 40 %. In practice, fluctuations in these values amounting to S ~ S% are irrelevant for the internal environment. Bedy-tinted glasses adsor more than highly rellective, costed ‘glasses, although these days absorbent coatings too are baing employed for soler- Cortral purposes and for ecleured effects, ‘The spactic values for reflection, catour anc hence total eneray transmittance for 220" application depend on which glass surface ‘ig coated, while direct transmission, ie. lint tranemitance too, remains constant, Values are calculated in accerdance with preN 410, land prEN 673, 2.148 Rolenthis heen Uae al misty tor coublenelating amo Emasly —Thomalancmitenc ale Usaus) ar agen Knpton [msg [iecy_[) 21 49 a0 20 a8 18 v 2:146_Palenship bewseen Usalue ard asst tortie wlezna Emsavily— Thematirensmitenc vas Wu) on (wn 4 = 108 are we ~*~ oem Tot ont Gauty Elena energy Fansmitance theinese anita grave ake 198 ton mn em Om term mn re od Yom mm 36m iim 0% Te tery Bim Yrm mm Tot tigi ~Gaviy Element rancmitance aaa ae 2x Bem 2xiomm 2x oem 2x Bem) 2x tore Beem we we 2x Gem 2x Siam ene Detain,(GvatediBod)-tinied soler-control glass Solar-cantral glazing comarisas coated or ody tinted glasses, yihich in our climete region are used as insulating ajass. Minute amounts of additives inaduced into the matt give the glass @ grey, bronze, green or even blue tnt The usual methods of coating glass are out- lined on pp, 64-85. The glass surface to which the costing can be applied mainly depends 09 tha nature of the coating, The physical parameters of radiation can be dstermned according to the prineples mentionad above, whereby the coloration and optical corsistency of the coating shall be considered besides purely functional aspects. Only tha manufacturer can provide dtalls oon the glass surface and position of tre ating because cnly ne knows the compe- sition of the coatings, tholr effecte end thaie durability. Definitions and methods of test- ing, to determine coating durabiliy, are given in draft European standard prEN 1086 Paris 1=A Ir the coatings are processed with fll or sting resin to for complete units, the new bounclary relationships between the soatings and the faillresin must ba taken ito account. This applies both to the appearance of the glass and to the pnysical parameters ef radiation, Solar contra by ‘means of coatings remains constant ard enables consistent, unhindered transpar- fenoy right actoss the whole avea of the glass. Transmission is reduced by in creased abeoration oF reflection ever the entire area, Printed solar-control glass The transmission cf adiation can be reduced by providing some opaque areas lords), Using silt-sereen printing, an opaque pattern can be applied to parts of the glass suriace, 2.0, by “baking-in” an ‘enamel during the manufseture oF tough ned safety glass. Solar control, Le. raducing the transmission bf radiation, is achieved by the glass sur- face boing shadac by tha pattem Thus, only part of the glass pane is transparent and so the area for tanerrittance ol solar radiation ia reduced. The solar-centre stect, depencs on the ratio cf transparent to opaque areas, inotuding their abeoraticn, Effective external shaving prevents exces- fe solar eneray from even teaching the glass and hence penetrating to the room Deyond. Such shades can be adjusted mechanically but they can ebstruct the view ut and, # the shading effect is too extieme, may necessitate the provision of adcitiona) Contoling solar radiation External shading must be able to withstand the rigors of wind, snow and moisture anc should rot cause any edditonal wind noise ‘Apart irom that, ithas to be oleanec end should nat be attached to the glazing beads. The things for excernal shading should be joined to the actual fagade in such @ way thal ro the:rral bridges to the inside are created, Fixed shading Inclined or horizontal louvres can be arranged in such a way tat they shade the ‘wanspatent areas st a corresponding solar altiude angle. These louvtes ere usually projecting and can be made of metal, wood, plasiic or even glass. Coated glasses, with Fw transmittance values and sufficiently durable costings. er body-tinted glasses can be usad for this in the farm of tough nod safety glace or a¢ laminated glace. “They are usuelly gio but can also be pro- vided as movable louvres, The choice of toughened or laminated safety class depends on the figs for the glass as well as the respeciive additional safety requre- ments arising from the use of the buildin. Movable extemal shading ‘A movable external srading aerengement enables the shade to be adjusted to sult individual needs. Opaque matsriais in the form of horizontal sitades, iranslucent fabric blinds ang even movatle glass elements are all sullable solutions, With horizontal louvres, ‘minimum selar Fradietion is achieved when tho louvies aro arranged in such a vay that ‘oni indirect radiation can anter tne room Howaver, this ean lead to = severely ractrict- ed view out ane tne nega 1 install additional arificial lighting. When using translucent fabric binds it must be ensured that they are weathar. and wind/-resistant. Movable glass elements are placed in front of the windows andl are made from body- tinted glace or coated glaes with low tne mitance. When not in use they remain in front of the epancrel panel and are movad G703s the windows to provide shad as te quired. The light transmittance therefcre r2- mains commensurate with the transparency, Blinds within the cavity of on inavlating glass unit In thia eae tho shading fas in tho plane of te facade, The absorption campenert is transmitted parily autwards, also partly inwards. 4 folding or roller bind is placed within the cavity ofan insulating glass unit nd this can be controted individually ‘When inuse. it shades the transaerent area: suren eloved, the air in the cavity can be heated up 2s a result ct nigh absorption caused by solar radistion. Suitable materials ‘must therefore ba chosen because adaition-Glass as e bulding materia! omen t 2.147 Sreesosia gst po where hot and cod =a stacy by pec pti Sl ime fee Sill is som Ss ae ome SPT site eset es asus vce 21.48 Lghtredrectng glass angle ree 00" 2.148) Redrecing me ghiby way af spec aleates 78 ‘al trermal loads increase the pressure in tre ‘cavity and hance on the panes. In smell panos the machanioal stresses in the glass Increase, altnough this czn be compensated for in the eclge seals or by using pre: stressed panes. In large pores this causes signilicant bowing which can lead to optical distortion. In he case of vertical panes, the sunshed: ing is lowered by moans of it own woight vith inclined olazing adattional mechanisms may need to be incorporated to ensure proper oneration, It's net possible to replace the sunshading In insulating glass without replacing the complete unit, This must be taken into account in the design ‘The shading arrangement can consist of 2 reflective fol, a translucent foil or horizontal louyras. There must be suificent clearance bbowoon the fangs and the shading to allow for correct operation even If panes cave inwards as 2 result of pressure flictuations In the cavity. A fol blind cas heat up severe ly # it ies in the transparent area when rolled up; the material mey be damaged as, aresut, Fixed fois in the cavity Rellective [eile can 90 spanned across the cavity, The actual sheding facilty is placed in the middle of a wid cavity and divides it into two narrow cavities, leacing to a lover thermeltrensmittance value (U-value). The ‘two cavities have to be linked to provent ny ifterences mn pressure. The fols used reflect the solar ractatian in 2 selective man- ret end so Nave cifferent colours depending cen how they da this. Tha thi surface pro- Ccuces a reflection when viewed from out side. Glasses with ntermediate layers Spun gleea, nor-woven fabrics, capillary system's or foams can be integrated bowser the glass panes. The tharmal trans mmittance values and the physical pare ‘meters of radiation for the glass unit alter depending on the materials used. Most of these scatter the jght depending on therr sign, The aun glaae and non-woven fab ries have a high (diffuse) light transmittance bout at tho camo tims reflect the light and so else piovide solar-contiol properties. A direct viow through is net possible. When they are used as roctlights or in roots, he sealtered light can be directed deeper inte tne interior by teilection, for exemple, on the ceiling or the walls. Capillary layers and feams ean also be employed as transparent thermal insulation”. These have very low U-values (down to approx. 0.8 Were} but stl allow the passage of lignt albet difuse, into the room, leading to an eneray gain. ‘The types of glass used are selected accarding to their application as spandrel panels of as windows in the form of Inclined gazing lnvornal shading Interral shading is not subjected to cirect external loads. It can only reflect solar regia. tion back theaugh the glazing: the enoray i absorbs remains in tne room An inadequate Clearance between pane and shading can lead to a heat build-up which places a thet rral load an the panes. As the edges of the panes ~ covered by the frames ~ remain cooler. toughened or heat-strenathaned ‘91982 may well have to be Used in order 10 attain @ better inermal fatique resisiance ‘and rula aut the pessiollty of fracture (Fig 2aar) Internal chaging serves more as a form ot ‘glare prevention” to prevent the occupants {rom being disturbed by direct sunicht Foil attached to the glass Roflectve or absorbant ‘oils can b¢ glued to the outer surlaces of insulating glass. These ‘change the temperature of the pane direct by way of absorption. Greal care is needed when attaching fol to existing window Highly absorsent fois which are attached to the inner suriaces can cause a huae Dull lp of hast when subjected ‘o colar radiation (fig. 2.1.47), Anigiare protection A dithase transmitting surface, respective ‘ol whother itis the glase pane itself or inter nnaliextornal shading elements, can be used to eoatier daylight asroes the Interior, Thie reduces tha areat aiferences in tohing Intensity an werking suriaces and decrsacss the prysiological glare phencmmencn. No parsons in the room are subjected to direct sunlightOno-ney glass A view through only trom one side, ¢.9, from ine outside to tha inside, is only possible ‘when tooking from the dark sie towards the bright side. Ifthe lighting relationshio is reversed, then the direction of view also changas. This effect s amplified ey adai- ‘ional telleciion or sbeorption, Novertholeas, itis the aghting trai cetermines the direction of view, not the glace. Scattering the light A trensparont pane of glass aliows e direct ‘ed beam of ight to pass throuah Unaffected. However, owing te their rough” surfaces, cifusing olasses, or patterned glasses ipre- iouely known aa casi), ecettor the boar of lignt. Tha greater the dagree of scatter, the more an apjeet behind the glass is cb- soured, For interiors, a dtusing glass ‘means thet the ineident light is more cr less scatieted. The brightness levels ate more yen and ct so cependent on the solar at tude angle. Glasses fitted wit spun giaae or ron-vioven fabrics can achieve Identical effect Redirecting the light (One simple method of praviding move day- ght farher away from the vandows has 'bcon peasibie for many yoare using epecial coast glasses. During production the Sur- faces unciergo axtrame shaping so that the light whic stikes the first glass surface is deflected towards tne next surface in such a way that i shines onto the bright ceiling and ‘rom there into the roam. A siooing ceiling near the windowe can help the light to reech fever farhar into the eerie. Recentiy, more ‘and mora insulating glaeses have bean ‘developed which enabe the light © be re cirectad to an even greater extent To do this, curved plastic elomonts are incornarat fed which redirect the light up to tha ceiling (Figs 2.1.48 and 2.1.49), From there it then radistes deeper into the room. Recirecting insulating glage unite ara ideal ae fanlighte because they are desicned in such a way that as much sunight as possible S cedi- rected through the elements regardless of the angle af incidence Fig. 2.1.6 Photoveltais modules ané elements Solar cole can be installed in the cavity between two gless panes, These then con- var the incident solar energy into electe:cal current. Casting resin is Frequently used as a tacking material. Either amorphous ar erystalline solar cells may be used. The Fire-resictant glass ‘xtornal appzrarce af the amerphous calls ranges trom red and transparent or cark grey to opacue, that of the crystaline calle sblue and opaque with vansparent spaces ‘between tha cells, The photovoltaic modula fare arranged in such a way that they can be ‘processed like conventional glass or irsulat- ing giase elements, The degrac of efficiensy ‘depends on the materials used: 8 - 8% for modules produced using thin-film technology snd approx, 10% for sitcon rmo-dulas. New developments are concen tating on 3 higher degree of sfticlency ‘coupled with lower production costs. Photo- = — voltaic modules can be used in the form of curtain walls or cold or warm facades. Fire-resistant glass Each country has ts oar set of rules ang assficetions, all of which must pe iia conserved. Thevetore, European siandards: on festing and classification are beng C ‘drawn up with the aim of harmonizing te itferent approaches. in adsiticn, the pas- 2.150 _OsMeuton ong unirgrasrecing demens ‘9890 oF radiation is spocitied separately for ‘te gadeand a ete cela gazing. The folowing ciassifcation nas tharaiora been adapted: F = loadbearing capacity, E = integrity, W = radiation, [= insulation, § = smoke con- ‘tol end C = self-closing (piEN 957 Part 1). Glass ‘or fre protection purpaces ia divided G-glass This type prevents flames and fumes from penetrating for 2 specified length of ime: Faciated heat, however, is not contained, Feotass ‘This type provents flames and fumes trom peneivating for 2 specified length of time but alsa contains the heat radiation produced by the fire. Doors must be tested separately as fire pro: lection elemenis together with their a38o- ciated F glace, They are awarded a "7" designation witn the tine of resistance in minutos, Owing to ther structure, most F- and G- lasses satisfy safaty criteria ico, e.g. acting ‘a5 safety barflers, in accordance with the Dendulum impact test to DIN 52337 (soft impact). The pandulurn deop height wits sto0d by the respective type of glass has 19 be tested for gach individusl application. To provide fe protection, tre-resistant ‘glass must be ‘ited in agprocriats ‘eames is Conjunction with approved fixing ard seel- ing materials. The complete unit comorising glass and frames is tested to DIN 4192,(Glass as a buleing material graded and cortiied by the Deutsches Institut fir Bautechnik. Changes to the ma- tetialo givan in tho test report must be epe- cially approved cr tested! Inagpropriste combinations oF materials could lead 10 smoke and fumes penetrating the barrier, the propagation of the fre or the develco: ment of smoke, Units ith F-olass contain substances whicn abeord energy as the tomporature risas and ‘ransform without releasing energy. Aottioal factor with fire-resistant glazing is how long it withstands the fire; 30, 69, 99, land 120 minutes are the classes of resis Tance. Until the publication ofa uriferm Furepaan standard, tests in Germany well continue to be performed in accordance with DIN 4102 with its standard timazenoerature curve, These tests invelve the complete ‘component consisting of frame, seal and glace fitted to the standare aperture in the test furnace, The temperature in the fre chamber rises accarsing to the standard time-temperature curve, reaching 700°C after 16 min, 825°C after 80 min, 900°C after 446 min arel 820°C alter 00 min; after 80 min the temperature is just below 1020°C. To check the smoke and fame integrity (G-class), a cotton wool pad is nelc ciractly behind the glaes. Thee should netients spontaneously ano there should be na flames. In checking the heat insulation (F-class), the average temperature of the lass on the side not exposed to the fire Should nt rise mare than 140 K ebove the temaerature in the room bafore the test and ‘ato point on the glass may the maxeum temperature rise 180 K above the same in tial tamperature. In some Furopaan coun tries and for special applications, e.g. ship windows, an additional extinguishing water test must be carried out directly after the tre test. Fire-resistant glasses are produced for booth internal and! external agplications, For the latter it should be ensured thet ne ma- teriale use do not rasct er change bafore. hand as a result of absorbing solar reciation for baing subjected to law temperatures. ‘Special lesls are required for incinad glaz. Ing. Certain coatings can also reduce the passage of raciation Combinations of speclat-tunction glasses ‘There are unlimited possibilities for combin- Ing the types of glass described here for all rranner cf applications, The resuting fure: tions must oe establisned in each indivicual ‘case. Combining functions orastes physical relationships which the specialist then has to appraise in order to cubcaquontty select the necessary types of glass according to thoir properties ‘Applications Gloss is 3 universal building material. How ver, rapia developments in the secondary processing of the basic material and the ‘associated increasing rumber of potential applications make It imperative tnat we con- tinve reeaarching and establishing physical properties; tikewise, exploring the lis ( ‘every type of glass and! the possible combi- ations with other materials for the respec: tive appications, In determining the indivi cual physisal parameters itis the respective fameviork conditions which must be served abave all oles, In some inctanees we are takna glass to iis limits, i.e. te ‘malieat change in he ambient conditone could lead ta failure, So glass should not be treatad ae an solated entity, detached from the sutrouncing construction. I 1s al! too easy to gain the impression that anything that cen be manulaclured can also be used ‘without constraints ‘With the multitude of glass producis on marke! ittakes a specialist to be able 10 g0lact the best product for a particular ‘application. Only a specialist can estimate how the matarial will Behave in practice ‘based on the given design parameters, Pii= cries must 99 stinulated when selecting the glass for 2 certain situation, fie rare for al ‘demands to be fufflled, Accordinaly, com- promisos muat be med when selecting and combining types of glass, Windows ara tageces A window in the meaning applied by the bulging autherties is.a componert which is not required to ‘ul additonal requirements such es safety berrier function. Glass is a transparent infil and contributes nattner to the stability of the frame nor tho construc ton, Itfurher drecives are to be complied with, then these must be taken into account ‘when calculating the glass thickness or selecting the type af glass because the gloes is then subjected to actitioral forsee. \Windows and tacades are positioned vert cally in the building envelope and sorve to separate interior from exterier. ‘Thereat insutation High demands are placed on thermal insula tion nowadays. In Germany these are defined by the national Thermal insulation Act, While BIN 4108 stipulates minimum requirements based on physical para- meters, the requiremarte of the Thaval Insulation Act are based on eneigy-seving aspects,Sound ineuiation The Sound insulation of a window or fagade deponds an the frame, glass and instala- “en, but also on the seal beween frame and opening lignt as wall as the seal to tha sur- ‘founding construction, The weakest link determines the effectiveness in this case. Even minute leakage paths heve a substan: vel nitusnce on bath the overall sound anc ‘harmal ingulation, Ausiliary alamente euch ag roller shutier housings and windowsills penatrating the construction can have & ‘major effect on the sound insulation, Acoustic oridges are cftan inisibie — but not ‘naudible! Orly carelul design and proper workmanship can guarantee success, Safety Satety coquirements, 2.9. protection rom injury, protection against falling, vandal intruder and bullet resistence, can bs com piled wth by selecting the right type of gless. important here i thatthe frame andl tha con- situotion are properly matcned. The aim oj the safely requirement shall be defined. Sloping and root alzing Vertical pares are placed in frames on set: ing Docks which carry the set-weight anc zervica leads, 9.9. short-term wind loads, and transfer these to the frame. Ifthe glaz- ‘ngs fitted at an angle, the weight of the glass and loads such as wind and snow are carried via the edges and side frames before being trarsiereed to the suoparting structure, Thi i different trom the verticel arrangement and this must be taken into account in the design. The supports must be adaquataly elastic and stable so thet they can ttensrnt the ioads; the edges o' the panes must be able ‘orotate frecly. Normal plestic edge tapes 38 Used In vertical glazing cannot be used ners. Inatosd, silane or EPDM profiles with acequate resilience are required. Glass undertoot Glazing placed at an angle must be cleaned land a9 needs ta be able to suopert the load of cleaning personnel. However, such loads arg not genarally allowed for in ealcutating ‘he glass thickness, Overloading the glass leace to fraotura and a serious ris of injury The gags thickness fs normally calculated fon the basis of uniformly distributed loads ‘snowy, wing) and not the pont loads caused by persons standing ot walking on it. Such point loade generate additional stresees in the glass. Even wired glass cannot support such loads. enies which need 10 support ihe weight of persons must be dasignas sccerdingy. We distinguish between wo categories here Giese underteot Close tor eatitod fot trattio Protective pana tn ths type of glazing the persons having access to the glass {lor msintenance or Cleaning purposes) must be {uly conversant with safe working procedures. They will not lvead on the centres of panes bul rather rear the edges so that the loads can be tranelerred directly to the eupeotting con struction end not cause increased detiec- tons in the glass itso. The forsons should Not cary heavy objects whicn would cause further addtional loads. Safety fealures to Iaich the severity of the slope must be o10- vided to prevent slipping, Persons may also need tb wear safely harnesses, construction lay includes provisions on th’s, Such per- ‘sons must ascertain what type of cles is involved and must ensure that, for examole, there are no sharp stones adhering to the ‘soles oftheir shoes. I deamed necessary, then an additional 1 kN point load in the ‘centre of the pane can be included when esigring the glass A glass to which broken fragments adhere (e.g, lerrinated safety glass) shoul be used and not ther- rmally toughened safety gla toscpeanng lsmnaiea sot las construct ureestrowa rota Claas for unrestricted foot tatic Glazing supported along Its ecges end Intordod to carry unrestricted foat trafic, must sats'y the same requirements as 2 normal floor. Therefore, imposed loads of SkNin# are commen; special situstions may even presume hicher desian loads, It must be remembered that once installog, neavy loads may be moved across or even placed oon the glass. This anplies especialy to Stats. Glazing subjected to any kind of foot traifio, resisted or unrastricted, shell con- sist of laminated salety glass since tis, hen broken, does not collapse butinstozd exhibits a residual load-carrying capacity dependent on the support conditions: on ‘0 oF four cides or a inciviual pointe. ‘The glass thickness necessary Is Calculated from the load and the applicable peimis- sible ultimate bending strength of the glass Lnder long-term loading, Cne extra pane at least 6 mm thick should be added on top of the lodbearing laminated safety glass con- etruction to act a8 6 wearing course anc ta pratect It breakage ct this pane should not impair the stabiity of the overall system. This sacrifea uppermost pare can be pro- vied with enamel or silesereen printing in ‘order to achieve devorative effects or @ non slip finish (Fig, 2.1.51, see also “Glass sur- faces subjected to foot traffic", p. 96) Slope of the glazing ‘Angigs less than T* should be avoided for glazing, This doos not mean that shallower Slopes are not possible butrather hat users ‘must be aware of the consequences and ha prepared to deal wiih them. The degree of aGlass as a building mavetiat | treo sos ee ses tau sides thodsct ina cass bekatraces ana Sparc penal —————————— 120 sing dor oponainbeth dbastons ‘°awing door—opans none rection thew: DIN) 21.50. Paste dcorhinge arangemenis cy sciling inereages with shaliow anoles. Leaves remain on the glass and even water, which cannat drain off bocause of the deflection of the panes, can lead to carro sion and leaching of tha glass surface. Draining of the water via the drainage sys temo the construction must be guerantesd wilh shallow roof pitches because ctherwiss the e0ge seal of the insviating class will De attaskes, moisture can infitrate the cavity and even the frame iselt can suffer. roof pitches <7* are intended, then cartain cor sequences, 2s outlined flere, must be reck: one with Types of glass Single glazing When selecting the type of glass it should bbe ensured thet, if broken, no glass frag mants can fall and present a risk to parsons lndameath, The ghallowar the inclination of the pane, tne greater is the effect of ne selt- waight of the giass cn the lractured pane: fragments could drop olf, Vertical panes which are broken remain in their Frames (see alse "Musterbauordrung’) Glasses which retain uroken fragments Satisfy this requirement. Laminated safety les, e.g. wih PVB interlayer or eouivalent Sasting resin combinations, can be used in Such siluatons. Wred glass is als possible Dut with eastiotions. Inregions where frequent haiistorms are likely, this load should also be considered ‘nen selecting the gles, Laminated safoty ‘lass comprising two aenas cf neat- arongthenso glass offers adequate safely in such circumstances. Once ireciured the glass used must exhibit sufficent residual load-carrying capacity in order to prevent the glass falling into the room as it breaks ~ together with the snow. ‘These considerations also epaly t0 roo! win dose where people live ot work bolow (200 algo “Limit state desig’. p. 87) Insulating glazing In the case cf insulating glazing, the outer pare should carry al he loacs anc the lowar pana ratain al the fragments upcn fracture. The outer pane can be toughened safety glass in order to possess adequate lability during rallsiorms. As only the strength lo resist external loads is ertical, tha lower pane pravants the pieces from falling the glass is tractured (se= also “Special issues concerning residual load: carying capacity", p. 98) Spenstel panels, balustrades ‘These consttuctions serve to prevent pet= cone from ‘ailing fiom a higher love! toa lewar one, Irthese are made of glass, then they have lo fulfl tha same requirements as ther materials, le, the glass pane must be ‘sble te withstand the impact of a person, The pendulum Impact test t@ DIN 52357 (soft impact| is used to test this characteris lic, The glass should nat be completely shatiered or penetrated by a 45 kg pendu- lum dropped from e height of 200, 700, 200 oF 1200 mm, Owing to the very rge spin: 1019, float glace ie uneuitablo for such Sar rors. The dralt European standard prEN +28¢0 will apply hore in future For te glass to function properly it must ensured tha! the supporting construction. in Conjunction wth the glass, fulfs the same criteria, The construction must be matched to the glass. Toughened safety glass, laminated safety glaas and lerrinatad safety glass made trom prestressed or heat-strengthened oanes are conceivable hore, dopending on the fiings “The use of neatsirenginened glass alons not adequate “The linings for balustiades filed to the sides of stars can move in relation to each other shen the stairs are in use, This must not be allowed as i can induce adcitonal stress2s in the glass (Fig. 2.1.82), (Soe “Residual logcgaring capacity of safety barriers", p. 991) Parttions Glass can be safely employed internally 2s storey-heiaht parton walls. Such partitons should be, for calety reasens, culfcianty tick - at least 8 mm toughened safety {g1a65, wnich ean withstand the impact of = person oving to ks high ubimete bending strength, I sucn panes do break, then the tisk of injury is much lower than with norrral lass because of the fracture pattern (smal) blunt dice). In certain circumstances t may be necessary for the partitions to comply ith fre protection requiramants end ther the whale consiruction must (ulfl these stip: lations, Laminatad safely glass of ace. {quale thickness represents an alternative to ‘oughaned sefety glass, Alblass doorsidoorsets ‘Owing to te Figh utimate bending strenath ‘ouanened safety olass is \d2al ‘or ser supporting al-glaes doorssts. Glass internal ‘aoo's can be fited to standard metal or un ber frames to DIN 18101, The thickness cf the individual glass leaves Gepends on the size but should not be less than 8 mm, The necessary door furniture Is screwed to lass pane with ¢ resilent pad betwesn metal and glaes. In tis case the glacs ic ‘irmiy joined to its furniture (Fig. 2.1.63), Allsglags doors can be supplied with or with- ut bottom ras, Inal-glass docrsets, consisting of door plus sidelight and farvight, the necessary door ‘urmture must be screwed to the panes of glass. Glass stifering-fine may alac berequired in order to improve the stobly of the construction and avoid deflections in the loadtoaring glass olomorts. Tho hinge point of me coor should be stabilized In he region of the fenlight Glass doors can be designed as revolving ones, sliding doors oF 180° swing doors, Vestibules can be made entirely of glass, \Vaniaple room dividers many metres ion a1@ avsilabla in folding, raling or concertina forms, Wh roling systems without a bottom rail, care must ba taken to ensure thet the upper carriage is designed in such a way that whan operating the system the panes of glass do nat oscillate ard injure the feet of the operator. When not in use. the indivicual glass leaves are slored in the space-saving Position: when in use, they form a flat, trens- parent parttion. The glass should be at least 40 mm thick (Fig. 2.1.54), Glass coors can be made from float glass, clear, translucent, patterned or bocy-tinted 91858, or glass with enamelled, acid-atched OF printed patterns on one side, Doors made from clear glass should he rendered visible bby acic-etching or other forms of treatment in orde’ to prevent persons walking into them. Sialy reads mave of glass are subject to he same safety requirements as treads made from other matatials. Star treads must not only suoport the loads of persons walking fon thom but also heavy, hard objects, e.g furritura, whien is carried up and down them, Laminated safety glass must be used fer glass stair veads. If the treads ars supported an all four sic, no laige deflections are tkely ovving to the Short Spans mwolved. However, ifthey canti- lever across the full width of ne star, the etlection caused by the maximum load ‘must be kept smal! in order to avoid a trem pooline eftect. This deflection should be less than 2.5 mm. I necessary, the stably must bbe proved by way of sulable tesls. Inthe case of treads supported on twa sides, fracture of the gless must not reduce the total loadbearing canacity to such an extent that the glass tread slips out of is fhe ings. Itis also important to provide a eupporting construction which Is sufficiently stable. 11 necessary, dynamic loads resuiting from the use of te stair must be taken into eccount when dasigning glass and structure, The uppermost pare snculd be given a non-slip finish (e.g. Oy means of sik-screen printing). Glass for aquariums The following points must be observed when proviging glass for aquariums or dasigeing all-glass aquariums (Fig. 2.1.88): The load of the water in an aquarium rep resents a permanent load for the glass ‘and joint. ‘he load Of te water is distributed over tho glace in tho form of a triangio (increasing with deptn). To simplify the analysis, 2 substituta'oac producing the same effect may be used (Fig. 2.1.58) + The surface of the glass rot In contact with te water is subjected to a tensile slress. Glass whic is too thin end dadly scratched can fail + The glass must be sufficiently thiok and hance resistart to bending in order to avoid large detlections. For float glass, the maximum permissible benaing stength (8 Nimim*| shoule not ba exceeded. The glass thickness depends on the load of the water and the support conditions. Is the ane sumported by a trame on all our sides, three sides or two? And if 0, then top anc bottom or at each end? This is critical because the high water load hae & decisive Inlusnce on die glass thickness and he watertigntness ofthe jot, Laminated safety glass made rom float ‘lass is very suitable. Owing to the 'ow max- imum dellections permissible for eush appl- cations, glasses with higner oermissible bending stresses ara ususlly rot necessary, ‘Onge broken, the resicual strength of lari- nated safety glass made from tloat glass is higher than, for exemple, laminated safety lags made from thermally toughened class. ‘The same is tus for the bese plate if tis nat supported across its full area on flat sur- 108. The permiatible straes under perma- nent loading should be used ta calculate the required thickness, The supports must be arranged se that the panes ere held elastic- ally but perfectly sealed. The width of the e0ge support should be rcughly equal to the thickness of the alas. Inal-glaas aquariums, baty the glass thick: ness end the durability oF the glued edges are ertical Fig. 2.1.56, p. 84). The forces due to the water load are transmitted irom ona pane via the adhesive joint o the next pane. Vertical buit~ap jonis are to be avnided because in such cases the adhe: she is subjacted to either purely axial or purely shear stresses. Mitred joints are Det- tor because thoy are only subjacted to 505% shear stresses. The materials used must be waterproof adhesives and not simply sealants. Such achesive joints cannot accommodate pure shear forces but forces perpendicular to the jot Glass underfoct Sngteteat doors 2154 Akabes doors nddorsets |. pepeioncrae NS ves x 21.58 Wet loads for teeter depts Ditituten ol watr 83Glass as @ butoing material Ail resin seve Shear ates i ‘ater waa smastes dohesve rte ‘Seo nshear + Aiiatoess sont stosses by com ‘pratorotaua eve shear frees rem bth panes 2188 Corners of an aligiass aun a ) | é 4 1 Giass age sea 2 Wath of stats 8 Dapinotrebate 3 Adhesion sures 8. Adana tame 4 Sein boo 10 5 Wisahora! " 5 taciortea 2157 Gass eonsrucon win osdbearngachosico Tonts(stucural sealant giz}, ‘ers saoton ‘ihe wake of Euopan stancars, when cot ‘ng aperovlin rig eases and icance rom fe European Organiza fer Tectneal ages IETA) tho basoto sppleatona nit bo European SlendardpreN 1908 Pas Theos ein ha ure anetal metods of anaysie and reqiaront to Jess he ofiewntypes dass and schesne ots ihaulrolrina Wo spacalrethods ot eondtucton, Whe used for aquariums, the edges of lr inated safety glass are subjected tohgn amounts of moisture. Its offosts on the edge zone can tharefore not bs ruled out (see ‘Laminated safety glass", pp, 68-70), “raneparont thermal insulation Transperent tretmal insulation is often ~ despite its name ~ not clear but translucent Besides acting as an insulator it also serves toimprove energy gain ~ owing to its racta- tion pormeebilty. The simolest “transparent inarmal insulation” ig insulating glass with a U-value of apnrox 3.0 Wink. These units ere used In windows because of their ransparency Normally nowever, rarsperent thermal insu lation is placed directly in ‘ront af a solid external tall. This then heated up by solar radiation ard this heat is cispersed into the roams en the othor sido. Gertsin typos of ‘ransparent thermal insulation can be usec diraatly as fagads infill panels, helping 10 Cantrioute 19 ine provision of caylignt ‘Transparent thermal insulation can be formed by very thin plastic capillaries, thi walled glass tubes or aerogels foamed S10: granulate), all placed between two panes ot blass, Other slements have adcitiona’ fbsotbers at the rear in order to ebecr more scler energy. Transparent thermal insulation units shuld be shaded from the sun In summer. Structural sealant glazing Structural sealant glazing (Fig, 2.1.57) isa syotem whereby the glass pars ara not hela mecnanicaliy in rebates but instead glued to an adapter frame which is then Fung on tne facade of fixed in some other machanical way. This technique can be sed for single or insulating glazing (see also “Linear supports”. p. 186) The edge seals of insulating glass units sre made from a Uv-resistant siicone specially dovalopad fer the purposs. The adherence tothe glass musi be specially tested ane verted, In Garmany an approval certificate 's required for the complete giass/fame sys- tem in conjunction with indepandant mori- toring during production. ‘The adhesive joint ray only carry wind pres: sure and auction foraes. Tho weight of ho Glass, ii induces shear forces in the joint, must always be carried by mechanical means 50 that the adhesive is rot subjected to permanent sha. If lang-term shaar feroes do cecur at the jints, then the edhe- sive can fail, If these shear forces are to 08 teken inte accaunt, then a completely difer tent safety concapt must be devised, also in terms of the achesivo, Structural sealant lazing elements are manutactured in fao- torias under controlled conditions. The pro- ‘cessing dliectives of the adhesive supplier must bo adhored to. The glass elements should not be moved during the curing process this iso avoid loading the joints Production must take place in clean, uniform conditions In Germany stiuctural sealant glazing insialed at 2 heignt exceacina 8 m must be provideo with additional otainors which ensure tha, tre adhesive falls, the panies remain in their frames under 020 with 3 residual sefety factor > 1, Approval by the culling authoritias must always be oblained, The required wieth and depth of tha load-carrying adhesive joint must be cal- ‘ulated for each case; the size ofthe joint is limited by the necessary curing tme and cher material properties. The widths cre predetermined by the soacer tapes which ‘are euficiently rigid and do not doiorm dur Ing prediction as a result ot ine welant of the glees (horizontal production with subs: ‘quent curing). The curing must take place free of sivess, 1.8. the adhesive joint may not be leaded batore the curing process is com: plete. General buling authority approvals: ff approval certifiostee for individual cases are always require for siructural sealant glezing. At ¢ European level, ganorsl approval prowsions and test methods as wel as a standard far glazing ara Deira: ‘rawn up by the Eurcpeen Organization for Technical Approvals (EOTA). Facade appil- cations must also consider fre protection requirements. Physical phenomena Glass isa transparent, absorbent and reflective building material, Therefore, nor ‘mal, commen, sometimes disturbing phys- cal phenomena are frequently mare readily visible and often wrongly attributed to the ‘meterial, although the same affects also ‘occur wih other, non-transparent building materials owing and dishing of Insulating olass panes: ‘The cavity ef an inaulating glaae unit io her metically sealad off from the outside air. The air pressure in the cavity corresponds to the air pressure at the ime of manutacture, It ‘the external barometric sir pressure rises the panes cave Invvarcls, while low atmos pheric pressure causes them to bulge cut- ‘wards (Fig. 2.1.95, p. 70). This effect s more noticeable with large panes and wioe cavities. Small pense, up to about 720 mm long, are very sti and band less; however, the bending etross in the glass increases. This bowing and dishing Is most clsturbing with roflactive glasses because it leads to opticel distorlicns. The glass thickness in such cases should nat be selected merely in the basis ofthe structural analysis butInstead should take inio account the total pphysicel behaviour. f tho glass thicknoss is determined purely accaraing tothe non- linear method. the elasticiy is fully used ant larger dellections of the panes assumed, Under certain lgnting conditions insulating glasace occesionslly exnibit lightly chire- ‘ering, coloured, circular to elliptical areas, Thase intorferonce pheromera are brought about by the superimposition ofthe ight ppaszing directly through and the light baing Fellected al the parallel glass surlaces. This sffect cannot be avoided and is very much opencient an the angie of incidence of the light 2s well as the vewing anole. Condensation an inner panes, It the temperature of a surface is lower than the dew pont temperature of the agjacent ‘a, tha daw condenses. This often happens smien most, warn interval alr meets the cord surfaces af external wall compenents, The surlace temperature of 8 pane Is mainly apendent on the insulating efficiency of the ‘glazing. With good thermel insulation the Outer pane is very cold, the inner ene hot = they take on tho tomiperaturse cf their cur reuncings, Howaver, there are cther conditions which are decisive, e9. alr circulation adjacent the ana and ils edges, Provecting glazing bars. recesses oF curtaina ean interrupt the fow of air locally and change the air crculation Adjacent to the pane, If thase framework eitions deviate briefty rom the theoretl- cal assumptions. condensation can tem porarlly eppear on the Inner panes of insu lating glass units; this disappears, however. ‘once the framework conditions neve stati lized again Condensation an outer panes ‘Tho good thermal insulation values of ingu- lating glass also lead 10 large citferences in the surlace temparaiures of the outer and ineier pares when the internal and external temperatures differ. Temperatue ciffer- ences betwean objects always give rise to heat radiation. With @ clear sky, the outer pare radiates enorgy into space, the ter- perature of which is extremely low fapprox. -273°C), Therefore, the pane coo's down. If the relative humidy is high, then the tem= peratura of tha extamal air can drop below the devr point, This gives tise to concen- sation on the outer pane ~@ sign of good thermal Inoulation against outside infls ences, Ifa window is opened inwards when tho outside tomporaiure is low, conden- sation immaciately appears on the outer sur- face of the insulating glass whan the rroist- Ure Content of he iniginal air is high and the: puter pane is cold. Many other building materials soak up such moisture and itis no longer vie bie, but with glass, condensation remains on the surface, werreitty ‘Moist alass surlaces ~ due to pracipitation (outer surtaces in the case of insviating lass), rain or cleaning ooeratons ~ can ‘exhibit differing cograes of wettatiliy 20085 Ine surface. Wettabily is he edher- tance af drape or filme of roistura to the panes. Win cry surfaces, @.g, as a result of roller pressure, this effect is not noticeable ‘This does not represent a change to the properties of the glass. Advice on glazing A pane or a glaas element is in principle one ‘comgonent in he whole constuction. There= fore, the forces that act onthe glass must always be acknowledged. This is especially important when the thickness and type of panes are to be oplimized. For instance, a pane designed as having simple supports may not bo instalod with restrained cup: ports sinca this qves rise loa stress disti- bution in the glass diferent fram the one assumed during design, and this can lead to fracture. Its important to maintain al the fremewerk conditons en which the analysis: \was based throughout the wncle lite of the glasp, Bosides structural considaratione, tho imeerviousness of ine whole construction and the lfetimas of the precucts must also be taken into account, Silicone sealant can nt on its own reetily mistakes in design and ‘workmanship; il can at best only conceal them briaty Panes o glass must be protected from moisture sternming from wet concrete and plaster during the construction phase because altnough relatively tough, glass surfaces are nct ‘olally immune tc Alkaline solutions attaching the surface int ate a breakdown in the molecular structure of the gloss. As tho pht-value increases, 20 dows the souusilty of te lass. I alkaline solutions on the pane ere dried aut quickly by sunshine end tne reaction products are net dissipated, subsequent moisture causes even mote damage ta the glass. The conse quence is visible corrosion. This effect can also occur if stacks of glass panes are stored without protection on the building site for long parcode, Carillary action causes condensation to infirate deep beween the panes; this water then reacts with tha glass, The reaotion products are not dispersed and subsequent moisture exacerbates the demage, Stacks of panes should therefore not be stored for long periocs without a Agvice on glazng Peranent fonatin nmetal‘olbina & ait bc. Baas Baas Solitrs eect trom a less — ASlynofitebtterees 21.58, The mocharical sapertes fetal and less ccc ranknad by glae caterGlass.as a building material Ineorestpastoaing orsetig blecss Wong cI) (SST eocperacting block Foi i ‘Support sting Hose Sating block wodge 2:11 Rett and wrong uayol wing cating beets (9004 circulation of at. Similar phanomana occur over time when tne glass isn use, although the reaction products are washed away by tein oF clean: ing operations, Aecessad window arrange: ‘men's 0: flashings over the glazing an pro- sige solutions for concrato oF rondored facades, ‘Transport frames are seldom suitable for long-term storage over weeks or months. ‘Tharafore, in ha open air, sometimes indoors toa, the panes must be protected against the affects of moisture, However. air ‘ight packaging toc can lead to the build-uo cof condensation in the casa of temperature fluctuations, and as the moicture cannot evaporate this will damage the oless. Trans- pert frames or packagings are usually Unsuitable far long-term storage, particularly outside, Saiting biocks| Setting blocks for glazing heve to fix the position of the panes within thelr frames such a wey that the loads, 2.g. collvoight. are carried via the ancnorages or noes of fixed fremes or via loaf suspension pcirts Mour-hings frames), Contact between metal and glase must be ruled out The edge of 19 glass in the rebae must not touch the heads of ary screws o° other paris ofthe constuction. The dept of the aotusl rebate ‘must be defined, For norral fioat aiass oF inaulating glazing made trom ficat less, the setting blocks must be positioned af least 20 mm irom the corners anc should be rin 80 ~ 109 mm long, The whole thickness of tha pane must rest on the setting blacks; in practice the blocks ere about 2 rm wicer than the thickness of the aless unit. Inprec- nated hardivood or plestio ating blocks are favoured, The resistance of ha blocks to the long-tarm comprassive load as wall as hair compatibility with the otter materials used must de verifed Heavy units (> 100 kg) should be placed on setting blacks made o! polyamide, ohtcro- prenes, EPDM, polyethylene (n0 PVC} or sil- ‘cons with @ Shore A hardness ct approx. 