Advanced Welding

Content
Soldering
Brazing
Welding
Gas welding
Metal arc welding
Advanced welding techniques: Magnetic arc welding,
Friction welding, Explosive welding, Ultrasonic welding,
electron beam welding, Laser welding

Soldering
Joining processes which produces coalescence of
materials by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler metal having a
liquidus not exceeding 450 oC and below the
solidus of the base materials.
The filler metal (usually of lead and tin) is
distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of
the joint by capillary attraction

Brazing
Brazing is the joining of metal without melting them, using a
filler metal which has a melting point above 4500C but below
that of the parent metal, and which fills the joint by capillarity
Advantages
- Brazing is a non-fusion techniques, as base materials does
not melt, low distortion
- Usually does not effect the properties of the parent metal.
So, post heat treatment are rarely required
- Semi-skilled/unskilled labour can be used because of ease of
automation
-Wide range of filler metal heating methods are available

Brazing procedure

1.
2.

Mechanical and chemical cleaning

Heat components
Flux and filler metal melting
Borax (used above 7500C)-less corrosive than 2
Fluoride (used below 7500C)- used in silver brazing
Post-braze heat treatment
Post-braze cleaning
Inspection

Disadvantages or Difficulties
The nature of the braze component is complex. The
most important consideration as regards strength is
the continuity of the bond, which can vary from 0100%, as it is dependent on the ability of the brass
metal to wet the surfaces of the gap
In general, liquid braze metals will not wet, clean
unfilmed surfaces unless
(a) the liquid metal is intersoluble with the base
(parent) metal
(b) the liquid and solid metal react to form an
intermetallic compounds

Fluxes
Most common method of ensuring good wetting
Generally achieved by dissolving oxides
Same fluxes also deposit metals on to the surface of the
parent metal and reacts with the surfaces, thus
preparing it chemically (e.g.:ZnCl2 flux-Zn is deposited
on Fe surfaces giving tinning effect)
Flux also has a blanketing effect on the surface keeping
O2 out
Fluxes are applied over heated area or filler rod is
coated in flux

Brazing
Induction heating
Inductor is placed close to the parts to be brazed. In most cases the
coil surrounds the components. A high frequency current in the
inductor induces a heating current in the work piece.
The brazing cycle can be precisely controlled using timing
equipment built into the HF generator.
Advantage of induction heating
Rapid and uniform heat-rate
Can be used in inert atmosphere or in vacuum
Good heating techniques for high quality
Mostly used for steel components

Cleaning
Mechanical cleaning
Usually abrasion will be necessary on large
components
It is usually less efficient and more costly than
chemical cleaning when large numbers of small
components are involved in the production
process.
Other mechanical methods generally employed
are chipping and scratch brushing, rinsing or
scrubbing with water, acid or other chemical

Cleaning
Chemical cleaning
1. Degreasing using (a) Solvent (Petroleum or chlorinated
hydrocarbons)
or
(b) Vapour degreasing using stabilised
trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloric or acetone
2. Scale or oxide removal can than take place by acid cleaning or
pickling
(salt pickling can also be used)
e.g. : Iron and steel 10% H2SO4
Brass 10% H2SO4 acid for 10 min maxm
Stainless steel 7% HNO3 + 21% H2SO4 in water

Welding
The process of permanently joining two or more metal parts,
by melting both materials. The molten materials quickly cool,
and the two metals are permanently bonded.
Advantage:
Higher mechanical properties
Fixing stress cracks
Reinforcing weak joints
Cutting or shaping new parts

Equipments used in gas

and oxy-acetylene
welding processes
Oxygen

Acetylene

Steel cylinder

Steel cylinder

Contained in
compressed
form

High pressure acetylene

is not stable so it
dissolved in acetone,
which has the ability to
absorb a large volume of
gas and release it as the
pressure falls.

Supplied 3.4, 5
and 6.8 m3
capacities
Mild steel-13,
660 kN/m2
Alloy steel-17,
240kN/m2
R. H. thread in
valve

1 volume acetone-25
volume acetylene
Pressure 1, 552 kN/m2
Danger of explosionporous substance

Welding gas mixture

Fuel Gas

Maximum Flame temperature

with air (degree C) with oxygen (degree C)

