School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering

TPFE MSc Advanced Turbulence Modelling

Introduction

One challenge in CFD is how to treat the thin near-wall sublayer, where
viscous effects become important.

In flows with heat transfer, an accurate resolution of this layer can be

crucial because most of the temperature change occurs across it.

The most reliable way is to use a fine

grid and a low-Re-number model.

This can be very expensive,

particularly in 3-D.

Slow convergence can also be a problem as a result of model source

terms and high aspect ratio cells.

The traditional industrial solution has been to use wall-functions.

Wall Functions
T. J. Craft
George Begg Building, C41

Reading:
S. Pope, Turbulent Flows
D. Wilcox, Turbulence Modelling for CFD
Closure Strategies for Turbulent and Transitional
Flows, (Eds. B.E. Launder, N.D. Sandham)
Notes:
Blackboard and CFD/TM web server:
http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/tmcfd
- People - T. Craft - Online Teaching Material
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Last semester we briefly looked at a method that allows one to dispense

with a very fine near-wall grid.

The idea is to place the first computational node outside the viscous
sublayer, and make suitable assumptions about how the near-wall
velocity profile behaves, in order to obtain the wall shear stress.

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as arises from the shear stress at the south

face of the cell (ie. the wall shear stress).

U+ =

yn

1
log(Ey + )

(2)

This can be used to estimate the wall shear stress from the values of U
and y + at the near-wall node P. Rearranging gives:
#2
"
Up
Up
1
+
= log(Eyp )
or
w / =

(w / )1/2
log(Eyp+ )

From uv = w / = t U/ y , the turbulent viscosity at node P can

also be estimated:

P
yv
x

Since the near-wall sublayer is not resolved, estimating the velocity

gradient from a linear variation of U, as is done at other faces, will not
give an accurate approximation of the shear stress at the wall.

t = (w / )/( U/ y ) = y (w / )1/2

If we obtain the wall shear stress from an assumed velocity profile, we

can set as to zero and then add w (x ) directly into the source term.

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In a local equilibrium boundary layer, where the lengthscale grows

linearly with distance from the wall, we obtain the log law:

with U + = U/(w / )1/2 and y + = y (w / )1/2 / .

In the discretized momentum equation

ap Up = ae Ue + aw Uw + an Un + as Us + Su (1)

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Log-Law Based Wall Functions

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This form thus returns zero turbulent viscosity when w vanishes (giving
problems at reattachment or impingement points).

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An improved version of the log-law based wall function uses kv , the value
of k at the edge of the viscous sublayer, for the velocity scale:
U =

1
log(E y )

1/2

In principle, the value of kv is not dependent on the grid employed, since

it is associated with the viscous sublayer thickness.

However, kv is usually estimated by assuming that k is constant across

the fully turbulent near-wall region, so that kv is the same as kp .

To obtain kp , the k transport equation is solved over the near-wall cell.

However, Pk and can both be expected to vary quite drastically across

the near-wall cell.

Consequently, simply evaluating them at the cell centre in discretizing the

k equation would lead to inaccurate approximations.

Instead, suitable approximations can be made for the cell-averaged

source and sink terms:

(3)

with U = Ukv /(w / ) and y = ykv / .

1/2

k and Wall Function Treatments

The values of yp and Up can then be used to calculate w from the log
law of equation (3):
Up k p
w / =
log(E yp )

Pk =

t = (w / )/( U/ y ) = kp yp
1/2

so does not vanish when w = 0.

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Some simple approximations typically made to enable the above integrals

to be evaluated are:

uv is zero in the viscous sublayer, but

constant (equal to the wall shear stress)
in the fully turbulent region.
k is constant (equal to kp ) in the fully
turbulent region, and falls to zero
quadratically across the viscous
sublayer.

Pk dy

1
yn

Z yn
0

dy

(4)

Typically, diffusion of k to the wall is set to zero, and then Pk and used
as source/sink terms in the discretization schemes already considered.

