Fluid Mechanics

Memo

2 POTENTIAL FLOWS

Physical properties of fluids

1.1
1.1.1

Water
Density
(kg/m3 ) 1000 0.0178|T (C) 4( C)|1.7

1.1.2

Viscosity
ln

1.2
1.2.1

273(K)
1.704 5.306z + 7.003z 2 where, z =
and, 0 = 1.788 103 (kg/ms)
0
T (K)

Density
p
with, Rair 287(J/kgK) and, T in Kelvin
RT
1(atm) = 101# 325(Pa)

(3)
(4)

Viscosity

(2)

Air

(kg/m3 ) =

1.2.2

(1)

T (K)
273(K)

"0.7

and, 0 = 1.71 105 (kg/ms)

(5)

Potential flows

2.1

Stream function

Stream line function

u=

,
y

2 =

,
x

(6)

2 2
+
=0
x2
y

(7)

(8)

v=

Flow between any two streamlines

Q12 =
Potential line function
u=
Polar coordinates
vr =

2
1

(V n)dA =

,
x

v=

d = 2 1

,
y

1 $ %
=
,
r
r

v =

w=

1
=
r
r

(9)

(10)

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

2.2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Simple flows

Uniform flow
= U y,

= U x

(11)

= m ln r

(12)

Line source or sink

= m,
Vortex
= K ln r,

= K

Doublet
doublet =
=

sin
,
r

(13)

x
x2 + y 2

(14)

cos
r

(15)

= U r cos + m ln r

(16)

Rankines half body

= U r sin + m,
r=
Rankines oval
= U y m tan1

m( )
a( )
=
U sin
sin

(17)

2ay
= U r sin + m(1 2 )
x2 + y 2 a2

(18)

Differential equations

3.1

Cartesian Coordinates

Material Derivative

D
=u
+v
+w
+
Dt
x
y
z
t

Continuity

(19)

D
+ ( v) = 0
Dt
$ u v w %

+u
+v
+w
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z
x y
z
&
'(
)

(20)
(21)

incompressible

Continuity, integral form

Navier-Stokes

Du
Dt

dV +
t

(v n) dS = 0

(22)

$ 2 u 2 u 2 u % $ u v w %
p
+ gx +
+ 2 + 2 +
+
+
x
x2
y
z
3 x x y
z
'(
)
&

(23)

compressibility term

Dv
Dt

$ 2v
p
2v
2 v % $ u v
w %
+ gy +
+ 2+ 2 +
+
+
2
y
x
y
z
3 y x y
z
&
'(
)

(24)

compressibility term

Dw
Dt

$ 2 w 2 w 2 w % $ u v
p
w %
+
+
+
+ gz +
+
+
2
2
2
z
x
y
z
3 z x y
z
&
'(
)
compressibility term

(25)

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Shear Stress :
xy =

$ u
y

v %
x

(26)

Momentum equation, integral form, for an idealised flow.

#
#
#
#
*

(v) dV +
v(v n) dS =
g dV
pn dS +
Fext
V
S
V t
S
3.1.1

3.2

PIPE FLOW

(27)

Vorticity
+
+ i
+
= 2 = (curlV) = V = ++ x
+ u

Cylindrical Coordinates

+
k ++
+
z +
w +

(28)

Material Derivative
D

= vr
+
+ vz
+
Dt
r
r
z t

(29)

1 v
vz
1
(rvr ) +
+
=0
r r
r
z

(30)

Continuity (incompressible)

Navier-Stokes (incompressible)
$
Dvr
v2
p
vr
2 v %
=
+ gr + 2 vr 2 2
Dt
r
r
r
r
$
Dv
v vr
1 p
v
2 vr %

+
=
+ g + 2 v 2 + 2
Dt
r
r
r
r

Dvz
p
=
+ gz + 2 vz
Dt
z

(31)
(32)
(33)

with
2 =

4
4.1

1 $ %
1 2
2
r
+ 2 2+ 2
r r r
r
z

(34)

V D

(35)

Pipe Flow
Reynolds number
Re =

4.2

Bernoulli
p1 + gz1 +

v2
v12
= p2 + gz2 + 2 + p12
2
2

V2
p2
V2
p1
+ 1 + z1 =
+ 2 + z2 + hL12
g
2g
g
2g

(36)
(37)

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

4.3
4.3.1

Major losses
l V 2
D 2

or

hL = f

V 2
2

or

hL = K L

(38)

V2
2g

(39)

Friction factor for laminar fully developed flow

f=

4.3.4

l V2
D 2g

Minor losses
p = KL

4.3.3

PIPE FLOW

Losses

p = f
4.3.2

64
Re

(40)

Friction factor for turbulent fully developed flow

Colebrook formula
1
= 2.0log
f
Haaland explicit Formula

4.4.1

"

(41)

(42)

4A
4 area
=
= 2Rh
P
wetted perimeter

(43)

(44)

,!

