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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en"><sp

an dir="auto">Optical fiber</span></h1>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibreoptic.jpg"
class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4

/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/220px-Fibreoptic.jpg" width="220" height="333" class="thumbim
age" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Fibreoptic.jpg/
330px-Fibreoptic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Fibreop
tic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="529" /></a>
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A bundle of optical fibers</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stealth_Fiber_C
rew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_the_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg" class="image
"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stealth_F
iber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_the_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg/220px-S
tealth_Fiber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_the_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg
" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stealth_Fiber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_t
he_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg/330px-Stealth_Fiber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_unde
rneath_the_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
ns/thumb/1/1b/Stealth_Fiber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_the_streets_o
f_Manhattan.jpg/440px-Stealth_Fiber_Crew_installing_fiber_cable_underneath_the_s
treets_of_Manhattan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="996" /></a>
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le_underneath_the_streets_of_Manhattan.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a
></div>
Stealth Fiber Crew installing a 432-count fiber cable underneath the streets of
Midtown Manhattan, New York City</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiber_optic_ill
uminated.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/thumb/8/85/Fiber_optic_illuminated.jpg/220px-Fiber_optic_illuminated.jpg"
width="220" height="138" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fiber_optic_illuminated.jpg/330px-Fiber_optic_illuminate
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minated.jpg/440px-Fiber_optic_illuminated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-fi
le-height="1628" /></a>
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ernal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
A <a href="/wiki/TOSLINK" title="TOSLINK">TOSLINK</a> fiber optic audio cable wi
th red light being shone in one end transmits the light to the other end</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical-fibre-j
unction-box.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/en/thumb/b/b4/Optical-fibre-junction-box.jpg/220px-Optical-fibre-junction-box.j
pg" width="220" height="265" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/w
ikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Optical-fibre-junction-box.jpg/330px-Optical-fibre-juncti
on-box.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Optical-fibre-ju
nction-box.jpg/440px-Optical-fibre-junction-box.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" d
ata-file-height="1869" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical-fibre-junction-box.jpg" class="
internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
A <a href="/wiki/19-inch_rack" title="19-inch rack">wall-mount cabinet</a> conta

ining optical fiber interconnects. The yellow cables are <a href="/wiki/Single-m
ode_optical_fiber" title="Single-mode optical fiber">single mode fibers</a>; the
orange and aqua cables are <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber" title="Mult
i-mode optical fiber">multi-mode fibers</a>: 50/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibers
respectively.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>An <b>optical fiber</b> (<a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling
_differences#-re.2C_-er" title="American and British English spelling difference
s">or</a> <b>optical fibre</b>) is a flexible, transparent fiber made of extrude
d glass (<a href="/wiki/Silica" title="Silica" class="mw-redirect">silica</a>) o
r plastic, slightly thicker than a <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">human hair<
/a>. It can function as a <a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(optics)" title="Waveguide (o
ptics)">waveguide</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Light_pipe" title="Light pipe" class="mw
-redirect">light pipe</a> ,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_n
ote-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> to transmit light between the two
ends of the fiber.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"
><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> The field of <a href="/wiki/Applied_sci
ence" title="Applied science">applied science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering
" title="Engineering">engineering</a> concerned with the design and application
of optical fibers is known as <b>fiber optics</b>.</p>
<p>Optical fibers are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" t
itle="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communications</a>, where they perm
it transmission over longer distances and at higher <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(co
mputing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidths</a> (data rates) than wire ca
bles. Fibers are used instead of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> w
ires because signals travel along them with less <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" tit
le="Attenuation">loss</a> and are also immune to <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_
interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">electromagnetic interference<
/a>. Fibers are also used for <a href="/wiki/Illumination_(lighting)" title="Ill
umination (lighting)" class="mw-redirect">illumination</a>, and are wrapped in b
undles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confin
ed spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other application
s, including <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> and <a href="/wik
i/Fiber_laser" title="Fiber laser">fiber lasers</a>.</p>
<p>Optical fibers typically include a <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucen
cy" title="Transparency and translucency">transparent</a> <a href="/wiki/Core_(o
ptical_fiber)" title="Core (optical fiber)">core</a> surrounded by a transparent
<a href="/wiki/Cladding_(fiber_optics)" title="Cladding (fiber optics)">claddin
g</a> material with a lower <a href="/wiki/Index_of_refraction" title="Index of
refraction" class="mw-redirect">index of refraction</a>. Light is kept in the co
re by <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection
">total internal reflection</a>. This causes the fiber to act as a <a href="/wik
i/Waveguide_(optics)" title="Waveguide (optics)">waveguide</a>. Fibers that supp
ort many propagation paths or <a href="/wiki/Transverse_mode" title="Transverse
mode">transverse modes</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_fiber" title="Mu
lti-mode fiber" class="mw-redirect">multi-mode fibers</a> (MMF), while those tha
t only support a single mode are called <a href="/wiki/Single-mode_fiber" title=
"Single-mode fiber" class="mw-redirect">single-mode fibers</a> (SMF). Multi-mode
fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are used for short-distance co
mmunication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Sin
gle-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters (
3,300 ft).</p>
<p>Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire
or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully <a href="/wiki/Cleave_(fiber
)" title="Cleave (fiber)">cleaved</a>, and then carefully spliced together with
the cores perfectly aligned. A <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_splice" title="Mechanic
al splice">mechanical splice</a> holds the ends of the fibers together mechanica
lly, while <a href="/wiki/Fusion_splicing" title="Fusion splicing">fusion splici
ng</a> uses heat to fuse the ends of the fibers together. Special <a href="/wiki
/Optical_fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">optical fiber connecto
rs</a> for temporary or semi-permanent connections are also available.</p>
<div class="toclimit-3">
<div id="toc" class="toc">
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1
</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">2</s
pan> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Communication"><span class="tocnum
ber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Communication</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Advantages_over_copper_wiring"><sp
an class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Advantages over copper w
iring</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Sensors"><span class="tocnumber">2
.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sensors</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Power_transmission"><span class="t
ocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Power transmission</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Other_uses"><span class="tocnumber
">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other uses</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Principle_of_operation"><span clas
s="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Principle of operation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Index_of_refraction"><span class="
tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Index of refraction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Total_internal_reflection"><span
class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Total internal reflection</sp
an></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Multi-mode_fiber"><span class="to
cnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Multi-mode fiber</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Single-mode_fiber"><span class="t
ocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Single-mode fiber</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Special-purpose_fiber"><span clas
s="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Special-purpose fiber</span></a><
/li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Mechanisms_of_attenuation"><span
class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Mechanisms of attenuation</span
></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Light_scattering"><span class="to
cnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Light scattering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#UV-Vis-IR_absorption"><span class
="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">UV-Vis-IR absorption</span></a></l
i>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Manufacturing"><span class="tocnu
mber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Manufacturing</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Materials"><span class="tocnumber
">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Materials</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Silica"><span class="tocnumber">5
.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Silica</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Fluoride_glass"><span class="tocn