Acetylene

1 755

3 200

Butane

1 750

2 730

Coal gas

1 600

2 000

Hydrogen

1 700

2 300

Propane

1 750

2 500

Oxy-acetylene flame
Neutral flame

Oxidising flame

Carburising flame
www.twi.co.uk

Gas welding

Effect of welding on the structure

Ref: Basic fabrication and welding enginering, F. J. M. Smith, LST

Temperature distribution during oxyacetylene welding 10 mm thick mild

steel

Arc welding
The most common and economical method is AC arc welding

Arc
Highly luminous and intensely hot discharge of
electricity between two electrodes
Discovered early 19th cent. by Sir Humphry Davy
High current and low voltage
When electrodes are parted, strong electric forces
draw electrons from one electrode to the other,
initiating the arc

Shielding gases in arc welding

Tungsten inert gas
welding (TIG)
Tungsten electrode30000C
Argon and Helium
Filler material is added as
in gas welding

Schematic of TIG

Shielding gases in arc welding

Metal inert gas welding
(MIG)
Consumable electrode
Argon, Helium and
Carbon Dioxide
No filler materials
MIG weld area:

Positions and arc welding

Risk involved in arc welding

1. Exposure to radiation
2. Flying sparks
3. Electric shock
4. Fumes
5. Damage to eyes
6. Burns

Safety

Make sure to work on a dry floor.

Wear thick rubber shoes and dry leather welding gloves.
Be sure to use insulated electrode holders.
Check to make sure that your equipment is all properly
grounded.
Keep your work area properly ventilated to avoid
inhaling any potentially toxic fumes.
Be on the look out for flying bits of melted metal.
Most importantly, be aware of any other people who are
around you.

Types of weld

Types of weld

Welding processes-groups-letter designation

Magnetic Arc Welding

Arc is rotated around the weld line by the force
which results from the interaction between the
magnetic field and the current
CO2 or inert gas shielding is used

Steps in MIAB
Faces to be joined are brought together and internal
magnetic coil is put in place
Welding current, magnetic coil system is put in place
and shielding gas are turned on
Work pieces are retracted to a defined gap to produce
the arc
Arc rotates about interface-melting faces to be joined
Faces are pressed together
Welding current, magnetic field and shielding gas are
switched off

Magnetic Arc Welding

MIAB
Faster than arc fusion welding
and conventional welding
Used industrially
Accurate-No further finishing
machining operation are
required
Allows quality control

MIAF
Non-consumable electrode
Suitable for welding of thin
wall pipes or tubes certain
pressed sheet fabrication

Friction welding
-Friction heat caused by the motion of one surface
against another enables plastic deformation and
atomic diffusion at the interface
-Used by the automotive industry for decades in the
manufacture of a range of components
-The weld is formed across the entire cross-sectional
area of the interface in a single shot process

Advantages of friction welding

Narrow HAZ
Dissimilar metals can be joined
No fusion zone
Can be used under water
Very high reproducibility - an essential requirement for a mass production
industry
Excellent weld quality, with none of the porosity that can arise in fusion
welding
environmentally friendly, because no fumes or spatter are generated, and
there is no arc glare or reflected laser beams with which to contend

Variations of friction welding

Rotary Friction Welding
Linear Friction Welding
Friction stir welding

Direct or continuous drive

Pre-determined time of
motion determined by the
size and type of material

Inertia friction welding

One of the work pieces is connected to a flywheel and the
other is restrained from rotating

Flywheel used to provide energy and is disengaged

before the work pieces are pushed together
Less drive power required than with direct drive
welding

Linear friction welding

1-3mm
Frequency 25125Hz
Maximum
axial force
150kN

Friction surface / Friction stir welding

Steps in friction stir welding

A non-consumable rotating tool is pushed into the
materials to be welded and then the central pin, or
probe, followed by the shoulder, is brought into
contact with the two parts to be joined.
The rotation of the tool heats up and plasticises the
materials it is in contact with and, as the tool moves
along the joint line, material from the front of the
tool is swept around this plasticised annulus to the
rear, so eliminating the interface.

Explosive Welding
Welding produced by explosively forcing one plate
(or component) against the one to which it is to be
joined at an approximate angle of incidence, known as
the impact angle
Methods: 1. Inclined gap method
2. Parallel gap method
In parallel gap method, detonation velocity should be
equal to or less than the speed of sound in the metal
being welded

Explosives
Explosive

Detonation
velocity, m/s

RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, C3H6N6O6

8100

PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C5H8N12O4)

8190

TNT (Trinitrotoluene, C7H5N3O6)

6600

Tetryl (Trinitrophenylmethylinitramine,
C7H5O8N5)

7800

Lead azide (N6Pb)

5010

Detasheet

7020

Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)