)/D
3.7

"1.11

6.9
+
Re

Hydraulic diamater
Dh =

4.4

2.51
)/D

+
3.7
Re f

1
= 1.8log
f
4.3.5

Flow profile
Overlap layer velocity
u
1 yu
ln
+ B where u =

w
and = 0.41, B = 5.0

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Figure 1 Moody Chart

5

PIPE FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

PIPE FLOW

Figure 2 Entrance and exit loss coefficients : (a) reentrant inlets ; (b) rounded and beveled inlets.

Figure 3 Loss coefficient for a sudden contraction

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Figure 4 Loss coefficient for a sudden expansion

Figure 5 Loss coefficient for a 90 bend

PIPE FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Figure 6 Loss coefficient for pipe components

PIPE FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

PIPE FLOW

Figure 7 Internal structure of various valves ; (a) globe valve, (b) gate valve, (c) swing check valve, (d) stop check valve.

Figure 8 Friction factors for laminar flow in noncircular ducts

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

External flow

5.1

Lift and drag

Drag
D=
Drag coefficient

dFx =

p cos dA +

L =
Lift coefficient

dFx =

p sin dA +

Rex =
Boundary layer thickness

5.3.1

w cos dA

(47)

(48)

1
2
2 U A

Boundary Layer

Reynolds number

5.3

(45)

(46)

1
2
2 U A

CL =

5.2

w sin dA

CD =
Lift

5.0

Re1/2
x

=
x

0.16

Re1/7
x

Flat plate

Ux
U x
=

(49)

103 < Rex < 106

laminar

(50)
6

turbulent 10 < Rex

Laminar

Blasius flat plate boundary layer (see Fig. 9)

$ U %1/2

(51)

0.332 1/2 1/2 U 3/2

x1/2

(52)

u
= f # (),
U

=y

Wall shear stress for a flat plate

w (x) =
5.3.2

Turbulent

Turbulent boundary layer

.
u
w
yu
u+ = =
where u =
u'(
)

&
& '( )
law of the wall

Skin friction law

with

0.41 and B 5.0

(53)

friction velocity

3
$ c %1/2 4
$ 2 %1/2
f
2.44 ln Re
+ 5.0
cf
2
Re
cf

104
0.00493

105
0.00315

10

106
0.00217

107
0.00158

(54)

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

Figure 9 Solution of the Blasius equation

5.4

Flow separation

Boundary layer with pressure gradient

Laminar integral theory

+
+
2 u ++
dU
dp
++
=

= U
=
y +wall
y 2 +wall
dx
dx
+
1 dp
2 u ++
=
y 2 +wall
dx

w
1
d
dU
= cf =
+ (2 + H)
U 2
2
dx
U dx
Separation occurs at
H
Thwaites dimensionless momentum thickness

3.5 laminar
2.4 turbulent

2 dU
dx
#
0.45 x 5
2
=
U dx
U6 0
=

separation w = 0, cf = 0 occurs at = 0.09

5.5

with H(x) =

Drag coefficient

11

(x)
(x)

(55)

(56)

(57)
(58)

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

Figure 10 Character of the drag coefficient as a function of the Reynolds number for objects with various degrees of
streamlining.

Figure 11 The effect of surface roughness on the drag coefficient of a sphere in Reynolds number range for the laminar
boundary layer becomes turbulent

12

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Figure 12 Typical drag coefficients for regular 2-D objects

13

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

Figure 13 Typical drag coefficients for regular 3-D objects

14

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

15
Figure 14 Typical drag coefficients
for objects of interest.

5 EXTERNAL FLOW

Fluid Mechanics
Memo

6 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open Channel Flow

Froude Number
Fr =
Wave speed
c=

V
gy

gy

(59)

(60)

Specific energy
E =y+
Manning Equation
V =
Hydraulic jump depth ratio
1
y1
=
y2
2
Hydraulic jump head loss

V2
2g

1/2
Rh 2/3S0
n

!
"
7
1 + 1 + 8Fr21

8
! "2 9
y2
Fr21
y1
hL
1
=1
+
y1
y1
2
y2

16

(61)

(62)

(63)

(64)

Table of Integrals
Basic Forms
!