75 in order to reduce the preseure an the ‘edges of the individual panes, e.g. n the a20 of laminated safety gless units on hard materials, In doing s9 It must be guaranteed that leaf and frame cannot distort or twist ‘uring use and that the leaf can be oper: aed, This apples just as much to tit-and- turn windavvs ee it does to harizontalvertioal siding wndows. Furthermore, @ normal sized pane in a rare should not take an any loadbearing function for which itwas not dasignes. “To wark propely, the setting blocks must have a flat Dearing. ifthe shape of the rebate does not alow this, then bridge set ting blocks must be used which do not hin- der the vapour-pressure equelizalion (Figs 2.1.60 and 2.1.61). H sting blocks are omitted from tho con struction, permanent and vertibie subsi- tutes must be ‘ound Bearings forgiaes ‘The choice cf 2dge bearing fer the glass is aterminad by the use. In vertical instela~ lions standard edge tapes can be lsic between glass and treme as a orelude to the easlant. Some specia) glazing systams requre elaste materials, For sloping insta! lotions beerings must be selected which ar resilert enough to accommodate tie long- term dead load ofthe giass and snow. These materials must have closed gores so that they da not absorb the moisture that can l2ad to darrage over the long term. ‘When selecting bearings it should not be forgetten thet the whele construction must remain sealed. The contact pressure ana the material must alvays be matched to the frarticular application. Here too, itis imipor- tant to corsider all physical aspecis anc rot just solated facto. ‘The beating conditions of tne diferent types Cf glass must also be taken into account, such as the constraints arising aut of the particular application, For example, with insulatng glass, limiting the deflection of te ‘edge seal under load to 1/900 of the glass edge £0 tal with increasing deflections the ledge éeal isnot subjected 10 too much shear. \which can scan lead to leaks elong the edae. The ornoipal requrements for individual appl ‘caiens ere axplainod on pp. 91-06. Varourpresstreaqualzatien, drainage Apa from float glass, tha edges of the panes require a robata with vapour-nreseure equa izaiicn to the outside, Le. en open resate, This ensures thatthe vapour pragsure does rot rse to0 high and condense, and aiso thet any moisture enterna tom the outside can be drined avay and 9 dose not attack and ‘gamage chenically the woge seal sysiem ol for exemple, insulating glass, laminetec (sat ty) glass 01 wired glass. As a 100% moisture seal along the antia rebate ards joints is no possitie in preciice, anc as leakage water trom outside can ifitrate, vapour-oressur= ‘equelizaticn anc the ceainage ofthe open rebate are imceratve. In alltypoe cf eenetuction, but especialy slop- ing glezng, -sroule be ensured tat the sea ing invel iss anove the weter run-off layer ‘Sgals subjacted to long-lerm wele pressure may davelop leaks,‘But joints ‘Tne general requirement ior vapour- pressure equalization and drainage sae ‘above) also applies to harlzontal or vertical butt pints as well as framolass corner dela, Therefore, buit joints in, for example, ingulating glass, laminated (safety) glass and wired glass must be designed in such @ ‘way that permanent vapour-pressure equal ‘nation ie guaranteed in order to allow moiet we to escape from ihe rebate or cavity. Try: Jing to fil the cauity ccmplately with sealant ‘always leads to detects in practice which than act as water traps and destioy the exlge. (See “Joints at an unsupported ecge” 161) Eaves detalls for slosing glazing ‘Toavoid thermal straseoe end condense: tion, the edge zone of an insulating glass nit should be lecsted ntemnally and have (contact with the air ofthe room (Fig. 2.1.62). ‘The auter pane of the insulating glass unit ‘may project beyond the actual edge seal. ‘Tne projection shauld exceed 200 mm and the cantilevering pane should be made from thermally touanened safety olass. The edae seal must then be protected against solar raclation, in particular UV light, or the ecae ‘al omployed must be one euitabla for ueo vith stuctural sealant glazing. Cleaning and maintenance ‘Seen under the microscope. the surtace of & ‘lass pane is ough, Dirt andl moisture which becomes Vapped must ba removed at regu: ler intervals. Sloping panes require mare fre quent cleaning than vetical ones, The panes must be cleaned with liberal amounts of weter to ensure that dust and dirt ars not sofaped dry aoross the glass and so cam- ‘age it, Panes must be well wattsd to loosen the panicles of air. & broad, sharp blade ehould only be wesc vary sparingly to remove stubborn patches cl dit irom the surlace. Scraping large areas is io be avoided at all cosis as this can lead to pro- jecting glass particles beng tom out from the (microscopically) ough surface and carries along with the blade, As the dlade is pullod back, those sharp, hard particles are Tube across tne surtece leaving thin, per~ allel, hallow hairine scratches which are visible In direct ight. in severe cases tiese can evan impeir the view through the olass. During cleaning, care must bs taken te ‘enure that the wet cloth used does nat push cry parties of dust and sand ahoad of tend thus cause scratches. Werting the giaae well beforehand is trerotore vital. “The fest cleaning on the bulding ste must be carried out especially carefully 1o ensure that haroened splashes of plaster or cor ‘rete do not load to sertehos. damage occurs, the effect of the scratch tae choule be assessed trem a gistance of 1.2 m, always looking trom the Inside to the outsi¢e under diffuse lignting conditions, Direct lighting and spotlights could reveal further optical defects anc impairments hich prevent the actual assesment of the Scratchas. The same poles to interna’ glazing Aggressive cleaning agents are often used for cleaning the frames, Ifthase run enta the pane and are ellowed to cry there, subse ‘quent rainfall can reactivate the constituents lahich then attack the glass. Horizontal gauss: 's more ready soiled than slooing ot veri- 8! glazing, In such cases standing water can cause leaching (Fig. 2.1.63). This chemical-physical effect must be taken into ‘accaunt when planning herizontal arranga- ments, Tha cleaning agen's used must not allack seals and joints. Influence on functional data Al functional data is determined ecoording tothe stipulated dimensions given i the standards and subject to ne detined amo ‘ont conslitions, corresponding to the spec: fied consiructions, These values are used as the basis for product dascriptions and so can be compared with the data of ether building materials during the design proce- ure, In practice the ambient conditions and dimensions difler from those in the stan- dards. Ths leads to minor changes com pared! to tha thaoretical values. For exam ble, the "pumping" action of insulating glass has an influence on tha functional cata, alocit temporary. These general observa: tions apply to many building meterials, not iat glass, BLL thoce influences aro, under Dertai ciroumstances, more realy notice: able in glass than thay are in other, less Comples, less versatle matetals “Super-accurate calculations” must be warned against. Mary parameters help to Consider the diferent influencing variables fae ¢ whole and to carry aut case studies. Nevertheless, practical situetions can deviate fram thase resulis ~ fect whicn often only reveals isa’ mucin later. learing and maintenance 21.62 heret eaves aa Aare souton of er las src latas areacien owatinseluien Malas arcacton Breckel nsolton air (aastne) ‘ka reaction oat ‘nia ater ying Sach ol ass cross sector cedures paraded) by alkanes 2.163 Reactors cased by saline aching assTha engin erase ibrocopic actus ant acta iar on a plahod gst ede, 20 sic canbe verted by ayo cc vote Uapenton, car be causeaby, or exampo bre son ot Me surlacs oivPah 1000,—— | tt gtk + Ny —— UB iy aie & Aelatorstiebataoun sgh of alssgand dept af eeok 3, 1 oF estonstip benseen sng ols ana dai of bad 2.23 odton inthe stengt ct olass a8 Designing with glass — strength and loadbearing behaviour Werner Sobek and Mathias Kutterer Building with glass Designing wth class ‘The use of glass as 8 building material has grown in popularity in recent years. The rea: Sons for this can be primary found in devel ‘opmenis in glass technology, which have led te higher mechanical strengths, an increase in the processing options and, ors Cally. considerable improvements to the properties relevant to building science, ‘while atthe same time maintaining the trans parancy. Hence, for the first time itis pos- ‘ibie to utllze a high-quality and transparent building envelope matarial as 8 loadbearing erement. Designing with glass demands a datailed knowledge ef the mecharical properties of this strong but, unfortunately, pritle mater- jal, Az it ochavos almost totally elastically and exniois no reserves of plasticty, the rraximum straas that a eevtain glass can accommodate is determined by local stress peaks which arise at flaws, chipped dass ‘or al the tip of crack. Bo the “strength” of ‘123s only has limted applicability in terms of a material parameter. More importantly, the usebie sirengih, tie maximum steess, should be understood 2s a statistical vari- able dependent on the degree of inherent damage and hence, of course, the size of the element. Fecegnition of this fact as led to the devel ‘coment of -in the construction industry ~ hitherto unknown matnods ‘or designing ele monte mado from gies: and on the other hand to the drawing-up and observance of a \whole series ef design principles Enclosing or laslbeating function? As in other incusties, e.g, automotive, tank fatrication and apparatus engineering, glace is amplayec in the construction indus- {ny in most cases as a vansparent or merely translucent eemeonent, eaparsting en inter lor space, defined In climatic, acousilc or ‘other terms, from an exterior space, Here, the glazing forms a fkering function between the two volumes, permitting, block: ing or relecting certain prysical flows. The lazing to the outer wal of a oullding pro tecte againct meieture and reduces beth ‘thermal flows as well as sound transmis: sone, bul, for exemple, allows the passage (of visible git. Unti ¢ few years ago, glass was in most instances only accorded lowly, so-called tortlary, tasks In terms of structural func~ ‘ions. This was due, on the ene hand. to the ‘act that gless as an ongincering maternal had baen virtually ianored for many yeers and as a cesult very litle vas known sbout its behaviour as a materia this lack ot knowledge maant thatite cafe use 26 a p11 mary or sacondary element was simply out ‘af the question. On the cther hand, glass was Gassed as “oa [raglle” to undertake loachezring functions, Itas only with the ingreasing use o! ever larger panes, com- bined with a censtant exoarsion in he range of applications, right up to glase able to cary unrestricted foot tarts, that t became necceasry to start dotaled researcn into Gass és & Icadbearing mater ial, Atthe aame tme it Bacama necassary to analyse In what way glass, with its singular structural behaviour, could be exaloited as fa strustural element or part of a structural system, We have come a very long way, although ay re meane all tho rolatienships nave Deen adequately reszarchod The material ierostructure and fracture behaviour ning to Ite strong atomic koncing forces, {glass wth an intact microstructure and =r fecty smocth surface postesses a very high mechanical strength, However, damage to the microstructure within the body of the glass and vents and Scratches on the surface give rise to Griitn flaws (Fig, 2.2.1) with extremely high ctrose peaks unan applying mecranical loads to the alament. in comparison to many other materials, nese sttesses cannot be cissi- pated ey mears of plastic deformation. As surface flaws can never be avoided at ledges or araund drilled holes, cniy a frac~ lion oF the real material strength can O© ‘oxploited in @ builcing component (Fig. 2.2.2), Upon excescing a “ertcal (tensila) stress tho orack bogine to grow at the tip of a notch cr crater. In some circumstances this growth only tales place in smal steps, eom- ing toa halt in between. In fracture mechan- los this slaw or “stable” erack growth Is regarded as suborticalrand is marilytermined by the duration of the load. ‘Short-term loads lead to higher allowable stresses than long-term loads. The suboriti- cal crack growth Is infusnced by chemical reactions at the tip of he crack: for exam- pe, ahigh ambient humicity accelerates ‘racking, but other "crack-healing” eifecis have also boon abserved. (Once the oritical crack growth velocity has bbaen exceeded, a crack becomes unstable", L. the wicening process accel crates rapidly. This then loads to sudden failure of the glass eters, AAs tha sulbentical crack growth inersases with long-term mechanical loads and as a result of chemical reactions taking place reer the tip of the crack, itis necessery to substantially recice the actual maximum stress of a component which hes been in se for many years to a value well below that catermined in short-term teste (Fig elerencos: lade 1964, Kehna! 1001, Mochalay Ranson 7980, Sslae 1680 Surface structure (Owing to the many different loads thet cen Occur in censtructon, a glass eement cen bbe xpacted to euler damage irom a variety of mechanical sources, 2.9. soraiches, clearing, wind erosion, during ts lang life (Fig. 2.2.4). Furthermere, mechanical er chemical treatments, e.a. cutting orinding sand biasting, acid etching, coating or print Ing, attect me surlace structure and nence 12 strength, More severe inherent damage Is caused at edges and especially he sides of criled holes: such damage cannat be ‘ecified by subsequent polishing because the deep cracks resnonsible fo failure, the ones where hacture ot the pane eriginates, are not fully reached by the polishing opera The usable sengtt could be improved upon by giving a vary carefully praducad and processed glass element & surrouncing protective layer, turning the element into a composite, The outer layers of the com posite element would than act 2s wearing layers, Employing this concept, the inner glass suriaces o lamineted safety or insulat- ing glaseae could, under certain conditions, be allocated higher maximum siresses than Unprotected glasses, However, such a meitiod must also tae jnto account the tact that it is requenty the strength of the glass edges that is crifeal for the design, Regret tabyy, this espect has nct yet been explicitly dealt with in the deaign codoe but inctead ras been allowed for in design by Imitng tho doflections. erences: Frerann 1060, Kuterar 1007, Machete Strength As already exolained, the usable strength of 2 glass building compenant is not a pure material property but instead e varlebe dependent on the cagree of damage to the surface of the glass (including edges anc drlled holes). The probablity that a local stress generated by a mecharical load coin cides with critical Innerent damege [crack depth) can only be allowod for in the design by nay of statistical methods. A corresponc- ing design method, based on the fracture probability, has been worked out by Blank And prepared for many practical cases to help users. ‘The size end distribution of microscopic racks play key roles here. This is a's0 made very clear by the evaluation of fac- ture teats. Even glass fresh from the produc: tion line exhibits a wide range of sirengins, but relatively nigh cn average. Un to the time of installation andl throughout te lie ot the stricture, damage to the surace of the glass “accumulates” se that the probability ‘of a oitical crack forming in a pane rises. ‘Thorofore. glesses wih inherent damage have lower average strengths, but also con- siderably nerrower statistical Gietrioutione, ‘han tnose straignt trom tne factory. The samo roiatienship applies to the size of the {es surfaces under observation: with & tlazed area of 1000 m? the probability of fone pane failing is 100 times greater than with a pane of just 1 m Although brand-new panos ere oftan used for the experimertal determination of ine strength of glass, itis, hawever, very much beter to examine panes with inherent dam ‘ag9 when assessing the reliability of the strength forecast. Ifthe inherent damege is realistic. '8. corresponds to the mast unfavourable surface camage thal can be exaecied, the tests will reduce highly real: lotic etvength figures. The avarage will then be low and the Jisvibution narow (Fig. 2.2.4). The reduction in strangth o! # glass clement brought about by inoreasing sur face damage aver a long period must be clearly distinguished from the reduction in strength due to suborital crack crewth roouiting from permanent loada as described above, felerarces: Stank 1990, Blank 1090, cher 1080, Savlacek 1608 Netericl 294 Sates! dievinvsoncf slatestengh dus since damoge <001 rm, 45 Ma DD mm, ad ua ‘a em 25 Ua (05 eem, 39 Ma wee 28 le oe ep "Sone ot betel Kee vis, te ¢ a} [ytoos 4 DB) vested gas, lamage ea) now alse (Gass wih herent damage, i I 0 Pa Detibutonot srengh deterrinedin tecture tests a a a3 era ea curutive mequency curves 89Designing wih glass ~ strength and Ieadbearing behaviour 225 Fracture paterrs nt seao ot roma, o)heatstorghened, 5 tounhanac stey glass imi 26 Sreseismoiton na gles pare wit ene a ertinthe case) a tungle bl conpressvotoad ‘Stoss ebnutonn pestesses les: 3) foxgtoed sao oss b Feakstrenathered ‘jase ©} chemonll Steagerec 9356 228 Stese sown at eed oc he soe oa Gee hae: a} tangential in earecace, bracts finxecton) Prestressing \Vents and chips lead ~ of course only when the surface of tho gisas ie eubjocted to ton si01 = fo the crack propagation mechanisms autined above, Accordingly, panes subject. ed purely to compression need to be lacked at less citically (Fig. 2.2.6). As soon as a tensile stress ocours at the glass surface, the useful sttength or maximum’ stress of the lose element can aniy be enhanged by pre- Ccomoressing the surface betorenanc. The procomprassive force brings about an overcompression of the surface cracks and ‘damage. The uppar edges of the cracks remain closed, So, with a precompressed pane, tensile strassas in the cemponent oF iis surface initially lead to a decrease in the precompressive force, Only aftar the pre- ‘compressive farce has bee fully neutral ized on the tension face doss 2 tensile siréo2 aeour in the glace, Therefore, the Usable (lense) strength of the gass com: ponent ie inereased by precisely the amount ‘of ine surtace precompression. With a so-callect mechanical prestrass the teniire cross-section of the glass is overcom: Pressed, This can he accomplished by com- pressing the pane by means ot, ior exam: ple, ballast (Selt-we-ant of spring mecha- isms, With a thormal o: chemisal prostrose a compressive stress is generated on the surface of the pane while a tensile prestiess Is generated in ts core. The tensile and comprassive forces induced are in equi rum (Figs 227.2,2.8) Inthe case of thermaly toughened panes. the glass, already cut fo ts final size and cries i required, i frst neared 10 620°C ‘and then quenched in blasts of cold air: in ‘cong so the outer surfaces harden Immedi- ately but the inner core remains hat. In the ‘course of the subsequent cooling the ocre tends to contract (lice virtually al bulging rmeterials upon ecoling|, but 9 prevented ‘om doing so by the already soliatied sur- facet: tho core warts to contract but cannot {do $0. The ensuing resireint meens that the core assumes a tensile prestress, the sur- faces compressive prestress. Production techniques lead to certain flucttr ations in the level of internel stresses in toughened nanes. Tha distribution is mainly Influenced by tho quenity, tamporature anc circulation of the cooling ai. The maximum comprocaive strosaos at tha surface of the (less are 90 - 120 Nim in the case of tougnoned safety glass and 40~ 75 Nim? for heat-svengthened glass. The scatter is much greater at the edges o! such olesses ‘The tansition from toughened safety gloss to neal-stranathaned glass, which takes place in the range 78 — 90 Nira? and ie nol Covered by any products Is characterized ‘by a striking change in the fracture pattern, ‘when oroken, toughened safely glass, exhibte considerably emailer dice than eat-strangthened glass. Whether 2 cla product should te classad as toughaned safety or Neal-strengthened giass Is also determined by counting the number of dice rom a fractured pane within a defined arse (s9¢ 2.1.26, p. 67) The heat af the thecal prostracsing process can lead to some existing micro: scopic oracks doing "repairs" and hence a slight sructural improvement and ingrease inthe usable strengtr — but usually no more than 10. Nm Inthe case of chemically stenathened glass, comprassive stiesses cf up to 300 Nimmécan be reached at the surtace However, this is only in a very thin bound ary layer which is easily penetrated by scratches, Feleranoda: Blank 1979 No.1, Blank 1970 No.2, Stren ta Temperature stresses The coeificent of thermal exoansion of glass is ar = 9 x 10 [1/K] and a0 merkedly lower than that of steel ar = 12 « 10®[ VK) Rigid connactione botwoon glacs pangs and steel supporting constructions or inlexiule flied joints botwesn glass and stool cause Internal stresses in the two materials upon 2 change in temperature. If the temperature Fives, tensile stresses build up in the glass, ‘Temperature stresses ensue when both material are subjected te heating/ecoing ‘and ego inthe case oF tamperature cite fonces, e.g. a8 a result of solar radiation warming Up the stee! components more than the gass, Mereover, temperature siresses in the glass can arise when ico much solar radiation is absorbed or unevenly absorbed by the glass. Tris ean happen when, for instance, the glass is orinted or partly voay tinted, In addition, tomporatura stesso: can bbe caused by the shading effacts of other components The siresses occu‘ring inthe joined compo rents brought about by a change in temper- ature can be estimated as follows: @= (Aa xT + ax ATIE VET HE; AEs Aa) or epproximately, remaining on the safe side (lor a large steal cross-secton) o=(soxT+uxanestress ‘oatficlont of thermal expansion temperature aitterence ‘modulus of elasticity of glassistee! Cross-sectional area of glacaistee! ‘Wit a couth elevetion registering 50°C, the ifference wih respect 10 an assumed ingiallation temparature of 15°O is already 35 &. In acaitlon 2 local healing of the sieal components up to 85°C als pecs, then the stresses in the glass are as felons: 1909004 x 35 K+ 0.600008 x ) 70000 = 18 Nim? So the load induced by such a change in tomporature leads to tha *permissiole siross’ of float giass having been reached already urabitty ‘The soda-Ime-siica oless custometily used In construction is hight resistant to the usval constituents found in ne arr. However, itis slightly souuble in water, which, in Unfavourable circumstances, e.g, on hor= zontal panas cn which rainwater can collect may load to fogging”. In the case of old jiass which hes been frequently subjected 40 moisture, slightly shimmering surfaces ‘appear trom time fo le, This surface corto sion fs caused by water infiltrating between tne stacked panes by mears of capillary acton. Wit stancing water o” permanent damp: ness itis above all the sodium ons that ara leached out af the glass microstructure. This rocess is exacerbated by alkeline sur- roundings, Construction details Like most building materials, olass elements ean only be produces, delivered to site in ‘prefabiicated ‘orm and installed in sity in limited cizes. On cite tho glass olomanis aro either indivicually tixed to a loaabearing ‘onstruction or they are jeined together to form a coherent, sel-sunperting structure, In doing so, the glass elements must be connected in such 6 way that the fitering or sealing functions are properly futile, ‘Owing to the traneparency of the materiel, the discontinuity at joints 's particularly nptiesebia: all construction dotails demand the uimost care, Transfer ot sites Fixings for glass and joad-carvying connec: tions between glaes slamente introduce ‘orces into aliner tne edge or the body of tne glass, In order to avoid excessive sires peaks, a certain minimum size of stress ‘ransfer zone is always essential. Local stress peaks, which occur 68.8 result of unintentional contact with oiner compo- nents or twiating at the supports, muet be avoided at all costs in glass construction. ‘The mechanisms for tranelerring stresses in glass elaments and tne associaied typical {allure modes are explained below Aatorence: Teohen 1987 Contact Only comaressive ‘orcas ecting perpendicu- lar to the contact face may be transmitted ‘ia centact (Fig. 2.2.0). A pracomprassad ‘contact face accommodates external tensile ‘ercas up ta the point of neutralizstion of the prestress ‘The cantect faces must be of such a size that the stresses occurring in the zone of stress transfer remain suificiently iow. With herd bearings (glass-steol o- glass-glass ontact) or wnen movernents and constuc- tional or goometre impartactions havo to bo absoroed, an interventg elastic ad is necessary ‘A contact fing can only fail ifthe materials in contact themselves fal asa result of the ‘compressive load or ifthe contact faces are displaced in relation to each other 25a rozuit of vibrations or severe delarmation 2.9. if bent pane slips out of ts glazing bead. Fretian Forces ina glass element cen be trans: fared by way of friction, i.e. the mechanical interlocking af the mioroscopie surface: imperfections of doth contact faces (Fig. 2.2.10). Besides the mechanical interlock, adhesive forces also occur at the contact face. Tha relationship detween the axial ‘orce present and the thrustishear force which may be transmitted to the glass ele- ment by vay of fiction is roughly linear. As ‘lass camet be placed directly on steel, the blacticity and fatigue etrength of tho intor vening cushion are crucial ta the quaity of tha fiction joint ntervaring buffers may be mage trom soft metals (pure aluminium, soft- annealed), jbre-rainlorced plastics (sealing materals [rom apparatus engineering) or natural matariais arocessed to ¢ limited extant (cork, leather, carcboard). ll hese materials must remain permanently within tho elastic zone of the strase-ctrain curve when in use. Conetruction details 229 Tranterrng stessas by drect contac 2yelampng barb) camping rlain 2) sere fo {2 sting bbe snl apaenr Books 22:10 Transteingsreses by iten a win rita at, b wut eed MoeDesigning with glass ~ strangth and loadbearing behaviour Friction joints cat fall for various reasons: ticularly euscepifole to both. For glasses when are to be attached to ether compe Sliding of he contact faces due to rents with a silicone achesive, merely Changes in the Fiction characteristics, ‘touching the gless surface with the hang ie e.g. moisture infiltration. enaugh to reduce the bond ol the achasive + Sliding cue to fadna of the clamping ‘And thermal expansion can ovarioas & joint Torces, e.g, due lo croop of the PV intar- rade with a vary stif adhesive. layer in a laminated safety glass, creep in ther intormaciate layers oF the accur- fence of extornal tensile forces. Jointing «Thermal expansicn leading to glass frac- The glazing elements must be joined to ture because the fixings are t09rigi. gather at their eclges by way of achesives, {hic problem has not yel bean observed sealing gaskets, eto. Jointing means no duith the intervening cushioning materials more than producing a functional inkage, mentioned above.) ie. all the funetone thet nave te bs per- Glass fracture dus too prestrees which is formed by the elements themseives must too high for clamping plates that are too also be fufiled at the joints necessitated by cian Mit erunfesouratly shaped. the constustion. 50 me Dest glazing ‘sone whose joints aro equally as waterignt, alr Material bonding fight and soungproat but et the secre tine eee eernar alsa be transmitted by boring as transparent as the glass tse. However {wo alase elements together thi ig vrtually ppossibl fo achieve in practice: jon's aways represent Weak ‘This material bonding can be achieved by Spots, e.g. in terms of imparviousness,ther- way of: inal transmission othe rensfer ot forces DY «+ wolding alaes to gless), 0. e698 seal The following erinciples can be applisc to fae finsulating glasses sealed jonts + Seldoring,¢.9. mata 0 glass: an Contact ota: le sid nd debrm mergrto «+ agheetves, @.4, using the ‘elastic’ edhe- Contact soals aera ‘sives for laminated safely glass, insula- ‘Tha Seal {0 the glass surface is often ing olavs an structural seciant gazing, accomplished by means of pretabricatso a rigs cuaslgid eonesves ike UV-_seeling profiles mado from permanently ii citing non waterproat acrylic achesve, elastic materiais (Fi, 22.11), We dstin- SE or ointng cement. duish botwoen sold profiles and ribbed pro fas. The impervioushass of the contact face 2.2.42 Putty: ory lmibad movement Posstte. Forces can be tensmitted perpendicular or requires a certain contact pressure beween Petailel tothe face of the joint onthe basis glass end sealing profilo ae well ac emacth bf adhesion or cohesion mochanisms. Glass surfaces, Generally, the sealing profle Welding and soldering have nat been used is shaped in such a way that centactis by Up to new for londboaring glass alemenis in way of strigh! blades end nit over the com- buildings. This is because of the almost pete face. inourmountable problems which arise as @ —_Delormations in the glass pane ars econ osult of ine unevenly distibuted tempera modatod by deformations in she blades or ture stresses in the elements t0 be joined, _by the biades slicing on the surface ol the Deth during fabrication and afer incallation. glass. The blades must remain permanently Adhesive eints for glass elements ara wide- elastic and also posassa a coriain resilience lysed in construction. They always have so that they can fallow tne deformations of said Aibeave evan poomoneay date pay or- atively large contac! faces andemploy the pane vilhou at any tine the sec°g sitet oimimrenesorsrocierin over elastic achesives. The forces tobe transmk- effect Deing impaired. The exec! arrange paren revert ted are usually relatively smal! and are nent of the blades depends an tha size of ‘lberly depondent on lomperctura and dura- the pane and its thickness. Thicker panes fonof ine load, The joint rermally fails in @_have groater thickness tolerances which fire. In Germany loadbearing achesive joints have 12 be accommodates by blades have up to now only been panmittod when designed accordinaly. adcitional mechanical fxinas prevent & pane trom becoming completely detached. tty fone exception & fagades up to 8mhigh in With the tradtionalfhking emotoying putly or lunish wine forces are carried by adhesives jointing cement, ie seal is achieved by butthe selt-weighi of the panes by mechani- contact across the complete putty/glass cal fixings, ¢.g, via direct contact) imte(tace (Fig, 2.2.12), The joint is relatively ‘The fallue of e bonded joint 1s usually stif, meaning that in practice tire cracks Caused by inadequate preraraticn of tie appear inthe putty which lead to absarption 22.14 Overap: emesrctod moverserk Conteat faces or the incompatibilty of the of moisture by capillary action, Assembly tnt seating ay materials employed: sdnesve JoMts ara par- (Olelaices and construction inaccuracies i: 2 eecan be compensated for ky filing with putty inst, Compressive forces can be transmit- ted via tho putty joint This type ot joint can only accommodate very minor relative deformations Adhesive seals Using adhesives across the fll length and breacth of the nt creates a sealed ccn- nection withcut the naed for extamal contact pressure (Fig, 2.2.16). The jpintis based on adhesion and c0 also functions under the action of tensile loacs, The adhesive can also be called upon fo transmit forces. The resiliance of the join can be controlled by selecting the elasticity of the adhesive and the with ofthe joint. Movements between the glass elements are taken uo by the adhesive stretching along or acress the loin, I largar relatve deformations are oxpacted, a suitably elastic profile should De glued over the nt Overiaps Overlaps, €.9. as with glass shingles or labyrinth seals, can arly keep out non: pressurized water ar siow dovin air move: monts (Fig. 2.2.14). Az no contact is required Detween the elements, even large relative movemente ean be accommodates. Therefore, ths type of Seat is ideal as pro- tection against driving rain inflexible sire (ures or as a movement joint between seg- ments of a building, Gtsaing Princjoles In glazing we clstinguish between four prin- Cipal functional components which ara inter- eated in clferent ways: \V = glazing element, The single pane, the Insulating alass element, an enclosing element including frame with furtner in tecral functions such as shading, sound inaulaton, provision ef prvacy, trane- parent thermal insulation, photovoltaics, eto. 7 = loadoearing structure. The suppor ing construction ta which the glass panes ‘and glazing elements are fixed and to \which all loads are transfered B - fixing. Componorts transiting tho loads F = joint. Componants comprising the seal ‘The principal possiblities for combining these are Gombined functions = 0.9, classle olamaing bar arcangernont The two function chains are inextricably frked and cannet be installed er dismantled separately |Fig. 2.2.18) Sealing function chain: VE-E-F-Y Loagbeering function chain: V-F-E-T Double function = 2.9. structural saalant glazing ‘he fixing and sealing comparents are one and the same, Le. the silicone fulis two functions (Fig. 2.2.18), Sealing function chain: V'FB-T:FBLV Loacbearing function chain: V-FB-T Seperate junctions = e-0. point fixings “The lunctions are separate and ean be Installed or dismantled separately (Fic. 22.171 Sealing function chain: VE-V Loaabearing function chain: V-BeT Leaded giazing Leaded glazing represents the cldast tech: ‘igus lor producing larger. coherent panes ‘fom smaller, hand-made pieces (Fig 2.2.18), The individuel pieces ore inserted ‘nfo H-section lead cames and tapos into place. The firmness of the glazing is cue to the undercuts in te individual pieces as well ae the sound bodcing in tho camos ‘oni is sometimes improved by Ue sub- saquent addition of putty, Rebate with putty fillet Another traditional glazing technique employs glass panes embedded in an open retate with the nelp of a putty filet (Fig 2.2.19). Here, the rebate Is cut dlrectly in ‘the masonry ér consists of a rebated timber cra casvolled metal frame; plastic or com posite frames are also possible. To install this glazing, the pane is frst posi- toned ang fixed; the rebate is then flee ‘vite a putty filet. This method wae uoed for many years for the glazing of simple, un sophisticated morcshans anc graeahousas the infling of small-tormet, thin panes was cheap and easily repaired. It should bs pointed out that putty (ike sifcone by the ‘way) must nat be painted over! “Ths type of glazing is uses for infill panels in yshich the puty joint olds the glass in place and also acts as a seal. Again and again, but aways more or less empirically and intuitively, the glass panes are also called upcn to brace the supporting sec- tions. Rebate with glazing bead ‘The next stop in the cevelopment following leaded olezing and the rebate with putty fi lot ie ditinguished by an over groater difar entiation between fixing and sealing func- tions (Fig. 2.2.20}, Therefore, a glazing bead was induced to ensure that the pane was Coneiruction detaile 22.19 Cond urctons wit clamping brs Ir 2.2.16 Double feetien a licens jet in staal cali gazing 2.2.17 Separate fincies va inal Hangs, 22.19 Ratt vith uty et 8Dasigning with glass ~ strength and