umber">5.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fluoride glass</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Phosphate_glass"><span class="toc
number">5.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Phosphate glass</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Chalcogenide_glass"><span class="
tocnumber">5.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Chalcogenide glass</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Process"><span class="tocnumber">
5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Process</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Preform"><span class="tocnumber">
5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Preform</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Drawing"><span class="tocnumber">
5.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Drawing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Coatings"><span class="tocnumber"
>5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Coatings</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Practical_issues"><span class="to
cnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Practical issues</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Cable_construction"><span class="
tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cable construction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Termination_and_splicing"><span c
lass="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Termination and splicing</span
></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Free-space_coupling"><span class=
"tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Free-space coupling</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Fiber_fuse"><span class="tocnumbe
r">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Fiber fuse</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber"
>7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumbe
r">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="toc
number">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocn
umber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsec
tion"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=O
ptical_fiber&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</
a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:DanielColladon%
27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe,LaNature(magazine),1884.JPG" class="image"><img a
lt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/DanielColladon%27
s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28magazine%29%2C1884.JPG/220px-DanielCol
ladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28magazine%29%2C1884.JPG" width=
"220" height="354" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/thumb/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28mag
azine%29%2C1884.JPG/330px-DanielColladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNatu
re%28magazine%29%2C1884.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb
/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28magazine%29%2C1
884.JPG/440px-DanielColladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28magazin
e%29%2C1884.JPG 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="737" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:DanielColladon%27s_Lightfountain_or_Lig
htpipe,LaNature(magazine),1884.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Jean-Daniel_Colladon" title="Jean-Daniel Colladon">Daniel Collado
n</a> first described this light fountain or light pipe in an 1842 article titled <i
>On the reflections of a ray of light inside a parabolic liquid stream</i>. This
particular illustration comes from a later article by Colladon, in 1884.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possibl
e, was first demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Daniel_Colladon" title="Jean-Da
niel Colladon">Daniel Colladon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Babinet" title="Ja
cques Babinet">Jacques Babinet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris<
/a> in the early 1840s. <a href="/wiki/John_Tyndall" title="John Tyndall">John T
yndall</a> included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in <a href="/wi
ki/London" title="London">London</a>, 12 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-regis_3-0
" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-regis-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></
a></sup> Tyndall also wrote about the property of <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_
reflection" title="Total internal reflection">total internal reflection</a> in a
n introductory book about the nature of light in 1870:</p>
<blockquote class="templatequote">
<p>When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent <i>towar
ds</i> the <a href="/wiki/Perpendicular" title="Perpendicular">perpendicular</a>
... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent <i>from</i> the perpendicul
ar... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the
surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it
will be <i>totally reflected</i> at the surface.... The angle which marks the li
mit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. Fo
r water this angle is 4827', for flint glass it is 3841', while for diamond it is
2342'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span
>4<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_
note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber.<sup
id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]<
/span></a></sup></p>
<p>Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry,
appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was d
emonstrated independently by the radio experimenter <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Hans
ell" title="Clarence Hansell">Clarence Hansell</a> and the television pioneer <a
href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> in
the 1920s. The principle was first used for internal medical examinations by <a
href="/wiki/Heinrich_Lamm" title="Heinrich Lamm">Heinrich Lamm</a> in the follow
ing decade. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated with a transp
arent cladding to offer a more suitable <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="
Refractive index">refractive index</a>, appeared later in the decade.<sup id="ci
te_ref-regis_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-regis-3"><span>[</span>3
<span>]</span></a></sup> Development then focused on fiber bundles for image tra
nsmission. <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (phy
sicist)">Harold Hopkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Nar
inder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a> at <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College
" title="Imperial College" class="mw-redirect">Imperial College</a> in London ac

hieved low-loss light transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which combin
ed several thousand fibers. Their article titled "A flexible fibrescope, using s
tatic scanning" was published in the journal <i>Nature</i> in 1954.<sup id="cite
_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></
a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</s
pan>8<span>]</span></a></sup> The first fiber optic semi-flexible <a href="/wiki
/Gastroscope" title="Gastroscope" class="mw-redirect">gastroscope</a> was patent
ed by <a href="/wiki/Basil_Hirschowitz" title="Basil Hirschowitz">Basil Hirschow
itz</a>, C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the <a href="
/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michi
gan</a>, in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced
the first glass-clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impra
ctical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material.</p>
<p>A variety of other image transmission applications soon followed.</p>
<p>In 1880 <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">A
lexander Graham Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charl
es Sumner Tainter">Sumner Tainter</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Photophone" ti
tle="Photophone">Photophone</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Volta_Laboratory_and_Burea
u" title="Volta Laboratory and Bureau">Volta Laboratory</a> in Washington, D.C.,
to transmit voice signals over an optical beam.<sup id="cite_ref-SDU_9-0" class
="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SDU-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup>
It was an advanced form of telecommunications, but subject to atmospheric interf
erences and impractical until the secure transport of light that would be offere
d by fiber-optical systems. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was
guided through bent glass rods to illuminate body cavities.<sup id="cite_ref-10
" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></
sup> <a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nish
izawa</a>, a Japanese scientist at <a href="/wiki/Tohoku_University" title="Toho
ku University">Tohoku University</a>, also proposed the use of optical fibers fo
r communications in 1963, as stated in his book published in 2004 in <a href="/w
iki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bhat_11-0" class="reference
"><a href="#cite_note-Bhat-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Nishizaw
a invented other technologies that contributed to the development of optical fib
er communications, such as the graded-index optical fiber as a channel for trans
mitting light from semiconductor lasers.<sup id="cite_ref-Sendai_New_12-0" class
="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sendai_New-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></
a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEEE_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEEE13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> The first working fiber-optical dat
a transmission system was demonstrated by German physicist <a href="/wiki/Manfre
d_B%C3%B6rner" title="Manfred Brner">Manfred Brner</a> at <a href="/wiki/Telefunke
n" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a> Research Labs in Ulm in 1965, which was fol
lowed by the first patent application for this technology in 1966.<sup id="cite_
ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span>
</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>
[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles
K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_A._Hockham" title="George
A. Hockham" class="mw-redirect">George A. Hockham</a> of the British company <a
href="/wiki/Standard_Telephones_and_Cables" title="Standard Telephones and Cable
s">Standard Telephones and Cables</a> (STC) were the first to promote the idea t
hat the <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> in optic
al fibers could be reduced below 20 <a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">deci
bels</a> per kilometer (dB/km), making fibers a practical communication medium.<
sup id="cite_ref-hecht1999_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hecht1999
-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> They proposed that the attenuation
in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities that could be removed,
rather than by fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly
and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and po
inted out the right material to use for such fibers silica glass with high
purity. This discovery earned Kao the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" tit
le="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref

-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a
></sup></p>
<p>NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon.