Integrals with Logarithms

1
xn+1
x dx =
n+1
!
1
dx = ln x
x
!
!
udv = uv vdu

! $

(1)
(2)

%
'
&

x
dx = x(a + x) a ln x + x + a
a+x

2
x ax + bdx =
(2b2 + abx + 3a2 x2 ) ax + b (26)
15a2

! %

(4)

Integrals of Rational Functions

!
!

1
1
dx =
(x + a)2
x+a

(x + a)n dx =

x(x + a)n dx =
!
!
!

(6)

(x + a)n+1 ((n + 1)x a)

(n + 1)(n + 2)

(7)

1
1
x
dx = tan1
a2 + x 2
a
a
x
1
dx = ln |a2 + x2 |
+ x2
2

x3
1
1
dx = x2 a2 ln |a2 + x2 |
2
a + x2
2
2

(12)

1
1
a+x
dx =
ln
, a "= b
(x + a)(x + b)
ba
b+x

ax2

a
x
dx =
+ ln |a + x|
(x + a)2
a+x

x
1
dx =
ln |ax2 + bx + c|
+ bx + c
2a
b
2ax + b

tan1
a 4ac b2
4ac b2

!
!

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

!
!

2
(x a)3/2
3

(17)

1
dx = 2 x a
xa

1
dx = 2 a x
ax

ax + bdx =

"

2b
2x
+
3a
3

(ax + b)3/2 dx =

(19)

ax + b

(20)

(21)

2
(ax + b)5/2
5a

(22)

x
2
dx = (x 2a) x a
3
xa

(23)

%
x
dx = x(a x) a tan1
ax

(18)

2
2
x x adx = a(x a)3/2 + (x a)5/2
3
5
!

! $

x adx =

x(a x)
xa

(24)

.3/2
1- 2
x2 a2 dx =
x a2
3

)
)
%
1
)
)

dx = ln )x + x2 a2 )
2
2
x a
!
1
x

dx = sin1
a
a2 x 2
!
%
x

dx = x2 a2
x 2 a2
!
%
x

dx = a2 x2
a2 x 2

1
ln ax
dx = (ln ax)2
x
2

(43)

ln(ax + b)dx =

"
#
b
x+
ln(ax + b) x, a "= 0
a

(31)

(32)

ln(x2 a2 ) dx = x ln(x2 a2 ) + a ln

.
2ax + b
1%
4ac b2 tan1
ln ax2 + bx + c dx =
a
4ac b2
#
"
- 2
.
b
+ x ln ax + bx + c
(47)
2x +
2a
!

bx
1
x2
2a
4
"
#
1
b2
+
x2 2 ln(ax + b)
2
a

(33)

(34)
!

(35)

x
dx
=
(a2 + x2 )3/2
a2 a2 + x 2

(49)

!
(37)

(50)

- .
1 ax
i
xe + 3/2 erf i ax ,
a
2a
! x
2
2
where erf(x) =
et dt
0
!
xex dx = (x 1)ex

(51)

xeax dx =

"

x
1
2
a
a

eax

(53)

.
x2 ex dx = x2 2x + 2 ex
"

x2
2x
2
2 + 3
a
a
a

(52)

(54)

x2 eax dx =

eax

(55)

.
x3 ex dx = x3 3x2 + 6x 6 ex

(56)

xn eax dx =
!

xn eax
n

a
a

xn1 eax dx

(1)n
[1 + n, ax],
an+1
!
where (a, x) =
ta1 et dt

(57)

xn eax dx =

(58)

- .
2
i
eax dx = erf ix a
2 a
!