loacibearing behaviour 2.2.0 febatewin glazing bees 2221 Patent gienotarwit camoiager Ee 2.228 Indl ings ol oe 22.04 Auhoave thir (otustrlsanart ‘iai) Q 2225 llega prtie oa 202uroly fixed ta the supoerting constuction in order to cope with wind suction, This inevitably resultad in a diferance between ‘ne intamal and external sealing planes and honce the anpearance af the covered rebate, We distinguish between rebates with nd without sealing material. Filed rebates fare nowadays enly feunc in single glazing; Unfilled reoates are the noir tor al otner types of glazing. These then aways havea channel to allow any water in the rebate (rain, condensation) io drain away in a can- trolled manner (see "Vapourpressute egua- lzation, drainaga’, p. 88) Patent olazing ber with press-it clamping bar {As gless progressed from the classic win dow to the modem fegace, Le. from the per- foratod slovation to the curtein wall, 39 instead or frames (wth glazing beads) et into the brickwork we find special. patentad glazing bars mounted on tne supporting censtniction (Fig. 2.2.21). These render possinle huge ares of glass. To replace the glazing bead we nov have @ press-it clamping bar which grips ‘wo adjoining panes. Glazing with clamping bars generally employs preformed, permanently slastic profiles of silicone, EPDM (= ethylene- propylene-diene rubber) or some other suit able material fer both sealing alanes. The prafiles are pressed against tho glass by the Clamping bar, Water is prevented from nie trating by the lips or rows of blades incor porated in the seal desion. Such axpanses cf glazing make it necessary ‘o differentiate between vertical anc horizon tal joints and combine them in a commen drainege system which is open to the cut side air and able to drain extemally, In norl- Zonal joite the panes must be suppartod fn inverted bridge setting biocks io mainiain the drainage channel. Corresponding junc tions have to be labricated at the corners, and intersections, Further differences occur with insulating lass: the clamoing bar must be thermally ‘soletes fram the glazing tar. Opening lights wih their moving parts, hinges and catcres tisually nave to ba incerporsted ine fxee treme within the glazing ysIem. Lingar support without clamping bar In Some horizontal or vertical glazing sys tems the panes are cniy supported on two sides, Hore, Ihe unsupported odges can be sealed ‘lush wi sillcane, vith laminated sefoty glace & must be ensured that caly PVB-compatible slicone is used or that the VB interlayer is isolated from the silicone bby means of a suitable edge tape. Ir'such @ tepe ie used, the alr gap created by the ‘apa must be drained, otherwise moisture ‘ean accumulate which may lead to “togcino” of Te PVB interlayer along the euge anc hence toa loss of adhesion between PVE ‘and glass (delaminetion). Two sealing fblanes snould be incorporated for insulating ‘lane, with tho slicona joint bong applied to an adge tape on uoih sides. Again. the alr ‘gap crested by the tape must be drained In soma types of construction the panes are continuously supported along all four sides but held down (against wind suction) et cer~ tain pcints by clamping bars or clamping Plates, i. tivo etructural ayotome ere ussd, ‘one for wind suction or other upwarc loads, anothor for wind presaure, salf-woight or stow, Indivicual supports at the edge The system consisting of loadearing profile and screwad clamping dar can be comn- bined with unsupported edges and modifies so that, in the extreme case, the glass pane ip only aupported anc hold at poss along the eage (Fig. 2.2.22}, This concept results in coparate edgo fvinge with narrow bearing brackets for the setting biocks to take the In- plane forces and a clamping plate arrange ‘ment for the out-ol-plane forces, No forces are vansferred via te unsupported acges, ‘but theae eogos must bo sealed, Inctvieval oviied henge ‘This involves fastening the glass panes by way of inserting bolts or sorews in holes riled through the glass teal (Fig. 2.2.28) ‘The loadbwaring function (fixing) is cistinet {rom the seating function in this case, Tre inclvidusl fining ie carriog out in the plans of ‘ne glass, the Sealing function on te unsup ported edga, This infantional separation of the functions enables both to be substen- taly optimized and hers introduces aven ‘oreater design freadam, D! course, the ‘Quality of the seal atthe fangs must be ‘equel 10 that along tho unsupported edes, Aanesive xing (structural sealant gazing) ‘The xing of class panes to the sunporting construction & frames by means ef adhe sive enables the intervening, intrusive clamping ders to be dispensed with (Fi 2.2.24, The term “structural glazing’ or (bet tar ell) ‘structural eealant glazing’ rafars to the loedbearing function of the adhesive joint, i must be stressed hars that the struc. tural glazing joint shouls only accommodate short-term loads, 2.9. wind. earthauakes. ‘The self-weight of the panes in structure! lazing systems must be carried by —usu- ally concealed ~ mechanical fxings,Integral profile The glazing bar, the press-ft clamping bar ‘and their associated szsling arrangements {can be replaced by a single peripheral, pre formed profile which surounds the glazing Unit and fs interlocked with or glues to the supporting construction on site (Fig, 2.2.26), Such integral prafiies are nermally mace fom a permanently elastic synthetic mater: |al, This type of joint is wall establisned and widely used in the autemaalve Industry for the fiving of windsereens, in the construc- tion industry this method is occasionally ‘employed for fagades, Compared to vehi- les, the censiderably longer periods of usage in buildings mean tnat good drainace ofthe profiles must be ascured. Horizontal or naar-horizontal glazing We speak of horizontal glazing when the slope of te glass surface Is so shallow that, owing to the need to desin rainwater, clamp ing bars can no longer be employed and the sell-cleaning etfect of drainina water is limit- fd. Completely horizontal glazing ie only rarely used owing to the corrosive ettact of standing water. A minimum piten of 1-2" is recommended so that water can run off in a centrallod manner, However, with euch 3 shallow fall, ditt wil generally remain in place Dianage ol covered rebates with inavlating Blass is no longer guaranteed with slopes leas than 10°. The suriage of the glazing should not pre- sent any Sarviars to the water run-off at any. point. Cover strips transverse to the direc ‘ion oF flow should be flattened slong their upper edges such that ro significant oulld- up af water is possible (norizental a” sloping downwards) If this fe not feasible, cover sips transverse to the cirection of tiow should be omitted. The rocommendad salu Jon in this case is a pans supoorted contio~ uuously on two sidas with cover strips narallal 10 the flow and silicone adnesve joints transverse, Indwidual fixings do not obstruct rainwater run-of. Adequate sell-cleaning etizcts cannot be guarantaed for glazing laid at a pitch lese than 10° and subjected to normal weatner conditions; dust and dirt. in autumn leaves, remain on the gless surface. With printing or a frosted and light-scattering glass surface, the negative imaression af “dily” panes can be consicerably ‘essened. The soiling behaviour can 69 substantially Improved by treating the surtace with oit- rapelling, hycropnobic or antistatic coat- Ings. Appropriate products are currently undergoing development Construction details Inevisting glazing UV resistance of eage seal Ininsulating clezing, spacers ard glass pane are ncrmally glued tegether with “Thiokol, iniensaly impervious to oas clifu- sicn and go alge suitable for units with a Noble gas filine, Thickal is, honever, not UV-resistant, Thareiore, the edge seal must be covered wth zn opaque medium on tne outside, In places where cover strips are not possible or undesirable for siructura or aes: thetis reasons. the edge seal can de pro- tected agains! UV radiation by pxintiig oF similar. Silicone edge seats are UV-resistant. They 28 however cas-permeabie, meaning that ‘nirculating glage unit with nobie gae filing is nct advisabie, Flush joints Adhiesive siicone joints should be Instated ‘on a temporary packing or edae tana. If some of the panes of the insulating glazing are laminated satsty alass, then it must be teneured that the silicone chosen ie compat Ile witn tne PVB interlayer. If tis is not pos- blo, then a suitable odge taps is to bo Incorporated to prevent contact between PVB and silicane. When epecifying silicone Joints for insulating glazing itis impertant 10 remember that beth the edge seal and the PVA interlayer {if oresent) must be prctected against being damaged by candensation or rainwater inthe joint. The Ie not acy to zonleve in practice! insulating glazing sys- tems should employ two sealing planes with the silicone jon! being applied to edge tapes on both sides. the arr gap created by the tape must be drained, Vinen mperviousness is crucial, an open rainage arrangement delew tho joint is the ‘best solution ana is pretarred to adhesive en both sides (Fic. 2.2.26) 95‘Designing with glass ~strengtt and loadbearing benaviou 2226 Hotzcna laine, adristton bulcne srontoes: Brine & Sein, Pals 96 Safety and design Determining deformations and etrsoses Glass is 2 materia that behavas entiraly ‘lasticaly at the temperatures typical in Duligings. Althoug’ glass is o'ten also regarded as 8 supercooied liquid. its vis: ‘cosiy {s 80 high that no flow takes olace in the periods ralavant in practical pulcing terms. Consequently, glace exhibits no creep end no relaxation. ‘The mechanioal parameters of glass normal~ ly used for calculations using the elastic he- ory ate: + "modilus of elasticity € = 70 060 Nimm® + Iateral strain v = 0.23 (0.22 is somatimes used) coafficient of thermal expansion p= 9x10" [1K] ‘As a comparison: modulus of slasticty, steal = 210000 Wmm* + modulus af elasticity, aluminium E = 70.000 Nim ‘The theary o! small deflections (first-order analysis) Is frequently used for calculating the interna) farses in @ pane of glace cub- jecied (0 extornalloacs. Based on this the ‘ory itis common to determine the stresses produced by external loads on rectangular panes supported on two sides: for rectancu: Jar panes supported on four sides the stresses are found fram tables or the Bach equation, Tabloe are algo aveilable for circu: ler and thangular panes. These days, glass panes ara alge frequently analysec with the help of tinte-element mathods. ‘The stresses determined according to the theory of small defleciions iits-order araly- sis] ere usually higher for larger genes then those given by the theory of large detiec- tone bocaute when basing calculations on te later theory, membrane effects in the pane = which usually go hand in hand with lower bending stresses ~ are teken into secount, Thesa affects are not considered in the linear elastic theory and 50 this leads to a greater glass thickness, Ovting to the comolex bearing and strass situations at load transfer positions, the ‘manual calculation of the stress distribution at thase points nes become virtually impos sible. Thereiore, the use of finite-element methods is both viable anc customary in order fo exarine force transfer issues but algo to enalyee and dovign completo glace ‘elements, When applying FEM to glass ‘dosign there ara a nurrbar of ales which musi be siricty obseived; in particular, sareaa of strass concentrations must be very aveluly modelled, Load transfer can be simulated only by way of sultably detalles modeling, end resilient intervening layers, €.9. setting blocks, must always ba inaluded in the mode! ‘Tables of solutions, which provide ati rough ices of the eze of the ctrass concen- trations, are already avalaols (or a number of standardized fixings, glass formats and bbads. Glass, like all non-plastic maistiels, ‘exaiois parmanent stress peaks around dried holes equal to 2.5 to 9 times the underlying stress, Design metheds There are various ways of describing the mechanical behaviour of glass and deriving 4 design method from these. The three methcds outlined beiow are each distn- guished by a specific thecretical approach Dut are nat canlracictory and so can be omibines. Permissible strass design The dasign is carried out on the basis of permissible stresses. The advantage of this appreach is lis similerty to existing metnocs and its simplicity, However, hes methoc {does net do justice to the matoria’'s behav: ‘our ang terefore in many situations leacs tforeaulte whioh ara an inexact representa tion oF tne reality. To account for all proba~ bilities and unknowns, and at the same time achieve on adequate level of safety, rela tively high safely factors are necessary. With typivel types of gloss, thoco safsty ‘actors ara to 25 to & limes nigher than the charac- terietio strongthe datermined ia bending tests. Design accoreing to probability of racture This method, mainly based on the work of Blank, uses fracture mechanics to appraise and ascribe the statistical nature of the usable strength and the irfluonesa of load duration, area under siress and ambient humidity, Horo, the probabiltise of fracture {for the glass under load and the duration of the load are acdad for every lading case. ‘This approach correct tekes into account the unfavourable influence of stresses act- ing on large areas oyer long periods of time.The design method developed by Blenk ‘based on this rotion has been briefly out- lined serlor. ‘The banaviour of glass is very closely simul- ated in Bank's method. It is fer mare accu: ‘ae then permissible stress desion but Is unfortunately aso mora complicated. For standard components, eg. rectangular Danes sudjected to wine and srov loads, ‘he mathod can be preparod in a user trienaly tabular form, Limit state design The limit state approach makes use of the ferent statistical distributions on the ma ‘arial side (strength) anc the loading side Jeg wind and snow), Furthermore, this motnod considers various limit states or modes of feilure. In doing 20, ath tre prob- abilty of a loading case ocourring end the significance of the component for tho stabil ly of he structure as 2 whole, i, the effect ff the component falling, are taken inio account, Because ofits importance for glass con- sttustoon, limit state design is dealt wth in more detail balow. Limit state design The dasign coroopte for stl, timber or reinioroead concrete used hitherto In outding {are all founded on the demand for an unconditional guarantee against failure for the individual member without considering the role of this momer within the structure as 8 whole, The strc! requrement of such a design philosophy, dasignatad ‘cafo-lfe concept" in the aircraft industry, that all members of 2 structure have @ unform ‘evel of safety actualy no longer corresponds to the state of the art. Moreover, sate-ife con- cepis for building compenents where, for ‘example, spontaneous tracture is possiole, are net realist. Owing to the extreme dist ‘bution of glass strenaths, ie oossibiity ct spontaneous fracture with tharrrally tough: ened glasses and the fact that accidental destruction of glass elements is compara tively simple, glass fells exact into that ‘oroup of building materials/eomponents for which an unconditional saferlife guarentee is not possible. Accordinaly, when builcing ‘ih giaes, design strategive should be fer mulated which allow forthe failure of indivi- dual glass elements; alternatively, the glass element should be designed in sul ¢ way tata safe-ife guarantae is possible. An unconditional safe guarantee & however almost impossible with the means available at present (Fig. 22.27). Desian strategies which alow for the failure of individual compenante wore virually unkriown in construction up to now. This mad the development cf a design concept sultable for glass rather dificult. In contrast, Salety en design the eircrattinduaty, in tying to save weight end nence costs, recoaniza0 at a relatively fealy dato that Ii wae necoseary to divide components into hose requiting an uncon ditional safe-life guarantee and those which nay cause local failure but must not lead to a disproportionate fale af the whole can- struction (lal-safe concep!) #fai-sate concept reauires an examination ‘of tho inlact structural eystem but also a systematic analysis othe faiture of inaivi- ual glass elamants within structure in the {orm oF so-called scenarios. Each scenario assumes the failure of one or mere class elements and the gosl s fo prove that the structure 2s a whole remains sable wthout this component, ie. possesses 2 “residual lability” As a structure would only be placed in such a damaged) situation tem: oratlly, greater deformations, or rather a somevthatlewar level of eafoly, can be accepted when analysing tne resiaual sia eilty Iimust always be ensured that a damaged less element cannot became detached fom the structure and, for example, fell out 8 a complete unit. This requrement eoplies fo overhead glazing end jagads slemenis, In bath cases therefore, the indivicual glass cloment must itsef possess 6 residual load: bearing cepacity, This stioulation leeus 10, = pay far example, laminated safety glass normelly 2 being specified for overhead glazing. The 2 sect incividuial panes of laminated saiety glass must be designed in such a way that each ‘one can suppor! the weight cf the other, broken, pans as wall as the external fercos to which botn are subjected. Greater cetor- mations and a lower lovel cf salety are ‘acceptable in such instances. t both panes of laminated safety glass in an overhead system are broken, it must be proved that the damaced oanes cannot become / detached irom ther fixings ) SER Lamirated os, ania sates {2.227 Brain beresiour of bung mses inthe 7Dasining with alass - strength and loedoearing behaviour ‘The limit state method includes the analyses customarly anplied in construction for he serviceability limi state (all structural mem: bers intact}: + ability to accommadate all the stresses feresart in the member, + limting tne cetlections, 4s ell as analyses of the dameged conci- tion (one or more glass elements oroken): residual loadbearing capacity of dam- ‘aged glass sloment itsolf, behaviour pon failing racidual stability of structure as a whole, toleration of large detormations in the ‘gamaged component and tha stiucturs esa whole ‘The flow chart below (Fig. 2.2.23) shows a typical verification scheme for designing ‘stuctural aystems employing glace compo- nents. ‘Special sguee concerning restoust oaddearing capecty Fesiaual leadbearing cepacity of overhead glazing Glazing systems placed at an angle exceed: Ing 10° from the verical are clessed as overhead: glazing. As persons underneath uch overhead class units could be serious ly injured by falling fragments of glass, over head glazing in the broken contin is, roquired to be bio te carry its own weight and a reduced snow iaad for a limited srrount of time. "Technical rules for. over: head glazing” stipulates appropriate requsrements fer continuously supported panes observing these obviates the nsec Tor gatting the errangement approved for each incividual project. Panes oi glass in ‘overhead glazing systems may only be com= prised of laminated safety glass made fom roimal glass (in future also heatsirengi- fsnad glass or combinations of the two) or ited glass. The rules call for panes of lami nated safety glass 10 be supported on all sides for spans > 1.20 m, The lower pane of insulating glass units must elso fulff these requirements; therefore, the upper pane may consist of simple float gas. Overhead glazing employing panes with pont fxngs is not covered by any cades of practice or building authority raguiaticns and therefore every case must be approved ‘ra gareral cartiicate relating to a speci form ef construction must be ebtained. Vertical lazing above circulation zones Vertical glazing aoove circulation zonoe, 0.9. a mutistorey fagade directly adjacent = footneth, constitutes a similar risk to over hhead glazing. However, the loacs on the uehead sacra Panes mat) [Spomanaus race ot sroraeay Toughened sais glass o2ne Taage eae Design ease Bate at Diet destcion Acton nN 1636 ‘OWN 1085. ‘under asc Belaercare na toesn0e2 Feques- [—Woranueat TeEMAT Feapsorreidaat | [Syaam anaes] wee someone comparers stem posse ingosten | pais — [Byes Byala By caloue Seniesa ne = ten fen line» 24% pees 9-106 = 10E6 pete 2.2.2 flow enter enalyirg te scenaios ane srobabites in oreead glaing Re‘erance:Viomer igusglass panes are less coal than those on overhaad glazing because thera Is no per- manent bending sess present due to self ‘welaht. Therefore, accidantal damage is, ually the eele raseon far epontancous lrecture, Advice and guidelines for he design and the typae ef glaes that can be used ara given in “Teoarical rules for tne use of continuausly supported vertical glaz- ing” and OIN 18516 “External wall cladding, rear-vanted - toughened safety alas” Glazing ayetemo with criled, glued, curves or sillening panes are nat covered by the regulations oted above; every incividual cese requires eporoval. Resiaual (oxdbeering capacity of satety Fagedes, windows, doors, spandret panes and partitions act as safely barriers when they separate a circulation zone from a lawar level, For 8 change in height > 1 m between croulation zona and lower level, precisely defined ‘safety barrier” function is rescribed for glass panes. ass elements acting as safely barriers are subjectad to spacial rules regarding the ‘choice of glass end the conducting of tests fr “hard impact" and ‘soft impact’. This is Fined in “Requirements for glass in safety riers This document distinguishes betwean tree tegories: + A Safely barrie: function provided by the glazing alone ~ 8 Safety barrier function arovicled by lazing inctuding continuous nandral) © Safety barror function provided by separats nanarail Category A requires laninated safety glass ‘Gr single glazing and tha inner pane (the ‘essed side) of insulating glass. Satecorles B and C are satisfied by lami- seted eafoty, het strengthened er tough: ned safety glasses. The loadbearing capacity ofthe glase when eubjected to the pact ofa soft body of other reatistic situ- ston iste be verified by calculation for all ‘yee categorles. This analysis may be omit fed when, for catagory C, accitional knee als ere incorporated, 1298 surfaces eubjected to foot retfic A distinction must be made between © glass surfaces vith access resiriated to occasional authorized persons wearing suflable, clean faotwear where a stated maximum load Is not exceeded (all Por zontal glass surfaces should be acces- sible for maintonance purposes) and glace eurfeces with ganorally unrestricted _200855 and 50 subjected te greater loads 28 well as solling end scratches, 2.9 lass floors, stars. etc, ‘Means to pravent parsons falling through the glace must bo provided in both cases. stricted access, ie. access for mainte ance purposss, must 9¢ ensured for al rotizontal glazing, I both Instances tne impesed loads (maintenance only: depends on situation, 8g. 1 KININS, unvesitictes access: 5 kN/m#) must be abie to be safely ccairieg. For the broken cardltion a reeidual foadbearing capacity for a limited length of time with reduced leval of safety is to be proves, Glass ‘or unrestricted accoss chou be ‘checked for its sllaperyness, in particular when wet or when worn, Tharafore, the Uppemmast pane should akvays be given @ ‘non-sip printed firisn or the surface should bbe roughened. Elements made from glass for unrestricied ‘scoe9e must censiet of st laast three panos of laminated saiety giass, The uppermost pane — with non-slip finish ancl usually thin- her han the ethers ~ can be considered 19 be loadlheating teo, Structural systems Every component within a building has the ability, and semetimes the task, 1o cary loads and transier forces. A light partion carries iis own weight and possibly ight Impect loads, a window pane trensfers wind loads to its frame. The core of a building contributes substantially to carying tho wing loads imposed on the structure es wel) ‘28.8 proportion of the selfaveight, Here, the sum ofall losdbearing and intestinked incivicual structures forms a highly complex system. Hierarchical ayterns To render this complex system mare com- prehensile and eatiar to analyes, a com- plete structure Is broken down inte a hier- archy of substructures (Fig. 2.2.20, p. 100) The “primary structure” comprises all those parts required to carry al the forces acting na building inclucing its own weight. Fal Ure of the primary structure is associated with collapse of the entre building. A num ber of secoriary strusturas are integrateo inte or attached te the primary structure Faiure of one of these only resulis in local collapse, the stricture as a whale remains stable, Larger or more complex bulldings ‘can evan include tertiary structures in their Revarchy, ‘Structural ystems 29Designing with glass - sengin and loagbearing behaviour 2.228 Hiarcricasistams: ea, primary, second. leterystuensn 22. Discover syste: 69. separation of vericl Toadoearno unten and bracing 2.201 Feaundant sytem 09. leas constuctens win ‘esidual adoring cacy 400 ‘A typical bulding hierarchy tollon ‘soneme Primary structure Loadboaring core, all columns, walls, floors ‘end bracing requred to carry horizontal and varticel ace: Secondary structures Floors which are net partol the primary sys: tem: bulttin tems, partitions, roof stiuotures ‘and annexes; fegade elomante. Tortiay structuros All constructions which are part af he sec- endary structures and whose stability snot trical to ihe stabilty of those secondary structures, e.g. a window within a fapada lament, Disorete-work systems Siruetural aystoma oan be designed in euch a way thal certain members are only called upon to carry cerisin leads (Fig, 2250) For example, n bulidings vertical loads are car- ried by columns, harizonial loads by walls. Ina suspended class curtain well with verti ca fins the [verical) selfwveight is carriec by the panes of glass, the (horizontal) wind loads by the tins Structural eysioms in which individual parts fr substructures in each case only perform 4 clearly defined function are called discrete-work systems. Such systems are frequently encountered in {glass construction decause tha prevent {otal coliagse following talure of a single ‘somaanent. Although alter such a failure tha ‘construction can no longer carry al the loads, this is acceptable for a short time, for ‘example, untl rapairs are etected, possibly in camunetion with restrictions placed on usage during thal period. Redundant syaioms ‘A system 's considerac reaunaant wren i. contains elements whose functions can be taken over by oiner elements it ey fel (Fig 2,2.31), So in thie case the failure macha- nism corresponds tothe fa-safe principle, fas discussed in detail on p. 97. It obvious thet the intentional inclusion of redundancies or ihe deliberate creation of redundaney effects in the design so crucial to structures that incorporate glass sle- ther systems Generally, if neltner a hisrarchical ncr a dis~ ‘rete work arrangement ef tho cubstructuroe can be established, optmum desion of ine members is very awkward. Statcally inceter Imipaie structures are a good examole of thie: the stiasses in the individual elements due to tha various leading cases and failure modes can only be determined by time ‘conguming ealeulations, Furthermore, thoy are highly suscepible to restiant stresses ‘caused by thermal and deformation loads. ‘Qwing to ther high stifness, however, gas. slements attract resiraint loads, cniy to su Ter subsequent spontaneous fracture as & result. In statically indetamrinate stuctures ‘containing glass elements, therefore, it must bs ensured tnat no restraint strasses can be transferred to the glass and thet nc un wanted or uneartraliable redundancy arises \whioh load to the glase elamonts boing overloaded. (One axcoption to this rue i the delicate iron-and-glass pain houses of the 19th cen- tury. Theie slender metal primary structures are braced by countless small glass panes This produces a sirong. complex structure with a high degree of static indeterminacy, and imoassible o model in the computer The indivicual panes of these constructions are embecded in a nara yet stil signtly resliant putty and sa form 2 myriad of intr. ‘connected load paths, Structures Ike these olasshauses anpear rater foolhardy to us taday because 6 metal fib is stabilized ty lass and outty in a way which cannot be ‘appraised in enginooring torme. Notwith standing, tnis certainly purposetul and, so ar, euccasetul form ol construction can be Justited if we consider tne terms redun- ancy and residual stabil. Reclundancy is provided beceuse failure 0! a single pane only results in a stucturaly insigniticant defectin the shell, And the residual stabil of such a structural system is immense rbacauee, if broken, the emall panes adhore to bie putty filet and represent very ite tisk to porsons underneatn. Hawever trying to verify he effects ofa chain reaction of frac- tures, whether hy simulation or by exper- ment, would invelve a huge amount of wor Loadbearing glass elements Lingar olomonts: bars, rads, columns Lingar elements are comacnents whose simensicns are amallin two diractions and large in the other, lengthwise, direction; they ara subjected t0 purely arial loads, e.9. ina girder ties oF struts subjacted to tensicn or Compression respectively, Compression membore i cable cuyad sructuros ars ‘called props, vertical compression members columns; these ars subjected to exclusively axlal forces when tneyrare connected 10 theadjoining compenorte, usually flea elabs, ‘ib articulated joints at both ends and when the-axie of the member is perlectly stright It columns ate resirained at one or oot ‘ends. tnen the axial foreas ara combinad wath bending stresses, In the case cf a ie subjected to tension its generally the strength of the material that is. responsible for the design. In addition, the residual loac-carrving capactty in the Cracked congition must be examined; struss fare mainly at risk af a stabilty problem, Siraight olass members with a one-piece cross-section Sirips of flea! glass can be up to 19 mm thick, in spectel cases up to 25 mm, So with a mayimum slenderness ratio of 1/60, the ‘maximum height of « comprossion member made trom a single shaet of fat glass is only eporox. 1 m. There‘ore, glasé tubes oF solid, cast glass sttuts are more sulabe as compression members. Straight glass members with 2 composite er039-s2etion Compared fo glass members with @ cne- piece erate-cection, combining individual glass strips or sections allows the creaticn of vaty inisresting ard sirong compression members Jcieing indlividval glass stip to form @ ‘compasite cross-section is carried out by moene of cqlusing olass to glass, + qusing glass stigs to metal connecting profiles, + Joining the strips via incividual fixings. Composite crass-sactions can also be pro- duced by jing stancare tubes. ‘Straight glaze members in eonjunstion with other materiats Dosnite the pragress in rarent years, glass ig stll limited in its use for ves and steuls, ris can be attributed to the limited sizes of the semifinished product and the loss of oaobeering capectty upon fracture. Thera for6, ons alternative is to combine glaae with plastic, metal or even timber end thersoy overcome the specific deadvantages of glass-only construction and render possible considerably stronger designs. Using adhesive to atiach the glass stips to matal connecting profiles has already been mertioned above, The cancerise prestress ing of monolithic glass tubes or those made ‘rom bent aheo's is anotho” elegant pos- sibility f@ pusn Dack the application frontiers bf thie material. Tre concentric prostrossing (Fg, 2.2.52! places the entre glass cioss- section in compression, with the bul joints between the individual parts being realized Structural systens purely via direct contact, An axial tension load can be carried by neutralzing the in- built comprassive (orejevece Slats Sits ae iat uriauen Wane cinNtSie are large nwo directors and smal ne tther thickness, direction; tey are subjeck 6010 ices acing perbendouir to me plane ofthe soo, Stabe thus have the exe Seometrical frm ae plates out are ostn guiene trom these by wa ote orecton ofthe load actor and, as result, ther core | “lderably cferert badbearing benevour ‘ charecterzed ty bending sesses. Singleslayer siabs ‘The single-layer slab. Ie. single oane of float, toughened safety or heat-strangihened glass, represents the most widespread use of glass panes acting a slabs. Evry win cow pane acts as a stab (and not a plate) under tha action of wind loads. The pane cares the exieinal (wing) loads vla bending ‘and transfers the forces to the continuous supports provided by the window frame. As ‘bending members, nowever, glass panes are exircordinarily slender: a window pane of float less, 1 x Tm, with an average wind load 0} G8 kNim2, fs juct S mm thick ~ = sparvoept ratio of 1180, Rectangular siabs supported continucusly nal four sides and with a lengthvividih ratio exceeding 1.2 sill soan in twa direc tions, Begsrning et a ength/with ratio of about 1:2, the middie of tne slab starts 19 saan in ane direction, with eorraepancingly higher svesses in the siaa, Accordingly, wit linear supports on four sides, lengltv/uldth railos exceeding 1.2 are better irom the structural point of view Ifthe ceflections of a slab supported on four sides become vary large, 12. arealer then the thickness of the slab ise, then & starts to act tke a membrane, The slab is then no longer subjected purely to bending but instead loads are increasingly carried as axial forces. like stretched mambrans or suspended labrio (Fig, 2.2.28, p. 101). In this situation a perinheral comoression Zone forms in the glass pane, Atthe same time, the detiections increase less vigorous- ly: tho slab spparontly becomes stifor as, soon as it begins fo aot like a membrane, For such slags, calculations besed on linear elastic slab theory deliver resuits which ‘deviate too far— in the wrong direction — ‘rom the reality. Hass was te frst person to cemanstrate this in detall ne snowed that Using the theory of large deflections fed to ‘more slender dimensions and a very ece- nomic design, espocially for larger, i.e, rola lively hin, panes [Hess 1986) The membrane affact cannot ostablish itself Unban there are only supports on two sides iy presressid gus Lito ofa eurpartadra our adeeb) to iden, Qewhadaelpals T 101Designing with glass ~ strangin and loadbearng vehaviour 22,34 Cutectin nenavourand stone dstbuen fa paras la lovey on tap otezcn ce, by elasicaly boncod lined saey cass © Foi pond re manle eares 102 Unless both sides are held totally gid, something that should de avoided because tf thermal expansion. And as coon 69 a sup ‘port narmits movement, ne slab is suDject= ‘ed exclusively to bonding. {A slab supported at Incivicual points will exhibit greater hending end shear siresses, 8 well as greater detormations than one of the same size with linear sunpors. The large sheer forces occur neer the individual supports and ara critical for he design of the fixinge, among other things, Generally sneaking, ndividual supports lead to thioker glass whan compared to Inear supports, Multieyer slabs Multiayer oF lamineted slabs consist of sin- bile slabs laid Icosely on toa of each other or bonded tegether with adhesive acreae thal entire surtace (Fig. 22.34), Inthe cago of "mult-toat” slabs, a cavity is formes by @ contnucus ecge seal this cav- ity filled with a gaseous oF liquid inter- mediate layor a) Without bone Ifthe slabs are laid Icosaly on top of each other, then each slab carves its share of the total cad in proportion to its slexural stvenath, Fer instance, two slabs, thicknassas t, and tp, Sganning one way, would split an exter~ nal load @ in the ratio (te The maximum stess (symmatiical arrangement ty = t= v2) would then be @ = 1.5.4 (it)® Nimme Tranalicent or opalescont glasoze are pro: duced in this way (Le, without bona) witn a oper or gouza inlay [aid loose between the panes end only the edges glusc. ) wit Dona If ve join two slabs together. ons on top of ‘he otter, with a shear-resistant cormection, then the loads can no longer be soli in pro- portion to the airengths but instead are car. ‘eG by a composita unit. The maximum, strese would than be.