At the time, the use in the cameras was classified <i>confidential</i>, and only
those with sufficient security clearance or those accompanied by someone with t
he right security clearance were permitted to handle the cameras.<sup id="cite_r
ef-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span><
/a></sup></p>
<p>The crucial attenuation limit of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970, by
researchers <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Maurer" title="Robert D. Maurer">Robert D.
Maurer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Keck" title="Donald Keck">Donald Keck</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Peter_C._Schultz" title="Peter C. Schultz">Peter C. Schultz</a>, an
d Frank Zimar working for American glass maker Corning Glass Works, now <a href=
"/wiki/Corning_Incorporated" title="Corning Incorporated" class="mw-redirect">Co
rning Incorporated</a>. They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation
by <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping
</a> <a href="/wiki/Silica_glass" title="Silica glass" class="mw-redirect">silic
a glass</a> with <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>. A few y
ears later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using <a hre
f="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">germanium dioxide</a> as t
he core dopant. Such low attenuation ushered in the era of optical fiber telecom
munication. In 1981, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">G
eneral Electric</a> produced fused <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz<
/a> <a href="/wiki/Ingots" title="Ingots" class="mw-redirect">ingots</a> that co
uld be drawn into strands 25 miles (40 km) long.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class
="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p
>
<p>Attenuation in modern optical cables is far less than in electrical copper ca
bles, leading to long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70 150 kil
ometers (43 93 mi). The <a href="/wiki/Erbium-doped_fiber_amplifier" title="E
rbium-doped fiber amplifier" class="mw-redirect">erbium-doped fiber amplifier</a
>, which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by reducing or eliminat
ing optical-electrical-optical repeaters, was co-developed by teams led by <a hr
ef="/wiki/David_N._Payne" title="David N. Payne">David N. Payne</a> of the <a hr
ef="/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton">Universit
y of Southampton</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emmanuel_Desurvire&acti
on=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emmanuel Desurvire (page does not exis
t)">Emmanuel Desurvire</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell L
abs</a> in 1986. Robust modern optical fiber uses glass for both core and sheath
, and is therefore less prone to aging. It was invented by Gerhard Bernsee of <a
href="/wiki/Schott_AG" title="Schott AG">Schott Glass</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ger
many" title="Germany">Germany</a> in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference
"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>The emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Photonic_crystal" title="Photonic crysta
l">photonic crystals</a> led to the development in 1991 of <a href="/wiki/Photon
ic-crystal_fiber" title="Photonic-crystal fiber">photonic-crystal fiber</a>,<sup
id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<spa
n>]</span></a></sup> which guides light by <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Di
ffraction">diffraction</a> from a periodic structure, rather than by total inter
nal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available
in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[<
/span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> Photonic crystal fibers can carry higher power
than conventional fibers and their wavelength-dependent properties can be manipu
lated to improve performance.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span><span class="mw-editsection">
<span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical
_fiber&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a><span c
lass="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Communication">Communication</span><span class
="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index

.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Com
munication">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fiber-o
ptic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication<
/a></div>
<p>Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and <a href="/wik
i/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networking</a> because it
is flexible and can be bundled as <a href="/wiki/Cables" title="Cables" class="m
w-redirect">cables</a>. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communic
ations, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compa
red to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few <a h
ref="/wiki/Optical_communications_repeater" title="Optical communications repeat
er">repeaters</a>.</p>
<p>The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at
rates as high as 111 <a href="/wiki/Gigabit_per_second" title="Gigabit per seco
nd" class="mw-redirect">gigabits per second</a> (Gbit/s) by <a href="/wiki/Nippo
n_Telegraph_and_Telephone" title="Nippon Telegraph and Telephone">NTT</a>,<sup i
d="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>
]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24
"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typi
cal in deployed systems.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_n
ote-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="ref
erence"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> In June
2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single channel
using 4-mode <a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbit
al angular momentum multiplexing">orbital angular momentum multiplexing</a>.<sup
n>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavele
ngth of light (<a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelengt
h-division multiplexing">wavelength-division multiplexing</a> (WDM)). The net da
ta rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rat
e reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up
to eighty in commercial <a href="/wiki/Dense_WDM" title="Dense WDM" class="mw-re
direct">dense WDM</a> systems as of 2008<sup class="plainlinks noprint asof-tag
update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>). As of 2011
<sup class="plainlinks noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="
external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&acti
on=edit">[update]</a></sup> the record for bandwidth on a single core was 101 Tb
it/s (370 channels at 273 Gbit/s each).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><
a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> The record for a
multi-core fiber as of January 2013 was 1.05 petabits per second. <sup id="cite
_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span
></a></sup> In 2009, Bell Labs broke the 100 (petabit per second)kilometer barrie
r (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="re
ference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>For short distance application, such as a network in an office building, fibe
r-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber ca
n carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard <a href="/wiki/Ca
t-5" title="Cat-5" class="mw-redirect">category 5</a> Ethernet cabling, which ty
pically runs at 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrica
l interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and
no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electr
icity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment
in <a href="/wiki/High_voltage" title="High voltage">high voltage</a> environme
nts, such as <a href="/wiki/Power_generation" title="Power generation" class="mw
-redirect">power generation</a> facilities, or metal communication structures pr
one to <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes. They c
an also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without dange
r of ignition. <a href="/wiki/Wiretapping" title="Wiretapping" class="mw-redirec
t">Wiretapping</a> (in this case, <a href="/wiki/Fiber_tapping" title="Fiber tap
ping">fiber tapping</a>) is more difficult compared to electrical connections, a
nd there are concentric dual-core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.<sup id="
cite_ref-Siemens_Fiber_Optics_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siemen
s_Fiber_Optics-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Fibers are often also used for short-distance connections between devices. Fo
r example, most <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definitio
n television">high-definition televisions</a> offer a digital audio optical conn
ection. This allows the streaming of audio over light, using the <a href="/wiki/
TOSLINK" title="TOSLINK">TOSLINK</a> protocol.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Advantages_over_copper_wiring">Advantages over
copper wiring</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-br
acket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&sec
tion=4" title="Edit section: Advantages over copper wiring">edit</a><span class=
"mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire sys
tems are:</p>
<dl>
<dt>Broad bandwidth</dt>
<dd>A single optical fiber can carry 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000
TV channels.</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Immunity to electromagnetic interference</dt>
<dd>Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected by other <a href="/w
iki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic
radiation</a> nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it d
oes not act as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic signals. Information travel
ing inside the optical fiber is immune to <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interfe
rence" title="Electromagnetic interference">electromagnetic interference</a>, ev
en <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">electroma
gnetic pulses</a> generated by nuclear devices.</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Low attenuation loss over long distances</dt>
<dd>Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, al
lowing transmission over long distances without the need for <a href="/wiki/Repe
ater" title="Repeater">repeaters</a>.</dd>
</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Electrical insulator</dt>
<dd>Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with <a href=
"/wiki/Ground_loop_(electricity)" title="Ground loop (electricity)">ground loops
</a> and conduction of <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>
. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage power cables.</dd
>
</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Material cost and theft prevention</dt>
<dd>Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper. In some places, this
copper is a target for theft due to its value on the scrap market.</dd>
</dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sensors">Sensors</span><span class="mw-editsec
ptical_fiber&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sensors">edit</
a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fiber_o
ptic_sensor" title="Fiber optic sensor">Fiber optic sensor</a></div>
<p>Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is
itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberopt
ic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be us
ed because of its small size, or the fact that no <a href="/wiki/Electrical_powe
r" title="Electrical power" class="mw-redirect">electrical power</a> is needed a
t the remote location, or because many sensors can be <a href="/wiki/Multiplexin
g" title="Multiplexing">multiplexed</a> along the length of a fiber by using dif
ferent wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as lig
ht passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined usin
g a device such as an <i><a href="/wiki/Optical_time-domain_reflectometer" title
="Optical time-domain reflectometer">optical time-domain reflectometer</a></i>.<
/p>
<p>Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(
mechanics)" title="Deformation (mechanics)">strain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperatu
re" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressur
e">pressure</a> and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the property t
o measure modulates the <a href="/wiki/Intensity_(physics)" title="Intensity (ph
ysics)">intensity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase
</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polariza
tion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>, or trans
it time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the
simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly u
seful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide
distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter. In contrast, highly loca
lized measurements can be provided by integrating miniaturized sensing elements
with the tip of the fiber.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite
_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> These can be implemented by v
arious micro- and nanofabrication technologies, such that they do not exceed the
microscopic boundary of the fiber tip, allowing such applications as insertion
into blood vessels via hypodermic needle.</p>
<p>Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable" titl
e="Optical fiber cable">optical fiber cable</a>, normally a multi-mode one, to t
ransmit <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulated</a> light from e
ither a non-fiber optical sensor or an electronic sensor connected to an optical t
ransmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach other
wise inaccessible places. An example is the measurement of temperature inside <a
href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine"
title="Jet engine">jet engines</a> by using a fiber to transmit <a href="/wiki/R
adiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> into a radiation <a href="/wiki/Pyrome
ter" title="Pyrometer">pyrometer</a> outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can b
e used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of <a href="/wiki/Ele
ctrical_transformer" title="Electrical transformer" class="mw-redirect">electric
al transformers</a>, where the extreme <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" tit
le="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic fields</a> present make other measure
ment techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors measure vibration, rotation, displ
acement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting. A solid state version of
the gyroscope, using the interference of light, has been developed. The <i><a hr
ef="/wiki/Fiber_optic_gyroscope" title="Fiber optic gyroscope" class="mw-redirec
t">fiber optic gyroscope</a> (FOG)</i> has no moving parts, and exploits the <i>
<a href="/wiki/Sagnac_effect" title="Sagnac effect">Sagnac effect</a></i> to det
ect mechanical rotation.</p>
<p>Common uses for fiber optic sensors includes advanced intrusion detection sec
urity systems. The light is transmitted along a fiber optic sensor cable placed
on a fence, pipeline, or communication cabling, and the returned signal is monit
ored and analysed for disturbances. This return signal is digitally processed to
detect disturbances and trip an alarm if an intrusion has occurred.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Power_transmission">Power transmission</span><
span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href
="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit se
ction: Power transmission">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span>
</span></h3>
<p>Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a <a href="/wiki/Photovolta
ic_cell" title="Photovoltaic cell" class="mw-redirect">photovoltaic cell</a> to
convert the light into electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a hr
ef="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> While this method of
power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones, it is especially u
seful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in
the case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields.<sup id
="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]
</span></a></sup> Other examples are for powering electronics in high-powered an
tenna elements and measurement devices used in high-voltage transmission equipme
nt.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses">Other uses</span><span class="mw-e
ditsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?t
itle=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other use
s">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flashflight_red
.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/
ed/Flashflight_red.jpg" width="200" height="125" class="thumbimage" data-file-wi
dth="200" data-file-height="125" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Flashflight_red.jpg" class="internal" t
itle="Enlarge"></a></div>
A <a href="/wiki/Frisbee" title="Frisbee" class="mw-redirect">frisbee</a> illumi
nated by fiber optics</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:OpticFiber.jpg"
class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c
/c6/OpticFiber.jpg/220px-OpticFiber.jpg" width="220" height="293" class="thumbim
age" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/OpticFiber.jpg/
330px-OpticFiber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/O
pticFiber.jpg/440px-OpticFiber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="
2560" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:OpticFiber.jpg" class="internal" title=
"Enlarge"></a></div>
Light reflected from optical fiber illuminates exhibited model</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Optical fibers have a wide number of applications. They are used as <a href="
/wiki/Light_tube" title="Light tube">light guides</a> in medical and other appli
cations where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of
-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from the roof to o
ther parts of the building (see <a href="/wiki/Nonimaging_optics" title="Nonimag
ing optics">nonimaging optics</a>). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber_la
mp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical fiber lamp (page do
es not exist)">Optical fiber lamps</a> are used for illumination in decorative a
pplications, including <a href="/wiki/Commercial_signage" title="Commercial sign
age" class="mw-redirect">signs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, toy
s and artificial <a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree" title="Christmas tree">Christmas
trees</a>. <a href="/wiki/Swarovski" title="Swarovski">Swarovski</a> boutiques
use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different ang
les while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of
the light-transmitting concrete building product, <a href="/wiki/LiTraCon" titl
e="LiTraCon">LiTraCon</a>.</p>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Use_of_optical_
fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wiki

pedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Use_of_optical_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG/220px-Use_of_optica
l_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Use_of_optical_fiber_in_a_lamp..