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The cell-averaged generation and dissipation rates for k over the

near-wall cell can then be evaluated as
Pk =

uv

1
yn
=

yv

Z yn

and Pk and are used in discretizing the k equation.

The turbulent viscosity at the near-wall node is now given by

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1
yn

Z yn
yv

uv

1
U
dy =
y
yn

w2
1/4

1/2

c kp yn

Z yn
yv

dy

log(yn /yv )

"
#
Z yn 3/2
kp
2 kp
1
=
yv 2 +
dy
yn
yv
yv c l y

yv

w
1/4
1/2
c kp y

"
#
3/2
kp
1 2kp
+
log(yn /yv )
=
yn yv /
cl

where yv is the edge of the viscous sublayer.

the lengthscale varies linearly in the

3/2
fully turbulent region, so = kp /(cl y ),
whilst is taken as constant (equal to
its wall-limiting value of 2 kp /yv2 ) in the
viscous sublayer.

yv

The sublayer thickness, yv , is obtained by assuming that it extends to a

1/2
fixed non-dimensional distance, typically yv = yv kv / = 20.

When solving the equation, the value of p is usually set as the

boundary condition, with p obtained from a linear lengthscale variation:
3/2

p = kp /(cl yp )
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(5)
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Wall Function Refinements

Standard Wall Function Weaknesses

Wall functions such as that outlined are widely used in industrial CFD
simulations (and available in most commercial codes).

Although the above schemes are widely used, they have a number of
weaknesses when applied to complex flows.

One weakness is the assumption that kv is equal to the nodal value kp .

As an example, results are shown from a workshop on abrupt pipe

expansion heat transfer:

Chieng & Launder (1980) proposed a

formulation accounting for variations of
k across the near-wall cell, extrapolating
from kp and kN to find kv and yv .

There can be a significant dependence of the results on the near-wall cell

size, since the above forms assume the near-wall node to lie in the
fully-turbulent log-law region.

kv

yv

Johnson & Launder (1982) also tried to make the non-dimensional

viscous sublayer thickness, yv , a function of local flow conditions.

The same approach to obtaining Pk and can still be used but the
algebraic expressions become somewhat more complex.

However, the above refinements have not been widely used. In certain
cases they have been found to worsen the solution stability.

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Advanced Wall Functions

Forms have been proposed which partly

alleviate this by using alternative expressions
for U + = f (y + ) in the viscous/buffer layers.

More advanced schemes, which remove the assumption of the log-law,

have been developed in recent years (eg. Gant, 2002; Gerasimov, 2003).

However, a major weakness with all the above

is the assumption of a log-law flow region.

These will not be examined in detail here, but an outline of their

approaches and some applications will be shown.

In near-wall flows with strong pressure gradients, buoyancy or complex

strains the mean velocity profile may not exhibit a log-law behaviour.

The Algebraic Wall Function (or AWF) was devised by Gerasimov (2003),
primarily to account for force-field effects on the mean velocity profile.

For example, flow near a spinning disc:

A simplified wall-parallel mean momentum

equation is written as



U
P
( + t )
=
+ Cu + F u
y
y
x

1/2

Radial V = k V/

1/2

Tangential W = k (Ww-W)/

40

40

Re =0.10E+07

Re =0.10E+07

30

30

20

20

10

10

0
5

10

50
1/2

y =k y/

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100

500 1000

10

50

100

(6)

where Cu represents the convection terms, and

Fu any other forcing (eg. due to buoyancy).

0
1

500 1000

1/2

y =k y/

P
yv

The radial component lies nowhere near the log-law.

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An assumption is made for the variation of

turbulent viscosity across the near-wall cell:
(
0
for y < yv
(7)
t =

for y yv
c cl (y yv )

yn

Application to buoyancy aided and opposed pipe flows:

Buoyancy-Opposed Flow
Buoyancy-Aided Flow

P
yv

With suitable approximations for Cu , Fu and P/ x , equation (6) can be

integrated analytically, giving an expression of the form
(
U1 (y )
for y < yv
U=
(8)
U2 (y )
for y yv

100

Exp.data of Li (1994)
Calc. without F()
*
yn=50
y*n=100
*
yn=150
Nu=0.023 Pr0.333 Re0.8
LRN Calculation

80

60

Nu

y
x

q
Rin

Rout

40

This expression for U can be used to estimate the wall shear stress,
which is fed into the mean momentum discretized source terms as before.