¢ = 0.75 q (Vt Nimna and the detections reducec by a factor of 4 ~ an enormous increase in efficiency, Like witn ofner forms of composite censtiue- tion (timbar, sandwich members in ight weight constuction), the mechanical behav= lour of alass panes joined with a shear- ‘resistant sennection ie fully depondont on the shear rigidly and shear svengtn of the intermediate layer. We meet a contradiction here: maximum ngigty favours the behav jour in bonding, while fare or more panes are fractured, then a more viscous inter ‘mediate layer is advantegsous for holding the fragmeats together We only epeak of laminated safoty glass when the laminated unit fultis certaio requiromonts concerning the adhesion and ‘poring of broken pieces. If his is not ihe cease, then tha glass is meraly designated laminated, ‘The properties ofthe (usually) transparent intermediate leyors cen be controlled to a ‘reat extent but normally high nigiaty 1s covpied wih a decraaee in impact resis: tance and nence the bonding of glass frac ments, The material most otten used as the Interayer in gmnated safety glass is polyviny| butyral (PVB). As this is a thermo- Plastic, the loedbearing behaviour of this material, and hence that of the laminated Unit, is very much dapencent on the dure tion of the load and the temperature of the component, ‘The original thinking behind the Introduction of laminated eafsty glass was to create = resioual stability after ine falure of a single pane, However, the bonding lends the a an in-bult loadbearing cepacity as escrited above, In Germeny taking such an effect into account i, in principle, no permitted, but a number of other countries, 1.9. Canada, make good! use of this scion tticaly proven fact - leading to more eco- omizal design. In partioular, overhead lazing consisting of laminated safety glass = mandatory in Germany ~ would banefit fiom this effect (or by recognizing a shear transfer between the panas based on dure tion of load and temparature of component) a the thickness of ne glass could be recused, <) With edge seal ‘Two machanical effects are brought abou! by the edoe seal. Fret, this creates a sort of fat rolow box, which reacts far moro sensi twely to deformation of the supparing cor truction, ewist in particular, than a singla lao, Second, the ensuing cushion of ai ‘cts structurally ~ an advantage anc a dis- a2dveniage at the same time, Foy example, n insulating glasses its pos- sible to combine the ‘oacbearing ability by coupling the incividual panes via he enclosed air or goa. This ic called tho cathetar elfect and is based on the Boy'e- Meriotte Law, aocording to which the pro- duct of pressure x volume of the intervening ‘gae remains constant so leng as the tomper- ature does not change, The cathete: effect ig net affected by the speed of the load ‘application and 0 can be used for a whois series of design issues. (On the ether hand, wosther-elated proseure and temperature fluctuations 2s well es d\f- forances in the geograstical elttudesSetwoon factory and sita cause coneider- s2= emposed loads in hermetically sgaled 9 glasses, The maximum ieeshara -sssure oflerence can emount to more an 20 KNimé. although this pressure is sececed by the elasticity of the aystom, Sowever, these olmale loads are decisive eee dealing with small panes. large glass sse5 and large cavites. The stuetion = crse ctl with individual fixings becauea pe panes are rigialy connected at these goets and are subjectad to large restraint sess ‘Sebs with ribs and stifeners ence spans [in turn limited by the pane ‘soe5 a0)e to be manufactured of course| or “sore afisiont censtustions can be accom seated by combining fat slabs with ribs or ‘aifeners. The arrangement ofthe ribs Increases the depth of the component and fs the siresses in the slad ara influence by the reciprocal oF the square of the depth znd the deformations by the reciprocal of the cube of the depth this brings about a ‘rastic reduction n tne stresses In the com ponent and ite deformations. The type of Joint between rb and stab is crucial 10 the loadbearing behaviour. If forces cannot bo tiansferred across the joi, hen we have a slab on beams. Only a continuous transier cf forces ecross the joint creates the intecrel oadbearing effect of a ribbed slab. The cre- ation of a centinuoue foree transien, by way of achesive, weiaing or soldering, Is, how- ‘ever, relatively cificut, One very successful varlation Is the channe! shaped glass member in which nbs and slab are produced from one piece ol fat lass by hot forming (Fig, 22.35), “The advantages of this tyoe of construction Jong, uninterrupted spans, imple, additive assembly inulicieaf insulating sections, re primarly exploited for translucent glaz ing in industrial buildings. Up to now. trans- parent chennel shapod glass members have not been used vary frecuertly Trussed slabs In this type of construction the glass pane carries the campressive forces, the truss, provided in one or two axes, the tensile forces (Fig. 2.2.96). The truss is connected te the glass via prope or glass webs, I the truss Is placed cn both sides ot ine class pane, loads acting in ethar diraction oan bo Coariied. AN Interesting solution for a one sided trussed pane has baen used by Robert Danz (Fig. 22.87 and exemple pp. 208-200), Here, panes of laminated sefety glass were used in conjunction with a ‘russ of tonsion rode ans compression pests along one ex's. Eoth posts and truss ara atiached to the glass with incvidual frengs provieing a selrenchoved construction, The ‘compressive strasses sujparimposed on the bending stresses is beneficial forthe glass, provided no buckling problems are intro- duces. Supports [As glass panas are flat components, ts visable to identity the loading effects and 80 decide whether the suppor's are aifective in the plane cf the glass or perpendicular to it Fig. 22.58) a) In tne plane Lous: Sal-weight is the primary leading in the pane of the glass. & certain proportion of snow o° imposed loads can be induced tan- gortially, 2. parale! to the suriace, via fric- thon, ‘Supports ‘The most affective and simplest fixing is by way of coniact at tre edges of the panes, ‘mare or less alastic bearing strins mace {rom herdwooe, EPDM, sifeone or similar ‘matetial. These aro the classic setting ‘block. Individual fixinga aleo tranomt in plane forces generally via contact with tre Sides of their holes. Only clamped connec tions function without edge contact (Fig 2239) The siaticaly determinate in-plane support of the pane is acnieved, for an ecae sun: ort, by two relatively stif bearing strips (setting blocks) at th botiom edge. Latera’ digplacsment is proventsd by olantic apacer blocks at the sides (Fig, 2.2.40). The sup: ort must be incorpersted absouroly froe Irom any restaint because the pane is very stiff in ts plane and defermatiors in the sup- porting construction cannot be allowed to lead to uncontrolable restraint stresses, The same applies to panes with individual ‘nangs. Three supports are requirad for a statically detorminato arcangomort. Tho tines of action of ther reactions should not bbe paral and should nat intersect at ona polit Fig. 2.2.40), Structure! systems mr Rk, (5 al 22.25 Chanwalshened sgaca maroere 2257 Panetnssed on ane $08, Ges ootorer caste ral nthe Soh TelDesigning with glass ~ srength anc loadbeartig beraviour dk \ ll, ° | d 2252 Supports rates panes alehinplans, 8) parpendear Jeane oh once a} chon eta ar an df ila ree 2.2.40 tne supports 22.41 Siogotspirsendouste the pans of ne gB55 404 bb) Perpendicular to the pisne Loads: Acting perpendicular to the glass we nave Cletributad loads such as wind, snow, imposec loaus and, for sloping panes, part ff he selfaueight as well. llhave to be tuansterted to the supporting construction, Supports: Tha classic maens of fing holds the glass In placo by way o! a periphoral frame: a chase in the val, 2 frame with rebate, 2 two- ppart glazing bar. The forces are transmitted ia contact wh the flanks of the frame. Point fixngs. if used, follow exactly the ‘same princiale - via a frame encirsting the pole. Countersunk fixings are no different (Fig. 22.93), “Tos suppertis either continuous, along at local two opposite edges of the pane, 0° \with point tixings, via at least three single supports, Four or mare supports are also Teasioie because the panes are normally so fioxiple that deformations in the supporting construction pespencicular to the plane of the system can be absorbed by elastic deformations (Fig. 2.2.41), Plates Plates are understeod to ba flat structures ‘whose clmensions are large in two direc- tions and small in the other, thickness, irectian, Plates ars eubjectos to fero3e act ing i the plane of the element tst. In geo- metric tarms, they are avactly like slabs but are distinguisned by the direction of the action af the loads and, consequently. by @ considerably aifferent joadbeering behav ‘our characterized by exclusively axial ‘owes. A large aane of oless in the form of @ piste is relatively rare in Oulldings. Most of the panes in the internal and external fabiic of the building are primarily Iogda perpencic- ilar to the glass and hance the slab effects are entigal lor the design. Larger membars in which 2 pure plate effect present are testvicted to the longitudinal panes reteo- ated to the vole of glass beams. Even if a plate effect mainy occurs in conjuncton with a slab affect, it ie neverthalaes impor- tanto discuss and understand the plate offocton te own, Plates subjected purely to tension are the easiest group 10 deal with, The residual stability requirement damiends laminated safely glass consisting of et least two single panes in every case. The stress transfor in plates subjected to tension is of ‘course troublesome because apart from adhesives only point fixings of fretion-arip Connections can be considered. Pont hx ings alwaye lead to concentrations of stiesses 1 the load transfer zore and hence toa correspondingly inefficient use of mate flals. Therefore, troton-gilp connections along the edges are particularly advan tege0us for plates subjected fo tension in one cr two axes. Piates sudjected to comprostion in ono or two axes ave easily supperted; the forces aro transiorre® via contact (setting blocks. ‘are suflcient for small loads). However, the ‘compressive siresses lead oa siabilty problam in the plate. The pane sizes which may be used in these cases are severely restrictes by this problem, (Of course, Inthe light of tne resicual sta bility required for ¢ single pane, laminstec safety glass consisting of at leest two sin panes should be empioyed, ragarciess of the type of support Beams and girders In terms of thar geometry, beams and, in ther more massive foir, girders correspanc to the linger elements. In contrast to tha lat ter, however, beams and graders are sub- jected to bending, ‘We distinguish veween longhudinal and trangveree banding, cepensing an the rection oF fre toed, altough beth forms ‘can of course accu simultanscusly. When the load is applied eccentrically, the besm is also subjected to torsien, Fiat glass beams, glass tins Gloss beams are stressed similarly to the plates described atove. However. bending About the major axis places most ct the stress in the edges. In normal float glass the strength at the edge is genarally lover than in te nody of the giass. Thereiore, tough. ened class is usually employed. Atrough the tensile bonding ferces can be resluced by increasing the beem depth, a! the same tine this increases the risk of failure due to lateral buckling Very long glass fins must be made from sev- ‘eral parts, e.g. connectad by fiction jainte point fixings, In both instances fis ai ‘ull o use laminated glass (Figs 22.42, 2.2.45), 4A nigh residual stability can be achieved by Initiating & likely redistribution of forces in| the whale sysiom, e.g. by combining 2 facade Incorporating glass fins witn slender steel sections, Tha ‘Facade ville” designed by FER for the new terminal building at Charles de Gaulle Airport near Panis is ned by glass fine 12m high! Each of those com- prises three panes of toughened safely glass each 19 mm thick spliced together wit) clamping plates. This primary structure is supplemented by an extremely delicate stes| post-and-rail conetruction (Fig. 2.2.43}. A Fracture in the glass teacs to savere detor- ‘mations in the ayatery but, nevortholoee, theSolf-woight of the system plus an average wind load can atil be carriad. The oxtornal cantilevered edge is subjected to compres: sion under the efiecte of wind proscure. The problem et this pointis merely one of stabil ty not of strength. Therefore, the class fins are restrained via the norizontal cross ‘beams (rails), thereby leading to tre charac- teristic wave buckling shape, Glass beams with a compost cross-section Combining individual menolthic glass soc tions can produce very effective and stiong cross-sections. Using this idea It s possibe to fabricate |-sections or even box sections ideally suited to handling bending strossos (Fig 2.2.42), Such cross-sections not anly alio- ‘sate conciderably moro matoria’ to tho to sile zone but owing to their width aed ther substantially higher lateral bending strength, £208 Glassen wal an fin ih sel sectors Foyade vil, tern! buldng, har da Gaulle ber Pats. article ADP. Engle: PER ‘or rather their much greater torsional rigid- lly, aro far leae cuscoptbie to etobilly prob. Jems than the one-piece glass beam. ‘Composite glese beame ars suppertod on thrust bearings with contact vis ¢ curable elastic intermediate pad, by means of point fixings or iction-grip cornectiors, especial Iy in tne webs. leas beams combined with other matoriole It the brite glass, strong in compression, is complemontad by a custilo material with high tensile strength, then tre tensile forces present in the besm in the broken condi tion in particular can be safely carried. Ils only through this concept that many glass structures are possible at all. The glass essentially caries the compressive forces in the boam's comproscion zone ac well ac the tensile ano comoressive stresses In tne obs, Prastrossing tha glass section 22.44 Geer lass fis EU bist bling, Brutsls renin: Murai Engineer Warner Estek Ingenio Stustural systems Ergnests OowtusiMacarare 2.2.46 inswatng gass scare win oeaosurng gus fins, EU mista bung, Be Decblects pny Engen error Sebekngosiaus 105Desigring wan giass strength an loacbeering behaviour = 2248 Renfarcod lass beams al coe 1) rion mien 90° 2.247 Panes gmratad say ges Skye Fancver seantoste Sonle Parmer 2.248 Serauppeany dome w gasses, ‘Chara Ess, Pars. 406 Eninets AF NY ‘encbios it to retain loadbearing capacity ‘yen when cracked. Numerous design forms are possible 2.2.48), Tha most sigrificart of these are: pen beams consisting of giass tangles connected by way of individual fixings ‘with metal or hibre-rentorcac plastic wot~ tom chord. + Beams mace from itvee-ply laminated safety glass with a curved lower edge and a cable running na groove. + Beams with a curves lower edae and a strip of melal or CFP ~ seated on an intetmediate ‘ayer — as the tension mem- ber (as developed by the author). In this thied type the gloss webs aro not bonded to the tension mempar but simply laid on it The tensile lores is only anchered at the suppatts, Transferring these forces te the glass beam ("self anchored beam’) or ino he suopert (*supoorranchored beam") ‘requires special care. The verbal forces at the supports ere normally tenemitted into the supsorting construction via @ thrust teearng (contact via an intermediate pad) reverted trom overturning (orks bearing). ‘sholis Shell elements, lke the preceding loadbear- ing glass elements, are primarily subjected to mpiane ctrocses. We dietinguien Detwean pless elements which are in themselves curved and those which are fat but are jessernbled to form a curved surface (aceted surface) Curved glass Panes bart to form oylindere oan in some Instances carry much greater loads than fat anes, depending on the loading situation ‘Ona system oF cylindrical panes on curved ‘edge beams ws amployed in the glazing ‘designed by RFR forthe “Skywall” et Hanovar's Exhibition Grounds ~ the site of EXPO 2000. By teking account of the load: bearing shell affect, considerable savings ‘were able to be mado in tho glass thickness. ‘The glazing elements, 2.00 x 2.60 m, censist of laminated eatsty giass madi from two panes of 6 mm tloat glass. In the tasts to festablish residual stability. the use of non prestressed curved glass proved to b= extremely advantageous. The loacbearing effect stil remains fully fective oven if the alass is cracked. Panes bent in two planas aro aleo possible but only witn large Dending radi, The toad bearing effect is oven more favourable than with panes Dentin just one plane because in this case uneven loads can also be cartied as axial forces without bending. Hein Isler has already postulated the one-piece gia dome. Investigations into the loadbearing ‘capacity of "small dermes” with cracks ere being carried cut ot Stutigart University under the airection of the autror. Multipart glass shells Larger shalis made from glass elements have a radius of curvature which is very large in relation tthe size of ine elements. Therefore, these shells can consist of fat, faceted surfaces. The geometrical problem of the facating ie the came ae in the latices shes (se8 “Lattice shoals", p. 103) In giase-cnly chells the elements exporience relatively high compressive stresses such that only glass bricks or relatively thick. panes can 99 considered. Dames of cast glass bricks, banded to: (gether with mortar ust ike brickwork ane Only lant reinforced, were common in the ‘ast but loday have been lergely forgotten, "Prism glass” may only be used for con tuations in which the glace is nct consid- ered 10 carry compressive forces. Delicate sholle like the wavy eanopy in the "ws de Bollevile” (Fig. 2.2.48) cr tha dame over an fantrance foyer in the "Sharros Elysées” (Fig. 2.2.49), both in Paris are reritiea today. Such sholls have fallen vietim to stendard- ized glazing ades and. in the ond, cleo dic appeared from tocay’s construction scene bbacauee of their labour-intensive produc: tion, Inetead of the tll mortar beds, individual 9 ings can be used fo cornect the wiangular facets, with glued clipein brackets at the nodes. James Carganto” hes also devel ‘oped a similar solution. ‘Amazingly, shell constructions comprising thiek glass elements are really quite advan fagacue when it comes to stabily in the Cracked congltion or after suffering serious damage. Howavar. we stil have t00 Ite experience in this area. Tests cn this aspect were fist initated by the authors an Ben hard Sill using an oxporimontal arched airder. The compressive zone of the cable- trussed arch consists of @ special three-ply leminate (Fig. 2.2.50). Membranes of olass Membrane consiructions made from glass are without doubt highly seductive in both arcnitectural and engineering torme, ‘Apart For the special case of ine Nat pane subjected to tension, glass membranes ara ‘itfcut In oractice forthe following reesons + Glass elements subject exclusively to uni axial or biaxial tensile forces must always be treated very cautious'y owing to the ‘wide distibution of strenains, Tranolerring tensile forcos between two2250 Trusood gus arch tts x Ligh neighbouring paries Is currentiy only tea sible with indivicual fixings or clamoing lates. This leaus to stress congenira- tiors in the individual panes local tothe fixings. + The residual loadbearing capacity of can: vontional clase products, e.g, laminated safety glass, is no! adequate for high ten- ole sirensee, ‘structural systems fr lazing In the structural systems discussed below, the glass pane ie.na lange’ # primary com ponant but nstea integrated in a consiruc- tac of a higher arden, $2 the glass elearact conly Nas a local loadbearing function. The actual lasabeaning structure 1s mace trom steet, aluninium, timber, concrete cr, indead. another glass element. A mulitude of different constructon systoms can be developed on this basis. Typical structural aystemie are presented in the following, clas sifed depending on the loadbeering benav- iour of the primary structure. The reader is reletred to the preceding sections for datails fof the structural beheviour and the rasicual stability of secondary, or rather, sutordi- nate, glazing elements or loadbearing class ‘components contriauting to the ayatern Stuctural aystame subject to bonding Most fagates ana root glazing systerrs have 1 sirueture consisting af mambers spanning vertically andior Horizontally and subjected (grstustres, stag, 10 bending, The beems span from storey to sioray, from flear to ceiling, between to vail plates oF bebieen Iwo independent balding segments ~ generally between wo ‘supports, These two supports are slweys somewhat resilient er movable. In adaition, the beame slongate under tho affects of ‘emparature and s0, i they are to remain foe from the loads imoosad by cetorma: tions ip the supcorting construction, they should not he restrained Only in rare instances are restrained sup: ports possible for glass elements. In the nor ‘mal situation, bearings ara placod at one fend wich can move teely n the axis of the bean Fig, 2251). Se'f-supporting. soanning verticalyy In the simplest case of a short span, glass ‘panes can support themselves across the ering. This is the case with stendard slocey eights and direct supporis on the flocre, The glazing unite are either support 4 vertically (an setting books) or suspend from thair upper adgas by means of clamgs er point fixings, The suspended var ation is more involved bul structurally better because it avcids the self-weight of re Glass Incucing comprassive strasses end the encuing atabilty probiome. Ganer-ally Speaking, it must be remembsred that adja floors dafact dffercatly. Therefore, the glass must be provided with a sliding bear~ ing top or bottom, depending on the tyne of fixing, Structural eystoms 2 Setaupeacing, ‘ereatyprestessoc Varta bean acs Verte teams wit croeeteor (peat ‘nda 2201. Sructaalestens subject Iptnsing 107Designing with glass ~strength and loadbearing behaviour Cab russes hand winoutcampresson ‘hor. grar ang alles boam 22.8 Cabs ruse wih campression chr, Pare Arce CGircsn Pare avctect Pat Bergor 2.2.4 Horsontl beam 2.258 Stltauoperting lee curainvall Av Nortiane ers. archiects Enston, Ohiman, Vida, Popes 108, Vertloal ibe Longer spans are backed up by vertical ‘ibe, The rite only carry loads perpendicular tothe plane of te glass (wind), in-plane loads (salt-weight and bracing loads) are carried by the glass panes themselves. ‘The panes are now sugported on ‘our sides, wih the aoknowledged structurel acvan tages. Consequenty, longer glass formats can 90 incorporated without hor zontal intar- ruptions. Very tal panes are suspended. Vertical beams (pasts) Ir the glass pangs are interrupted harizont- ally (butt joints), then the in-plane loads myst also be cerried by the vertical beams, So the selt-veight of each pane is trans: farred into the suspended or freestanding beams, “Typical forms of consteuction for vertical beams are Solid timber oF concrete sections Hollow or raliad matal sections Girdere Cable tusses spanning between the Upper and lower supports (Fig. 2.2.52), ‘Owing to the (normally large forces which acour, pertioulaly figio suprot aurangements are required. Both a (wing) suction cable and a (wind) pressure cable ere necessery, although these can 'b2 posttioned almost at random in ala tion #2 each other in the plare of tho uss. The suction and pressure cables are linked by perpendicular members ich, depencing on the configuration ccan be loaded exclusively in tension or ‘compression or alleinate between the ‘wo. Cable trusses with integral sompreacion chord. In this selt-anchored construction the supports are not loaded by the pre- tensioning In the cables because this is routralized’ by the integral compression chord (Fig. 2.2.53). The cables them ‘selves arp held clear of the compression conerd by sareadera, vhich con bo thin ‘owing to their short encth. Rotation about the truss axia, which could also bo inter~ preted as iaterat bucking, Isto b= pre Verted by tying into the plane of the glass, which must be designed accore- ingly. ce other measures. When the baams de net fe in the lane of the lage Out instead are positionsd in Font or behing, 2s is trequenty the case with tre ‘able trugces above all, the self-weight of the glass is usually carriec ty an addtional fixing (hanger). The wine loads are thon rrensmitted from the pane to the bears via membars capable of taking tension and “The solf-supporting glass curtain wall func- lions, in structural terms, exactiy lke the: lass wall hung on cables. However. the gass here functions 2s a pilmery loedbea’ ing component and must theretore be Icoked ai viflerenty with roapoct te ealety aspects [Fig. 2.2.95) Vertical beams with cross-beams ‘Vary wvide pane formats recuie the insertion of ransoms to support the setting blocks an¢ sealing. Ths isthe olassic post-and:rail construction, The transom lead to a hor- zontal coupling se that expancion joints need to be provided at larger spacings. The segments of tll facades also reque in plane bracing, particulerly (lateral wind foreos (acting on external re, wind Wistion 226 ) oF eartnqueke loads are expecta Horizontal beams Ii the horizontal spans are so large that t panes need to be further subdivided, we no Jonger speak of transoms but instead of nor zontal baame (Fig. 2.2.54). These have ‘0 cary rot only wind joads but ther own wwaight and thet of tha panes as well, and these beams deflect as a resull, This prob- lem of the beams deflecting about their ‘minor axis can be avoided by suspending the beams at ons ar mare points. ‘Apart from the affacta juet menticnsd, beams spanning horizontally anc vertically sve otharwiee identical, Theratora, al the forms of constructor outina” above can also apniy to horizontal bearns. Froos Beams can be emitted Kem this tye of co> Suction. The orizental forces trom tne panos are trancmitted inte other parts of the building, usually the flbors, via props cape ble of taking tension end compression. Tre loadbearing components are now no longer ‘the usual beams in the plane of the olazing butinstead @ core daoe within the building, sear walls or similar, In this form of con ruction tho sat-weight of the panes ie either carried by rangers o: ine panes them: salves, euspanded from above. Supposting the sell-welght of the gangs trom below Is not recommended owing to the associates compressive stresses in the panes Arches ‘arched structures are often used for root glazing, sorotimes for facados 2¢ well eve t00, the loadvesring elements span ‘eetivgan two “oanks” but have rigid sup- pots, or abutments, on both sides. Mover ‘ments in the supporting construction or ther: ‘mal expansion in the glazing are catered for by the arched siruciure detorming slantly under lone,hol etruetures Sholls are thin-walled, curved structures \ihioh carry thair own weight as well as ‘external loads almost exclusively Inthe form ff axial forces in the cental axis the shell ‘This leads to optimum use of the material, Banding siresses, which should always be ‘avoided owing to their structural inofficien cy, always crop up in the area of local force tranefere, i.e, algo at tre supports, In the fo: ‘owing aiscussion, a shellis to be undar- stood as a structural systom curved in tare. Gimensions and subjecied 10 compression, Tho ‘shalls” carying tensile forces are act.- ally membranes and are dealt with in the rnaxt section. Shells may be bent along a single avi (2.9, cylindrical or two axes (e.0. spherical}. The type and extent of curvature are usually described by specitying the Gaussian our vature k = 14(R x Ph) (Where Ry and Ry are the main radii of curvature) Lattice sells Alatiice shell can be regarded as a shell with an accepiably high rumber of lerge openings but where the craracteristio shell Jcadbearing behaviour is not impaired. Ira lattice shell is faorcated irom seperate sireight pieoees, than it must be feacible establish the Stell Icadbearing beraviou: through the type of mesh and type of node Joints. This normally leads to scuare-mesh systems with ane diagonal brace in every bay capebie of taking tension and cempres- ‘sion, or Xebracing for tension only it dkag- ‘onal members are undesirable, then tha nodes must be designed 10 resist bending. ‘This leads to a mare elahorate constuction Dutal tne same time a structure which is less effective then those with diagonal orac- ing. Such forms are thus more popular for shorter spans. Inrecent decades a number of glazed comes nave been bull as frames with gle Joints, Le, 2¢ shelle without diagonal brac- ing. Most of these employad stee! for the supporting canstruction, The glass retainers made from aluminium, resulting in the “couble-decker” form typical of these de- signa, Of couree, this double-decker arrengement has the advantage that the alu- minum sections can be manufactured ‘0 lighter tolerances than those sual for con- ventional steal fabrications, High-arecision glass consiruciion Is thus possible on low- precision steslwork, But everything has its pico: in this casa the oneuing structure is distingty more massive in aopearance Itwas not until the 19803 that the building Industry belleved sat capable ot tabricat- ing and erecting loadbearing steelwork with the accuracy necessary to carry the glazing directly viaa plaste: joint Fig. 2.2.56 Jorg Schlaich in particular has pushed back the bounderias cf glass construction. His net domes — lattice eholls with ertculatae noges and X-bracing madte rom thin cables = can be manufactured with euch high ar. clsion that the glazing can be laid cirectly fon the steahwork with just an EPOM bearing fox the glass. The high degree of standard ization [all the straight members are ident- ical) and the simple erectian led to inexpen- sive solutions for constructions with complex: ‘geomatyy. Slender straight members and thn cables became possible, and glazing bars, customary at that time, could alzo be omitted, leecing to uncommonly deicate constructions Cylindrical lattice shells curved about one axis or those over lang spars sufler from stability problems |buckiing) which cannot be solved without adeltional measures, Cable-trussing or guying is one possible solution. As long ago es the first naff of the 20th century Viagimir Suchov wae able to avequately brace unbelievably slender ting beams to glazed oarrel-vault shells by means of cable guys (Fig. 2.2.50). In rooing-over an inner cour! in Hamburg, Jorg Schleich was able fo increaee the leadbearing capacity of a barrel-vault shallin a similar Yashion oy using an arrangement of pre sttessed cable “spokes” (Fig. 2.2.58) “Trussed or guyed configurations for shells curved aboul lo axes are cf coulse also possible Designs employing rotational or trarslational arees made from square facats are com: mon, Even fre0 goometricsl surfaces cen sometimes be described with square facets, although these are only eemauterized mod) ‘ls af present Otrerwise, triangular facets must ba used, Very elegant architecture! sclutions ~ also without diagonel bracing — are feasible, ‘especially for lattice shells with shorter spans, provided the nodes ere designed as sufficiotlyrigic, The dome over tho banking hall ofa bank in Hanover is @ good example (ig, 2.2.60). Tha autnor designed this lat- tioa shell which all the components are mad from spheroidal graphite fron and are Joined merely by screwing together neds ‘and members ~ and erected without scal~ folding. The inovlating glaes was laid direct ly on the iron with onty an EPDM pag between. Retaining plates on the outside ‘secure the panes agains! wind up Polorancu: Schlach 1892 Structteel systems 2.250 Glaring paces deel cnt od onetulon seopp. $10938 2257 Glazed ret, Weutairpark, Dorn renee Ke Doegh and ot consti Weer Seeek ngstioue t 22:50 Catie-guyedarch, Machmery Hal A-Rusia Esnbiton, 1206, asin Sichor 2250 Catle- 5 mm the long-wave UY radiation is also completely absorbad, This effact manifests itself in the eoretruetion andi eparation of large green- houses because the LV radiation, besides Its biological influence, is aleo 2 natural opnenent of pests. On the ather and, even just a small proportion of UV light behind the pane can bring about raterial changes ke bieaching and embritiement. One of the elements in the composition ef glaes whish is responsiple fo the absorobon and hence reduced tranemigcian of eolar raciation ie Iron oxide (Fe,0,); this gives glass ts green tinge and ie responsible, in particular, lor the dip in transmittance around 1000 nim, ‘ene den vataton| [nen] re My 1b 08 weongih) jon 10 23:1, Surniedzed rove special ssrnuten of i soar adatom opin 410 Ingen tween) a es [oh Became ce) Wave um) 25.2 Eya snaiotyarlnestaetienin sermparsonto tne slr sneenun 113Glass ena ener “Tonsmitance [6 100 © 0] 200, 7000 2x eon —iom ‘Wavstenat em one tomm 29. Spook! enamesin for various! laa Hi reason wan average Fa03 contort cf C108, ‘The cures show he ols fronting wth hight. ‘riesonin hovisbiarange reduced ranemiscon i he feat teed ange ene cpaqueress he nga ieared wre ‘Thera atin an tensmstion stand 26007 {uraspencs othe Past radaton oi abody a £00. “This tuseaes te fire croblem ofa oss partion hich [caqushvtand as precdod he empire ofthe ‘Soon fall eeu tae ebove TO0C athough in host ‘esate byte re, gonoraly n0098 01 30°, con pase iecopnine close ar ead io spotanea.s ean ‘on thecine ade Transmission 10, be a0 20 30 Wavelength) 234 Specta a vaiousFe,0, conten 14 ‘construction physics Reducing the proportion of Fej03 lower absoroton in the alass and thus gives rise toa higher taromiscion. This ie particularly noticeable in the range of visible light, which ie why low-ron giass possassas a Figher optical ransparency, Fig, 2.3.4 shows the sum cf the radiation permeability for te soler spectrum with diferent Fe:0s con- ents, Glasses transparent to UV radiation for therapeutic purposes, e.g. in health resorts, can only be realizes wits float glass Abeolutely tree from iron oxide or with quartz glass. Daylight ransmission The transmission of visible radiation ~ called daylight ~ through the glass, with wave- lengths from 380 to 780 nm, plays @ det sive role in illuminating 2 room, in addition to the size of the windows. The arrangement of the window openings end the reflectivity of the interior surfaces are responsible for the distribution of fe light Light transmittance is the key value ere, It should not be for gotten that aver visible radiation isa form of ‘nergy and, when absoroed, is converted 10 heat radiation Light transmittance + (to DIN 67507) The light transmitence or optical trans parency is a meesure of tne pronertion of Uelble radiation directly penetrating the glass in the range of visible light (@80— 780 nm| and is related to the sensitivity of the human eye, Light vansmitiance is sxpressad as 2 percentage and is nfiu= onoad by the thickness of tho glass as well as ather factors, The ight tansmitance should be chosen bearing in ming the build- Ing function and the internal environment in frcir to comply with DIN 5034 and the Places of Woik Act. increasing the arse of the windows is an altemative. This value s ‘eepecielly important inthe context of solar Control glass because aiazinc used as pro. feoton aganst the eun ehoula exhibit a low g-value but a hig? light transmittance in order not to have to replace the sun's bright ess with electiciy for artificial lighting. Owing to thase differences in the transimis- sian of the tola radiation spectrum and the art occupied by vise light, a cistinciion igmade temeen the light tranemittance and energy transmitence when describing a type of glace: Radiation tranomittence ‘The tadiation transmittance ey, also krown ‘93 energy traremitarce, describes tha pro: fFofton of scar radiation which passes Cirectly through the glass and is related to the total solar spectum. A simplification assumed here, which deviates from tha ‘2ciual relationships, is that the speciral dis- ‘ributian of the total solar radiation is unre. Iatec te the sclar alituds angle end tho ‘atmospheric concitions, ¢.g. dust, fumes, vwater-vapour content, and that the total ‘solar radiation sirkes the lass as a beam and almost perpencicular To'al energy transmittance o (to DIN 67507) “The g-value Is the total energy transmitted In the range of wavelengths from 300 to £2500 nm. This variable is important for HVAC calevialions andis expressec ss a porcentago. The valus is made up of the tirect transmission of solar raciation and the heat emission from the radiation absarbed by the glass in the form of heat radiation ‘and sanvection towards the inside. Radiation balance transmittance, reflectance, abcorptance) ‘ASino eneray can be lost from the total sys- tom, the balange of the inewdent anergy must be able to be resolved matnerratically Accerdingly. all the energy incidant an @ ‘pane of glass either passes through (vans- rmittance), is turned back (rellectance) of ‘ebserbed by the meterial and converted Into heat (absorptance), The heated glass rslaases ite srergy again into ts surround Ings in the form of heat radiation and con- vection. Fig. 2.3.8 illustrates tha belance for the two wavelength ranges, taking a 4 mm float glass pane as an example. It shows thet wansmitance varies over the spectrum, caused by varying absorptance and fafleatance, and therefore, for leat gles too, $ diferent ior ne total range of solar radiation ond ths part cccupied by visible light. The consequence: the “greenhouse eifect™ “The consequence cf the spectral depend- ency of the trensmitance ef lleat glass causes the greenhouse effect, Hig? levels of short-wave solar radiation aro able to anter the interior tough the glass. Onca side, t is partly abeorbso directly and partly retiect- ed to be absorbed by other surfaces. Pert of the radiation can also be reflected back Uhrough the glass ang out ofthe room as short-wave radiation. The absorbed soler radiation ie converted into neat st she our face oj the body subjected to tne radiation. Hosaver, the body reacts to this rise in tom perature by emitting long-wave heal racha- tion, some of which also stikas the glass, ‘here much Is abscibephand some reflectGlass properties elevant to energy issues and constuction physics ed. As a comparison, the heat flows excited by radiation entering the room are inthe rogion of 590 Wim? of glase, whereas the heat losses out of the room for a 20 K aitler- fence are merely 120 Wim of glass. This shows thatthe Interior heats up under con: ditions of intense sunshine - the graennouse eifect Fig. 23.6), ‘The increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere orought about by the burn: ing o! fossil fueis reduces, by way of ab- sorption, the long-wave reraciation of heat from the Earth into space. This causes the greenhouse effect or global warming. Solar radiation heats up the Ear, fossil energy sources continue to be released, which heat up the Earth's surface even more and, simultaneously, transmission of lng-wave radiation decreases so that the alrosphere becomes cpaqua fo heat radiation. In ection to those alreacy mentioned, the following terme are aleo significant Selectivity ‘This is the ratio ofthe light transmittance to the total energy transmittance. For sotar- control glass this figure indizates the suc- ‘cess of the combination of desired high lignt traremittance with (ow totsl energy transmit tance. A nigh selectivty, €.g. a ratio of 2:1, represents a goed figure, 8 plonty of light ‘and ttle neat Shading ccetficient b |to VOI 2078) The shading coefficient or b-lacter spectiies the ratio of the g-value of a particular glaz Ing to the g-valve of a stancard couble glaz- ing unit Tha g-value of this insulating glace Is Laken 10 De 2 constant of 80%. This new reference replaced the old 3 mm single glazing standard (g-value 87%) in Octeber 1008, oldb= 9/08 newb=9/0.80 Colour rendering indox Ry (to DIN 6180) Golour rendition immensely important for physialoical behaviour as well as psycho- logical and aesthetic sensations, The colour of aroonis influenced by the alteration of ‘ne spectral composition ofthe inceming dayioht. Thereiore, the R, D-value ‘dessribse the colour recognition indoors under daylight conditions; the Ry R-value assesses the colour rendition on the viewing side, ‘The colour rendition quaities of a glass are Uelermined by the colour rendering index fo DIN 6189, TheR, scale reaches a max- ‘mum of 190, although the maximum figure possible with glass is 99, Normally, Fy > 80 toprecents excollont colour reneiton; Py = {80s good. It shuld be noted that tne real ccolcur rendition depends on the viewing angle, wile the definition avove takes place oxer en array of various radiation peaks. This ean lead to colour distortion when view- ing irom the sige, evan when Ay > Sia speciied Al the previous statomonts regarding trans: ‘mission apply 10 radiation incident perpen- diculer to the surface: radiation striking the glass al an angle produces optical mouificas ‘ions. Retraction if Deam of ight in « medium (e.g. a) sttikes the bouncary layer between that and another medium (e.g, glass) ata cartain ange, then part of the beam is reflected at fn equal angie and the ramaindsr pane= ‘rales the oiner medium wht a change in direction (refraction). Upon passing from the opticaly thinner medium of air tothe optically thicker med ium of glass, the oeam is rafracted towards the perpendicuir, .e. tha angle of reirac: lion is lees than the angle of incidence Fig. 2.8.1, 0. 179), Upon leaving the glass the ft angle is larger, The reiraciive index is @ variable specitic to the material. In ting with this thare is a critical angle for every pair of materials; beyond this angle the total bean is refracted to such an extent that, when passing from a thicker to a thinner material, the beam is prevented from leaving the material. Ths eansition ie knawn 28 tetal ‘ellection, AS comparison, the refractive index of flat glass is 1.52, water 1.33 and diamond 2.42, ‘The relationship betwesn transmission end tho engl of incidence ia shown in Fig. 2.3.8, 1.116, using the examoles of single and multiple glazing, Furthar parameters for uncoated glass Emissivity 0.85 This variable describes the ability of raleas- ing energy in tha lorm of rectation, In com= parison, an ids! sreray-omitting bod, known as a black body, nas an emissivity of 41.0. Blaes is opagus tc long-vave radiation, but ¢ warm glass surtace emits heat very cfficently. The upper layers in the glase sur- face, consisting of alkaline and earth alka line oxides (electrical insulators), are responsible fer the emissivity. Thormal conductance 1 Wink (to CENTG 88, Annex B) “Tha thormal conductance 2. spacifies the heat flow which passes through a certain ‘meterial thickness (in m) for a temperature ciflerence ol 1 K between inside and our side. If we compare the thermal conduc- tance of glass with structural steel grade 38 (75 Wim) ce mneral woo! (0.04 Wink), then wa seo that although the voluo lee rele: tively low, s9en in conjunction wih the typ Vise it Ye tte ver erweven Diet me "anamisson 0% Secondary envasion| [Secunda enssion aniéansctan| — [anacemscion les = Direc ans pcien ge ence s a ~ lee Secondary eniagon | | Secondary aniston ‘nd sowveston |_| Sndconvacton 25 Enaray ad divight balance fora 4 mm oss pane oF 3K 238 The goamosso atect | 415Glass ana energy ~ construction piysios . SR he Bie a ees o 287 Pefactinofabean ata gas astacewihtte ‘uation ater Snliss “teneneson ons fustin ofthe angl fidence Pctinatenemsson egenst angie of nedenca gos the ‘lowing cores for single and Joie glcing Nubile Fatman mie gas have bok ten no aceaun > © nol oe 2:38 Tha latensip etawen varsnision ard angle 1 nedanse for 1,2. anda panes of et oss 116 coal thicknesses used, @.g. 4 mim, we arrive at a very high specitic heat flow of 250 Wimk, Go giate cannot be callad an Ingulating materal. The insuleting eftact ‘which occurs with single glazing is purely the outcome of me thermal resistances of the glass/sir transitions on beth sides: this esulls in thermal ransmilance value of BB Wink Thermal expansion 9.0.x 10° VK ‘This o tho change in longth and volume of a body upon the application of neat. The ther= ral expsnsion i an impertant parameter ‘when using glass in conditions of fuctueting temperatures. The average linear castticient of expansion 0 is specified in VK and repre sents the change in se per un length for a temperature rise of 1 K. The volumetic coefficient of thermal expansion B cen be roughly calculated from 8 x a. A comparison with the thermal expansion oeraviow of thar building matoricls shows that steal (11x10 17K) and conerete (@ x 10 17K) are vary similar, thus permitting composite ‘corsiructions under consitians 0! fluctuating temperatures. ‘Specific neat capacity 840 J/cok Tis is the amount cf heat required to raise the temperature o! 1 Kg of @ supstance by 1K. Ag a mineral material, glass lies in the ‘same region as steel (800 Jag) and con crate (880 Jka) but way behind water (4180 J/kg}. This value is interesting for larger pane thicknesses because (this, ‘caee the inatia of the group of panes cen ‘come into olay. Derkatb ofthe aquatic: Di dtoa bert # an CENTCRG Anos B areal ‘Reale ot ane Hatvear 6" an 0" Taine nT Wik ‘nem w= zanenrk Fe Thatta tr 4 nensnge lang wlhirtmal Eotosoreaince Ry Ayes 0004 m4 Wink 9.01 KAY Hence Rg= P+ Re O13 +0004 = 004 = 1 Uar= hy B78 HI ‘Syn. Mis incos alin ass ease be heat fan exeonde ne ragaton escrsnge ih arax. Wine fran enssuy of 1€5.On eoutsde he eer mira ositarees v9) mic cepard on Ihe wins eptad, hough re consncion parca 2 ovelad ith bain by moans cha olowing ‘quai star Waa 177) tga 2be 304 ¥ me) comms) “Thormelinsuiation ‘The thermal Insulavon (unetion of glass as it separatas two climates, 2.9. inside and out side, fs based, ike an opaque wall, on the thermal resistance of the material anc the resistances of the transfer at the surfecee. AAS oless conducts heat relatively aticienty, inoroased racistance must bo achieved by introducing several ayers wth spaces between, Conclonsation and frost on single glazing are the signs of as low thermal esis- tance, Unvalve (Ho prEN 693) The thermal transmittance (U-value) is the key parameter for determining the heat loss through a component, The thermal tranernit tance specifies the amount of neat which passes trreugh 1 méof a camponentin 1's fora temperature aifleence o! 1 K between inside and outside ak, Tne lover the U-value ime), the better Is the thermal insulation otiect. For glazing, the thermal resistance and hence the Neat flow throueh this component 's determines by the thermal conductivity of ‘he glass as well as the 10 external surface resistarcee, Tho sum of the individual resie- ranees gives the thermal transinission resis- ‘ance! Heat loss via convaction itis importent hore that the valus calcula ‘ed apply to a combinec thermal transter, lie include convection and radiation-related heat fows.