- .
2

eax dx = erf x a
2 a
!
2
2
1
xeax dx = eax
2a

(40)

(41)

1 ax
e
a

eax dx =

xeax dx =

ax2

(48)

Integrals with Exponentials

)
)
%
1
1
)
)

dx = ln )2ax + b + 2 a(ax2 + bx + c))

2
a
ax + bx + c
(39)
x
1% 2
ax + bx + c
dx =
a
+ bx + c
)
)
%
b
)
)
3/2 ln )2ax + b + 2 a(ax2 + bx + c))
2a

x+a
2x (46)
xa

x ln(ax + b)dx =

)
)
%
1 %
1
x2
)
)
dx = x x2 a2 a2 ln )x + x2 a2 )
2
2
2
a
(36)

x
2x (45)
a

.
1
x ln a2 b2 x2 dx = x2 +
2
"
#
.
a2
1
x2 2 ln a2 b2 x2
2
b

%
1 / % 2
x ax2 + bx + c =
2 a ax + bx + c
48a5/2
- 2
.
2
3b + 2abx + 8a(c + ax )
)0
)
%
)
)
+3(b3 4abc) ln )b + 2ax + 2 a ax2 + bx + x) (38)

(44)

x2

! %
b + 2ax % 2
ax2 + bx + cdx =
ax + bx + c
4a
)
%
4ac b2 ))
)
+
ln )2ax + b + 2 a(ax2 + bx+ c))
3/2
8a

Integrals with Roots

!

(42)

! %
x
1 %
1
a2 x2 dx = x a2 x2 + a2 tan1
2
2
a2 x 2
(30)

(10)
(11)

ln axdx = x ln ax x

ln(x2 + a2 ) dx = x ln(x2 + a2 ) + 2a tan1

! %
)
)
%
1 %
1
)
)
x2 a2 dx = x x2 a2 a2 ln )x + x2 a2 )
2
2
(29)

(9)

x
x
dx = x a tan1
a2 + x 2
a

,
b2
x % 3
b
2 +
x3 (ax + b)dx =
x (ax + b)
12a
8a x
3
)
)
%
b3
)
)
+ 5/2 ln )a x + a(ax + b)) (28)
8a
+

(8)

2
2ax + b
1
dx =
tan1
ax2 + bx + c
4ac b2
4ac b2
!

(x + a)n+1
+ c, n "= 1
n+1

%
1 (
x(ax + b)dx = 3/2 (2ax + b) ax(ax + b)
4a
)
)*
%
)
)
b2 ln )a x + a(ax + b))
(27)

!
!

! %

(5)

1
dx = tan1 x
1 + x2

a2

(3)

1
1
dx = ln |ax + b|
ax + b
a

(25)

x2 eax dx =

1
4

x ax2
erf(x a)
e
3
a
2a

(59)
(60)
(61)

(62)

! 2010. From http://integral-table.com, last revised March 24, 2011. This material is provided as is without warranty or representation about the accuracy, correctness or
suitability of this material for any purpose. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a
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Integrals with Trigonometric Functions

!
!
!

1
sin axdx = cos ax
a

sin2 axdx =

1 1n 3
,
, , cos2 ax
2
2
2

cos 3ax
3 cos ax
+
4a
12a

cos axdx =

1
sin ax
a

sin 2ax
x
cos2 axdx = +
2
4a

cos3 axdx =

cos ax sin bxdx =

3 sin ax
sin 3ax
+
4a
12a

!
!

sin2 x cos xdx =

1
sin3 x
3

cos bx
cos[(2a b)x]

cos ax sin bxdx =

4(2a b)
2b
cos[(2a + b)x]

4(2a + b)

(66)

cos2 ax sin axdx =

1
cos3 ax
3a

(68)

!
!
!

sin 4ax
x

8
32a

1
tan axdx = ln cos ax
a

tan2 axdx = x +

1
tan ax
a

tann+1 ax
tann axdx =

a(1 + n)
$
%
n+1
n+3
, 1,
, tan2 ax
2 F1
2
2

tan3 axdx =

1
1
ln cos ax +
sec2 ax
a
2a

&
x'
sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| = 2 tanh1 tan
2
!

sec2 axdx =

1
tan ax
a

1
csc axdx = cot ax
a
2

1
1
csc3 xdx = cot x csc x + ln | csc x cot x|
2
2
!

1
csc x cot xdx = cscn x, n #= 0
n
!
sec x csc xdx = ln | tan x|
n

(69)

(84)
!

(85)
(86)

!
!
!

(72)
!