20

0
50

100

150

x/d

The analytic U profile can also be used to evaluate quantities such as Pk .

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A second approach, Gant (2002) (Numerical Wall Function) involves

putting a 1-D sub-grid across each main near-wall cell.

The AWF captures the buoyancy effects on heat transfer.

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The Gant (2002) scheme applied to impinging jets:

Launder-Sharma k -

Maingrid
scalar nodes

Standard wall function

UMIST-N

0.25

0.25

0.4

0.05

Experiment
Low-Re
DX=500
DX=400
DX=300
DX=250

0.2

0.175

0.15

0.125

0.1

0.075

0.05

0.025

0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

0.0
0.0

6.0

0.5

1.0

Displacement from Jet Centreline, r/D

H/D = 4

Data of Baughn et al
(1992).

Quantities such as wall shear stress, Pk and were computed from these
local 1-D solutions and used in the main grid source/sink terms as before.
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0.25

0.225

Experiment
Low-Re
DX=500
DX=400
DX=300
DX=250

0.2

0.175

0.15

0.125

0.1

0.075

0.05

0.025

0.0
0.0

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2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

6.0

UMIST-N

0.25

0.225

Experiment
Low-Re
DX=500
DX=400
DX=300
DX=250

0.2

0.175

0.15

0.125

0.1

0.075

0.05

0.025

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Displacement from Jet Centreline, r/D

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2.0

Non-Linear EVM (Craft et al, 1996)

Standard wall function
0.4

1.5

Displacement from Jet Centreline, r/D

0.7

Re = 70, 000
0.4

0.7

Simplified 1-D transport equations were solved numerically across each

sub-grid (using a suitable low-Reynolds-number turbulence model).

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0.7

0.1

0.075

Nusselt Number, Nu/(Re Pr )

0.15

0.125

0.025

99999999999999999999999999999999999999
99999999999999999999999999999999999999
99999999999999999999999999999999999999
99999999999999999999999999999999999999

0.225

Experiment
Low-Re
DX=500
DX=400
DX=300
DX=250

0.2

0.175

Nusselt Number, Nu/(Re Pr )

Nusselt Number, Nu/(Re Pr )

Subgrid defined
within nearwall
maingrid cell

0.7

0.4

Nusselt Number, Nu/(Re Pr )

0.225

Subgrid
nodes

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5.0

5.5

6.0

0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Displacement from Jet Centreline, r/D

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References
Baughn, J.W., Yan, X., Mesbah, M., (1992), The effect of Reynolds number on the heat

transfer distribution from a flat plate to an impinging jet, ASME Winter Annual Meeting.
Chieng, C.C., Launder, B.E., (1980), On the calculation of turbulent heat transport

downstream from an abrupt pipe expansion, Numerical Heat Transfer, Vol. 3, pp. 189-207.
Craft, T.J., Launder, B.E., Suga, K., (1996), Development and application of a cubic

eddy-viscosity model of turbulence, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, Vol. 17, pp. 108-115.
Gant, S.E., (2002), Development and application of a new wall function for complex

turbulent flows, PhD. Thesis, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Manufacturing

Engineering, UMIST, Manchester.
Gerasimov, A.V., (2003), Development and application of an analytical wall-function strategy

for modelling forced, mixed and natural convection flows, PhD. Thesis, Department of
Mechanical, Aerospace & Manufacturing Engineering, UMIST, Manchester.
Johnson, R.W., Launder, B.E., (1982), Discussion of On the calculation of turbulent heat

transport downstream from an abrupt pipe expansion, Numerical Heat Transfer, Vol. 5, pp.
493-496.
Li, J., (1994), Studies of buoyancy-influenced convective heat transfer to air in a vertical

tube, PhD. Thesis, University of Manchester.

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