*| “Tow equator apie oan anita area. er rupions ever as erojestans ac canfaaae lect Tedelons inthe fous bit algo boa uausroe Near he adoo ofa virco can resaltin oss est tender tha pana peceras colon bacauso loss eat fetoving em he eid tothe eco alae ear 152 Ta [Fomesietre ink iy tami afte Svinak Fornanyieareautain a ky feroerahoo of Bar 6K (247O} 1 an awIN eMpeate of CC [er2k)-thsenows at expect fr pongo oss sutaces acing en ay, ighrscision Jase ozcurvnh cua ses. Fer# COU) Sx, 30 ‘Aieapetemmurstra tunel arate ced Give den port tempertce fe eral as te ‘opens fe caste feous coves,Hoat lose vie radiation ‘The radiation portion on the cutside very much dapende on the heat radiation of the ‘opposing emittar, in this case the sky. vith clear skies this heat radiation can be defined via ficilous sxy temperature which, according ‘0 Swinbank, can be cal- ‘ulatec from the ambient temperature with @ iar sky.> This results in an spproximate heat flow of 4.8 Wink for radiation :owards the sky. Therefore, on 2 clear night, i.e. in the absence of stior-wave solar radiation, the heat flow into the sky can he 144 Wine (ambient temperature 0°, pane surface temperature 5°C). Ifwe assume a wind speed of 1 rr/s as woll, hen the convection heat flow is 29 Win, with a high U-value insufficient heat continuss to 02 supplied from tha inside, then tne surtece tempera tue drops. For wal-insulated panos this can mean faling to below the ambient tempera ture, whereupon condensation or frost may ferm on the outer pane, Roof windows wih low Unvalues can be permanently iced up during gloomy wenter weather. On the other hand, higher wind speeds can in this stu- ation lead to convection gains as the wind fans wermer air across the cold sur‘aces, ‘The racietion logsee oan lees to cancenca tion appearing on ins insides oF less well- insulated glazing when the surface tempera ure crops below the dew point temperature of the interior. This can often be seen in the reofs of aingle-glazed conservatories, Equivalent hermay wansinitano® ke, Imarder to assess how glazing might con- trioute to supplementing the interior heating by solar radiation, Hauser and Reuvel intio- duged the netion of equivalent thermal Transmittance ka», The reduction deoands on the colar radiation availaole, anc hence tne onentaton, and tne total energy trans- mittance g of the glazing.’ + hag hfase8) wee ‘Uru of lasing alongs tarsritarece © fasion gain ependieg on osanaton sastiea sawimik Pant wink Glass properties relevant to energy Issues and constuction prysics The equation shows the close relationship between the belanced equivalent thermal ‘ranemitense end the material properties, Hosever, a reduction i the U-value for a {glazing unit coss not racesearily lead to. ‘ower equivalent snermal transmittance |Fig. 2.5.85) Improving thermal insulation ~ ingulating glass ‘Two or more single panes may be placec one oahind the other in order ‘0 improve ine ‘thermal resistance of a glazing unit; this Introduces insviating cushions of al between each pane. Fig, 22.9 shows the heat tanslet mecharisrs via pane and ‘edge for an Insulating glass unit. The heat llowis civided up into convection and cone duction inthe air gap and radiation ‘xchange botwaen the panes. The intornal sUace resistance of a layer o! air Gepends on the soacing of the pangs and position of the cavity, and for ar reaches a minimum value at 15mm This represents an optimum compromise between suppressing cenvec~ tion, because convection increases as the gap widens, andi conduction, which deoreases as the gap widens. This velue drops agsin at gaps exceeding 80 mm. This, Is why coupled wndons exhibit slignty pet {er thermal transmittance values. The adge ‘seal of msulating glass ~ ine siatic connec tion detween the danas ~ represents 2 ther- ‘mal ridge and contributes te heat vansport by way of conduction, The U-value for olaz~ ing contisting of tuo parce of 4 mm float glass separated by a 15 mm caulty $2.8 Wiek. The U-value of the very common countersash wincow wih openaole cavity Is highar than the values tor insuising glass toning to the non-airtight separating layer and air gaps of 25 mm ar more which lead to noreesad convection. Consequences when using insuiatng giass In order to avoid condensation probioms ~ ‘and the resulting cleaning difficulties ~ in sealed! cavities, the spacers in modern edge seals are provides with hygroscopic materi- als, 0.9, zeolitas, which absort the moisture of the trapnec, diffusing cevity sr. Provided ‘nese moisture atssorvers are not damaged, ‘hair capacity ie adequate for ho lifetime of the glazing ~ 30 ~ 35 years. “The airtight sealing of the cavity af insulating glass ~ i's not e vacuum! ~ means thet die ferancas in altituce exceeding 500 m between production plent and place of use ‘must be teken into account, This is particu- lanl relevant owing te the influence of ar spressure and tha “pumping” action of ha ‘group of panes (s09 “Bowing and dishing of insulating glass panes”, p. 84). I, (01 exar- eat tanspor by oy 2. Carveaton | acne ona fting > 385 4. Ege set 283 ost varspot in nusting lass 23,0 Dostnatne lr inevatng ges zat phe test for deterring the ayers 47Glass and energy — construction physics 2012 Comparison sf uncoated nsletagard oe ass Frpsol ges Uvako quate Licht * 7 fananitance 6 Ceca 2a 8 a ieouasng glass _ Lbreges ists 7 Lowe gass sith oating soit coatng Tey Tay Fst gla Resa re or 1 O Pie 8, 4 eons oe 2219 Radaton bance o:snele gens 2014 Baling concept empeyigiows single ‘Baan fr ne outer oneoope 18 le, the location of the inculating glass pro ‘duction plant lias several hundred metres above the place of inctailation, then high- pressure waather could mean that large ‘panes might actually came into contact (in the middle), ard this must be allowee for. This redues the insulation effect and spots ‘of condensation can appear on the inner side of the pane uncer certain ambient can- ditions, Besides thia thermal infuonce, deformations (bovnavaishing} caused by pressure dilferencas ale cause optical and acoustlo changes, Thicker glass does reduce such deformatans bur places @ agleater load on the edge seal Further improvements ~ sevarai panes and coatings Iw ook st the propertions of tne diferent hat transfor mashanisms (Fig. 239, p.117), then itquicily becomes clear that to reduce the thermal transmittance further tho radiation transport must be minimized. ‘Triple glazing fufils ins requicement due to the decrease in the temperature difference between the opposing radiators. This is because the inner, tarm pane only ex changes radiation with the central pane and rot directly with the outer, cold pane. Triple lazing using float Gass nd two 19 mm ‘auities achieves 2 U-value oF just below 2.0 Wim'k, The reduced losses mean that solar radiation causes the central pane to heat up quite consiceradly: to avoid irecture ‘due to thermal expansion, this pane 18 nor- mally made from toughened sless (Coated insulating glass for increased ter ral insulation Surlace coatings with thicknesees of 0.01 ~ 7 um can improve the physical radiation propertes of glace. Tho radiation tranemis. Sion Is reilecied or absorbed, 2, he emis Sivily Ip rocuced, depending on the thick- ness and compesition of the coating. The position ofthe coating is also important as this can bring about various refractve effects or release the absorption gains into the room orto the outside dapending on the direcion of the raciation, Possible coatings fare eputtarad noblo motals, 0.9. copper, sil ver, gold, or semiconductor or pyroitically- sprayed semiconductor coatings, €.9, tip oxide, The slver- and gold-colouted ion-e ‘asses of the 1970s have today been Superseded by opiicelly reutral coatings whose aosttion is aniy disclosed by the lighter test (2ee Fig. 23.11, p. 117). Tho reflection with a diferent colour - compared to the othor thrae — reveals ths coating, Increased thermal insulation andl meximum solar gain is provided by giving the inner pane of Insulating glass an |Perefiecting (low-e) coating at position 3. Fig. 2.3.10 {o. 117) shows the standard designations {or insulating lass. A properly applied ‘ove coaiing lowers the radiation from the inside component to tha cold outer pane. Simultaneously, the g-value is optimized vie the usable secondary neat emission oF the increased absarplion in the costing on tho inner pane. Ancther festure of this Is tat the {otal onorgy tranemitiance alters for the ‘same glazing depending on the orientation of the inatallation. Accordingly, the g-value ofa readily available low-e glass decreases from the 65% of the arrangement with lowe «at position S to 56% when the coating is movad to position 2. This 9% in absolute terms is indeed 18% in relative tarms, which is why lovee olass is given a siamo such as “This side inward" atthe factory ‘The effect on the inermal transmittance ot an insulating glass with air filing and low-2 coating at position 3 shown by an auprox- imate calculation > “The deviation between the real and the- ‘retical U-values of an insulating less with lovr-e eating (eleo known as heat adsorb Ing glass) is due 10 the Insulation increasing temporatixe differences betweon tho panes, altnough this does in turn increase the con ection and the radiation exchange ‘These Improvements can eniy be accom plished through reducing the tatal eneray transmittance (Tab. 2.8.12), The lowe coat: ing absorbs part of the solar radiation which ean ne langar by gained, ever via sec. cnaary neat emission, The light ensrit- tanea ig also diminished Lowemissivity coatings an single glazing Scratch-ressstant coatings, also known a8 hare coatngs, are also available on angio glazing. Mese are cenceived for upgrading single. glazed windows o° replacing single layers in countersash windows. Like with the ‘considerations above, the Llevalues can ba virtually halved if attention is paid to the sealing of the cavity, ‘nother applicetion of this innavatve single Glazing is fs usa as such in rooms wits mini= ‘mal heating. Tha insulating effect thorsby achieved is based on the radiation into tne sky deseribac above. On stil, clear nights in Insuatng gass wimeutcsatne (7 seradiaton ate us2a wine "ereciatonate = 0.1 2 nek 23% vacenecion “oem ial 1.18 Wine fel ULTOIWin Kfparticular, tha thermal losses fram the aud- side of a glazing unk are to a large extent based on radiation losses to the sky. Low- ted pane temperatures and hence conden sation on the inside and outside ot single glazing is the outcome. Ifthe outside is now given a tow-e coating (8 = 0.1), then tne long-wave radiation is reduced to 10% of the value. The pane remains wermer due to Its contruing good radiation exchange with its surroundings and the risk of condensa~ tion is greatly reduced, Desoite its some: wnat rougher cuter surface, thanks to the reduced chance of condensation an exter nal pano with @ low-e coating does not attract dirt any more than an uncoated, smooth pane, a¢ meacuramente in tha Netherlands nave shown, ‘he effect of the coating position on single giazing Ifthe low-e-coatec single glazing is installs wrth its coating facing inwards, then the nsulsting effect seven greater because 508) of tho heal trenaport always takes lace on the inside, Conseuariy, the ther- ‘mal transmittance of single glazing can be cut from the wellknown 5.8 Wink 16 42.0.Winek, as mezsurements undertaken at Stuttger!'s Insitute for Construction Physics have snown, However, the reduced radiation exchange with the interior leads 10 a much lover pane temperature because tha radiation irk to the outside Is stit as good as berore, There- fore, the tis of condensation on the insice ‘s markedly higher, although 8 se regulatory effect does come into play. It moisture condenses on the inner surface, ., on the coating, then ths wetting leads to lose in tho reducad emissivity: the pane is nealed up by the neal radiation from ine iatier and $9 dries. Cnoe all tha condansa- tion is gone, the ion-0 coating is again fully siective. This effect, a disadvantage in win- ter, can ke advantageous in ether climates. For example, in the USA solar-controlsingla glazing ie provides with an internal low-@ Coating in order to obstruct Neat radiation Into the interior and improve thormal com fort, In ovr climate tne optimization tor winter conditions is preterred. This renders pos- 20:17 Gas roponic: Prooaas agen Travel eaeauetiy MMe] 168 Donsty kan Dyn viseaty [ears] ‘Sc: hss eapaty kok) a9 sible concents for glass buffers with minimal heating, such as the one Gesigned by the author in a stucy for an cffice building for Glasbau Seele (Figs 2.9.19 ~ 15). Gas rings in insutaang glass Aturthor enhancement ir thermal tranemit- ance can be achieved by reducing the oro- portion of heat lost by cenvestion and can- duction, One good rreitnad is fo uss noble ‘gases to fll the cavities of insulating glez ing. The large etm of these geses react much more slugcisnly io the temperature difforences botwaan the panea and henes reduce the convection flows and the heat tanepor. In addition, their lawor heat cor: duotivties enable the cavity to be narrowed stil thor without having to pay for the eas ings in convection tough increased con: duction. In caviies > 12 mm the greater vol ume of gas enciosed may well lead to @ higher load on the ecge seal because of tne larger pumping actions caused by tempera: ture and air-pressure fluctuations. As out- lined above, the thishnoes of the pane decides whether the gas expansion mani {eete ieolt in torme af glaze dafermation cr Increased load on the edge seal. Therefore, thicker glass, required fer structural 0° safely reasons, leads to increesed demands being placed on the ecae sea: faire can ‘2ause cracks and leed te brockdown of ine airtight seal. Tad. 2.3.17 lists the specit: is properties of the gas filings used in ineu- lung glass. Suipnur nexafuoride (SF) exhibits characteristics similar to nobl3 ‘gases and is an excellent cound insulator ‘but owing to its poor environmental proper- ties is now hardly used for new glezing. Krypton nas similar sound insulation quali tios ard may be used os a subatitute. Owing to thelr olferent properties, each gas nas an optimum cavity size, Fig. 23.16 illustrates the theoretical U-values for afferent cavities and gas filings in vertica insulating glass. “The optimum width are algo anown, Economic matters take precedence over tochnigal ones when choosing a gae. The atmosphere contains anprox. 1% argon, \Whicn is easily extracted and hence inex pensive. On the cther hana, xrypton and yenen are much harder fo extract andl so aro ‘a ira xem 3 Dan 108 128 1 587 63 at a Glass propertios relovant to on iseuee and construction physics 2515. Comparison coating vataonson snala glasne Uncaiies Gwe ae fest soning cating jndeesiom) 4 2 acator ‘rename 08907908 vaue pa oan Ome Lugte Transnitance 088 ogt 8B Lat atecance oats ors) oto ulede oors 018 oars shesing 10 oa Uvalun aT 8.5 35 Conigcton heat renter coetfcient ened eo se air ‘Spacing & pares fron] freon pon enon min. sacing 20.0 Corset temaltranerisionbebioen tye fares pled agaist gang one cavlyGlass ard energy ~ construction physics 28:16 Schematic dagram of acim cling oases 3) esuaton + oasecart 2 Operinglichiscal 3 Fol ® Aleman 8 Gis ‘2.19 Seeker trough aww wih a Beton A conomtonsn NY is sae nia etn anata nee eeepc Ly Spatial speeat 2820. Seclen tow hentninorsupetcacng 120 considerably more expeneive snd less read. lly avaiable, A major increase in demand could have @ positive influence on the price Vacuum glazing Ina vacuum, convection and conctiction ere ecused to z0r0, Howexo,, the atmoapheric pressure ensures that even wit 2 slight negative pressure in the cavity, the panes mae contact or, Ifthe deformation is too great, break Tharefare, vacuum glazing, 28 Mustrated schematically I Fig. 2.0.18, is only nossible in conjunction with support measures hich enable the two panes to be linked stusturaly. For fat panes this mechanical propping leads either to isolated ‘thermal bridges, ¢.0. in the form of inciv- ual spacers, oF to rge-acale supporting by a trarsiucent, prossure-resistant insurat- ing material that can be evacuated, 2.9 agrogel. Vacuum glazing relies on an absoiuioly artignt edge seal. nomaly achieved by glass or solder glass. High theemal bridge losses occur al these ponts. Using spacer oalls 0.5 mm diameter ane two panes with lou-2 coatings, U-values of 10,6 Wimn?K ware measured at the Glazing Center in Colorado, USA. As an alternative, vacuum glazing can ba filed vith a pressureresistant insulating material called aerogel, a microporous silice lattice, This acts as the support and ex hibits 2 very low thermal transmitance of .017 Wink in the nen-evaouated stato. Therefore, the thermal conguction Between the panes Is almost nagligible, whe the fine slice components witr dimensions below the wavelength of light ara only percaived by the human eye as & homogensous, trans parent rrateral “The geometic force vanemission is cerriad ‘ut by the glass tubs, wich nthe evacu- tod stato is used as a single- or double- valed cylinder lor thermal soler collectors (se “Active uses", pp. 148-180) Barriers to convection Besides reducing the convection by employ ing a gas, the heat transport by corvection ben be reduced by mecienical barviers. Ns distinguish between four croups here: parel- lel and vertical separation, chamber-type systems ang virtually tomogeneous tilings. ‘Atthie point we ehall only consider the par- alle! systerns because these permit a view ‘through and do rot transtorm the glass into 4 translucent component Parallel convection tarriers are usually made from glass oF fol which need only ‘comply with downgraded mechanical soect fications and can carry additional costings. These create extra cavities which act as, brakes to corvaction ut on the other hand maintain ihe resistance to thetmal concuc~ tivity of the complete layer. Products were developed aready years ago by @ Swise manufacturer of fagades. A grvalue betwen 0.1 and 0.5 and light tans- mitiance value between 0.19 and 0.69 are possible. The U-value of the clazing is 0.4 ~ 0.8 Wim°k, depending on foil anc coatina, The disadvantage of the construction is the ‘overall depth - anout 180 mm for the giaz- ing unit Fig, 2.3.19 ehowe a window with fal, Similar conzepts were developed in the USA atthe end of the 1980s; these were called ‘sunerclazina” and were subjected to inten- sive testing at the Lawrence Betkeley Lab: ‘oratory. Today, lovi-e and solsr-contral glasses with ona or two convectien fells and Coatings wih enissivites as low as 0.03 are manulactured under licence worldwice, Therelere, in conjunction with @ krypton or xenon fing, U-values of 0.4 Wink are f82- sible, The thin folls mean thatthe total thick ness of the aiazina is just 28 ~ 27 mm, and the g-value of the 0.4-glaes ie 0.23, with a daylight factor af 0.58. The sng oF the fo to the edge seal canbe ullized as a thermal break Fig. 2.5.20 is a section through the superglazing system, The advantages of convection bavriors over thee: or iour-py olazing are the reducsc ‘waight, ho ebeonce of probleme with over healed madtile panes and the thinner overall, width Al tie values quoted above refer to the cen ire of the pane, ignoting the effects of the pane edge, Therefore, Tab. 23.24 (p. 122) ‘he types of glazing currently avallable anc their propeitias, only relates to the centre of 2 pane, The effects of the ede spal - which ‘cannot be ignored, eepectally on omell panes ~ are deat with later.Glass pronertias relavant to anargy issues and construction physios The U-value ae @ function of the temperature aitference ~ OIN values anc realiy Tho U-valuse listad are acrmally determined by the test metnoa to DIN 52619 Part 2 “Tharmal testing, determining the internal surlace resistarice anid thermal transit tance of windows, measurements on the glazing”. According to this, tha glazing is Measured in 2 twin-plate standard appara- tus botwoon a heating and a cooling plato with an average temperature diterence of 40 K between the pane surfaces. This arrangement may be placed horizontally or verticaly, whereby the influence of incteased convection wih wider cavities and low thermal transmitance should not be ighored. As @ rule, three temperalure ranges of the average temperature are measured fer the specimen and then the internel sur- face resistance determined, The thermal traremittance is calculated trom this using tne standarcized U-vaues 7.7 Wiin’k tor Inside end 25 Wink for outside. In our lathudes, howover, emperature ditfer- fences cccur which by fer exceed the refer- ence 10 K figuie, e.g. outside -14"O, inside 422°C: we can experience temperature dit ferences of 20 - 35 K. At these greater ter erature diiferences the canvaction fprecesces in the cavity change ane the inemal surface resistance crops. Fig, 2.3.21 shows the relationship between ther ‘mal transmittance and temperature difer nce for different types of glazing, It can be seen that the double glazed hoat protecting, lass units are paricularly senstive to tem: erature diiference and exhibit values up to 30% lower han the DIN value. The official U-value published in the Bundesanzeigar normally liters trom the DIN value by 9.1 Wie upwards. A comparison of Usvalues fer horizontal and vertical glazing 's shown in Fig, 2.8.22 The influence ef the edge seal on the energy parameters Tha spacer betwaen the two panes in an insulating glazing unt is necessary fer structural purposes but it introduces a clas: sic thermal bridge. Usuelly mace of metal, ‘he thermal conductivity of, for example, an aluminium spacor without consideration of ‘he thermal transmittance s, tor exarraie, 0.92.2 Wim, depending on its shape Because of the low thermal resistance fi the e092 seal, the pana temperatures hare drop with resoeet to the centre of the pane. This leacs to heat conduction pavallel to the glaze auriace 20 that the reduction in the thermal ressstance of the comalete glazing hes to be regarded ae a two-dimensional Issue, Inthe ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, ihe edge zone is defined as being €0 mun wide and ia ascigned « uniform tharmal transmittance Unigy. This value depends on tho type of acgo seal and spacer a¢ well as tne U-value of ne glazing because only about 12-20 mm fs dlreetly covered by the ‘spacer. Fig. 2.5.28 shows how the U-value is determined for tne acige zone. The Unvalue in the edge zone of a certain glass ‘can be tead off via the U-value and the type of spacer. A Tetluction of 25% in the glazing’s inermal ‘ransmitance ie evident. The equation ies: rates the geometrical dependence, with the Fnflusnce of the edige zone diminishing as the panes gel larger! (Fig. 29.23, p. 123) In glass supported continvousyy along the edge, this effect is reduced by the ineulating ‘affect of the window ‘tame, which overlaps the edge seal. With facades fixed at inclvi- dual points, this aspect should rot ve dis rogarded in tho glazing balanco. Besides ‘ne Increased! neat iosses, the local temper: ature drop at the spacer - which can lead to condensation appearing at the edge af ine pane ~ must be taken into account, Ifthe condensation that occurs cannot drain aay easily, than thera is a danger that this might infittate the edge seal. Once the erying capacity in the spacer 's exhausted. foaaing ean decur (S68 “Intornal condensation’, . 139). The Usalusota ghzhgunitiobtines roma hatvnueneod eae ose and tie edge ote feeeraing to hs ogonetica weighing Up XA sae Ya No PG = pane cante, edge = edbe zoe With for exams. coral dass where Un = a wimik. Tx tm 2 a permet ch is Swoe Aanye—UprO8on-=GB4H Ue = 21 Mei Us Ace = 0804 0K Age OTE ME Ay = 100.8 Us = BOW Use Ae © 668K Uy = 1.788 4c Thermal ensmitaco Wi] os Ss Tonp,cernce inset ouside == 2ely nevaing glass — Spy eu 8 gae0.krpson 2321 Thereatonship between Urabe and temperatre erence Lvelun doponcr on rare ‘papeston fora roam tenpestoe r2re Osi tin. F2] 2 vo glass, argon, ozo losses, argon, vera ‘ny lose gas, son, Novaonal ‘Paty lees gla, none, eal 28.22 Unslusstortozentl ana seni! lazing potas agar extralfnpersire Usstusin tee zene Wi Uva at coat of pane Fx 2928 Torna varsritarce of eage zene 124Gleos and snorgy ~ eonetruction prysioe 22304 Available gssing byes and bot energy parameter forthe vanes os pe Tye aie ‘oon s26%9 sentoK na wwe i Sige_iNe ta fon - @ Dowbe 2No.4 mn toa, 2 71 1 Neda foe nr) 1 No Inet No. feet 13 a Sho.inteaae gn _ 1 No mm fost © vo a yon ipl No.2 mm fost = as 4 No.iReootes, kyoto 1228 ituance o edge soa matric he Uealin of ‘gaang tina vars vera Uva im) 1.908 04 Padator Tannitance ale isi e Diners Soe Atul alot bond Seana Sis TRatw Aim as Taiwan at hat 1 gow tvs ‘Moma weak 18 105 G8) Seog ovat TLR Ama. ae no age, SRR orm Break 2oxdem Auminum ka) 10358 2327 _lnfuonce ledge cove cn Uae ol vindon wi Uy Mino US Fame Ube Fare cons Uy Bare ee (0 100m) “pe ot spacer | lses edge ener [rim] ‘Airerparatze olteenos PC] nr [Ue On Ure Use 1.58 150 155 200 322 101988 4 ommeutean 162 150 155 198, Daylight traneritance (SI 5 Dim caverta gee gate op of e056 a winPd inteyaloam wedge 2828 Data wth and wnout hauiteg sp8 wos Uy Us Ure Ure 180 150 1.85 138 In the case of glazing with better thermal insulation properties, e.g. 0.7 or 0.4 Wi ‘he provision of a thermal break or the use of an inavlating material as the spacer should be consicered, Even with a pene ize oF 2 x 2m, an aluminium spacce in tho edge seal downgrades the U-value trom 0 Wimek at the cents to 0.58 Wim2X for ‘ho whole pane ~ a reduction of 45%! A ther- mally isolated spacer with a U-value in the edge zone of 1.2 WimiK limts the reduction to just 22% (0.49 Wim) (Fig. 2.5.26. The continuous thermal bridge slong the spacer is responsible for ine appearance of condensation. This is heated well or rot €0 well by the inner ane, cepending on the adjcining type of glass. Tab. 2.3.25 lists the actual U-valuas for different panes sizes and U-valuss at room temperatures of 20°C and extemel temperatures of 0°C in relation ‘othe spacar material The influence ef frame and edge cover! The glass edge zone and ine frame have a tharmal influence on each othar Tha neat ‘low through the edge seal can be atignu atad or augmented depending on the type of frame and edge cover (depth to which glass is inserted into rebate) Fig, 2.27 shows the infiusncs of the edga cover on tha U-value of a window wath alu- miaium spacer anc tenber frame. It can be seen that wt this type of glass having @ Unvalue at the contre of 1.58 WimeK, 2 Ussge ‘ralus of 2.00 Wim'k fer the given type of aluminium spacer and a timber irame with Ur = 1.5 Win’k, tho total thermal traramit- tance Is 1.64 Wim when tne edge cover ‘ogincidos with tho top of tha edge seal. Tho decrease of me U-value by 6% compared 10 the maddie een ba reduced 10 3% by Increasing the overlap of the ame aver the edge seal to 10 mm. ‘The frame effect is more pronounced for low.6 giassas with very low U-values (0.4 — 0.7 wmeK), Here, nsuéating strips are placed over the edge seal in addition to a ‘deep rebate Fig. 2.3.26). Wolfgang Feist mace very detailed studios ofthis in the course of designing the Kranichstein passive-energy houses. Tab. 2.8.26 lists the U-values for edge and glazing of a window vaith respect to Specer material and edae length. Tab. 2.8.28 shows the influence of are end edge detail on the total ermal ‘ranemitence of @ windowGless properties relevant to energy iseues and construction physics Frame material and window parameters “The material of the frame of course plays a role in the evaluation of & wincow, The infu ‘enoe of frame material anc spacer on the Unvaluo reduction from pane contre to over: all window is snown In Tab. 2.8.90 for win dow sizes available on the market. Tab. 2.8.81 lists the differences in the thermal conductivities of various frame materials and their niluence on the U-value o! the window with glazing, According to DIN 4108 “Thera ineulation in buildings’ Part 4 "Heat and moisture ora taction parameters’, he value cf a wine ‘dow is calculated taking into account glass quality and thermal effciancy of edge saal (determines by the frame material g cup). Tab. 23.33 (p. 125) isan extract covering high-grade lowe glasses with differing frame quelites. This clearly derronsirates the nead for € good frame, eopecially since the frame area is Inefrectve for concentrat- ing enargy. Summary of edge seal and fame All the above cansiderations illustrate that the edge seals and frames of low-e glass units reduce their thermal insulation proper- ties. At the same time it can be sean that the edge seal and trame do not result in any tenargy gaing for the window: instead, parts of the pare are shaded ang so ine solar gain area (aperture) of the component is reduced. Therelore, From an energy views point itis desrable to install a few large panes with a mineral frame proportion Instead of many small ones in order to mini- mize the host losses and maximize the solar gains, AS fixed leaves normally nave 2 nar~ rower frame wioth, the number ef opening lights should be looked at erticlly. The lack of aitightness also piays a signticant role in the case of wnd pressure on the facade, delined by the int permeatilty. Incomplance win CENTOS MET Tema! oroper- fac onys ssw? ane m apeardanes tn IspTerese2Ge, theta thema taroritarce ta wind Uy eacvalod as loll: Ur gx Us #APKUrEP UH Thy Ae) Ay ata lasing ni) of tas ime) Berto cf lasing td 1b, Ca at eanto of pane (inc) UL Wau of tame (ek Nnsar nr sreoe rasta (iM ef ge seal 2.28 Average Uvalisol awndow (sampb (dak Uvalve, 10200) Part wish Heit Length —_Usahie TB __Lass i]t Ioan] (WOR Ga avek ioe 3900 700 700 Fone 1PUsGHe1PU bee ED 700 oars og oat ‘oe 4000. ons ‘Window teal 240 1a Te ‘Tho = Therms! break coeticient 12220 Parameter aus nfueros of eos nd se deat on etal hema Hanes ols winon (without inotdentosaton), Gaved an aequava window wth given lesa 0992 nat, Eigoeal age Te Gia ede lech [om wns] 08GB 40 tase eta =B cn es oats, ‘om_ome axes 0060 oor eno nae Bee as 0112 1061 tier oser 0989 08D O12 one are sonia as 010 jon ars aos oai9 sss cee ner Sables sies02 02 0m oes: 9680 ac owt oant ona No pa 100068 oso 087 a2 ons 08a ‘umiumPiS 050058 ose aete os owe 0707 Shinasiea G26U10 02 0040 —DAGT OM _O8F ove Aumrimnso o> 05m Dela 0308 ore) ovr 0768 070 Stineaceea 029000 02 00m 0605 0702 O78 ons orm ars PusicRico ——_—-10_ooat_0762 0771 OTe 078) 075 072 “hata ae ooion Tc] dado cenbwve enh te eel dae. Frame ‘Spacer =n. sina Toe ke as Ze8 vim inion Aunirn Pye ‘Aluminiuns a Goes Banana "aber ‘nnn U8, Beate endow aaa 123612 ‘Spacer: cenvaniona atmiiun asl asahorve win 2 = 03 rire Frame cose sectors var: ater rama conseustons pice ae aosouo vale, ou tatanenrcigs ao srk 2331 Diteronces inthe themal ence ane mater ar harnfusnee on the Uvaue o he wands ata Tharmalearausiviy Use [ie Peery Wien Typical rae Tinber on ttoa Auninion 20 ith fermaloreak 501063 tac hema break 10103 me oe 231039 iaw2e ‘These values are derived Wom maasiremens of 290 window Famesarl ana ical wiedow {121.2 a elEA researchpojec Tabs 18, Advanced ylazng ard assole) males. 123Glass and energy —construction physios 124 Joint permeability of windows For cpenable facade elements in particular, oat Icasee caused by a lack ef artightross must also be considered in addin to these ‘ue to conduetion through the component Wind Tows around a building give rise to regions of prassure and sucton an the sides amounting ta as much as 40°Pa; these can Inject air into the building or suck # out. The Binighinass of a facade component, or rather its joints, is expressed by the jont permoabilty and the join! permeabilty cost: fieent “a” of the component. This coefficlent = in mish x mx Paes) ~ specifies how many cule meties of air passes pet hour and rnetra length of jon at a pressure ditfersnos €f 1 Pe, The joint permeabiity of windows is regulated in DIN 18055, ‘Tab. 2.3.88 shows the pint permestilty coafticients fer windows to DIN £701 Part 2, For example, for a window 1 x 1 mand hence a joint length of 4 m tne joint perme: bility 8 4 m x 0.6 mimPa?? = 2.4 mh Pa®®, This means a flow rate of $m" ‘rough tha joints of @ window tx tm ‘accorcing to the design pressure i DIN 4701 for a one-room terraced house in & rrawnal location in an area of low wine Luneerjontpermestity [esvinevieny ‘esl itronce spins Geng SOA Bm Dm 10m Special fle oat nung 2522 opment pte gsi reene fr te ragade oN 1325) ‘epeede giving 1.6 Pa for the fagadies sub Jecied to wind cad, For a design tempara- ture of, for exampla, -10°C for the heating anc @ room tamperature of 20°C, this is 80 WV and related fo the temperature difer- fence and the window size 2 loss of 1 WimaK. This demonstrates the importance of goad joint imperviousness in preventing unvianted air tows, A minimum tow rate is dacirable far interiors for reasons of hygiene and forremoving the molsture that accumu Istes, The high imperuicusnass at medern facades can lead 10 the need for defined openings, 2.9. permanent vents, being required to supply fresh air. A fresh-air Sup~ ply rate that's too low, in conjunction with thermal bridges or compenerts wits lov insulation value and high interior humidity, can lead te damage to the building, Mould ‘and staining seen in refurbishment projects of the 1976s, in which naw, sealed windows vere Installed out the thermal insulation not improved, ara axamalas ofthis, Fig. 2.8.82 shows the join! permeability per metre of ont ralatad to the appliec pressure difference {te DIN 18055) The effects ef coupling thermal insulation ith iransmission of eneray and daylgnt ‘Ao we try 0 optimize the U-value, for exem- pie, tne mutual Interdependence of the en ergy parameters, 2.0, total thermal transmit tance U, tolal energy trensmittence 9 en light transmittence t, leeds to non-optimized oar oF daylight gaine. Therefore, the glaz Ing selected ~ depending on respective use. type of construction, geometry and crients- tion ~ wil place one oF etter asoect in the foreground. Tha "effactive U-valua" was Introduced as a simple means of assessing just the olezing ksalf, without taking specific dtais of the edianing room into azcourt For the thermal balance, this oarameter take® into account not enly the transmission ogses but also tne solar gains which dis- tinguish glazing from an enact wall ele ment. This defintion (after Hauser) was incornorated into Germany's 3rd Thermal Insulation Act (1995). (See “Equivaient ther: imal transrrittance ky’. p. 117.) From the ‘equation’ {p. 117) itean be agen that & U-value reduction need not aways produce lower k,, whan the g-valua also dacrsasss correspondingly. Tap. 2.2.25 makes this dilemma clear, ane which applies particu Jerly io an arientatan wh high soler gains, 6.9. eastinest and south Glazing with a high insulation value ean Ccommensate forthe transmission lasses via the eolar gaine during the heating perioc and, with propar orlertation, become neat ‘s0u1¢98, For the south elevation in particu: ler, upgrading the U-value fram gless 3 to glass 4 (Tab. 2.5.95), which is linced to a severe dioo in the g-vgtue (brought aboutby other coatings and mora panse), hae ¢ negative effsct on the overall balance. The lower heat losses do not outweigh tho reduced radiation gains; the equivalent Usyalue rises. Even on the east and wast sides, more marked on the north, the insula tion effect outweighs the reduced soler gains, as would be expected with an improvement in the equivaient U-value trom 3 fo 4, Thea relationshige must alse be Inclucag in tha discussions concerning sun- spaces or double-leaf fagades. Only when the savings in the tanssrission losses, ‘exceed tha reduction in golat gains by way cof the butler effect cen we reckon with & saving in the overal balance, Simiiau observations have been ncted! forthe less properties relevant to eneigy issues an construction physics light tranomittence/U-volue relationship. However, there iS no paremeter Ike ko, hor. I can be sean from Tab, 2.3.36, how: ‘ever, that Improved insulation means less daylight, Ie office Ouildings with high Inter hal heat gains, @ severe reduction in day- light transmission can lead to the eect for ‘ore artificial ight, while in this ease the heat losses play a subvorcinate role owing to tha internal thermal ioads. Nevertheless, the ‘additonal intemal hezt gains can leed to overheating in eummer. The balancing of te equivalent U-value can only provide & rough guide because it does not say anything ebout the usability of the solar gains nor glare problems, Thess depend very much on the usage, but also on the ralatve aree of the glazing. For resi ential accormiedation with a standarc design (medium censtrustion) and atenclard glazing progortions (< 80% of the fagade). the figures above can be usad as an st mate, Deviations trom inis require detated valuation fools (see “Dynamic behaviour of rooms", p. 198) 2838_ Wn oa ro Dectiotat ang von ad gre some ane = fon fora ay 7 Wead Uses KOs WHE Ura : | ge ger ie ao ass Trwnatane 2 _ — a Tartetare, 8 i— meals! is 8 ie see a 1 18 ry 22 ar oem” a ts ia oe ig i 1 20 te 9 10, 12 a? a) 24 23.34 _Compited wales brjontpeemosbity of comcoremtot90N 1701 Pan 2 (ategor teatwes “sit pamestity ontpemeabiy wt 7 smn hPa 7 Wie sores ‘ang yowB 6D 08 2 Leading gpk os a se Noma a4 23.99. cuir, lue Mir! for vous gkzing tpes a orton vee Energy git ‘Sou Ry ESL NE lrarsmtanceg — Fansmifance fugas ta ora oe Secona oss 13 ‘062 am ass Thid 5 tt ose are 9.006 Fouthglss 7 os as 902 125Gass and energy — construction physics 24:95 Tosledar ator ane atase part eat ‘a dgroa tous cores ‘bor orale say ovr Bue patil” cast ‘ay okeemner Sy Taslgelrnd 6001000 00400 ——sou80 Bint - Bitaeption 10a BGT ras) ectaon ee [ 120159 inthe hover Tota sorcerer 040 ~ Dita raclaion Cost eens 2337 Monnip ids onioaisoa anc iise rein Wes 2838. Solr tascor dagram or lettuce 4 noch) 426 Gaining energy through glass ~ solar radiation, licht Besides forming the building envelope, the treneparoncy and pormeabilty of glass enables us 0 lluminate ard neat interiors ‘by means of the inflation of ignt and solar ragiavon via openings in the fagade. This is Derticular'y important when the external tem- perature drops balow 16°C during the cord ‘months of the year. Therefarg, in examining the energy gein through glace we must first look at the cimate framework batore dis cuseing cotale o! tne order of magnitude and usefulness oF tess gains. Gaimatic raenewvork The leeal waathar deta is Indispensable for assessing the energy gains and losses through glass. This is true for both the total radiation spestum as wll es tho spacial segment visible ight, The available solar radiation reaching the ground, beam and lfuse, plays crucal role with respect to rargy gain, On tha other hand, embient temperature, wind speed, degree o! cloud cover and intamal temperature determine the thermal losses per square metre of glaz ing. The differing climate factors such 28 ‘geographical lattude, attitude above sea ‘evel, sea and air stroems enable us 1o dis- tinguish between four primary climate zones, in Central and Souther Europe + North European coastal climate Very cold winters with lov levels of solar radistion, moderate'y warre summers. + Gentral European coastal climate Cold winters with low levels of solar rach tion, milo summers. + Continental climate Raallvely cold winters with high levels of ‘sola radiation. warm summers. South European end Mediterranean cl- mate Mild wintera with high lovele of salarradh- ation, not surrers, Within nese primary climate zones there are number ef regional ones whien vary according to topography and vegetation and are influenced by feciors such as high ‘mountains, large expanses of water and forests, as wall as popuiation-releted rectors such ae otmeaaherie pellution and density ot development. ‘Apart from that, ary specific Incatlon will algo be subject to a microcimate which plays a decisive role in the evaluation of gains and losses, Orientation, existing Neighbouring developmants, topoloaica features and also whether the site is exposed to or protected trom the wind all influones the pessiiliies ~ via the glazing ~ for callecting solar radiation and daylight tnd avoiding heat losses through wing effects, The following cimate components, have a Sgnilicant elfect on the energy evaluation: Solar radaticn gain asad on azimuth (compass direction) ‘and zerith (angle of altitude) anc {epencing on the time ct year ~ clvided into boam (.. dee!) and aiffuse racia- tion, Ambient temperature over the year, whereby the minimum tem: ‘paratura ard the lengt of the cold period influences the glass speotfcaticn by way of the total thermal tranermittanca, + Wind speed with regpect to cooling of the outer sur- face by recuoing the external euriace resistance and ar inition caused by ifferantial aressures + Moisture for the purpose of asseesing the risk of ‘condensation and degree of interior com. fort. Long:wave raciation imo the sky 25 an adcitional loss factor for ihe ovter surface, determined by the eoree oF cloud cover. Solar tadiation — distibuiion and energy fevels “The extraterrestrial soler spectum is fitarad by the Earth's atmosphere; the czone in the stratogpnere in particular cute out the haz- ardous short-wave UY rays. On a clear dey the radiation profile ie as Snown in Fg, 2.3.1 (9.193); trom a total of 1347 Win? of extraterrestrial radiation, max. 1109 Wime reaches the Earth's surface, Part of tha soler radiation is reflected back into soaoe and partis absorbed (and converted into heat) by the azone, carbon cloxide and water ‘vapour in the atmosphora, which determines ‘ne almosonerle counter-radiation. Some of the Incoming radiation is seattarad by par ticles and