(73)

x cos xdx = cos x + x sin x

1
x
cos ax + sin ax
a2
a

x cos axdx =

)
*
x2 cos xdx = 2x cos x + x2 2 sin x

2x cos ax
a2 x 2 2
x cos axdx =
+
sin ax
2
a
a3
2

1
xn cosxdx = (i)n+1 [(n + 1, ix)
2
+(1)n (n + 1, ix)]

(75)

(88)

1
ebx (a sin ax + b cos ax)
a 2 + b2

(107)

xex sin xdx =

1 x
e (cos x x cos x + x sin x)
2

(108)

xex cos xdx =

1 x
e (x cos x sin x + x sin x)
2

(109)

Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions

(89)
!

(90)
!

(91)

(93)
(94)
(95)

(96)

(97)

!
(80)

x sin xdx = x cos x + sin x

x sin axdx =

x cos ax
sin ax
+
a
a2

(100)

(83)

)
*
x2 sin xdx = 2 x2 cos x + 2x sin x

eax tanh bxdx =

(a+2b)x
/
0

a
e
a

, 1, 2 + , e2bx
2 F1 1 +

2b
2b
(a + 2b)
/a
0
1 ax
e
,
1,
1E,
e2bx

2 F1

a 1 ax 2b

eax 2 tan

[e ]

a
!
1
tanh bxdx = ln cosh ax
a

x2 sin axdx =

!
!

a #= b

(111)

(112)

(113)

a=b

a #= b (114)
a=b
(115)

2 2

2a x
2x sin ax
cos ax +
a3
a2

ex sin xdx =

ebx sin axdx =

1 x
e (sin x cos x)
2

1
ebx (b sin ax a cos ax)
a 2 + b2

1
[a sin ax cosh bx
a 2 + b2
+b cos ax sinh bx]
(116)

cos ax cosh bxdx =

1
[b cos ax cosh bx+
a 2 + b2
a sin ax sinh bx]
(117)

cos ax sinh bxdx =

(101)

(102)

Products of Trigonometric Functions and

Exponentials

(82)

(110)

(99)

1
xn sin xdx = (i)n [(n + 1, ix) (1)n (n + 1, ix)]
2
(103)

(81)

1
sinh ax
a

eax sinh bxdx =

ax
e

2
[b cosh bx + a sinh bx]
a b2
2ax
x

4a
2

(77)

(79)

cosh axdx =

eax cosh bxdx =

ax
e

2
[a cosh bx b sinh bx] a #= b
a b2
2ax
x

e
+
a=b
4a
2
!
1
sinh axdx = cosh ax
a

(92)

1
(ia)1n [(1)n (n + 1, iax)
2
(n + 1, ixa)]
(98)

(106)

xn cosaxdx =

(78)

1 x
e (sin x + cos x)
2

(87)

(74)
!

ex cos xdx =

ebx cos axdx =

Products of Trigonometric Functions and

Monomials

(70)

sin 2ax
sin[2(a b)x]
x

4
8a
16(a b)
sin 2bx
sin[2(a + b)x]
+

(76)
8b
16(a + b)

sin2 ax cos2 axdx =

1
sec x tan xdx = secn x, n #= 0
n

(67)

sin2 ax cos2 bxdx =

1
sec2 x
2

sec2 x tan xdx =

(
(
x(
(
csc xdx = ln (tan ( = ln | csc x cot x| + C
2

cos[(a + b)x]
cos[(a b)x]

, a #= b
2(a b)
2(a + b)
(71)

sin[(2a b)x]
sin ax cos bxdx =
4(2a b)
sin[(2a + b)x]
sin bx

+
2b
4(2a + b)

sec x tan xdx = sec x

(65)

(64)

1
cosp axdx =
cos1+p ax
a(1 + p)
"
#
1+p 1 3+p
2
F
,
,
,
cos
ax
2 1
2
2
2
!

2 F1

"

sin3 axdx =
!

sin 2ax
x

2
4a

1
1
sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|
2
2
!

sin axdx =

(63)

sec3 x dx =

1
cos ax
a

1
[a cos ax cosh bx+
a 2 + b2
b sin ax sinh bx]
(118)

sin ax cosh bxdx =

1
[b cosh bx sin ax
a 2 + b2
a cos ax sinh bx]
(119)

sin ax sinh bxdx =

sinh ax cosh axdx =

1
[2ax + sinh 2ax]
4a

(120)

(104)
!
(105)

1
[b cosh bx sinh ax
b2 a 2
a cosh ax sinh bx]
(121)

sinh ax cosh bxdx =