2655

Explosive welding

Inclined gap method

Various detonation speeds are possible with the inclined gap
method
A jet is formed. The jet is a thin layer of metal stripped from
the surfaces of both plates, which in turn exposes the
uncontaminated metal surfaces which are then welded in the
high pressure zone, known as stagnation point
Typically the weld surfaces are wavy
Weld is mainly solid state with small pockets of melted jet
material (on the front and back slopes of the waves)
Some welding may also be enhanced by friction due to the
difference in the velocity of the plates

Application of explosive welding

Cladding plates
Joining of pipes and tubes
Major areas of the use of this method are heat exchanger
tube sheets and pressure vessels
Tube Plugging
Remote joining in hazardous environments
Joining of dissimilar metals - Aluminium to steel, Titanium
alloys to Cr Ni steel, Cu to stainless steel, Tungsten to
Steel, etc.
Attaching cooling fins
Other applications are in chemical process vessels, ship
building industry, cryogenic industry, etc.

Advantages of explosive welding

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable metals.

Minimum fixturing/jigs.
Simplicity of the process.
Extremely large surfaces can be bonded.
Wide range of thicknesses can be explosively clad
together.
No effect on parent properties.
Small quantity of explosive used.

Disadvantages of explosive welding

1. The metals must have high enough impact resistance, and
ductility.
2. Noise and blast can require operator protection, vacuum
chambers, buried in sand/water.
3. The use of explosives in industrial areas will be restricted
by the noise and ground vibrations caused by the explosion.
4. The geometries welded must be simple flat, cylindrical,
conical.
5. Area should be cleaned and sound grounded for explosion
6. Licences are necessary to hold and use explosives

Ultrasonic welding

A solid state process for metal and plastics

Energy required comes in the form of mechanical vibrations
Most operates at 20, 30, 40 kHz
Weld is produced when the work pieces are clamped together
between an anvil and a high frequency vibration probe (sonotrode)
Empirical relation for a ultrasonic welding:
E=k(HT)3/2
Where, E = Electrical energy
k = Constant for given welding system
H = Vickers hardness
T = Thickness of the work piece in contrast with the sonotrode

Types of ultrasonic welding

Direct couple methods

Wedge-Reed method where the
transducer is coupled through a
resonant bar

Ultrasonic welding
Sonotrode induces lateral vibration and local
movement between the frying surfaces
This tends to disrupt any surface oxide film
present and also raises the temperature, extending
an area of plastic flow, and a solid-phase type of
pressure is formed
Morphology of the weld is similar to the friction
weld

Variants:
Spot welding- elliptical spots
Ring welding hollow sonotrode tip
Line welding linear sonotrode tip
Continuous welding Rotating wheel shaped sonotrode
and a roller type of anvil
Application:
Largest growth area for ultrasonic welding is micro
miniature welding and micro joining in micro electric
applications
Capable of joining very fine wires to electrical
components

Ultrasonic welding control

Ultrasonic welding control

Ultrasonic welding control

Ultrasonic welding
Advantages:
Energy efficiency
High productivity with low costs and ease of automated assembly line
production
Disadvantages:
The maximum component length that can be welded by a single horn is
approximately 250 mm. This is due to limitations in the power output
capability of a single transducer, the inability of the horns to transmit very
high power, and amplitude control difficulties due to the fact that joints of
this length are comparable to the wavelength of the ultrasound.

Electron beam (EB) welding

EB welding is a fusion joining process in which the work
piece is embedded with a dense stream of high velocity
electrons. Welding usually takes place in an evacuated
chamber.
Advantage: Very deep penetration can be achieved. For
example, joining of 200 mm aluminium plates requires 600
passes when conventional gas metal arc process requires
over 100 passes even using specially developed narrowgrove process. By using the EB process, the same plate can
be welded in only 2 passes.
Disadvantage: Dealing with the vacuum needed for the
process

Laser welding
Possible application is the fabrication of stiffened
panel structures commonly used for ships, aircraft,
and other structures. Stiffeners can be laser welded
on to panels with no filler materials.
No doubt that laser will be used in various ways in
metal fabrication industries.
It is still difficult to predict how extensively they
will be used and how soon.
Ref: Metals hand book. Ninth edition. Vol 6: Welding brazing and soldering

Welding
defects

Oxides in welding
Difficulties:
Form tenacious film
Melting point oxides higher than the parent metal
Rapid formation
Unless the oxides are removed:
Fusion may be difficult
Inclusions may be present in the weld metal
Joining will be weakened

Factors that
contribute to the
weld distortion
and their relation
to each other and
to the total
distortion
Ref: International series on
materials Science and
Technology. V33: Analysis
of welded structures

Combating distortion