air molecules and reaches the surface as diftuse radiation. The part reach- Ing the surface dircolly is designated beam radiation. The sum of the atmospheric ‘counter-rediation pus the difues and baam radiation is called the total solar ractation, Although this radiation reaches a maximum value of 1100 Wim, which in ene tour of sunshine is equal to tha energy in 04 | of uel of, the availabe solar radiation siking the land surfaces of our alan! is almost 2,500 times the worle’s ennual energy requirement (1985 figure). Tne proportion of difuge radiation 9 affectod by the degree of cloud cover, tne transparency of the sky and tho longth of tha radiation’s passage tiyough the amosphere, Tab. 2.5.86 ists the amounts of tal and ditfuse radiation for vatious degrees of cloys cover.Tho absorption by particles in the air is Zena defined by the turbidity factor, which is deszribed by the number of cuccescive iu cleer days leading to an equal decrease in radiaton. Turbidity factors vary between 2.1 and 9.0 over the yeer depending on location and use. The highest radietion densities are measured in spring in assc- claton with the solar altitude anole, Fig, 2.8.37 shows the annual dietributon of the morthly totals for total solar and beam radi- ation on 2 horizontal surface in Stuttgart. . Across Europe the annual sums ot ioral solar radiation on a horizontal surlacs range fram 960 Khir? a.2, (Hamburg) 10 1780 kihim? p.a, (Almeria, Spain) ‘The inclination ane erlentation (compass ditection) of the ccllecting surface deter- mine the maximum intansity and the quant lty of energy behind the pane aver tha year; this is also affastod by tho angle of incidence of sunshine on a surace, ena ‘especially glazing in which tha transmis sion changes with ihe angie of incldence, ‘The reason fer this is the solar trajactary, which in our latitudes varies quite consider ably over the year, Although the sun is, slvays due south at 12 noon. the maximum elevation in December Is just 18° wile in ‘June it ie 88°. The peeition of the aunvise also shifts from south-east (0 north-east and back again These seesonal changes ere important for assessing the raciation gains out also for invostigating the possiblities of employing fixed shacing, Figs 2.8.38 and 2.9.39 oan bbe used ta determine Dec ralalva oe humiiy of 90% SSrceneston coca af apane 10 tempers of 14'S 470 2.80 Polaiverumaiy se a0 90 2887 Dewpontene 109‘Glass and ensray -corstucton physics eta ebay BT TP Cy oor Rea CT 0 2 Ny Exon terete C1 2.983 The concepts of passieandacive use fsa vanaicn 2800 Avoiding racing by eneurna approsens CGaances balan bald room humicitiss can be read off the graph in Fig. 2.8.88. The intersection of internal tem: ereture ond maximurr external temperatira clearly shows at which point condensation can be exacted, External condensation “This only ocours on glazing in rooms with mnimal heating er when using high-ouellty lowes glass. It ie ceused by long-wave radi- ation fom the cuter gare Into the shy wien this outweighs the inceming heal flaa to the glass, which happens with low roam tamper- alures, ¢.9. ina car. or with very Good insu lation. The surface temperature of the outer surface of the class drops balow the ambi- tent tompercture end can even fall bolaw the dew point temperature, leeding ta the forma tion of frst. This affect ie particularly orova. lant on root windows empioying nigh-quaiity Iow-8 glass; during eemal winter periods such wincows can remain covered In con- ensatian oF fost all day Comfort effects ave to “cold ractation” and descending cold air I we compare tne surtace temperatura of an inet pane with the temparatur in the room, ‘nen we fing is 2-8 K ower, vepenaing fon extemal tomgerature and the quality at the glazing, The cold surlace radiates into the room and leads to discomfort nthe Sleiity of large areas of glace, Aosordingly, te temperature 2s perceived by the occu- pants, made up cf 50% rom air tampora. lure anc 80% room surfaces temperatures, drops rapialy The internal ar cools at the surface of the pane and, being heavier, descends. At a certain height and with poor-quality glazing, this descending cold air can lead to draughts adjecert the fagada, aaposially near the floor because the dafiected cold ar ponstiaios aaveral mates into the raom and Feaches velocities of up 100.5 ms Inthe past this was dealtwitn by placing radiators under the windows, The acconding hot air intercepted tne descending cold ar This ia why jinnod hosting pipes are often postioned at regular intervals on tall facadse. If glacses with U-valuce of LO Win?k er better are usec, then the raat ators can be maved aviay trom the windows ‘and the unsightly heating tubes dispensed with, Infaredireflective coatings on the inside of the pane do improve comfor' by cutina own on radiation but on the ether hand ies late tha pane trom the room in thermal terms ‘and 2c lead ta lower aan temperatures 22nd, possibly, increased cold ait descend ing tothe floor. A datalied stusy ean only be carried oul by means ol ¢ computerized flow simulation which demonstrates the distribu tion of temperatures and velocities. Glezing applications in buildings and systems ‘The apptcations ofthe properties and fects cascribed sa far cive rise to nev problems in tha overall system, e.g, glar fire propagation, dense smoke. A numoer of Underlying concapts will be Eriatly outinad In order to help understand the pros anc ‘cons of the individual measures, Funetion The fagade toa building serves as the cutoff point for the weather, as the climate break In ether worda, it protects against rain anc wind, insulates against neat and cold, and cts a9 6 roive barrcr. Variable apertures in the fagade permit a partial opening of ths boundary for the purpote of air oxchanga ‘and 2 relationship with the exterior. In acch- lion, transparent and translucent fagace components enabee the energy flow trom ‘outside to inside in the four of short-vave ‘solar radiation, fringing heat anc light with it end create a visual ink with the outsice ‘world for the user. The aa of glase - trane: ‘parent to solar raciation and opaque to heat radiation ~ causos the olazod arca to bo ested uo ~ he greenhouse effect, Tess boat gains are, on the ona hand, apprac aed when the outside temperature Is lowe ‘aut, on the other hand, cen very quickly lead to overheating with righor extornel tom peratures andior high internal neat sources, Sunshading may be required in euch cases. Further, daylighting is dasirable for actviles heer th wndews out privacy and glare ‘must be considered, tne later partoularly so. when VDUs are in uss. Basic concepts ‘There ere two principal appreachss to gain Ing solar energy: ective and passive (Fig 2.3.0), The oriicel factor is whether merely building components are to be used (pas- sive) oF additional, meving elements are ‘omployed ‘or transport teatve)Possive uses ‘The simplest passive building component for exelciting solar radiation ‘or llueinaion and (or supplementary neating Is tre wit cow, ie. the use of direct gains. The unot structed incidence of redatian on the win ow is decisive hers, dependent on the sure roundings, the sola alitude angie and the langle of incidence on the pane (Fig. 23.90), ‘Tho solar alttuds angle depends on the geographical lattude ot tne location; tne ‘minimum sovar altitude angle at midday cen bbe calculated” The solar gains in the rooms can be used to ifieing extents depending on the type of ‘construction and use of the building (Figs 2.91 ~2.3.96). Mereover, the available solar raciation must be limited ay way of 1 nina soa sttce ange 00" (cepoo of auto + 25.485 Accorang te this, tha minum sistance neoen Wo roweorhausoe n Wurzburg, 4a 24m, assuming ‘busca helchtof8 mine Gouna tour b Shy aman ase th shadow ote neigh Ing building Satabi shaping ef top sory can ting abou anipoverment suitable shading in order to protect the in terior from overheating, As windows exhibit higher neat lossee and oomaote with solid walls, cher passive sysiems nave been developed to ovarcema the disadvantages of the Girect-gain. window system Translacent thermal insulation (7?) Whereas tracitonel thermal insulation attached to walls is opaque, Le. imperme- able to solar radiation, translucent thermal Insulation (Fig. 2.8.97, p. 128) allows ergo ‘amounts of solar radiation (up to 70%) to ass through, Tl remains impervious to hast radiation anc hot-air convection. This etfect, frequertiy playad out behind glass, Is based ton very thin capillaries which convey the sunlight to an absorber [dark-coloured solid wall) anc capture the long-wave heat radian tion from the wall but present a great oD- atacle to tha cenvection between absorber and glazing and so lead to reduced losses. Consequently, the incidence of solar radia. lion causes the wall nefund the translucent insulation to heat up and ten transier this, ‘warmth into te interior, The density and material of the wall play a orucial role here because tis these factors that allow the Glazing appications in buleings and systems 2803 Tonkawa Crest Dereon Adratigt Deachataos Drest“breresrengane issn ier et ness conse on gore sete hooeee Dante al 3 Shamed {Gono sie» Gry fete scensto Suen slg ‘Gaecaamcuay “geargenice toainy | etn) rode -Syatensto wea ar sre wal Bain +H of aot ough behing gang elas thtoooe FetsTionte) -AboniSosa raion ~Srpryoees «Seema non Yo oie ug cayancas ior nutes Shas tet nie ~Usonte dca ‘foora later by way of e (23.94 Guss extersion (sunspaos) Vaud Tome war ynicanoe -Canotos aecaigo —-Cowanenaeay Sera "pecan anceps “Reavaraing Tiger aie as Sierets Redtctaneinesses Sans < Paty the a is Sass arson -Fropcigormiegaisccon“Tenouayania” + Cael bacinan whe ees fonrseace ‘nara ue Goer Jotemectnatas aerating doe H [Epenune of eodenenton| ‘tas ign adacen aan Onl binge sauinge# motheste “Bute pc wih irate cin 95 Traslcent thermal insultion Transhoent + Dar ooage wal with “high i, Fisvel ovaening, aa rma vandusentnaalaton ‘ow bsses ‘Stszed n sumer fpsvalon + Alowesurstine WYough but_ + Iseased conte, = Higne ale 23% fatansheatara dsenaies 1 tuo war al {Conc th windows fb he rom ater by sPemisievoroom ——* Nodayar noautade vw ansation ariemearate zy iinoow ___*Gouleo wincaa tn “now ana colecior > Higher lpr ncauneg Acollcor —ingralsunsnadeend cauly—_ureton sindou, alsain summer es ‘ih a otealaion +Shoreps mots fom Passe lerbsige cane ba *Drventby hamssipon ‘com Seveles ia Netra eonto! ‘i uot regio ‘pacutienncion Hea esnscorad te sage calng oral ‘aaonal rage requeea 23.96 WincowitccolocterGlass and energy - constuction physica Layer oransoorent Ireuaren 2 Viatter prtacion (tansparerd cosstiv stale bias se hase 8. Back pat abeorbent 2397 Typical Twa intgeatoe ie ceroatiam Lino tar sonra aur 2892 Valous arangenarts of atia andheatbuitrs 142 heat gaine te be paseed on to the rooms: alter a certain delay. Hence, scler gains can be discharged up to six hours inter into the roeens beyond the translucent insuation. I we balance the neat flows at the Thwall then these reverse in the case of incident soler ragiation: from a loss to the outside into a gain ot excess for the inside. ‘To protest against overheating, Tl tagedes ‘must bo fited with sunshaci (Fig, 2.3.98) Motorized fol roler binds are tie most poo- tla form, although fixed shadas are con- ‘cpivebie for purely southacg walls, An inexpensive alternative hes been developed ‘which uses a lnslucent plaster composed ‘of olass balls and a bonding agent, Because of ts recuced transmission, ro sheding necessary. One interesting application is te tse of translucent inoulation in -efurbiehment projects to eupplerent inadequate thermal ingulation ard to solve many ahysical prob- lems, e.g. humidity Fig. 2.9.01). From glasshouse to atrium ‘An important predecessor of today’s class architecture waa London's Orystal Palace of 1851 (see p. 23). The naw glazed treas far hall in Leipzig (609 9p. 300-803} continues this tradition Some glasshousas serve merely as weather fproot envelopes end are vallac "nouse-in- rouse’ systems. These generate a local microclimate in which smaller, ai-condi- tioned buildings are located (Fig. 2.5.102) ‘One group represented in largo numibars i= the greenhouse for cultwatea plants, Roo! ‘shape, heating, shading and type of glass ‘re roi chosen atrandom but stead ‘matched to the plants undemeats in order to ‘achieve optimum economic resuits. We dis- tinguish between four types of alassnouse ‘2ccering to their enape and relatonsnip to the whole structure (Fig, 2.3.99) Integrated atrium In this variation the glasshouse is not sep. erate but instead has at lest ene wall com- mon with @ solic part of the bulling, As a rule therefore, it usually posessace more storage capacity than @ cure glasshouse. Gore atrium In this olaesic arrangement its only the less root thal forms part of the external envelope. The intarnel climate isto a great extent determingd by the walls enclesing the ‘atrium, which in tum separate the surround ing spaces trom the core atrium. Linear atrium “This form (Fig. 23.103) links two parle: blocks, The enos are formed by glazed ablas, It normelly creates an intermediate Glimate which, for pure circulation zones, does nol require acttional heating, Re-entrant atsium inthis variation on the eore avium, one wall of the atrium is at tha sama time an external veal Typas of use Glasehausee and atta oan be catogerized according to their uses: + Weather pretecticn ‘The glasshouse serves to protect against rain and wind and only as a shorter space for people, e.g. unheeted glass foyer. rainay stations, incor markets. Internal air temperatures < 0°C aro pos. sible. Thoroughfare ‘The atrium is @ circulation zone an links oatad parts of the building. Itis enly 2 shorter soace fer people. Internal alr temperatures of 10 ~ 14°C satisfy even higher demands of comfort + Active use People continually circulate in this space, a, sports halle, art exhibitions, note! ‘entrances, Intomal air tomporatures 12 ~ 18°C, + Full use, sedentary occusstions People siting for several hours, 2. rastaurants, offives, teens! air empera- tures 20-22°0. Indoor swimming pool Intomal alr tomperctures 27 - 32°C, + Use for jiore and fauna Growing and display of plants, keeping of exotic animals, .g. garden centres and 200 faciltias, Inter alr temperature: min, 8°, max, 35°. a, the internal climate in a glasshouse can vary trom “virtually identical with the outsice” wth protection against precipitation (2.9 ld relivay sialions) to the “moderate Inter mediate climato" of shopping malls to the Wopical climates of palin houses. The spectrum of the eneuing space heating requiromant ranges from loge than 0 kWhim? a, (eneray-savings due 10 unheated glass structures) te annual ratos of 500 kiMh per 17? of floor area for sinale-clazed lass- houses pormanently heated to 20°C. ‘The provisions of te Thetrrall Insulation Act specify a maximum consumption of 55 — 100 Khu? p.a. depending on the building, Energy functions ‘with appropriate plannin, glasshouses not ‘only do not require HVAC plant te mairtsin the desired conditions, on the contrary they can alae fulfl HVAO functions:Heating Frovidee the glasshouse Is not neated to room temperature (20 ~ 22°C), itfunetions asa theimal buffer (Fig. 2.3.14, p. 144). it enables passive solar eneray gains which can be transported via ventilation 10 the adioning rooms. Theretore, the glazing should be designed es a vertical south- .cirg fagace vnenever possible, The et- fectiveness of the butter Kunetion ineveases with better glazing. Heating energy can be saved oy way of the folowing effects: + Soler preheating of the fresh air required for the adicining rooms. + Limiting the transmission heat losses from the adjoining rooms, Cooling Tho atrium can inetigate the natural ar cr culation caused by temperature differences, above all in summer, and in this way dis- perse unwanted solar gains, Explolting the arr temperaturs stratification and arranging the openings properly can bring about high air change ratas (50 ~ 80h) specially at right whan the etrium ie initially wermer thar the outside alr. ‘tra often have openings for edcling the Dulcsng which may be let open at nignt without fesr of unwanted infrudrs gairing Ventilation The atrum ean be used to distribute frash air or act as a collection cust for exhaust sir (Fig. 23.108, p. 164). Open, lawing areas of weter can ba employed as natural ar humidifiers and, to lenitec extent, for eveporatve cooling. Lanting An atrium oan provide daylight fer the agje- cent rooms (Fig. 2.5.108, p. 144). The ine ‘ral buffer affect of the atrium enables la-gor windows to be incorporated without the heating energy consumption rising dramatically, In this way an atrium cen intro duce more daylight than the facade to an ‘open, central courtyard. The provision of daylight n the adjoining rooms is primarily datormined by the following paramators: + shape of tne atrium + geometiic heightwicth ratio + colour of surfaces + proportion of windews in partition walls quality of glass in the elrium and the pa= Ition wells, Energy considerations Hoating energy consumption Every atrium can be regarded as a thermal butiar for the rocrs adjacent to it bacause their energy consumption is reduced in every case, f the atrium itself is unheated, then thers is actually an energy gain. How ‘ver, full use of the atrium with room tamper atures of 20 - 22°C wastes energy because the transparent roo! offers less thermal ingu- lation than an insulaied, opaque root, The Interaction of the haat losses fram the solid core of the building and the energy gains of the ojass atrium is sketched out in Fa 28.108 (p. 144). Three operatng states can be recognized: + Porieds during which neithar the atrium nor the main structure can make use af the atrum’s anergy gains. Periods during which the atrium supoles heat which can be used by the main structure (atrium as heat source). + Periods during which the airium requires heat energy in order to maintain the desired internal climate (atiium as aol tionet heat conaumer). The lengta of tine for which the atrium can supoly heat and whether er not it is, in the fond, net suplier or consumer depend on many factors, €.9 + ype of etium + hype of oless + standard of thermal ingulation * external climatic conditons + ventistion concent storage czpacity aquired internal climata The eifecis of some key parameters ere clarified below Type af atrium ‘The stronger the link with the main structure, ‘he better is the buffer eifect end hence the potenilel o save energy. Core, 1e-entrant and linear atria have the bast chances here. The “learvto" glasshouse, wilh its limited tharmal link to the main building, can at best be used for preheating the supply air by solar means. Type of glass and tnermat insulation Mary unhoated glass atia have only single glazing. Nevertheless, they are eneray scurces provided they remain unheated. This constraint is important because there have bean cases whera intially unheated atric have been converted to overcome a lack of space. This change to a suparicr function requires the area to be heated to 20°C ~ representing an enormous expenci- jute on anergy, ‘Theteiove, wilt atrium temperatures 215°C itis wise to use an insulating glass for the outer akin The inluance of the quaity of the glass is demonatrated excellently by Trondhoin Un: versity, Nornay (Fig. 2.5.103, p. 148). The atvium ie heated tomax. 8°C. The energy consumpton of the whole bullding without atrium but with thres-ply lave glass on the facade ta the central courtyard is 20% high: Glazing applications in buldings ond systems 232100 Houwsown singe 1 aleng winapi stuctus ard est lass coverne 28401 Petebicrmen projet with Twa and vane 2900 Tequt buldng Fue, Gormany shies LO 29.108, Trondhein Unierty, None vt Par Krudsen 143Glass and energy ~ construction physies ethan the consumption with atrium in two: ply 1ow-9 glass and internal ‘agade in sian- ord ineviating glass. Fig. 25.100 shove the heating requirement as a function oF te atium glazing, 23.104 Avumtesieg 28.108 Ariumvenie sonata faramven Ventilation concept An attium is ofter an important component inthe ventilation concept of a building. The follewing tyaes of vention ere among the standard concent + common mechanical ventilation for atrium and main sttucture ventilation purely via windows + no co-ventation wth the airiam 23,108" Abu ghing + strum as exhaust-air collector eoseae atrium as supply-air distributor, possibly vith upstream heat cecovery from the exhaust a ‘trum distributes supply air and collects 4 = exhaust air ‘5 indewsles 27 rox, * Solar preneeating of supoIy ai 2 N00 =| VA i oy The desired internal clmais plays @ crucial rale for energy consumetion if temperatures >10°C are required. Even with fow-e glass, consumption rises drastically when the required temperature lies abeve 18°C, For instance, tne heating requirement of Trandhatn University rose by about 30% when the atrium temoerature was Talseu from 15 to 18°C. (Fig. 2.9.110). The increased room lemperatures were due to changing the use of the atrium. Originally planned as @ circulation zane, lack ot space in the university lad to some areas deing re- allocated as practice rooms requting higher ‘run wiennegtrao 99.01 Ratostencecharatasie leas 208%, 50%, 78% 100% raporton of axing facade 29107 Deslgh factor liner tam ia eition'» temperatures. Cooling Ithas been established that, on the whole, only glass ata in northern to temperate lat- tudes can be eparated without machanical ‘cocling. As soan as a rmartime climate is Detter Ae onan ‘encountered, glace atiis generate caneicer- \ sting" federal =nestessss) able cooling loads, In the USA the ccoting ‘energy requirement transcends by far the heating energy requirement. Therefore, the majority of American glass atria can be called "eneray-guzziers’ ‘Athouah this may at first sound tke 2 para- ~, ox, glass atria can be usd 10 cool build- Ings in temperate clmate zones, The cock ing proalam innerent in avery airium can be 3 alloviated in the folowing ways: Prw aw AS Pos cing which eal gains fain oxcaed eat onses Natural ventilation Bacause of tne natural stratification of alr | Exgoncve temperaturse, atria can be reacily ventisted, ator argon ter : —t ee | Bate rtnout the nged for mechanical instella- comectee ‘cormacted tions. Guarantosing the natural ventilaton is Pon Seton! tha most importen! measure In order to limit overheating of the atrium, The correct layout 28108 Annwalireracten pan atin (of supply vents near the floor and 448 oxhaust-air vents near the roof can ensure 5 alr changes per hour in the alrium. To provide adequate cooling, the openings in the Glasshouse should equal a! least 5% of the floor area Shading Another important moaaura is tho provision cf shade, which snould in eny case be mov- ‘blo in erder ta maintain an open path for Hight ano heat during the seasons with no cooling problems. In alii, costs generally dictate the use of internal shading. As this causes a build-up of neat near the roc, con- siceraaly higher tormperatures normally ore: val in the too storey, as measurements in the etrium of Neuchatel University, Swtzor- land, have confirmed (Fig. 23.171). There- foro, with internal chading tis adveable to raise tne level of the root in order to ven! te solar gains naturally. Cooling the building via the atrium \When the roof projection anc the supply:eir inlets i the main structure are correcty designed, the sirium can rsinforco the vont lation of the butding wit relatively cool exiornal air, Fig. 2.5.712 shows the summer night venttation of the Gateway 2 building in London, Daylgnt Roofng-over a central, open courtyard or adding an alrium intially reduces tha supoly ‘af daylight to the roome beyond, This reduc tion inillumination 1s usually assumed to be 20% (pro\iced clear glass is used and not sola-contol glass). On the other hand, the buffer eifect cf the atrium enables the area ‘of glass in the intermaciate wall to be increased ano hence admit mare fant into the Intoror of the mais structure. Tho eclour of the internal wals is significant: with 50% {glazing, white walle in the atrium improve te daylighting by about 30% compared to dark surtaces Fig. 2.9,107 shaws how the final daylight factor ofa linear atrium is affected by tne ‘calour of the walla, the amount of glazing in tne adjoining walls and the oeometrcal hoigntiwieth ratoSeving energy’ with glaschouses Glass atria can bring eneray savings by observing the following points + Koop cesign room tamperatures as tow 28 possible. + Chiy use Clear glass in order to avoid a permanent rection of the daylighting in adjacent rooms. + Provide movable shagina, preferably cextornaly + Provide at least 5% in the form of opening Tights for natural ventilation: this raises the crances of avolding mechanical ven- tiation + Choose low U-values for the glazing bacause olherwece there isa risk that @ change of use could result in inadequate thermal insulation, Use bright colours in the atu. Doubla-loat fagades Direct-gain systems rely on a sunshage ang, ‘oxting to their manval contol of ventilation, are readily accepted by users. However, external shading 's susceptible lo the rigcrs ‘of the wind and sound insulation end secur- ity problems arise with open windows, lsad- ing to distinct limtetiors in terms of conve- nience (Fig. 2.3.113, p. 146). The oroblems ‘of external ahaging, ia conjunction with ‘troughs on how 10 influence tne “outer facade conditions, hava iad to the daveton- ‘ment of doubleveat concepts. This entails adding what is in essence a second skin Usually of glass, on the cutside ata certain distance from the buliding. It improves tne falowing perameters © thermal butter + wind and weather protection for the facade, sunshacing, openings sound insulation + security matters + ar tlow + instalation specs + leisure space, ‘The functions ofthe fonner single-leat ‘acacle are now shared between the two leaves, The outer leaf certeinly acts as wind and waathar protection. Energy evaluations reveal that, compared to a single-leat facade with good class, 4 douDls-leaf con- cost acting puroly as a thermal buffor hardly contibutes to saving heeting energy - ne dealing in solar gains via the outer glazing is compensated for by the drop i transmis sion losses, But in tents of comfort and pos sible physical problems, e.g. condensation in rooms with higher humidities and temper: ‘atures, the increased surface temperature ot tne inner leat is very beneficial. On tre other hand, venting the butter n cumme: must be slowed fer in order to dissipate the soler gains inked to the sunshading, “The simplest methed of incorporating the ‘double leat faged in the ventilation concept (Fig, 23.116, p, 147) is to. use opening lights in butfor which is intontionally not aright. ths oermeabily sted, then the ventilation cross-sections nacescary fer tha summer jead lo Severe rear-ventiation in winter and cancal out much af the solar are- Ineating or recovery of the transmission loss 6, If the ventiation openings are optimized for the winter, thon, with meohenical cecling Of the interior, the increased ccoiing require: ‘ment easily oxceacs the savings in the haat- ‘ng requirement as compared to a single- leaf facade employing low-8 glass. Tha function of the double-leaf iagade dimins [shas to providing pretection against wea ther ard noise! With adjustable vents and window ventletion into the double-eaf facade, the danger of condensation forming on the outer leaf cannot be ruled out above A corlain ar-change rats as an arrangement wit single glazing outside and insulating glass inside is recommenced. A similar system marketed under the name of Twinface’ (Fig, 2.3114, p. 148) is avail able from several manufacturers end emoloys an exhaust-air chimney. It has been successfully used in several projects, 2.4, reiurbisnment cl the Deutsche Telekom building in Cologne (architecte: Gtntor Moller and Hors! Scniosser, Deutsche TTalokom Building Dept). By arranging tha supplyair and exhaustair openings in the inner leai at verious levels. good ventilation ‘oan be guaranteed lor the interior ‘Supply-air fagace ‘A supply-alfagade can only be accom= plished in conjunction with macharical ait ‘exttacton irom the offices, This enables solar preheating and partial recovery of the ‘ranemission losses into the couble-leat facade. Combinng this with opening lights introduoes manuel contro or influencing io ‘order to bring about higher alr-change rates lecally. The savings in the heating require- ment are about 30% ef those made when using low-e glass and extamal ventilation, For reasons of interior comfort - surface tem-peralure of nner pans ~ the glazing ot the doubie-leat facade should employ single lazing for the outer leat, double glazing for tho innor one. Increased roar-varting cf the outer leat in winter also plays a suborainate role here, In suramer, exhaust-air vents in the outer leat must be opened while main tnining the direction of venting in order to uerantes tomoeratures witnin the fagade in the region of the amoient temoerature. Here, ‘the eunshading placed oetween the pense should be as reflective as possibe. I the rear-vonting is ignorad, thon simuletion sludies, checked by measurements ona test fagade, show thal, even compared to a version with inteinal shading, the cooling Glazing applicatone in bulcings and systore 2 faa rows 1 reuangss eran leateg asso 1 Seann ea ans ns al, Shaina ota 28.108 Hosting onuromenta actin of the ‘sruregsing Heating requrement 350) - 250 yo ulang 6 2 Design tomporatre te abi hating 20} ae é 14 25.111 Glsoatiun, Novatel Unversty econ 0, Gagnebiee ease ‘Garena 2bulieg London, ‘ciacs- Alup Asses 145Glass end energy ~ construction physics / Radaton Sound Enssions 25113 Thesrcblemsot eet oan cytes = Hesgortal ‘Slnas Fscace 99 ro ese — Baoraty P| toma ar Satie sult | sappivae ‘Supp ai 1 MET Shepy ai, cane aiegee 23.114 “Twinace”combhalion of wre ventaon sis sett chrmey 148 roquiroment almost doubles and reaches the foder of magnitude ct the savings in the heat- ing requirement. Ancther advantage cf sup- ply-alr over window ventlation isthe eption of proviging machanically assisted night-time ventilation by means o! the existing venile: tion plant (sae example, p, 274-277) Exhauet-ir facade ‘Ths s a reversal of the above venting dirac- tion. Here, the warm exhaust air in the double-leat fagade is compressed and hence called unon to reduce the transmis- sion losses. If we retain the glazing arrenge- ment of the supply-airfecace, tne savings drop to around 20% compared to our rofor fence facade due to the lack of solar pre- hating, The outer leaf shoula comprise double glazing to avols the appearance of condensation an this Isef, while the inner pane can be single glazing without having to worry about impairing comfort. This concent has been implemented on a small scale in Scandinavia andi Switzerland in the form of exiaust-air wincowe, and in Gormany tie sysiom is marketed in conjunetion with 1.4 Wink, which leads to the apparently “unavoidable” fimed pipes, is amplified when it comes te glass roofs because now cold air bubbles, caused by achseien, form under the roof, However, 36 Cold alr is heavier than hot air, gravity even- ‘ually takas over anda large bubble of cole air detaches itself and descends as a noticeable movement of the a. Alterward, the process starts all over agzin. in addition, particularly in rooms with a large exoanse of glazing, the lover temperature of the glass surface manifests tsa as a lower operative temperature so that the eame level of com- fort can only be achieved by raising the air temperature. Therefore, glasshouses are bes! used as butler spaces with minimal heating or none at al. Provided with cood- quality glass, these rooms exhiit comfort able temperatures for almost 80% of tne year. it, nevertheless, 2 glasshouse isto be heat 24, than thermal improverents, paricularly to the roof glazing, rust be carried out to taka aceauntaf the heating requirament This apparenily contradicts the demand for high transparency. Based on the Idea of the double-leat fagace, 2 double-skn construc: ‘ion woul! soem to offer a aclution here. The stationary layer of air can resuttin improve~ ments in heat losses amounting to 25 ~ 505%, devending on the type oF gless. Doubie-lea! lass roofs are dificult to clean: the usual ‘answer is to provide fixed double glazing outsid and movable single alazing inside. ‘Tho overheating in summer demands ahad- Ing for horizontal and shallow-pliched glass surfaces, External sunshading is mere effac- ‘ive in thermal terms but must be weather resistant, and if movable, neads extensive mgintenaree. Combining the shading funo= tion with the Geman for two skins would seem to be a gocd solution. The adjust- billy of the sunshacing can be combined with the movabilty of the inner leat in the form of rotating giass louvres, The inner leat may be shut to provide shade or to improve comfort levels In winter, As no descending cold air is to be expected when the sun shines, even during winter, and ihe glass heats up when exposed to sunshine, te gless louvres may be opened and the solar ‘ans aomitted directly into the room. The shading effect is achieved by printing on the lass louvres wich stil maintains the trans: pareney. “The new enirance foyer to the Stuttgart Chamber of Trade and Industry (pp. 278~ 279) illustrates this concept i ite elmest Fotizontal glass raat. The printing io tne Jouvres, black and also whita, chosen for ‘ermal reasons, leads to tne printed areas providing good shade and the white eave Ing layer good retlactve properties, as expected. At the sare time, the coverage onsity of 75% means that from urcemeath this does net appeer solid, the eve comple~ menting the image against the black pattern witnour diticuty, tha transparency remains. “The planned use of the eolar gaing in the bulfer space, while shaded in the transi tionary perieds ~ the ‘over has then ex- ceeded the 25°C room alr temaerature — ‘was not carried out in the end, The louvres are closed in the summer (high solar altitude angle), The neai build-up in te buffer space js thon mechanically diepotsed by photo- voltaic-powered fans, wnicn possess a high potential owing to the PV modules incorper- ‘ated at root level, especially when the sun is high in the sky. in this way the temperatura In the glasshouse can be lowered io below the ambient temperature, assisted by under ground cupply-sir cooling, Fig. 2.3.125 com pares the temperatures measured anc shows tho good correlation with a simulation using the simulation sulle TANSYS employed for the dasign. This keeps the room temper- lure below the ambient temperature, as Glazing applications in buildings and systems changes ns tagace Sonny a | a wa] Le 1G SOD SO ‘areca Win? Lar changes inroom [A M4 [Siler diaon od Win? | ip Tberatue arerrceiridoousce 3K un speed scscertt aga ys) 23118 Ai-change ales loradoubleteattacade Faeerae as Soa ar zane pons for nest abentien cones 13 eueeat agadein 1.7(Grass ana energy ~ construction physlos required by the brief With a maximum oxtor- ral temperature of 31°C, the internal temper- ature just touches 26°C, a8 the concept function verifies, This ventilation can alsa be backed un ther- mmaly in glass hails with internal sunshading if tha glass reat can be raised above the level of the surrounding stucture anc vent ation openings incorporatad there. Fig. 2.121 shows the rsiaod doubio-leat glass rcot of the Bac Golbarg Thermal Baths ‘Solar chimney One spacial form of the glasshouse or ect-gain system is the solar chimney. Hora, in contrast to the rearvarted solar wall, we are act geining heat for the Interior but instaad overheating the exhaust air by the trapped colar heat and so generating 3 supplementary stack eftact. Te aim of this, concept is fo maintain natural exhaust-air sysiemes in sunmmer t00 when intemnal- external temperature citferences are low or ‘ever negative, One example of this ararga- ‘ment is tha entrance foyer to the Schieswtig- Holstein Social Security Office in Labsck: (Fig, 2.3.122). The seven-starey glass hall swith iis generous expense of piiched gaz Ing facing scuth receives extra ventilation via a15 m high solar chimney activated by Solar radiation overheating the exhaust-air when incident radiation levels are high. For this, the glaes chimney @ fitted with absorb- tent surfaces wnich severely overneat me coxhaust-air 1 Lows oss 2 Sige asses Lo 20417 Sinaust sr ngado:dvolodea fade tne ahebar in rsa ‘cece: Raunann Tey 8 Parner Extra noice tena cade th vt Bear asia) = Fagada ccride 61 68) aoe ————— A we Saeco) — ‘Suny veo vensmated Speecavaran 29 35,4) ox rig level sopran 82 sO) SpeocseaBa ator sound ulation alg bur sufcen er ‘anal gov dentally speech uate rok Somorehensibe ala zane 23:18 Soungproragatonn doula! aga, Dussouer stator Vocation clogs, Brosen Drees: Baurachagor Chote 148 otive ue In contrast to passive uses, active uses employ auxiliary metars and neat transport media In order to corwey and store the en: eray gained from the sun. Solar ecliectors A solar eallector explois the same effects as 2 dlract-gain system in that it converts shor'- ‘wave sola’ radiation into heat radiation. The iference Is thet the collector space is not available for use but instead accommodates 2 heat exchanger which dissipates 28 mu: of the incident radiation as hat via air or weter (Fig. 2.8.128, p. 180). A solar collector is desiqned to collect solar radistion and transfor the absorbed enargy to a transport medium, e.g. water or air, win minimel loceee, Thorstore, 2 collector is specified by way of lis capacity 10 absorb solar racietion ‘and the magnitude ofits heat lossas. This, phetathermic” way of generating heat via solar collectors is a cifferent principle to the “photovoltaic” use for generating electricity trom solar raciation via solar cai. ‘Tho optical oropertios of the collector cover- Ing ~ usually glass and the surtace of the absorber determine the abilty of the solar collector to absorb solar radiation. & ccilec- tor cosign that keens the cover at alow tem perature reduces the front-side heat losses, This can be achieves by reduoing the heat ‘renepott Detweon abaarber and covar. The use of a “selectve" ansorber decreases 116 ‘adiation perton of thie heat trarspert from absorber frst cover layer, The consequence of tis surface beaiment Naa ASS. Te Duszaldod Stator ‘rcitets: Psy, Pr & Parner 2am0‘2a high ateorption sepacity of 0095 in the lar radiation spectrum and a low emis sions capacity of 15% in tho long-wave heat radiation spectrum. Hence, ine solar raga ‘ion is wall intercepted and the radiation losses of the now warm atssorber minimized. A cover vith an inftared/-reflective coating 1g Inwarcs works similarly and reduces iransmiss0n (0388s 10 about 15%. Water collectors Fig. 23.127 (p. 150) Illustrates various eon Is for water-coaled collectors. Withaut ‘covers and without thermal insulation at the rear they are designated absorbers and fie- ‘quently used for heating swimming pools, Ase heat exchanger to teir surcundings they are used as a heat source for heat purps. ese apsorbers are made from metal or plastic and must 58 UV-resistant. ina fat plate collector the absoraer is provided with ® trensparent over en the frant andl opaque insulation on all other sides — a sort of mini« greenhouse, The "evacuated collector" re duces the front-side losses between ab- sorber and cover by inreducing a vacuum to suporess the convection. Flat-piate cal: Jectors with albelt only shanty reduces intoral pressures rust cupport the cover wih spacers to counteract te eitecis oF atmospheric pressure Evacuated tube collectors (ETCs) (Fig 23,728, p. 180) emmoloy a high vacuum in rder fo ouppreas loases thraugh heat con: ‘Sucton between air miclecules. Some at these tube collectors make use of tha haat ‘anger tube principle to transfer nest from the absorbar via the condenser ta tha 23121 Bed Ocoee MemnalBatto vchtocts: aulinann Tal & Pare water. The thermal conductance of such ¢ heat exchanger tube is 10 times higher than ‘that of a plain copper ripe with the sor cimensions. Heat transport takes place by the evaporation of water or a refrigerant in the absorber zone and via the condensation at he head of a hast axenanger tube which projects clear ol the glass tube, exposed 10 the transport medium. This enabies the con- struction te be reduced to a erica penetra, tion, Air eotectors Al collectars exhibit nc corrosion andl trost- protection prolams and present fever problems in terms of leakage. Fig. 2.9,129 (p. 190) ilustrates various con ‘cepts which all attempt to compensate for the disadvantage of poor het iranster be: tween the absorber an the transport med jum, air, by aniarging the area of the host exchanger, Contact betwaen the nested ar and the cover must 2¢ avoided. Air colle: {ors for preneating the supply air or clrculat- ing air can be readily incorporated in HVAC plant. When doing soit should be remem- bored that the fens of air-cooled solar col- leciors, even wity an optimized pressure drop, consume up to four times mare energy than ths pumps of wator-eoolod collector. ‘The choice of whieh cotector to use is very much dependent on the process or temper- aiure range in which the collector gains are to be used, Fig. 23.131 (p. 150) shoms the various types of collectors with their degrees of efficency at civerse temperature ditfer- fences and their main applications. Tab. 23.135 (o. 190) lists te heat gains from collectors according to their uses, 20.128 Foyer Soi Secu Ofc Leck -rcaliss Bemisch & Bariseh Glazing applications in bullgings and systems 28:23 Fagado constuction Zeppain Block, Sutact Deshler Vier 8 Parner Topertra'C] a 1 Tenperaure cue ving 2 Tengeralre botweon