JPG/330px-Use_of_optical_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Use_of_optical_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG/440px-Use_of_optical
_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Use_of_optical_fiber_in_a_lamp..JPG" cl
ass="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Use of optical fiber in a decorative lamp or nightlight.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is
used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an <a
href="/wiki/Endoscope" title="Endoscope" class="mw-redirect">endoscope</a>, whic
h is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for
minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures. Industrial endoscopes (se
e <a href="/wiki/Fiberscope" title="Fiberscope">fiberscope</a> or <a href="/wiki
/Borescope" title="Borescope">borescope</a>) are used for inspecting anything ha
rd to reach, such as jet engine interiors. Many <a href="/wiki/Microscopes" titl
e="Microscopes" class="mw-redirect">microscopes</a> use fiber-optic light source
s to provide intense illumination of samples being studied.</p>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, optica
l fiber bundles transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance that cannot be
placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A s
pectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off and through them. By using
fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects remotely.<sup id="cite_ref35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a>
</sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</s
pan>36<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#
cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>An optical fiber <a href="/wiki/Dopant" title="Dopant">doped</a> with certain
<a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" title="Rare earth element">rare earth elemen
ts</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">erbium</a> can be used as t
he <a href="/wiki/Gain_medium" title="Gain medium" class="mw-redirect">gain medi
um</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Fiber_laser" title="Fiber laser">laser</a> or <a href
="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a>. Rare
-earth-doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal <a href="/wiki/Amplifi
er" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> by splicing a short section of doped fib
er into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is <a href="/wik
i/Optical_pumping" title="Optical pumping">optically pumped</a> with a second la
ser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Bot
h wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers
energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that caus
es the amplification is <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission" title="Stimulated em
ission">stimulated emission</a>.</p>
<p>Optical fiber is also widely exploited as a nonlinear medium. The glass mediu
m supports a host of nonlinear optical interactions, and the long interaction le
ngths possible in fiber facilitate a variety of phenomena, which are harnessed f
or applications and fundamental investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Agrawal2012_38-0
" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agrawal2012-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]<
/span></a></sup> Conversely, fiber nonlinearity can have deleterious effects on
optical signals, and measures are often required to minimize such unwanted effec
ts.</p>
<p>Optical fibers doped with a <a href="/wiki/Wavelength_shifter" title="Wavelen
gth shifter">wavelength shifter</a> collect <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="
Scintillator">scintillation</a> light in <a href="/wiki/Physics_experiment" titl
e="Physics experiment" class="mw-redirect">physics experiments</a>.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Iron_sights#Fiber_optic" title="Iron sights">Fiber optic sight
s</a> for handguns, rifles, and shotguns use pieces of optical fiber to improve
visibility of markings on the sight.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Principle_of_operation">Principle of operation
</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span
><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=8" title=
"Edit section: Principle of operation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-brack
et">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
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ontrols="" preload="none" autoplay="" class="
kskin" data-durationhint="335.31936507937" data-startoffset=&quot
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An overview of the operating principles of the optical fiber</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>An optical fiber is a cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_waveguide" title=
"Dielectric waveguide" class="mw-redirect">dielectric waveguide</a> (<a href="/w
iki/Insulator_(electrical)" title="Insulator (electrical)" class="mw-redirect">n
onconducting</a> waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process
of <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection">t
otal internal reflection</a>. The fiber consists of a <i>core</i> surrounded by
a <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(fiber_optics)" title="Cladding (fiber optics)">claddi
ng</a> layer, both of which are made of <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielec
tric">dielectric</a> materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the <
a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> of

the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the co
re and cladding may either be abrupt, in <i><a href="/wiki/Step-index_profile" t
itle="Step-index profile">step-index fiber</a></i>, or gradual, in <i><a href="/
wiki/Graded-index_fiber" title="Graded-index fiber">graded-index fiber</a></i>.<
/p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Index_of_refraction">Index of refraction</span
><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a hr
ef="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit
section: Index of refraction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</sp
an></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Refract
ive_index" title="Refractive index">Refractive index</a></div>
<p>The index of refraction (or refractive index) is a way of measuring the <a hr
ef="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> in a materia
l. Light travels fastest in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>,
such as in outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilomete
rs (186,000 miles) per second. The refractive index of a medium is calculated by
dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in that medium. T
he refractive index of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The refractive in
dex of the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.52.<sup id="cite_ref-Eugene_Hecht_2
002_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eugene_Hecht_2002-39"><span>[</s
pan>39<span>]</span></a></sup> The core value is typically 1.62.<sup id="cite_re
f-Eugene_Hecht_2002_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eugene_Hecht_200
2-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> The larger the index of refractio
n, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a simple rule
of thumb is that a signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at
around 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Kilometers" title="Kilometers" class="mw-redirect"
>kilometers</a> per second. To put it another way, the signal will take 5 <a hre
f="/wiki/Milliseconds" title="Milliseconds" class="mw-redirect">milliseconds</a>
to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between
Sydney and New York, a 16,000-kilometer distance, means that there is a minimum
delay of 80 milliseconds (about 1/12 of a second) between when one caller speaks
to when the other hears. (The fiber in this case will probably travel a longer
route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switch
ing and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber).</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Total_internal_reflection">Total internal refl
ection</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[
</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=10"
title="Edit section: Total internal reflection">edit</a><span class="mw-editsec
tion-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Total_i
nternal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection">Total internal reflection<
/a></div>
<p>When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at a steep
angle (larger than the <a href="/wiki/Critical_angle_(optics)" title="Critical a
ngle (optics)" class="mw-redirect">critical angle</a> for the boundary), the lig
ht is completely reflected. This is called total internal reflection. This effec
t is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels through
the fiber core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary between the core and cl
adding. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than th
e critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of ang
les can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is calle
d the <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_cone" title="Acceptance cone" class="mw-redirect
">acceptance cone</a> of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a functi
on of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding.</p>
<p>In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light
may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fi
ber. The <a href="/wiki/Sine" title="Sine">sine</a> of this maximum angle is the
<a href="/wiki/Numerical_aperture" title="Numerical aperture">numerical apertur
e</a> (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splic
e and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.<
/p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Multi-mode_fiber">Multi-mode fiber</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w
/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit secti
on: Multi-mode fiber">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></spa
n></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical-fibre.s
vg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thum
b/4/46/Optical-fibre.svg/220px-Optical-fibre.svg.png" width="220" height="102" c
lass="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Op
tical-fibre.svg/330px-Optical-fibre.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/4/46/Optical-fibre.svg/440px-Optical-fibre.svg.png 2x" data-fil
e-width="550" data-file-height="255" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical-fibre.svg" class="internal" tit
le="Enlarge"></a></div>
The propagation of light through a <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber" titl
e="Multi-mode optical fiber">multi-mode optical fiber</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_in_fibre.
jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/b/b0/Laser_in_fibre.jpg/220px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg" width="220" height="165" cl
ass="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Las
er_in_fibre.jpg/330px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/b/b0/Laser_in_fibre.jpg/440px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg 2x" data-file-wid
th="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_in_fibre.jpg" class="internal" ti
tle="Enlarge"></a></div>
A laser bouncing down an <a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(m
ethyl methacrylate)">acrylic</a> rod, illustrating the total internal reflection
of light in a multi-mode optical fiber.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multi-m
ode_optical_fiber" title="Multi-mode optical fiber">Multi-mode optical fiber</a>
</div>
<p>Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be anal
yzed by <a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">geometrica
l optics</a>. Such fiber is called <i>multi-mode fiber</i>, from the electromagn
etic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, <a href="/wiki/Ray_
(optics)" title="Ray (optics)">rays</a> of light are guided along the fiber core
by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a hi
gh angle (measured relative to a line <a href="/wiki/Surface_normal" title="Surf
ace normal" class="mw-redirect">normal</a> to the boundary), greater than the <a
href="/wiki/Critical_angle_(optics)" title="Critical angle (optics)" class="mwredirect">critical angle</a> for this boundary, are completely reflected. The cr
itical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the
difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays
that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the <a href="/wiki/Core
_(optical_fiber)" title="Core (optical fiber)">core</a> into the cladding, and d
o not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle det
ermines the <a href="/wiki/Guided_ray" title="Guided ray">acceptance angle</a> o
f the fiber, often reported as a <a href="/wiki/Numerical_aperture" title="Numer
ical aperture">numerical aperture</a>. A high numerical aperture allows light to
propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles,
allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerica
l aperture increases the amount of <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Di
spersion (optics)">dispersion</a> as rays at different angles have different <a
href="/wiki/Optical_path_length" title="Optical path length">path lengths</a> an
d therefore take different times to traverse the fiber.</p>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical_fiber_t
ypes.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/thumb/0/0e/Optical_fiber_types.svg/220px-Optical_fiber_types.svg.png" width="2
20" height="120" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/thumb/0/0e/Optical_fiber_types.svg/330px-Optical_fiber_types.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Optical_fiber_types.svg/440p
x-Optical_fiber_types.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="300" /
></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical_fiber_types.svg" class="interna
l" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Optical fiber types.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuo
usly between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly
as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-cla
dding boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce multi-path dispersion because
high angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather
than the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the differen
ce in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal inde
x profile is very close to a <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabolic
</a> relationship between the index and the distance from the axis.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Single-mode_fiber">Single-mode fiber</span><sp
an class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="
/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit sec
tion: Single-mode fiber">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></
span></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Singlemode_fibr
e_structure.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/thumb/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/220px-Singlemode_fibre_struct
ure.svg.png" width="220" height="198" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikime
dia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/330px-Single
mode_fibre_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thum
b/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/440px-Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg.png 2
x" data-file-width="419" data-file-height="378" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg" class="
internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The structure of a typical <a href="/wiki/Single-mode_fiber" title="Single-mode
fiber" class="mw-redirect">single-mode fiber</a>.<br />
1. Core: 8 m diameter<br />
2. Cladding: 125 m dia.<br />
3. Buffer: 250 m dia.<br />
4. Jacket: 400 m dia.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Singlemode_optical_fiber" title="Single-mode optical fiber">Single-mode optical fiber<
/a></div>
<p>Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the <a href="/wiki/Wavel
ength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of the propagating light cannot be mode
led using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an <a href="/wiki/El

ectromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> structure, by solut
ion of <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell
's equations</a> as reduced to the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave_equation"
title="Electromagnetic wave equation">electromagnetic wave equation</a>. The el
ectromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as spec
kle that occur when <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physic
s)">coherent</a> light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide,
the fiber supports one or more confined <a href="/wiki/Transverse_mode" title="T
ransverse mode">transverse modes</a> by which light can propagate along the fibe
r. Fiber supporting only one mode is called <i>single-mode</i> or <i>mono-mode f
iber</i>. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using
the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of p
ropagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber ap
proximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is
large enough to support more than a few modes.</p>
<p>The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not comple
tely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a signific
ant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an <a hr
ef="/wiki/Evanescent_wave" title="Evanescent wave">evanescent wave</a>.</p>
<p>The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8 10 micromete
rs and is designed for use in the <a href="/wiki/Near_infrared" title="Near infr
ared" class="mw-redirect">near infrared</a>. The mode structure depends on the w
avelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number
of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is
manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hun
dreds of micrometers. The <a href="/wiki/Normalized_frequency_(fiber_optics)" ti
tle="Normalized frequency (fiber optics)">normalized frequency</a> <i>V</i> for
this fiber should be less than the first zero of the <a href="/wiki/Bessel_funct
ion" title="Bessel function">Bessel function</a> <i>J</i><sub>0</sub> (approxima
tely 2.405).</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Special-purpose_fiber">Special-purpose fiber</
span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><
a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=13" title="
Edit section: Special-purpose fiber">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket
">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core
and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section.