sndhade enditrer pana yy 3 amber trea Sper irpetie a 28124 Tomperetues meesued ne coupled wh dof tha Zzopetn Sock “Tenge 70) {Ambler timparaira Che wedk n Aunist 2 Foye: erp Somundae! tempera “omperatne curves aerme i thao tance foyer to he Sugar Chamber oF Ta0e ana nayGlass and eneray ~ construction physics 4 Z 2 Ze 7 a Ae e we re sooo. {) Sear = Ameen 29127 Wateroalostrs osoor Gloss tbe Trarsearet uses Salecive su Evecusted ‘viewed gas ute 20198 Bvacuitel tibecslectre 218100 Eneigy amos at varausoxatonsheichs inoue T wan a Ty SC a Ne )| Ts Tae i bite tae ae (5 listo te io 4 Pome 1072 | 4 i |i im Pal 5 |i tae te Tos | one 7 1440 87 | false ie ae 7) | ga t05s 85 | f) >| oe se ‘080 2 8 | 1080 7010 ric =o [iim & ma [ake ae i 1 dati; nottvaie ol the Nos. 47°30 2 150 mt Ais, a6 30 "atom ecu ate ho Als, 48°10" Dacron of tency 61 ‘Suirming ool Process eet " Nor iskng water Seaceheatng | 03 08 09 O12 a1 ate o2t oz ‘Operting patimatr hy Yn JE jl + Biaciatedtune cole 2. Fatpateealocte a 24.181 Varoustygesct cotecoss oramterent wrcceseas “sec Tworpaso ype (@azunarheny Version wih ‘asscele ter upprersing cor ‘eter B Aroucts 9 Thermal nssiaton 0 Gass cols 233302 PY moouls serving seme surstauy ne soubtasirgretigh Phoioveltaies o solar ceils In contrast fo solar collectors, soler cells, convert solar radiation not into host but directly into electricity. Tne eneray of the un is omplayod to datach electrons from a semiconductor structure and distbute these by means of attached matal connec- tions, Sticon is usualy used for these ser conductors, the most common elemant an Eerth apart from oxygen. To protect the skin-thin silicon waters they are normally 4gluod to © glaas pane. We distinguish ‘between amorphous. crystaline anc poyy- crystalline silizon and the coerasponding soar calls, depending on the ram material used, A 100 x 100 mm solar cell produces approx, 1.5 W at full Incident radiation end a voltage of 0.5. Besides the inclination and orientation ofthe photovoltaic surface, the outputs of s ‘ells (Tab, 2.2,130) ere cleo dapendent on the type of cell, While monocrystalline cells achiove dogracs of offcioncy af 12 ~ 160, ‘ne polyerystaline versions reach just 9 5084, and the amorphaus 2 mere & — 63%, As Ine degree of efficiency of a solar cell decreases as the temperature rises, good ventilation or rear-venting of the photovoltaic modules should always be guaranteed. Tne individual cells can elso be spaced within © laminated glass unit and in tis form serve ae fixed shading wih integral energy source. Fig, 23,182 shows PV modules act- ing as wed shacing in a south-facing roaflight. Thip-flm solar celle ‘The latest development in soler cell techno ‘ogy is tho thin variaty in whio® silicon is ‘yecuurr-sputtered directly onto a glass plats, By pure chance, the leading devel- ‘oper In ths tela, the “Solar Engineering end Hyckogen Centre” Stuttgart, ciscovared that ‘he cells achieve better degrees of eficien ay when coupled with normal flat glass anos Instead of the high-quailty quartz glass panes used intaly, 28.188 Enegy ulputactealeatar yet Saten Use pening Ouest aie Fewer Alyeor 900 <5 {plaster _proviion ina isle Supplementary Heatag 80 — 120 follector heating poved Wins fo Preheaing Alvear 40 follecler arin ‘ita ine pos! a ro Prenssing Heath 40 ~100, falester — Suorlyar pales ling feroticcePart 3 + Construction details Contents, 9.4 Fixings for glass Glazing bead Combined sealing and retaining function Glazing ber Structural seatant glazng Clamping plate Pont fixing witiout penetrating tie glass pane Point faxing with dled hole Jonlat an unsupported edge Suspenced slazna Spices \Walls and foots of glass blocks 2.2 Openings Window in solid wall Ogening in patent gazing (Opening in structural sealant glazing 3.3 Architectural details Flat roof junction Flo junction ‘Spancrel panet Rie-entrant facade ots Joint at an unsupported edge 3.1.81 Joint aotall single glazing 2.1182 int catail laminated safety glass 3.1.83 Joint detail, double olazing 5.1.84 Junction wth partition, double glazing 341.98 Comer detail, double glezing Horigental actions, ecelo 111 An essential characteristic of point fnnge is the distntion between thing anc seeing. Fige 9.7.81 ~ 2.1.33 lustato options for seals between glass elements witout interna external frames. The sealing profie~EPOM cr silicone ~is pressed fio the joint it seule exhibit a certain presirese oo that fis ti ‘Such jonts cen be rapidly closed during nota lation: an inectec sealent can be apclied leer The covered robetee ol irulating glass, lami ‘ated safety glass and wired glass must ‘refrain sree of eoalent co that vapour pressure fequalzation and drainege are guaranteed. & backer rod must net be included here as this ‘would block te open rebate andi hiner the vanourpressira equalization. Moisture ‘escapes fo the outside via the drainago oye tem When ving laminated safety glass the soaling pralle musi cover the jnt between panes so that, lke wih inaulating glass, the edge seal ang the exposed PVB interlayer or cestng resin are in tha area ofthe vapour-pressure equaization and hence na moisture bulés up {and remains repped thete over a longer period. Fig, 41.34 shows a tameless connection bbotioon a glase parttion and 2 double-clazed cextornel wll Fig. 2.1.95 llusrates two cilferent options for the corner detail of frameless double glazing, Here io, itrrust be ensured thatthe rebate remains fee of seelantin order to guarantco the vapour-pressure equalization 1 Sine gaxios 2 Laminated ges 5 Gob alsa 4 sean orn 3 Pemunanty taste ant 6 PUB intrisyer 7 Dranage‘Construction details Suspended glazing Disorete support 3.198 Glass suspended with clerang plates Vertical section and elevation, scale 1:3, Insiead of reestanding panes, a constuction may emplay glazing suspended from above, “This method avoids the buckling of large panes and so allows thinner glass to be used, {ithe manufacturer's maximum pane sze is ‘exceaded, several panes may be hung on teach other like a chan. When using au- pended glazing t shoud be ensured that te ‘suspension system coes not induce any extra Sresses nthe panes. This can be avoided by Using for example, an articuated joint Tha etal shown in Fig. 8.1.98 nas the hangers lus to the glass: ancther posstolty isto ingert tots in erled holes, A suspension ays tem involving vanrical metal olazina barsiisaiso conceivable, The botom edges of the oenes ‘must be tree to move; at ns point nay are sacled in grooved oroflos n suc a way that Sruciural movement or deflections in the floor ‘sab can be compensated for. Ha paneis fractured, then the advantage of suspended olazing is tat the traamerts do not rep like a quilotine gut netoad sontinus t hang from their supports, Splices 81.97 Gaassfin 81.93 Sorewed splice conection Elovetions and plane, scale 1:5 tha splice, the glass elemants carnot move ralativ to each other. The screwed connec ‘tons shown m 8.1.37 end 3.1.38 functon as ‘hough the individual glace components wero ‘one piece, This Isa cid joint. The resulting properties must 6¢ takon into acceunt when calculating the stresses in the glass. fan expansion jon’ is required, it cannot be incer- porated ata splice. 182 1 ons 2 brine ant 8 Canmng ae # Ganstnn 5 vointng came 6 Parmaneny faust, 1 Oise 2 Botan ockout 8 Stes solce pate 4 Iernesats oad 5 Shirlessstea Tero, between bear nd1 Gass beck 2 Neorariont 5 Boer 3 Berfocement 5 Novara pit / Insubton © Sicing beeing bi mova toed 5 Corre rate 18 Ste channel section 8 Masony anchor 10 Permananty late seal aso Glass blocks ‘Walle and floots of glace blocks 2.80 Glase block wal ittad into masanny chases 5.140 Glass black wall tad into channal section 8.1.61 Glass floor mace ot hollow blocks Veitical and norizortal sections, scale 1-5, Glass blocks must be built into 2 wall without restraint; loads from the structure may be transferred to the glass blocks. Continuous fexpansicn ein’, filed with palystyrene or simi- lar ere regured at the sides ane along bie tap, “Tha bottom horcer should be laid on a sing joint of plain btumnais board (Fig. 8.1.89). If fitted into channel sections (Fig. 8.7.40), then a “iding joint of oes paper or plain btuminovs board srould be placed in tne size section. “Ths latoral fixings to tho building ar to bo designed as siding anchors, The ccnctete between the gass biacks should not be too hard (max. grade B 25}, so thet the glass blocks are not compressed and damaged as a rasul of tompereture fluctuations. The borders should be no vider then 100 mm to avoia ner. mel restraint Reinforcement isto be calculated In ing wit sructural requirements and shoud consis cf galvanized or stainless steoi bars. To reduce the restraint forces In glass block walls, expansion jcints should be incorporated every 6 mi they should take account o the harzartal forces acting cn the component. Te coating the ede of to indvidual blookce must remain Intact it ensures a good bend wit the con- crete, Jon's must be suficienty imporvlous to prevent the mortar rias fram becoming damp. ‘Glazing with glass blocks can be erected ‘0 suit varying classes offre protection. Fig. 3.1.41 shows a hollow glass biock floor \With apprepriete detaiing, both constructions can also be used for flat cols. In the case oF loadbcaring glass block floors or glass and concrete floors, ine Interaction of he glass block, cenerate and reintorcemant causes the ‘lass ta be loaded as well, The glass block ‘must thereloce be bonded to the surounding ‘concrete 2 shat t sen accept the lores trans ‘etted ‘rom the total construction, The glass blooks used in such a ceae musi be capable cf carrying unrestricted toot vate. Gass anc concrete constuotons ae to be protestoe ‘agains! restraint forces induced by the rest ot the structure by means of expansion and sli ing joints, r 163Constuction detats 3.2 Openings Windeswin solid wall 2.2.1 Wood 32.2 Alumnum 323 Steal 3.24 Plastic Horizental and vertical sections, scale 1:28 “The options fer fixing glass in window ‘ames are shovin in Fig. 3.1.1 “Glazing beac" on p. 153. Glazing beads aro usually fitted to the inside, The junction with the wall must be provided with thermal insulation right around the perimeter and mace vapcur-tant internally, Externally, ine seal must offer adequate weathar protection, be ‘able to withstand driving -ain and be per- ranontly resistent to UV radiation and othor effects, The tretmal expansion of aluminium, greater than that of wood or steel, must be taken into account. Figs 9.2 4 and 3.2.2 iluetrate examples with lust one Sea between subfiame and 164opening light. However, two seals are better for thermal insulation, and 8.2.4. An edge incorporeted in this case oreinage and vapourprossure equallzction take place in trent ot tne outer seal. Oranage in metal or plastic profiles is relatively easy to accomplisi, in wooden windows this 's best achieved via the mortise and enon joint of the Bottom rail, whgows S (iN font 10 Therma resk 42 Drsinape chsaalConstruction detais 166 428 ‘Opening in patent glazing ‘Opening in structural sealant glazing 825 Glazing bar, wooden wincow Horizental ang vorties! sections 326 — Glazing bar, alumnium whdow Vertoal section 327 Stuctural sealant glazing Horizenial znd verlcal sections 328 — Structural sealant glazing Vertical section Scale 1:25 Figs 3.2.5 and 3.26 illustrate ontions forthe Junctos of an epaving light end pastand-rail Construction wth patent glazing, The subframe cl the window in ths ease s ingertod like an insulating glass unt oetween loadbearing sec: tion end glazing bar. Fig, 3.2.6 shows a gazing bar connected irocty othe ineuating glass, without edoe tape. & joint >5 min rust be provided here so thatthe pane is nat restrained when atacting the glazing bar rar tie edge ofthe glass dam: 8926, which would inhtbt the adhesion of the spalant on thres lenis, Figs 32,7 and32. stow possible openings In structeral soalare glazing. nF'g 327 tiling window is combinec with te mete! sectons o! the sunsreding 1 Oouble gazing 11 Sinsheding eament BRewstercnavel 12 Aahacie 3 Pot 13 Mectanealeng 3 Ral 18 Tremalyinsuatoe S Giang tarvthites panel alba 15 ingraeole ‘Wingon rare 9 Sah farang coment frame opening int 10 Gsing beadLouvres 329. Single glazing, Faneless 82.10 Double glazing wih theta break in Vertical sections, scale 1:5, Louvre windows are suitable fo: fine regulation of tho verting of rooms or mult-ckn fagades. ‘Ingy can also be used as smoke anc heat vents. Courtless variations are avaliale in single of double glazing, wih or witout frames. The basic structural considerations apply lke for a vertically phioted window, for example + Sire seneg 2 Ooukieaiezng 5 Phot & Gua retaners arenas 5 Edneseal 6 Frame refi wth 7 brishinge nosthoratp 8 Frame /talioion Fame LouwesConstiuction details 1 Sovbiealsnieg 2 Aurion operat 3 Panic space tock 43 Sweetest cleat 5 Vapour bamer 8 Eon 6 Anes skenfium hast cris, vaterreotng ‘femal nelson 10 Slum beare 11 Geslonge 12 Vapour tarier 13 Seal pie 114 Soon in abated now 435 Eamennny ste oe 48 amit seston ine 1 Pood ih atepreot ahesne 19 dot Farge 20 Alaris ar e810 ‘Sipperingeanmmusion 2t Fabre smehads 22 Gul brchot 28 ins fac pane 24 Cation canes 25 Farorated sine ban 26 Slanless sel ala, be 28 Stel Fapncotl showing 23 Architectural dtl Flat roof junction 33.1 Gonerete construction 33.2 Timber conaiructn 333 Stee! construction penetraton 334 Fasciaplato/ eunchace Vertical sections, scala 15 Fig. 9.8.1, The primary abucture hors ie reinforced concrete, The edge of the sigo and the overiying roof construction are clad vith @ stee plate anchored to the conorete. ‘The poate ara fixed to angles walded to this plate. Tha connection o! tne upper fegace railta the edige plate is dfusion-iight and airtight. The clearance between glazing and plate should be wide enough to allow clean ing of the gless. Heat reflected from the edge ofthe slab could lead to stresss in the glase causod by varying heating olfects. A stationary ‘ayer of air Gan lead 1 conden ‘sation occurring: the inclusion of ventilation louvres is an advantage, Fig. 5.8.2. The primary structure here is an ingulated timber lattice: timber panels form the fascia, The junction with the facade is achieved two-fold in the plane of the close by a clamped plastic block, and inthe struc. tural plane by an inculated aluminium hollow ‘section with thermal break. The connection must he able to accommadate movemerts in the fagade es well as deformation of the primary structure caused by moosed loads, thermal expansion etc. it must also remain Giffusion-tight and artignt and be thermally inaulates, Fig. 3.3.8. The primary stucture nore 's sleel The ‘acacia posts are fixed to the main siruciure via steal angles. The steel beams penetrating the facade represent thermal bridges, Condonaation may ceaur ard thie ‘should be drained away in a controlled men- nor (o.g. condaneation channel). The joint between external skin and beam must 08 abla fo accommodate the various move- ments of the fegade and loadbearing struc- ture (especially thermal expansion and wind loads), It must alse be difusion-tight and airtight, Such a joint is normally covered ty a slainiess sleel sleeve fitted to the cutside. Fig. 3.3.4, The primay situcture here is reinforcod concrete, The fagado posts are fixed to the main structure via @ castin slol- ted chanel, The connacton of the uper facade pane! Is to be diffusion-tght. Sur shading in frantaf the facade should be fixed independenty of the fagade construc tion (warranty problems}. & fascia panel conceals the sunshaging installation,———— A ASS HehConstruction deal’s 4 Davee dosing 2 aun ogace rat 9 Pog carstutten fear foo seria 4 Safe gid stamess stow! 5 Stel ita het-ip cata B Shel angle hatin ealinn 7 Seewinesogetd role 8 Auuneium she! Gover ans 2 Thormal ulaion 10 Movement fit, permanenly Shsicseal 1 Facade para fouchenedl at alse, alimiaun sheet 12 Casein soted chenrol 8 Seal bases lap alan '5 Augnriun seston slaw ‘utara rea 1 Padi space Bock 7 EPEMad Face pana thermal noultion 12 Wecden 2anetng 20 Moreen ae brs 2 Fabs sunshade 42 Vapote bariee 170 } Floor junction 2.3.5 Continuous facade 33.6 Floor covering extending to external xin 8.3.7 Smoketight junction 3.3.8 Smoke-tgnt uncton, lowre bind 3.3.9 Smokeight uncon, avning 3.3.10 Smoketight uncon, lattoe 33.11 Junotion in timber eenstruction Vertical sections, scala 1:5 “Tne floor junction etals shown hero dior in their specifications regarding fire protection, thermal ingvlation end sound insulation. I tho glazing continues to tne floor, nen it must be Fomambered that clagning equipment or other rrovable tems could damage ine glass and cause chips from which cracks can Uevelop. If there is & isk of falling, nner panes musi be made of safety glass with a teickness appropriate to the circumstances, Fig. 335. The facage passes in tnt ot ne ‘24g 0! the Tloar, whieh ig covarod by asteel plate, The joint betwen floor and fapade is ‘pan. Tne posts fixed to the main structure by'a welded plate Ihe gap between floor and facade is > 60mm, a safety grid is nor mally required. The rospective regional build ing autherity stioulates what is necessary. Fig. 3.3.6 coracponds to Fig. 3.3.8 but here the floor covering continues to meet me facade. Floor loads may not ho transferred io the fagade, The Junction must include a par- rranenily eastic seal but itis no! smoke-ight ‘and does not comply with the sound insula tion recuirements of DIN 4109. Figs 9.2.7 - 3.10, The fagade ie interrupted at the floor, The connections are smoke:tignt, difusion-tight and airtight. The facade is to bbe checked for flanking sound tansmissions inthe case of ¢ higher sound insulation spec- ification (DIN 4108). Penetrations for the pur pose of attaching sunchacing (Figs 2.3.8 - 35.10) represent thermal briiges, Dillion: tight and atrtignt comections and carstully acigned insulation details are reaurred. In adcition, the jant in ne glass panel must be capable of aecommedating movements in the ‘fegace, the fascia and the primary structure, anc mist include ¢ permanently eastc seal Inthe vertical bind is fixed by mezns of a ‘mounting fited in the rooue for the serew fixing, he outer skin is not penetrated. Such a detall demands exact coordination win fegade and eunsneds manuiacturers (warranty) Fig. 2.11, The primary structure is formed by an insulated timber lattice. The fagace is interrupted at each flor by the timbar beens, Ifthe fagade boars on the flor, then the upper jaint rust be able te accommodate movement Fa yuu sae Floor junction 2 is fo a ee te é = 2 aeConstruction details — He 4 + Dat lating 2 Auminm agadecat '5 Poa space tisk 4 Amis sacton ireulatect wh thera & thos 2 7 Sea engla @ 8 Thermal rulaton 5 Aran or vantaton 12 Fo corstucti taare lone color fatnn sae Ispatng mumorane 7 Impact una ino talon | aera 18 Gratin sotee curve I 8 ° Vandon ston raring = 18 Permanent east | leat 6 Shine sto od +7 Rocorstisted etre fosing 18 Shiness sve frovatlesreror 19 Seal tat 10 Sod sane pare mem m Spandrel panel 23.12 Prefabricated far ‘rel panel 3313 Metal scanckel panel 83.14 Reconstitted stone spandrel pans 12 concrata spon: Vertical sections, scale 15 Shown here are three exemples of spandte! panels wth varying arciitectural and com stuctonal aporoaches, as wll as diferent raters, Fig, 23.12, The primary structure here is eain- forces concrete, The spandrel penel isrrade from a profebricated fat~face concrote eloment anc is thermally isolated ran the reinforced Cconcretstcor slab. Itis connected by @ spa- cial, thermally insulated reinforcing cage. The spandre! oanal must be insulated on the sige nd a vapour barter - protected against dere age — attached to me Inner face. Consequent- ly. the mass storage effect ofthe spancrel panel carnot be used forthe internal climate ‘The suriace finish ofthe spandiel panels of fairface qualiy The facade bears ono i sus- pended from ech toor. Connectons are {tharafora either rigid or lexina. Fiking ie by ‘means of a fagads ral fited to an insulated luminium Follow section wth thermal break, iis positon is adjusted by mears of steel plates ‘ited underneaty and tis fied to the spandrel panel using slain stee! screws, To evoid ‘galvanic corrosion, an intermeciate nad (2.9. EPOM) must be placed bstween ste! end alu ‘minium, The coanections must be perrranentiy blastic, ifsion-ignt anc airtight Fig. 93.18, The primary structure here Is telo~ forcad concrete, n ths example the facade post continues past the spandrel panel and the fagade i freestanding. Load transfer isal the top ofthe spandrel pansl by an insulated ali- minum hollow ection with thermal breek, seat angio and oact-n elated channel in the aol sangre! panel. The upper ecnneston tes the fagacls horizontally ard must be abie to accommodate thermal exoznsion, movernents ‘ue te wind load and structural movemerts: it must remain eiflsion tight and aitight, The ‘apade is ixed tothe main structure va an inaulated steel engle integrated in the fagade ‘al Insulation is afieed to the outside of the panceel panel. The vapour barrier muet bo correctly postianed and tie insulation pro- ‘ectod against dampness. There is an air 930 behind the sparcre! pane} for vertlaton,Arig aluminium sheet llerger onesrequice ‘ramng) is gues to aluminum angles indeper denty ofthe actual facade. These angles ppeneirate the Insulation and are fed tote sparddiel panel, The connections must bs Uesigned tb be edlustebie in tes drecions to compensate for the various tolerances instruc turaland fagade works. mths examole i is chlevad via a castin slotted channel and celengated holes in the steel argies. Flo, 3.3.14 The primary siucture nere is ten- forced Gonoroto. In thi dota tre autor skin is Inettupted by the spancrel pane's, and the fagade is arranged tetween the floors. The fx Ing points are either rigid or tlexible, depend: ing cn wether the facade is desianed as tree. standing 0” euspondod. Tho railio fied to the rain sructure via an Insulated alumnium not- low section (nth therral break) and discrete sleel angles thhed to castin slotted channels. ‘The fixing is adjustable in thrae directions to compensate fer the various tolararees in struc- ture and fagada, The fagade is fixed to the main structure by an irsuleted steol angle into fated inthe ral, Insulation is affixes to tne cute sido ofthe epandral penal. Tre vapour barrior ‘must be postoned correcily on ine hsioe of the inaulation, which must have a cleseccell structure 89 that it does nol become saturated by diving rain, PE shesting is also required to revide protection from the weatner. ‘The rear-ventad facing panelis & reconsituted sone clemert, e.g, prefabricated reinforced ‘conte tis ettacted by stainless steel ‘nchore which rast bo able to ascommedato thermal movements In two arections, This complished by means of plastec slaaves in the ancnar noles and by allowing the lower anchor to move Spendeel paral 173Construction detais 1 cub ga 2 alumina taraderat 83 Fas spacer tose 4 Ancalied amino 0 revoir ‘eran se 09 Nae ita 17 Trralinevaton 2 Auminim ehet cover por vapeur barr 9 Eom inlorgates 10 Stem pa, tap alanzed 14 Bluninimarols 12 Satey gla Saess ng taing sowea Isoathg mentraro Inpad sound insula 14 Seat angie hotd pone 19 Cast slated chame 16 Facace para toushered safety dass. pines ‘hema nelson 47 Stal beach th and pa hobo ghar eo 18 Opn Heong, otal galanizod 18 Steal beam to-ap lianas 20 Stel tapered sueing 174 rant fagedo 2.3.18 Panel comer with penetration 3.3.16 Fane! comer, wit penetiation 33.17 Glazed comer Vertical sections, scale 1:5 Datais in Figs 3.9.18 -3.3.17 ilustate typice ‘corner arrangements in post-andtrall constu tion forrecessed or projecting sections in vertical fagade. Facades may be designed as treestending ‘uspencied. In the Feostanding eaze, tha junc tion at he comer must De formed as a txed ‘support and be ale to accommedate harizon- tal and vertical acs, For suspended facades, the junction naed only accomrrodate horizontal leads. k must be able to slide veticaly in erder to enable maverent caused by thermal exoan- sion and wind loede: tha ie actioved by having elongated fxng holes. Fig. 39.18. Tho primary structure hore is roin forced conerete. The gass pare continues to finished floor level. The gap between fagace: and structure Is bridged by a steel ange sorewed on. The edge of the slab is covered by a glass panel weh suitable insulaton and parmanantly elastic, dfusior-tight and aright ‘sealing, The fagade Ie emly fxaa to the struc {ure via east-h slotted channel and steel angles adjustable in hiee directions. The fagace panel is penetrated at incividuel places by alas fins fr attaching sunsnades, escape: balegnies ele. This penetration must incoreo- rate @ permanety elastic seal to prevent the inaulation trom becoming came. Fig. $3.16. The primary stucture here is ste2l “The construction consists of continuous stes! beers and sieal trapezodal sheeting with con: crete topping. The steel beam penetiaies the outer ski. This point reprosents a thermal bridge which must be careluly detailed. The spaces between the beame aro filed wth ass panels. Joints must have permanently lasts seats and bo able to accommodate rmoverrents causad by trenal expansion, dt- ferent loading cates, ec. The jurction between facade rail and sigel beammust be able to accommodata the various olerancas inthe facade and siruciwal steslwork and also p=t- mit movements brought ebout by loads (hind, lmpoted eto, and tharmal ateneec. Tho toc! ‘beam passes ftom cold cufside arto heated interior and so constitutes a termal bridge. t must therefore be completely insulated in order ta prevent the occurrence of candensetion, “The inrer face ofthe insulation is to be provid ed with ctfusion-igh! and aitight vapour barrier. FFig. 3.8.17. The primary structere here rein forced concrete with peripheral steel plate The glass is extended downwards as fares jssible, Thermal insulation is attached to the underside of th floor slat and faced wih, for example, fle-reinforced cement slabs. The facade is roostending, Fercoe are tiancferred via tne seo! angie weledtc the steal pate. “The ovetlap of the feqace and steeluerk trades creates problems nere (aiferent tolerances, \werranty issues). Tha facade rai is insulatac in order fo avoid thermal bridges. The inner face (ofthe insulation must be provided with @ ver ‘menortlyelzotc geal and remain diftusion tight and aitight. The gap between fagace anc struct. isto be closed with s safety grid in Germany the respective regional buling aurhoety stipulatas what isnacassary.Cloan- ing in this gap as well as the stationary layer of airata relatively poorly insulated spot — might lead to problems wit ths detail Revertrant fagade M 0-|hConst'uction detalts TT Soule gazing Ataninism ade Baste spacer bck Barts sosing ee & Femnananty suc sea) 6 Past glo 7 brjgeaa aluminium ang & ‘ermal eauaton Ines aliminamsee 10 Theat rece 1 Insltes sluninars exe tor, we eat reas 12 Nepour baer 1 Plasterboard celing on teaming 46 Intter-grad plosee 4 Stat angia, hors aanzec 17 Seal trapeze shesing 1 Terber isle 19 vow porting 28 Aluminum ones aga 2) Serow in gorgated nae 22 Gilam bean 176 Junction with underside of floor 8218 Junctionwith steal construction 33.19 Underside of umber constuction 8820. Underside of double-leaf construction 8321 Underside of floor, extemal sulation 8822 Underside of foor. itn thermal oreek 820. Undorside of foor. internal ineulaton \Vortcal sactions, scale 1.5 Datais in Figs $3.18-3..20 ilustate connec: tiors betwoon 2 postanc-rall fagace anc vari- ‘ous hovizoréal floor soffts which can occur. for exemple, with reentrant iagades. Dotais ings 8.9.20-3,3.20 snow: citerent sacthott intontone, e.g. whothar tho undorsido Of concrete slab 15 10 2 exo0sed, pert oov ‘ered or fully concealed. In allceacas the upper fagacefloa’ correction must ke designed in such way that movements ofthe oor (caused by imposed loads, sotlement ets) do rnptinduce any compression in the glass. A ling jont must be incorporataa if nacossary. Fig. $3.18. The prmary stisoture heres tee. ‘The flor comprises steal rapezcical sheeting with 2 concrete topoing supposted on Koeam sactions, The beams and trapezoidal sneeting penetrate the outer skin. The entire siee! con- sition is insulated externally in order to pre vertinternel condencaricn. The connaetion between fazade and main structure is va & teal angie anc allows for ditorantal ove. mnt. Ingulaton is ited betasen the beams. ‘The extemal cladding should be removable (On the inside, the connection must be perme- nantly elasic as wells cifusion-tight and al tight Fig. 58.19, The arimary stucturs here is tim- boot. Tho fagada ie reeetandling. Tho post is connected to he man stucture via elongates holas to enable itta slide vericaly. An insulat- ed make-up piece, camped inthe upper facade rail and insertad via = channel section {as movement pnt wity thermal weak so that Itean move. connects the facade tothe tibet ‘eansiucton. A narrow fancie covers the join, ‘Tis should be removabla so that te cover ‘ip can bo detached folowing breakage of the glass. The fagade junction must be dftisiontight end airtight. on tha inside Fig. 8.8.20, The prirary stucture nere is rein- forced concrate. The facade is treestancing so the upper junction must be fixed horizontalyJunction with undarside of foor but rae to slide veticaly. The exposed under- ‘Sido of tho alab is covered with on ineiatcn- ‘grade plesior extemally. The connection must 16s di.slon-ight anc artighton the insido. Fg. 83.21. The prirary stucture here is rein- ‘oreed concrete. The junction vith the under. side ofthe flor is, n principle, identical to that in Fig. 8.8.20, though in that deta the min Stuctre is concealed intemally and externally, by a suscended ceiling, The junction must be ‘prmarently lactic es well ae difucion tight and alright, External cladding shoule be removable in the vicinity oft fagacie $0 that the cover stip can be detached ‘olowing breakage ot he oless, Fig. 2.3.22. The primary stucture here is roin- fcroad conerete. Theres a thermal break in the floor slab above the fagade. In conirest to Fig, 3.3.20, ihe Unction Is exposed on bain sites, ‘The fegade ie connected to the sruclure by en angle and elastic adheshe, Fig. 23.23. The primary stucture here isrein- forced conerete, The junction is basicaly the semeas detal in Fig.33.20 but in his case the undoraide ofthe floor slab ie expeeee externally, The slab must be insulated internally uth trips of vapour retarders. The thickness ‘and lengtn of the vapour reiardr strips are tures subject to purely tensile stresses. which alloied the requited sxareseon of slendemeas fo be achieved. Steel bears in the attic terey ‘corwey al loads to tho aiid walle at the cide. ‘The steel frame ls Sablized by stainless ste ‘cables ard ig also fwadi to the concretaflocr Slabs at the ft access landings. Each of the storey-height glass panels ‘othe if svaftis fixed between the tubular ame structure ans the Tights of stairs with four pipe cli. The fully ‘glazed Kit ears nave 6 structural framoverk consisting of ste! sections. Sheet-stee! coors form a contiast to the materia of the tenepar lent outer sn, Inthe Art Nouveau building, a completely trars- parent hysraule it was Inserted i he cramped Staimell, Here, the It shalt doors re also in {90s9, ad the glazed enclosure, supported by Verbeal tubular members and stainless stee rods, 8 suspended from the eid walls of tha stalicasa. The reinforced guice track is fed to tho inner facas of tha stair. Hovizoréal losis are, thereiore, tanmitied fo the lft access lend Ings. ‘Soff cennactions pert a smal denres of varcal mover 190 ‘tw plan sale 12600Adminietraton Building in Borne vwExample 2Refurbishment and Conversion of ‘Museum in London 99 Architects: Fosie’ and Partners, London Structural engingeres Anitiony Hunt Associates, Loncon |AS 2 result ofthe refurbishment and conversion ofthe Vistoian Diploma Galleries to form the Sacer Galeries t was possible to inrodice: new anc medern functions to this historo ouild- ing. Mhe refurbishment hau been necessiateo by the fact tha the exhibiton spaces ~ an amex ol the Royal Acacemy of Ats—had ‘remained unused for much of tha time because of inadequate circulation and por interna cli- mate, The new galeries, housed within the ole ‘walls, aro naturally It from above via rooight, Aninganicus system of uvres inne caling ‘regulates the ingress of igh. The spaces are {uly ai-concitioned and now provide a fttng location for changing extibitions of a demand. lng nature. The circulation problem wes resolved by nserting 2 new staircase and ‘laze lit in tha cramped axioing lightwol belveen the old Burington House ane the Diploma Galleries. The naw stairoaco, in a pro ously unused space, has become ine Cental circulation reuta for heth bulidings of tho Royal Academy. The Classical fegade of Butlingion House nas been opened up agan llnew ft- tngs and fhishings are extremely reatizined in ‘hei detaliing and are restcted to only 2 few ‘materials. Tho staircase ‘reade and the Dalistrades are of gla, so that ligt entering this rairew snace fern above cen penetate at far as the ground floor. On the top Mor, a new foyr was created to serve tha exhibtion spz0es. ILako provides a iting selling forthe sculpture colection and tor Michelangol’s famoue Tondo, Wall glazing continued at right angles ita the root as wellas a glazed floor tip alow natural lighting in this space and on the levels below. The careful conversion ofthe Sackler Galerios represents an outstanding ‘exempee ofthe successful combination of old 2nd new. In this respect, glass played a cental role. Fefurbishmentand Conversion of a Museum in London Lanigcinal San" 500 Gross eosin Sra to 393Example @ 194A $ecton a ost oan! ‘Siffeaea Snes ibe a 1100 8 Gessgectontrough Fonte see 100 Seco teen 2. Lingual eaion ses 00, Dita of stave cine ts 4 25 ommieminsee Set pang wih sand 17 2a022 ten ste! stingor Fofurbistment and Conversion of @ Museumin London 195Example 4 Japanese Restaurant in Brussels 1607 Architect: Morko Kira, Amsterdam Project architect Iwan Hermeleers Assistarts: H. Gladys, M, Hameshita. F. Nagasala, T. Om, Ml Reekers After 20 years’ service, ane ofthe oidest and largest Jazenaee -estauranis in Europo vas in heed of comprehensive rturbisnmert. The new design took as its modi! the reitional Japanese garden, whicn is distngusned by @ {ree spatial ayout and pennits an informal interpretalion ofits design elements The restaurant space is atoulated and dvided into different ereas by a combinaton of wood sheet flooring, r2c-ceder vertical wall'screen flements ard lightly curved bamboo soffit ‘areas - al of whic fom an inlegral part oF ine Maniscape’ (On the ons hend, the size of the space andthe ‘mulifunctonal quality itallows is a postive ‘asset. Cn the otter hand, guests have litle pr- vacy, since hare ars no secluded seating For that reason, dasion elements inthe for of vertcal wood strips were used to evoke an Image cf rows of bees. The stipsareiluminal- 0 by floor and ceiling spots and can be agjusted by hard, By pivoting these elements Individualy. the division between tha rest laurant ereas and tho route leading ‘othe ancl lary spaces can be opened o” closed to vary- ‘ng degroos. Otver seraaning slements include sheets of glass used as divsions between tables, and ;oar-neight glazed paritions sub- dlvided inte horizontal strips. The stips are party transparent and partly tansiucent with ‘send-blasted surfaces. The paritions consist Of timber posts wit leminatec safely glass fixed betwen thom inthe aroae of tho walle ‘and coors. Guests seated either on tata7y ‘mate er on chaira have a view thraugh the ‘ransparent sips oi glazing; but atthe 9ye (evel of people walking past, the glass has a ‘at surface, thus ebscuring ditect visual oor tact In this way, the partitons form a shied between the open public areas atthe front and the Dushess and private sectors tothe rear. ‘On entering tho restaurant, quests encountsr a landscage of glass, timber and bamboo canes that allows glimpees through Bt, but also pre vides a sense o privacy. 196 i i] ie mn em Earce Festaurant Suan asr retonen| Prvate weaJapanese Restaurant in BrusselsExample 8 House near Bed Tolz, Germany 1997 Architects ik + Jacher, Munich Dietich Fink, Thomas Jochor Assistarte: Niscle Hemminger, Thomas Prefer Structural engneers; Toni Staudacher, Tegernsee cl Deena its modom form of construction, tis two-storey loer-energy house sitisted.on he edge ofa vilage fh Upper Baveria adonts the traditional formal canon of the surouncing farmhouses in its use ofa few smoie desan elements. For energy-saving reasons, trangpar entarees in the outer skin were kept to a mini ‘mum in the nerth fase. The structure consists largely of prefabricated timber unts end wes ‘rected within the snace of a few ronths. The Tagades ere clstinguished by a bold contrast botween redcisn-sown larch-strn cladding ‘and areas cf glass. The lulrheight ground floor windows n the south, west and east faces can bbe shaced by cliding shuttor slomonts wth louvres fixed at ferent angles, In addition to thei sunehacing function, these tmbar-siat Units pleasantly fiter ne lgnt that entars the house. The storay-height window frames are fixed tothe fagads in such a way that they are rat visible from the inside, creating the imores- sion of a corel of glezng. Similarly, i when the large sliding door is open, there is no i reiged thracheld to ipods the tranclion to tho i i ‘outdoor space. The windovis on te upper . saan ono — floor, which were preiabrioated in Nonuay, i § ee coal vot outwards. Fr this reason, the gazing Deeds aro for extarally “The house represents « suacasstul syimesis of ‘modern formal language and local traction. ‘wes'ts unmstakable character nct lees! to the generous areas of glazing. 198COREE ‘Sector trough fade Sea 120 Dota otheronty ‘vote cases Beta ofsiaing dace soos onaoneat pleted wood easemar, pari wate couble area er2smm) lish contin: hs nm unas’ larch tree nee serean soos rm battens indore vicina rarer Etim eofvood orgue ena-grove boucing ‘ec minora Iahan between foxted mm ime uss ‘2 nn plynced core Srustan tare sopour tomer 2 mm trerainniston emeon OSB tine ‘atens 125 nm plasterbosd (ommshant ane lore sing temart fad dose glazhy (iain Wwoodsising deorwin —_T] oube aazng ‘e126 mm) House near Bad Tez TD) Wi YY Wy 189Examole 6 House in New South Wales, Australia 1008 or i Architacts Glenn Murcuti& Asscolates, Mosman < gp ‘Structural engineers James Taylor & Associates, Mosman y ies " i a Inthe Blue Mountains, 180 km north-east of i Sydney, a couple has had 2 rotrement heme builtin hilly, densely wooded lancscape. The architect planned the building along the con- tourlines ofthe slope, parale to @ path, and divided the house inte two pavitons separated by 2 pool of mater. The dweling, the stucio and the walkway that lirks them are raised on tits above the rocky slope, The reer walls ofthe buildings, which face the hillside, ere expceed to raltively cold winds and ere, Inerefore,largaly closed, win ancillary spacas laid out slong “his side. Tha salid wals ae plastered internally end clad wilh shiny conugeted metal sheeting extern ally. The pavilons open out toward the east, an aspect ofthe design that is aczentuatec by tho rising slope ofthe monopiten roots. The gererousy glazed fagade 1p he ving areas affords a unique view! the lendscape. The horizontal corrugated metal ciadcing to the walls facing the slope is continued round the fend laces in pert. The closed metal volumes re, therelore, contrasted withthe open areas ‘of fensetration end the lauved bind tothe: main facade. Atte lower level, this face Ss Aniculatod ito » number af afcing elaments thatextend over the fulllength ofthe iving room. Above this isa separate stip of fxec glazing, The coors, the oinds and the textures ofthe insect screens create amutiayered Stepan fagads, with the broad roof projection provid- see 1020 ing adequate sunshading, Orly atone the length ef the cliding elomarts is aciitonel Screening necessary. The shiny, silvery trunks Z of the eucalyptus raes and the mauing sha- dows cast by the leaves are reftected in the is bright metal lading, This play o ont anc shade is continued inthe way the sunscreen louvres fier the lott. The house is simply cetaled in accordence : wth the requirements of te Australian ciate Itiea fine oxamale of the kind of architecture ei that. ushg simple means and ciear forms, cre- 2 Sasaage ates a locaton with a spectic character in the 3 hecose ve lanoscape. 2 It Boge 200House in New South Weloe 201Example 6 UU ——— E UI aemmExample 7 Old People's Home in Wesel, Germany 1906 Architects: HPP Henttica ~ Petechnigg & Parner, Suttgart Periner responsibie for project: Woligang Vegolo Project architect Hans-Peter Benasora Assistarts: Kei von Scholey. Stafanie Sanner. ivistan Rothenhdter, Stefan Ott, Eva Nolle™ Structural engineers: Boverkerk & Sack, Herrinieln ‘This home for senior citizens is situated on a road vith heavy traffic. One of the main fea lures ofthe planning is te way the develop: ment turns its back on the noisy highvray and ‘pens auton the garden face to thenearby river. The street rants, built in the red bricks ‘conrron to thie arse, have « cold appearance, ‘whereas the courtyard faces seem ight anc almest ciascivad in ecmaatisen, reas of ight- coourad rendering are punctuated by glazed oriels and other transparent elements. Each of ‘he old people's dvelings has on ori! window. Arranged singly orn pars, these bey-ke pro- _pctione form ¢ traneition end lnk betwoen the rooms within and tre external space, The slan- {der dimension of thaco olaments, with frame. less gass janis at the corners and bling boxes. ‘hat Seem to fost in tho ait, resutsin a trans- parent division between Indoo's and ouldoors. The glazing is aticuaied by horizontal laminat= tectintuer and metal rails, and in each room there is an openina fight in @ coloured frame, ‘which forme e aalort feature of tho develop, ment. Structurally, tne transparent corner detall af th orios is made posse by intornal eta: lpss steel tubes which are scarcely visite, The steol sections fied to tha edges ofthe floor slabs and lined nit fibre-cermant sheets serve asameans offi protection, preventing the ‘spread of ire from floor to floor. 