These include <a href="/wiki/Polarization-maintaining_optical_fiber" title="Pol
arization-maintaining optical fiber">polarization-maintaining fiber</a> and fibe
r designed to suppress <a href="/wiki/Whispering_gallery_mode" title="Whispering
gallery mode" class="mw-redirect">whispering gallery mode</a> propagation. Pola
rization-maintaining fiber is a unique type of fiber that is commonly used in fi
ber optic sensors due to its ability to maintain the polarization of the light i
nserted into it.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Photonic-crystal_fiber" title="Photonic-crystal fiber">Photoni
c-crystal fiber</a> is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in
the form of cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fibe
r uses <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a> effects i
nstead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the f
iber's core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of ap
plications.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Mechanisms_of_attenuation">Mechanisms of atten
uation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[
</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=14"
title="Edit section: Mechanisms of attenuation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsec
tion-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Zblan_transmit.
jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/8/8f/Zblan_transmit.jpg/220px-Zblan_transmit.jpg" width="220" height="139" cl

ass="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Zbl
an_transmit.jpg/330px-Zblan_transmit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/8/8f/Zblan_transmit.jpg/440px-Zblan_transmit.jpg 2x" data-file-wid
th="1000" data-file-height="634" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Zblan_transmit.jpg" class="internal" ti
tle="Enlarge"></a></div>
Light attenuation by <a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a> and silica fi
bers</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transpa
rent_materials" title="Transparent materials" class="mw-redirect">Transparent ma
terials</a></div>
<p>Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reductio
n in intensity of the light beam (or signal) as it travels through the transmiss
ion medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km
through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern
optical transmission media. The medium is usually a fiber of silica glass that c
onfines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important facto
r limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, mu
ch research has gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the ampli
fication of the optical signal. Empirical research has shown that attenuation in
optical fiber is caused primarily by both <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Sca
ttering">scattering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation
)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorption</a>. Single-mode op
tical fibers can be made with extremely low loss. Corning's SMF-28 fiber, a stan
dard single-mode fiber for telecommunications wavelengths, has a loss of 0.17&#1
60;dB/km at 1550 nm.<sup id="cite_ref-CorningSMF28ULL_40-0" class="referenc
e"><a href="#cite_note-CorningSMF28ULL-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></s
up> For example, an 8 km length of SMF-28 transmits nearly 75% of light at
1550 nm. It has been noted that if ocean water was as clear as fiber, one c
ould see all the way to the bottom even of the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Oc
ean, a depth of 36,000 feet.<sup id="cite_ref-Jachetta2007_41-0" class="referenc
e"><a href="#cite_note-Jachetta2007-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Light_scattering">Light scattering</span><span
on: Light scattering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></spa
n></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Reflection_angl
es.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/1/10/Reflection_angles.svg/220px-Reflection_angles.svg.png" width="220" he
ight="264" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/t
humb/1/10/Reflection_angles.svg/330px-Reflection_angles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reflection_angles.svg/440px-Reflection
_angles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="204" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Reflection_angles.svg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Specular reflection</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Diffuse_reflect
ion.PNG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/thumb/7/79/Diffuse_reflection.PNG/220px-Diffuse_reflection.PNG" width="220" hei
ght="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/

79/Diffuse_reflection.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Di
ffuse_reflection.PNG 2x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="211" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Diffuse_reflection.PNG" class="internal
" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Diffuse reflection</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on tot
al internal reflection of the lightwave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at t
he molecular level, can cause light rays to be reflected in random directions. T
his is called <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diff
use reflection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Light_scattering" title="Light scattering">
scattering</a>, and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection
angles.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Light_scattering" title="Light scattering">Light scattering</a
> depends on the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of
the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial scales of visibility arise,
depending on the frequency of the incident light-wave and the physical dimension
(or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of
some specific micro-structural feature. Since <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" t
itle="Visible spectrum">visible</a> light has a wavelength of the order of one <
a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometer</a> (one millionth of a
meter) scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale.</p>
<p>Thus, attenuation results from the <a href="/wiki/Incoherent_scatter" title="
Incoherent scatter">incoherent scattering</a> of light at internal <a href="/wik
i/Surface" title="Surface">surfaces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interface_(chemistry)
" title="Interface (chemistry)">interfaces</a>. In (poly)crystalline materials s
uch as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores, most of the internal surfaces
or interfaces are in the form of <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundaries" title="Grain b
oundaries" class="mw-redirect">grain boundaries</a> that separate tiny regions o
f crystalline order. It has recently been shown that when the size of the scatte
ring center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of t
he light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant ext
ent. This phenomenon has given rise to the production of <a href="/wiki/Transpar
ent_ceramics" title="Transparent ceramics">transparent ceramic materials</a>.</p
>
<p>Similarly, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused b
y molecular level irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass struc
ture. Indeed, one emerging school of thought is that a glass is simply the limit
ing case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this framework, "domains" exhibiting
various degrees of short-range order become the building blocks of both metals
and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between and within
these domains are micro-structural defects that provide the most ideal location
s for light scattering. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting fact
ors in the transparency of IR missile domes.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="referen
ce"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>At high optical powers, scattering can also be caused by nonlinear optical pr
ocesses in the fiber.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note
-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="refere
nce"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="UV-Vis-IR_absorption">UV-Vis-IR absorption</sp
an><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=16" title="Ed
it section: UV-Vis-IR absorption">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]
</span></span></h3>
<p>In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur du
e to selective absorption of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that r
esponsible for the appearance of color. Primary material considerations include
both electrons and molecules as follows:</p>

<p>1) At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are s
paced (or "quantized") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon)
of a specific wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges.