208 Steplan scale 12500Olu People’s Home in Wess 205sample 8 Housing in Amsterdam — 1994 ‘architects; Hans Kollhof, Bettn.n collaboration with (Christian Repo, BerirAmsterdam ‘Structural encineers: Konstultie-Bursau Holjakrnann, Arisserdam scale 1.7900 ‘Séeton ana aavaton scale 17250 ‘This 179 mlong complex between tour anc rina etereye highwas erected near the centr fof Amsterdam on an island fermerly used for the harbour and industy. The scheme com prises more than 200 divling urts and forms part of a large-scale urban develooment Planned minty by @ number of architects, The external appearance of the housing blocks is datinguished by tha carefully do‘alled facing brickwork punctuated by recianguir aven- ings, anc by tha senservatory windows along the South face, which fom certain angles look like continuous strips. The living toom case- ments ined cedar are recessed in the twoleal ‘tar wal Construction by exacty the hat-brick ‘imension af the outer shir. In terms of con- Sruction physics, erefre, they are sensibly ages withthe plana ofthe thermal insulation. ‘Ihe spandre’ panels ate finished at he top with a weed wineow sil internally and a stone silexternaly, The single-gazed conservatory twincows, wit ther svalkscale dlsions anc frames corsiating of simple powder-coated «teal sections, make vitually na contribution in terme of construction physic. Tho glazing to the loner third is fixed. The area above tis Is Cividoe in ho middle and canbe opened by “oding’ the two nalves togetner norzorvaly ‘The facade is hus enlivened by the mary open casements projecting ftom the face ofthe bbulcing at afferent angles. 208Housing in Armstercam © elon -otzonal seoton sala #20 2 wood neon st vat conatucten ‘lasted bicwak 207Exarple 9 Conference Pavilion in Weil am Rhein, Germany 1983) : 2 5 Architect: TTadaa Ando & Associates, Osaka Consiructienal olanning and project management Ginter Paver and Roland Mayer, Lérrach Project architect: Petar M. Bahl Assistant Caroine Reich Structural engines: Johannes C. Schumacher, Bed Krozingen “This two-storey conference and tining centve foran office tumiure manufacturer vas builtin {an open isd at the ecge of the company site. The clearly defined volumes of the complex atinguicht from the hoterogencous aurround Ing bullaings. Vistors sppraacn the paviion long a val laid out to an L-shaped plan and nie a nariow rectangular tract Hat represents a continuation ofthe wall This long soeass route is reminiscent of a Japansse path of ‘meditation. The bulding hes an ingenious lay- ‘ut consis of two rectinear voumee that Intersect atan angie, At he pont ct ntersec: tion the tuo tacts are panetratad by a cylin. cai etement, which accommodates the foyer and staircase, integrated into this layouts the ‘courlyerd space, which is set beiow netural round level. Viewed from the open lied, only one sterey ofthe bulking is visibie, with the tops ofthe chery treas rising above it. The internal epacse, of sifferentsizos ond inid out on mo levels, ctude conference rooms, quest roams, alodby and library. As in almost all bbulings by Tadao Ando, the character of this pavilion is strongly fluenced by the carefully designe exposed concrete walle, Contrasted with these are the roon-heiaht wows, whieh ‘appear as urifermly derk arene in the fagades. The restrained cletaling of the lenestation is Cconsistont with the arcatic volumetric design of the building, Al embelishments are deliberate ly avoided. The simple post-andal glazing Ccansruction in anthracit-grey anadized aly rmirium establishes a clear ari pattern that ccarrespoats wth the eins in the concrete sur faces, Ando's conference paviton isafine ‘cempio of a eucceeaful combination ef glass and concrete, Stepan scale 2500 onfrence roa Acoena route § counvars nea hal 6 audlovaualseace 210in Weil an Ahn Conference PaviionExample 9 exposed cance wall meditate ose(Commercial Develepmest in Lindau Commercial Development in Lindau, Germany 1995 Architects Fink + Jacher, Munich Dietich Fink, Thomas Jocher Assistarts: Richard Waldmann, Chriatot Wallner Structual engineers: Dr Becker + Partner, Lindau Steplan scaly 1000 ‘The new structure closes a gap in the street LN rcpt nem conve crunes aM ireromaranidenesewvaseas |||/|/|/]||| isting building 0 the reer ofthe new struc- A ture was refurbished with a minimum of inter lh fren nee The Gowept wesaw fe Coote chosor te lmor ats of he balegs erg oa bevoon ter cov aben trl od oar “eras penettin ef deylon Tihs sepinotsorm ne facadeo he favors ns uy scons uc eek Pore! suctre ot naar evo om he ted nich Pe al rr anced tiban, M uyuta he top on ov eithac ns tcooarny of esses Fano thane set ove ote new atu Uae visu ourany. eresrared Salanng tt dost opts alonee te tule fe se meridional neal neal ne eveel vino comming tre ox Iosccsbaany. oraoctn of he bugs Srpoalain te feceds ee bclests the oe "aon ofthe stato tre snc ts tae Peo ert eee eruane ccna rem fhory end ents. and ne foun Coun i cctisaiton! Wh poner ol ee osothe mao tte tegede and ‘reat the sc y gla rs. Ta potuetaljis bch oe frre te orate baningct ne aienng ing ie exied vin store Agen el gota Sess oecewasusad io hottce Stee Seccae Tho antares cr om anircepencet, coe Teruparertslenontiihelaace Hee be ronairec cnenunlon te vegan Slice wh Geno wa suacoeur Prom etone eines ve srrarcels dre aceruatd: noca fart cowesthe bug wh tara foseny tuner reuse conenevove ter on toloado es nceee Al atl co prensa win dark eaceea Yoh bce The wiped concave pron fhe donna ete ot he beort the shopExaror 10(Commercial Development in Lindau OdExample 11 ‘Carioature and Cartecn Musoum in Basel 1006 Architects: Herzog & us Meuren, Baset Project architect: Yvonne Rudo Sructual consultant: Mario Neier Facade planning: Gerber-Voat AG, Base! ‘Structural engineers: Holmut Paul, Basel This small museum shows changing exhibitions of drawings, prints and photos fem its o¥n ‘collection ana ftom a stock of objects on ‘oar, ‘The musoum comprises two separate build Ings: an adand ¢ new secton, which stand on ‘anerrow and extremely dep medioval ste (6 X26 m). The two sectons ae linked by a fazed cerridor. The entrance to the museum, the curators office, the librery and a number of smell exhibtion spaces are haused in te oder building. Each foor is ciffrent ints detaiing, its wood flooring and wal fiishngs. since tne building hae undergone varioue convarsions lover he centuriss. The nev. tree-siovey stuc- lurehas a smple, homogeneats design. The cconcreta slabs lorring the various exhibion levels are enclosed on the courtyard ace by a glass wall Each storey consists of an undivie 8d6x8 mares. Ihe sshibis are cisclayed on tha walls and in showsases. The glazed link benveen te old and new sections ofthe mur eum dvides the courtyard into tue narrow, slackelke spaces. The glass walls of the nese building overlooking the couriyard intersect at fan obtuse angle. As 0 recut, the glazed yard resembles an iluminated volume anc functons. lke a lage lantern, ringing daylight into tho Interior of ne exniotion spaces. By using twa ferent kinds cf reflecting glass, tho kaleico. scople spatal effect Is heghtered, with the ‘outeome thatthe glazed courtyard appears even smaller and mare intence, At fret glance itis dificult for vistors to cemprehend is spa- tial form. All glass pane's ae fixed wihout lazing gectons, Atthe base, each panel is upperted by two adjustable pcint fengs: atthe top ofthe bulldng, hey ere thedtin plane by steal angles. Alors are reduoad to ‘Amintrum visualy. Fortis reason, the hot- Zonial ints bstw2en the panats of double glazing were detaledin such a way thet the inner and outer panes cf alass are vertcally fest, the totiom edge of the outer pane over lapping tne ton edge ofthe inner pane. Viened from within he eenfined epacos of tho gallery, the glass, with is diferent surtace coatings, appears rafective fiom certah arglos and transparent rom others 26 A Stepan \ ‘ea 15500 Longitudinal section aa 2 Gauryeo 5 Greneasio fea 100 TL sora cpa mi oeCaricature ond Cartoon Museum in Basel awBxempe ti Varies satire. seals 210 2 Gass door eecend toot terse Gus door gone tortridge 6 Fkod glazing: secon Focroe Feed glazing: goune toes fice E Feed glazing tobrdge secand forhoct Fed olga tit tor orice Heizoral sector seals 1 6 Gace door up oer 28Caricature and Cartoon Museum in Bose! Vortol cation ° =i 1 fougnaned satay cass double guzng 2 lovgnaned salty as 99 gating or03t Upatane end st cores of aca 12 agate inaiasonExample 12 Facade Refurbishment of Adminietration Building in Stutteart 1990 architects Behnisch & Sabatke, Stuttgart iinte: Bennison, Manfred Sabetke, ‘Stefan Behnisch Project erchtect Osrmon Lenz Assistants: Holger Amit, Alexandre Burkard, Uitiko Héhle, Andress Ludvig Indoor cimte concept: BUrD Lengkau, Munich The building was originally erected in 1969 by the same architeois responsible fer the redesign, As ¢ means o! sound insuation along tha street front, a second skznof glese had been added over the the norm facade, ‘which consisted oa layer of fed lazing This meant ina the internal spaces rad to be fuly ai-concitioned. When the Bayerische Versins: bank took over the premises, the diferent demands mace by tre nen owners could bs met only through ¢ complete conversion. in ‘adiion to workplaces that comely wth mod- orn atendarda, tho bank required a pleasant ‘working envronment wit a mininumn of techn= al suppor. Other requirements included the provision of good dayight cancitions ard a facade with onenable wadows. Inthe mean lime, the road outside hac been subjectto tat ‘ic calmng measures. To ceiain the charactor of tha former facade—a glazed outer skn and a difuse inner layer ~tne arctitec's again designed a tuo-eaf constuction. The outer skinnow consis of all-glass louvres thal cart be controled storey by starey. The existing precast concrete spandie! panels ofthe inner skin wore insulated and clad witn horizontal Smber sins. Above the ciadcing ars horizon ‘al bands of vertcally pivoting wood case- monis. Individually controled louvre sunblinds \were fxed Inthe intermediate space between ‘he twa facade layers, where thay are prosect- 20 agains the elemerts. The building is nate raly verglateo via this butler zone, which ‘exploits the prncipie ofa netural stock effect ln summer, the Fesh air required for nghttime cooling enters tho intermediate space via the ‘ower opening in tie cuter skin and flows ‘rough tha nindaws into the offces. At night, ‘he outer louvres ere kept shu! for security rea sone. Sis in the comidoy walls facitata the necessary crase-ventilaton, During the day, ‘he louvres are opened wide to avoid any build-up of heat, In winter, even ciffuso aunight heats the cod external ar ithin the burer zone. The desired internalair cendiione are achiaved by a process of al exchange, by haat from conventional radiators and by a small extracios fan for peak oa, 220 hssaseas i ancl feels seta Ane BENE: i : Gee ae Steplan scaleFagads Refurbishment of Adminisvetion Building 1 Stutgar Seaton dvough agad fale N00 Seaton tyougn gaa sale 120 2 gis igs come fooma w sppeing Sructee 3 lumii Lue leg 2 oon ing 5 verte pty ‘oa saree fs 7 paserbear suspon- easel 2 ME oughaned salty ales citer 2 220mm veneers oh 1 Bahasa atc Sonat 12 woe gite 13 patetbead ining Ta Sorin asc 15 2iveorm wood sp ‘eaddngon sycoer ing srucure 30 ‘onal eaye Sd non asnoatlo iste, precest eanerte spaced ust 16 precast concetefoar erent ooanigsd 204Example 12 Glace Facade to an EU Minieterial Building in Brussels je28 Architects Murphydlann, Cricaga Structural engineers: ‘Werner Sobek Ingenieure, Stutigart Inthe course of an eabestos romavel and refur- bishment programme, the existing fabric of tis EU ministerial building in the centre of Brussels, 9s fst demolishad cown tothe reinforced onerate frama structure and subseaquonty rebui The oute faces were cled wih lass elements ancl a special construction was developed for the edges of he bulding. Hori zontaly. the facades ere designed as atriple- hinged structural system, Giass elements cor Tesponcing io those o' the standard facaces 19 Bxa0 in steo| hollon-secion framing mem: bers. These are braced against nd lueing bya tubular mamber fixed ta the comers of tha building. Vetivally, the dead load is transmit- ted by dagonal tensicn members over two floors tothe reinforced concrete sructure. In the plane ofthe roof there are wo angular ‘ry9e-ohord hollow-cection tuscos, which are roughly 10 m high and span a dstance of approximately 45 m from tre conta to tha lt and righi-hand wings ofthe bullaing resoec- fvaly. Standart glass elements were fixed over the entre height! these busses, so the {agacle continues over the “open section of the building as well Vertical glass tins, or “mulions’, form a spactal foature of the standard facade. These vertcal members are thee on the outsice of the bul ing in rant of allofice spaces Asaresult the surface of he fagads acquires @ structural depth. The fns are connected to the window glazing by alumnium sectons that incorpor a termal bree, The loadbearing function of ‘hose vertical glass mombara enabled the ross-sectonal dimensions ofthe aluminium tramps to 60 recused toa minimum. Structural: ys they Nave no more than @ residual stabi ing funcicn in the event that afin has to ba replaced oF removed. 222. VE LASS S iN VsGloss Fagade to an EU Ninsierial Builcing in BruseelsExample 14 Office Building in Amsterdam FSAI RN AA 1001 Arctitocts: Hans van Heeswijk, Amsterdam, Assistants: Jan van den Berg, Geert Mo), Andie de Rutter Structural anginees DGEN, The Hogue don Kraus, Gert Craanen, The Haque ‘The otice complex on the Stadhoucerskade in Amstercam adjoins the llustriare Presse oulld- ing (1853) by Mari Sem. To preserve some -moression of tha oullding asi lnoked ints ciginal state ~ 2 single, freestanding structure = te architect liked the new and tne existing developments with a “glazed joint” in the form fine recessed lif tower. As 2 further response to the esisting building, the new siuctureis Ustinguished by the cleity and reateint of is ‘oral language. The transcarency of the gass ragad placae the office book in olation to ite surroundings ar also reveals the internal instore, Tre buliding comprises seven floors of otfoas, a set-back roof storey and = basemant garage. Incortrast tothe other storeys, he ground floor extards over the ful ares ofthe site The entrance i the narth face leads to @ two-storey ‘over rom where Mere is access tothe ifs and stalvoase. Along the rear face of the building, the offc= spaces have a standard depth of 540 m, Those along the sire face are 7.20 m deep. Inthe 9.00 r wise intermediate zone isa light Well that extands twoug all the storeys of the building ang brings davicht into the interior of hen I Pe a r | ‘placed on the horzontal lines. The outer skin is. J Reesemarerainrmeger? | 28 TTSto plan per or stn roune Rot an Grosesecen| see 1800 Foverhal Pato Lighted over hat Office Builsing in Amsterdam entire fagade, Shoat metal elements to the ledges ol the floor slabs accentuate the lines of the individual storeys. In contest, the glazed lt over, the tit cars and the cer doors are all completely tanspar- ‘ent, Point fixings are used to attach the glass panels of he Ift tower tothe supporing svuc> fure, and the joints are sirply sealed with sie Glass was also used intorally, The fuly glazed steiroese tower sorvae ao an caeape route, 20 that the facade had to provide 90 minutes tie tosistanco to prevert the epread offre. Giass- black walls were used in the foyer, end there Is ‘4 gle2ac itched roofight var the central hall, 205Example 14 226Examole 15 Finnish Embessy In Washington, D.C. 199 Architect: Mikko Heikkinen, Markku Kernonen, Helsinki Project architect Sarotta Narjus Partner office! Angelos Demetiou & Associates, Washington, D.C. Project architost Etic Morison Structural onginoore: Smisiove, Kennemul & Associates, Wasningten, B.C. Matt Ollla, Finland Finlend's diplomatic mission is situated atthe heart of Washington's embassy distct in the immediete vicniy o the US vice-presidents residence. The sleping cite, covoring noarly ‘5000 mé, lias on the ede of a park anc pos: besser & remarkable stock of mature teas of more than 20 species. In response tothe con straints moosed by the natural environment, ‘ne building is intentonaly restrained nits basis form and designed to occupy as small an area ofthe ste a8 possible. kcontaina offices and conference rooms for a stat of bout 0, plus a small library and a two-storey- high hal for seceptions, seminars, exhibitions and concerts. Extending over the length cf the building Is cartral ckoulaton zone vith stairs, ‘amps and galleries, The hall ard conidors receive netural ight trrough realighte, Tha centerenca rooms, clad with copper paneis on tho sides facing the hall, arc suspardd in the derk blue continuous space in which the venti Iaton system ie intallac, The complex design of the inierir Is delberately contrasted wth the flee, restaned eructure of the exterior, Great care was taken in the selection and combina- tion of materials. vith glass olaying a special roe, Used in many different ways, itrmakes a ‘major conmoution to ne cverall appeararce of the embassy and allows links tobe crasted at ‘a number of points between internal spaces ard the surrounding gardens. In addon to the us9 of lass, other strking features ofthe ‘design include the varied application of copper panels, bronze sections and stone. The nariore ‘aces of the building are clad wth moss-creen, polished grentte, wich corresponds in te col oration tothe surrounding vegetation and the {gracnitnted clase ef the adining transparent fagades. The sic grid ofthe outer walls othe fies trac in translucent glass blocks with nar= row window sips creates an atrscive atmos- phere internally and alows an ample inoress of daylght, in spite of the dense vegoiaton. Below the office tract, on the outside of ha nell, ie finely aricuatad single-glazod ecnearvato 1y, the alass panes of which are neld in post- 228.ton by stainless steel point fxings. The bullet- rosistant facade required ‘or embassy build rials fo the end faces, wit) tha cable-tu lass construction this inner layer is omit “Ihe heavy 38.5 mm thick double-glazed ols ere, nerefoe, fixed with adhesive in solid~ bronze engle farms. The south face cf the oulding is distinguished byalayering of tho facade planes. A patinatod bronze grating satin font of tie outer skin fos a reliswori fer decicuous climbing planis, thus providing natural sunshading, the apnearance of which changas with the sea- 2 Paring space Finrish Embassy in Washington, 0.0,Example 15 2 shesteorper co231Example 15 ‘Giuaoe ot aga, wuss oo 125mm dowbe glazing wa ck 2 585 nm blesiant oan eng 8 pemanaiy elaeto © 2 6Gmm teal, sorted 8 Sue agave acs, 1 unbucve 11 O27 evn tubal tealbae 29220 Suelpae 233Example 18 General Assembly and Annex of Gorman Bundestag in Bonn 1992 architects: Bohnisch + Pariner, Stuttoart Project partner ane project erchitect Gerald Sab Project arcniocte: Matthias Burkrart, Hubert Ellers, Ebernard Prizor, Aloxander von Salmuth, Emst-Ulkich Tilimarns and many otver assistants \With the collaboration of Christian Kandzia Structural engi Schlaich, Bergerniann und Partner, Fagade consults: Berthold Mack, Rosengarten Lighting design: Lichtdesian GmbH, Cologne Chrietian Bartenbach, Aldrans, Austia “The Inauguration of he new assembly complex cof the Bundestag in Benn marked tho concly sion ofa planning period thet had lasted almost 20 years, Itwas a plancing process thet had seen meny committees and commissions ‘coma and go and thatwae eubjeot to all Kinds of conditions and statements cf intent. The concaptas realize as based on the wish 10 link te intinsic nature ol the new perliam tary areas wih the characteristics and quelites ofthe landscape along the Rhine - the embankment teraces, the Sebengebirge and mne parks withthe chancallry andl presidental tracts, In combiring hase two aspects, a place witha special idantity was to be created. ‘The assembly hall~ the seat of parliament — forms the centrepiece of the complex, Its ‘embedded in a hollow on the middle emoaric ment terace and is covered by an ary, ight tranesvitting roof. Te hale surrounded oy var lous otner functional areas, including the offices ci the parliamentary presidert and committees, press facies, spaces fr vistors! and acienttic 28 ters of lng end the lounge and private ereas for mem: heist the Bundastag These diferent zones are not only volumetrically distinct they are also aticuated by planes, ines, colours. ight ‘and mood, and ara in relation ‘0 other le: tons. The cenire -the debating chamber ~ i, therefore, defined by the arrangement o! these individual elemenis" end the context mey cre ate, andit mains coen on all sdes Ih order to translate this senoept ito reality, an ample loadbearing stricture was necessary. A teal frame wae chosen for this purpose. The lbw fre load, the cay of situation, the relatively exert escape routes ard tho installa- { tion ofa sprinkler system enabled the fre= rasletence reaultements te be reduced fom 99 1b 30 min, AS 2 result, It was possible io leave ! fle ple eale 1.2800 238General Assembly and Annex cf German Bundestag in Born Scoop einai it | TAO 5 Aker Pine 2 Sretamann Embarlert 4 Brcidontal annex 4 Looby 3 Bivarce nal 6 Patient Sousre 7 Restavart 8 Exsthgbuiing 9 Sunsora(easand cram, 40 Sout ing 1 Debating chamber 12 Fomarshambar of cepute an seals 11000 t ' 235Example 16 — 7 ii tho atoe structure uncled, Shost sieel columns tiled with concrete form a Skolaon structure that supports the grder ctl ofthe two roo layers ari the “nserie injermediate levels. The ctierant spacings of the columns ellow the structure to resoond 10 individual stuatons. The outer skin played a special rle in re the design concept. The notion of indviiva locations laid out na groat open landseace requied te “abot” ofthe dvision between inside and curse in order to create an open flowing space. The fagads, therefore, had to be reduced to 2 minimum. This was achieved, ‘on the cne hand, throu its broad articulation, ‘and on the other hand, by dividing the facade Construction into @ number of layers. The basic slerents of tis construction are he extruded, ‘muti-drav steel posts and rails, which ave ‘imensioned fo: storey-helaht (3.9 m) loading, Inorderto use this system for facades of up 19 410 m height. the primary post-ane-rail con struston is reinforced by addtional structural ‘loments ~ by "load-cistibuting” and “load- Collecting’ members. The loads o! the class ‘panae are conveyed vie these intermediate elements fo tre sttuctural carcass cf he Dulc- Ing and from there down tothe fourclations. This layerng of the constuction also facitates Individual responses o cifferent stuaticns. The division between hside and cutside was overcame by allowing the eélemen's infront of ing 296scale 150 steal one ‘oot caneuoton ‘Stoo membrane cancel topping layer ‘repexidacton ‘hela aretng | Sider gris olag soe beam 460 mm | eB) {03389 mn cov ‘seb soumn fled wth 65 Simin aurohase © semaiyneuanng cou De gazing 2panes 12 em lamin asl lesser Omm 86 ae. fostered Ser gassineraly encom eran DSed-isruirg mam Yertcalfond coletng ‘your eo constue 22mm paras Horing Sor maste agora {Brn bveleg ayer 0] mm canratab 10 hersonal mbar elle sone mn soeed tue levers pobstens hestng concrte en trapeze fecton meta seat Eramratat ate 16 woadstip paving 1 sumalumeover so 15 Goats mentee 46 sts! secon Sonnumcoverng 7 bene oxpansin tubs 16 exparsonjant General Assembly and Annex ef German Bunt noon {and behind the fagade 1 enter nia spatial relafonehio wih each other — the trees in the Dark, the grassed areas, the balconies, the pergoas, the sunscreen elemarts. the posts and boars infront af the fagade, the sliding elements and timber structures, anc the inter- nal furishings, A futher factor in the dicoolu tion of tis avsion was ine play of light ana shade cast by the sun. In ths way, the “outer skin" becomes @ deep spatial zona, consisting of large number of eemerts: atthe same time, itis *reducoct toa thin glass plane that {utils solely those tunctions that are relaiad 10 construction pryeine end seourly technology, Torediice the hardness of tne leroe areas ot glszing, which aro divided by widely epacad steel sactiors, an “internal fecace’ was created forthe lounge and working areas. Corsisting of \ettical fabric blinds anc transtucent rorizntal sliding elameres in Scabalt and wood, aleve users Io regulete the views in and out as wel asthe quantly of loht entering the bulding. The intomel ‘apace elements ere smal in scale, softin texture and move sersiive than those exiomally. Thay form part ofthe intoricr fnishings and are, therefore, more carstully \Worked. The internal spaces can be naturally ventiaied by mears of erge sling doors ana tall narrow panei flaps, 237Examole 16 28TAExample 16 1 s2ont700mmusices gordo cling rtocing Sedan docgréer —Pdaleloments ana pis 2 ondminmldsd —_aticeast oes Fase Shectstelbeam sup- Tons) poring light prisms, 9 678mm foros fc cagoraly 30 shuotretl puter 3 Seommiagetngfsl- 11 Eghsng rox! on batt oraer Hosen Sommaeer (Fe) 4 acnlogass light 12 Faveling crea Giusagasistane 18 OG mm suspansion Sneha ure treme seh 5 0BuOmm cee AHS gor Sioretionsurparing 14 Slsone scalng eo wi Iahveateaing cat ‘real weol uation 6 order ararrtod seal 18 atmnumesaing ne beans #60 mm deep 16 SSmn souk glzh Hes) 47 wore ean a 7 suming art sinuming 8 lunnsregieaus Foor sispenson cea scala :3 Lightstusing root Iwas ine wish o! the Luling commission that tha assembly hall shoul be floaded with rat- ual Igit entering from above. The architects! criginal idea was to create a large, crculat pening in thereof, covered by a horizontal “glass disc’. This was changsd, for administa tive recaone, into a pitched, folded, light: ‘fusing root, supported on tne undersige by | rafleeting cheot-steal valley beams. Sunshac ing is provided o9 the outside by light-difusing oryic-glass prisms fhed over larga fish-bally irders, Tho prisms are laid ou in an est-wvest s direction anc are computer controled to fallow ‘the path of the aun In this way, diract sunignt yi faling on the prisms 'srellected, anc cnly n- direct ightis alewed to enter the hal through ||) ‘tne opening in the roof. Varcus media installa- " J tons, inctuding the eestical services, sprink- ) ti Jers and the Igitng ard frealaim systems, i ere run baneath the [ght-dffusing oof. The a Underside ofthis mutllayered roof zone is. forme by a metal and cast-alass luminaire ‘rid actfit cased on the principle o! the Freene! lens. In terms of igntng tecrnology, these . areas create a certain downward *ighting i pressue', obviating any effect of olare or vis tors and members ofthe Bundestag, and turn Ing the root into a play plight ared materials, reality ard illusion Ue ENE 240General Assembly and Annex of German Bundestag in Bonn 2etExample 17 Exhibition and Administration Buileing in Perils 1998 Architects: dean Nouvel, Emmanuel Catteni & Assoniss, Pavis Project architect! Didlor Brault Structural engingers: vo Arup & Parinere, Londen ‘The Fondation Cartiar building is located inthe Bouevar’ Faspailin Moniparnesse, Pavis, there the American Cultural Centar formerly stood. In redeveloping the sit, tho arstitects were faced wih a number of constraints, To lobtein Eulding permisaion & wos necossery to ‘2ahere 1 the oulaing lines ofthe previous Structure, Within these lints, aclequats acimin- Istative accommodaton had to be provided for the new company headquarters as well as, 1a generous ephbotion space for the Carer Foundation of Modern Art. A further constant ‘was that te existing stock of ireos that belenged to tne of pars, inclucing 2 100-year- ‘ld oedar, had to 0@ retained, ‘The outcome isa glazed cube parallel the road but eet back fram it The boundary ef the site along the pavement is merked by tvo 8m high glazed walls. which define therrain er trance end form a "Fam" fr the old cedar ac ‘vel, The walls also continue te treet ine ot the building immediately to tho nor. In ocer toedend te administration and extiblton building, which i relatively smell m relation to the arze ofthe sit, the architects continued the front and rear fagacias atthe ends beyend the actual bulking. These single-glazed exien- sions of tie fagads are supperted by steel ora fing at the narrow endo of the building Between the gless wall along the road and tne building tel ie a row ot tase, which wers planted in cose symmetry t the large tees in tha pavement outside The building is eight storeys high and extends seven storeys below ground, The ground tear ‘and the fist basomert lovel are reserved for exhibition purposes, Above ths are seven ste- reye of offoas, witv a rosepticn area andi rcot {garden on tne eighth floor. The second 10 ‘seventh basement levels are used mainly for parking, with access provided by a carlit, The 282an Exhiilon and Administration Building in Pars ‘xniaition halls on the ground flocr are flooded nh ight, The 8 m high glass walls to the ong 88 can be slid aside as required to creata a ‘Towing transition benaaen inside and outsice Glass panels let into the the ground too slaty allow daylightto panetrate to the extibiton spaces n the baserient below, ‘The transparent fapactes ore in @ post-and-ail construction. On the upper floors, the fagades consist of al-piags elemants in a structural sealant glazing system, aioulated fy a fine netaork of stanioss steel Dars thal provide a ‘mechanical means of securng the construc ‘ion, The bars also serve to support the exter- nal fabrig sunblings, which are installed indo pendenty for each storey ancl are automatic= ally reirected in the event of wind. ‘On the upper fcors the intemal partitions also consist largely f glass. They are sand-blasied Upto eye level, wih a gradval ranstion to ‘ransparency atthe to9. To comalete the image o! a havea of glace, much of tha etfs ‘umiure, wich wes dasigned by the architects “hamgalves, ie in the same material By extending the exiemnal skin far beyond the actual volume o the building, the architects have toa laige degiee succeeded in erecting a dramatic urban and architectural etfact. The volume of the actual bulking recedes into the background an is overs by an extensive image o!glese, with euttly euperimpooed lay ers of transparency and refiecion, achkecture and nature, 283Example 17_ Exhibition anc Administration Builcing in Par's A \ectalsecton though 8¢300 Herzen sectontivouah face sae 120 Vera 1 armenscton goutiegaane {Bem larintee satel gas extornaly ‘mn foat lass inary incesemert soa Bi touphanad safety gas spon wal araa Shmnim fame cenetructon wth sterol tinoss Steolgtans ts 2 omm suspordee satey-as8 an 53 stclSHS supportrg mane 4 shoot mea coven 5 vecad Sip besreing 6 Soatalurinum tarsersamembar 7 ‘abs curshade, comet: coreaed fied with ak rium 9 aiumnur ging 10 vertlterfarniste ad extact 11 cary fer constuction 12 waoeeeidalaooton tel ehectng wih cnaree ‘oppng 130mm deo 1s hiealamigize bine 1 aang para 13 ese stg door wih lumi tame 1 prantosib pavings 29 rauuting boon 21 Stetarge wr tngtagage 22 EPDM eaing ip 23 facade drainage A staiees tel cove ein 25 tse part akminum Scac9t 2B scaingatie BF advesve tang of ass 2 1sbe250 ren soe wt 28 100 mm insuaien £59 240 mm ee hae! (UPN) 24sExamole 17 ep np op = ———— —+ ——————————————————— XSSSASSSAAPT SANS SAN in SSS 8 a J) 8 al =Exhibition and Administration Building in Paris enol sk cones Sait: Bs eerie 1 Semincos rip oo 2 tana gi oxtDmn 9 seb scm anna gas 2+ 21 eat reeing cer ce (PE) 2 atanzed ates AHS 4 exes! aunsereening rized seo! yatng pose rovaring dor 0 20 rm ber tare 9 blumrun ange 19 gavange see angie i Gi danazochaal SS mnahtodinaten Rater ahina Sor 31 Matos! ute, 2 Rem reaton wack 52 gase sing dooewih 2 foor00 mi seal 20 slashcmmler tare 27 Win bughered etety — ausnun rane ‘elu dear asste 8 auniom yang channel 4 sel bean 403 287Beample 17 26Faculty Building of University of Utrecht, The Netherlands. cts ‘anon arctiteleen 6... Deft ck van Egeraat, Francine Houben, Chris de Weijer. Henk DBI ral enginvers Det «2 bullding forme pert ofthe naw “Uithof" un versity complex east of Utrecht. The cutine sn plan, drawn up by Rem Kealhaas, has heme: "The universty and the building nt further low sity sprewi and preserve the remaining ‘20098 spacoe From davolopmert. The plan divided into a number ot zones, each with is sspectie character. The faculty building wn here is Stuated in he so-caled “Kasoah adeptng the characteristics of the traditional h African kasbah, the arcnitects cesionad storey, compact bulcing stricture laid out around three courtyards, each of which is uished by & specific thom. Tho cout ards form Pie Gente ofthe fecully and, by ‘tus of thor distinct fons, avert a great iv the arrosphere of the developmert as a whole. The largest cf these spaces the ungle Courtyard, which is planted with bam- 0. is also the only courtyard eccessible via no steel bridges, whioh crces i at fat leor level, he Zen Courtyard, inspire by Japan- ‘sardene of mocitatian, i aid aut wih gra ne Water Courtyard is occupied by a long, row pool and is seperated from is ur ‘oundings by a glazed facade. Along the nore mi edga, these courtyards ara enciosed by 2 nsparent building tract that houses the "Con 1 Area’, Including lecture hals, amedia “yond a cafeteria, Thaee epacee are (20 Ike cisorate “boxes” in diferent meter- ‘othe entrance zone, whichis fully visible om the outside, Coridors lea from ths zone Faculty Building of University of Utroct site pian fale 12600 249Example 18 nent LAs CEI al eau i ETT meen ou L ‘Seetonae sone #1000 250 1 Maenvance {9 Teaching rooms 2 Recepion 10 Gamboa Couryare S iriomatoncente 11 Water ouryare 4 Shape 12 Conte ab S ketohon 13 tac tls 6 cae 14 Cartoon paintaton 16 Nose tray 8 ZenCounyare 18 Omics te the lecture rcoms and the offoas in the var- cous tracts of the builcing around the court yards, The open spaces Detween tne boxes in the conference aren and tha diferent forms of ‘desion of the corigors conwey a sensation of ‘openneze end provide scope to use tho build: Ing inavarieny of ways. “Tne laadbearing structure forthe roughly 71m igi upper area of lazing tothe entiance front ‘consists of rcomheight tubular columns from ‘hich pairs of Tsecton brackete are can: tievered, The fagade rals are txeo to me Undoroide of thoco brac “The horizontal tings cf tne facade are aocent ated by glazing bas that hold tha oenes at {lass In postion, The vertical glazing ebut- ments ara pintod ith silcore, “The horizontally ofthe post-anclrail ages construction tothe around floc area is equally pronounced. These two vols of gazing, hor- zZontallysteagered by nat a module, are sep- feretod fram each othar by 2.40 mm high *int® inne foro a sip of venation lowes. The topmost ral of the ground flea facade zone is, fixed to tre loner pairs of cantievered brack- ats, To achieve e slonds roof abuiment detall, the roof drainage was placed behind the facade. In their contracting design and use of mater- ials, the lagaces to the three courtyards accen tuate the incivitualty ofthese introvered ‘592088, The gazed wall tothe south, he Water ‘Courtyard, the narrowest ofthe tree, afords @ ‘ew ofthe surrounding peléer landscape. The eastfecade adjoining ths accures ts Gstnt texture from the aluminium louvres with which it ‘sche. Lorge timbe*latics olements are suspanced in ‘rent o the interna spaces cn ine east end west dae of he Zen Courtyard In the Jungle Courtyard, the cladding elements are inthe form of ste} gratings. The south faces of these ‘wo courtyards are finished with planer tibor panels with incised window openings. The compiax ie 4 modal of university campus architecture: 8n open mouse vrith streets end pubic sauares that ara both interior and exter- ‘of space, Itis a bulling of contrasts wth the tlversty cf a small town; and it reveals a form of constuction that, in continuation of the Duteh traciton of the 1970s anc 0s, coniems the outstaneing postion the architosturs cniovs.Enranco ease eset secon scale 116 1 cube cling (oe 12s 3em) 2 aur glazhg bo 's sunian ageaoral 4 auminun nee: bart tostave 5 2rvmshael alumina corsa 6 pdt atiraeot Showing Faculty Building of Uriversity of Utrecht 7 tram rslaton cB mma rus ep (HEA) 10.2280 mm am) ston cum 11 Stel achat 1 Sea-bm 120nm ‘ap (HER) 10 stee head ite 14 sorices 35 vowintonsenent 19 feitreas concete 29 sesifeot late 251Exempie 18, {mre hemalnauaton| 1 timber ® ccuble lasing 1 10mm compote wood 11 pov 12 precastccneete lever 16 soa) pantng 17 bermal nalaton 18 rortorced coneree oot a 49 aimee ott 25 plasterboard Da tno amveehipningsFaculty Bulking of Universty of Uuect aj RE Sit Soe __ ol ie Z TM Im i ges om me iH iii i iTS Ky SSeS & Li a — aExample 19, University Complex in Mame-ta-Vallée, France: 1936 Aretitects: CChaix Moral & Parinor, Paris Philippe Gneix, Jean-Faul Morel Rémy Van Niewwenhove Assistanis, Bencit Sigios, Waller Grasmug, Nelly Braton, Dielmer Feichtinger, Sophis Garré, Denis Germond, David WeNulty, Olivier iron, Laurent Biavelot. Franck Hughes, Polo Cerrozzine Structural eraneers: 0.7. H. Batimonte, Parte ‘Tho complex accommodtes two universities: tne Ecole Nationaie des Ponts et Craussées ‘and the Ecaia Natonale des Sciences Géo- graphiques. The lecture halls, seminar rooms, laberatcries and offices are housed in thro perallel wings. The suspended arched gass roots between thaco wnge act as Incing exructures and mark {he ine of the transverse atrium, vhicn runs through the anti complex. A umber of larger ‘spaces such as the library and the dining hall {ara also located beneath the arched roofs. The atvlum forms the dlvison between the two un versites, which are of cffarert sizes: atthe serre time itrapreaents tho commen circulation ‘aaa forall users. The inawidual wings are also lirked by oriiges bat inside and outside the puilaing ‘Tha suspended arched glass roois are supoer- ted by ¢ mined fo1m of construction, consisting of sieel colurns and beams with prestressed Cconsrate nolew 919 loore epanned batwean thom. Loeds in the outer areas of the root are ‘conducted via horizontal ‘ies and reking com. pression members nront of he two ong faces to varicaltonsion cables. Thase are in tum anchored in fe ground by means of powerful tension springs. Inside the buiding. ‘curving, tensioned rods beneaty the arche {lass rcofs act as wird bracing anc courteract Uplit forces. All connections betwoon the giass roo'8 and the adjoining building wacts, the facades end divicing wale ara designed ae fe. ible nts that can absorb movements of ‘several centimetres caused by snow or wind loads. Metal lawvies suspended beneath the lass roois prevent glare and also imorove the internal acoustica. The external febric sunscre- ening is automatically retiacted in the event ct ‘strong wind eaten sa sono 11600 “Tne post-and-rall constructon to the ong faces cf the buildings cortinuns in the same rhythm aiong elton of meuiomend be oftce 3 Arum — wings, Fibs allan witout feorsekstoore: 2 feel kis icone Aide brocing te facades are wueseg onthe Otore 12 Gnsty Tear faces wih tel caleeo-fods Soring—¢ Rss aes Trarbgsloepthocotie coreradonten’ yeas eae Sian ns neoessery easy. 7 Reenion ake r 264Example 19 | Coston hough gseerost esas 1.250, | Secten_ scale 120 258 7 sicnavindowicr 10 podeurvorate spacer ‘Spoke otra 19 bush seat 8 fued skmniimlcas, 12 educa auninam ferontedaratied acing bar With neal waotio 19 exuded alumi Imgrave acoustes tceds pot 9 2e0 nm steal russng aUniversity Complex in MarmeeVatée ‘Secfon seal 1250Example 18 sea 23 for t0r 0mm 7 Ged nestel lesen atsccien po izamm | roe ‘ep (Pe) 18 636 mmstelensien ro 4 keen a 200m 9 7 140d ses wo sme 1 erica! eect 1 doable ang 6 ata plate 20m ick | | 120 nn deep (88) | 258Example 19(Oi ces and Television Studios in London, Exgiand Partnership, London siners, Londen, sed entrance fagade) iquavters of Channel 4 Television ted into tho scale ofthe surround Fabric ofits Waetminetor ate, Only services tower, crowned by @ mest eral rises above the ether buildings in \bourhioad t9 mark he cation, Te jayouto’ the development closes he street bl faci ihe building via a glazed for which @ glass and stee! canooy is ded, The highlight ofthis efectvely trans ie fred by the roughly 20 rm ave. all-glass fapade, At is points cf ththe adjoining solid structure, the construction angled on plen and hus ted from the rast of tha building ‘acade is suspended frm cant: 'beams0on the root. Lika a chai, (of clase euppors the weight ofall below it. An internal doue network d stainless stool cables stabilzos the ion against wnd ioads. Inthe central ‘he facade, wind pressure cads ave by Porizontal cables, and suction py vettical cables, Atthe ecges the smentie reversed. This systom for the ‘eSriution ot loads lad to the creation ot a planar nowork tied at individual rom where th shor hingeet fions and glass fxnigs aren an culated form of scnstrtion to ensure tho billy of the loading to which the nd J ‘ents are subjected and the trans soion of external loads from the glags panels structure. The anglad sections of the eat the edes aro in 3 rig form cf oon: (on uth siructuralsticone sealant.

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