This is what gives rise to color.</p>
<p>2) At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic
or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecul
es are, and whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order. Thes
e factors will determine the capacity of the material transmitting longer wavele
ngths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and microwave ranges.</p>
<p>The design of any optically transparent device requires the selection of mate
rials based upon knowledge of its properties and limitations. The <a href="/wiki
/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Lattice</a> <a href="/wiki/Absorpt
ion_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">
absorption</a> characteristics observed at the lower frequency regions (mid IR t
o far-infrared wavelength range) define the long-wavelength transparency limit o
f the material. They are the result of the interactive <a href="/wiki/Coupling"
title="Coupling">coupling</a> between the motions of thermally induced vibration
s of the constituent <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and molecules o
f the solid lattice and the incident light wave radiation. Hence, all materials
are bounded by limiting regions of absorption caused by atomic and molecular vib
rations (bond-stretching)in the far-infrared (>10 m).</p>
<p>Thus, multi-phonon absorption occurs when two or more phonons simultaneously
interact to produce electric dipole moments with which the incident radiation ma
y couple. These dipoles can absorb energy from the incident radiation, reaching
a maximum coupling with the radiation when the frequency is equal to the fundame
ntal vibrational mode of the molecular dipole (e.g. Si-O bond) in the far-infrar
ed, or one of its harmonics.</p>
<p>The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occu
rs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an
integer multiple of the frequency) at which the particles of that material vibr
ate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of v
ibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the
spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.</p>
<p>Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of t
he light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the
objects. When IR light of these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is ei
ther reflected or transmitted.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</span><span class
="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index
.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ma
nufacturing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Materials">Materials</span><span class="mw-edi
tsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?tit
le=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Materials"
>edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Glass optical fibers are almost always made from <a href="/wiki/Silica" title
="Silica" class="mw-redirect">silica</a>, but some other materials, such as <a h
ref="/wiki/Fluoride_glass" title="Fluoride glass">fluorozirconate</a>, <a href="
/wiki/Fluoride_glass" title="Fluoride glass">fluoroaluminate</a>, and <a href="/
wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">chalcogenide glasses</a> as
well as crystalline materials like <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sap
phire</a>, are used for longer-wavelength infrared or other specialized applicat
ions. Silica and fluoride glasses usually have refractive indices of about 1.5,
but some materials such as the <a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide" title="Chalcogenide"
>chalcogenides</a> can have indices as high as 3. Typically the index difference
between core and cladding is less than one percent.</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Plastic_optical_fiber" title="Plastic optical fiber">Plastic o
ptical fibers</a> (POF) are commonly step-index multi-mode fibers with a core di
ameter of 0.5 millimeters or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation coeff
icients than glass fibers, 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limi
ts the range of POF-based systems.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Silica">Silica</span><span class="mw-editsecti
on"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opt
ical_fiber&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Silica">edit</a>
<span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Silica" title="Silica" class="mw-redirect">Silica</a> exhibits
fairly good optical transmission over a wide range of wavelengths. In the <a hr
ef="/wiki/Near-infrared" title="Near-infrared" class="mw-redirect">near-infrared
</a> (near IR) portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 m, silica can hav
e extremely low absorption and scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km.
Such remarkably low losses are possible only because ultra-pure silicon is avai
lable, it being essential for manufacturing integrated circuits and discrete tra
nsistors. A high transparency in the 1.4-m region is achieved by maintaining a lo
w concentration of <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_group" title="Hydroxyl group" class="
mw-redirect">hydroxyl groups</a> (OH). Alternatively, a high OH <a href="/wiki/C
oncentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> is better for transmission
in the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> (UV) reg
ion.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</spa
n>45<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Silica can be drawn into fibers at reasonably high temperatures, and has a fa
irly broad <a href="/wiki/Glass_transformation_range" title="Glass transformatio
n range" class="mw-redirect">glass transformation range</a>. One other advantage
is that fusion splicing and cleaving of silica fibers is relatively effective.
Silica fiber also has high mechanical strength against both pulling and even ben
ding, provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces have been w
ell prepared during processing. Even simple cleaving (breaking) of the ends of t
he fiber can provide nicely flat surfaces with acceptable optical quality. Silic
a is also relatively <a href="/wiki/Chemically_inert" title="Chemically inert" c
lass="mw-redirect">chemically inert</a>. In particular, it is not <a href="/wiki
/Hygroscopy" title="Hygroscopy">hygroscopic</a> (does not absorb water).</p>
<p>Silica glass can be doped with various materials. One purpose of doping is to
raise the <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive
index</a> (e.g. with <a href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide"
>germanium dioxide</a> (GeO<sub>2</sub>) or <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" titl
e="Aluminium oxide">aluminium oxide</a> (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>)) or to low
er it (e.g. with <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> or <a hr
ef="/wiki/Boron_trioxide" title="Boron trioxide">boron trioxide</a> (B<sub>2</su
b>O<sub>3</sub>)). Doping is also possible with laser-active ions (for example,
<a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" title="Rare earth element">rare earth</a>-dop
ed fibers) in order to obtain active fibers to be used, for example, in fiber am
plifiers or <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> applications. Both the
fiber core and cladding are typically doped, so that the entire assembly (core
and cladding) is effectively the same compound (e.g. an <a href="/wiki/Aluminosi
licate" title="Aluminosilicate">aluminosilicate</a>, germanosilicate, phosphosil
icate or <a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">borosilic
ate glass</a>).</p>
<p>Particularly for active fibers, pure silica is usually not a very suitable ho
st glass, because it exhibits a low solubility for rare earth ions. This can lea
d to quenching effects due to clustering of dopant ions. Aluminosilicates are mu
ch more effective in this respect.</p>
<p>Silica fiber also exhibits a high threshold for optical damage. This property
ensures a low tendency for laser-induced breakdown. This is important for fiber
amplifiers when utilized for the amplification of short pulses.</p>
<p>Because of these properties silica fibers are the material of choice in many
optical applications, such as communications (except for very short distances wi
th plastic optical fiber), fiber lasers, fiber amplifiers, and fiber-optic senso
rs. Large efforts put forth in the development of various types of silica fibers
have further increased the performance of such fibers over other materials.<sup
n>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kurkjian_47-0" class="reference"><a href="

#cite_note-Kurkjian-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_re
f-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></
a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span>[<
/span>49<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href=
"#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" cl
ass="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup>
<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span>[</span>52
<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_n
ote-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Fluoride_glass">Fluoride glass</span><span cla
ss="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/ind
ex.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section:
Fluoride glass">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4
>
<p><a href="/wiki/Fluoride_glass" title="Fluoride glass">Fluoride glass</a> is a
class of non-oxide optical quality glasses composed of <a href="/wiki/Fluoride"
title="Fluoride">fluorides</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">m
etals</a>. Because of their low <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">visc
osity</a>, it is very difficult to completely avoid <a href="/wiki/Crystallizati
on" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a> while processing it through the
glass transition (or drawing the fiber from the melt). Thus, although <a href="/
wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)" title="Heavy metal (chemistry)">heavy metal</a> fl
uoride glasses (HMFG) exhibit very low optical attenuation, they are not only di
fficult to manufacture, but are quite fragile, and have poor resistance to moist
ure and other environmental attacks. Their best attribute is that they lack the
absorption band associated with the <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hy
droxyl</a> (OH) group (3200 3600 cm<sup>-1</sup>; i.e., 2777 3125 nm or 2.
78 3.13 m), which is present in nearly all oxide-based glasses.</p>
<p>An example of a heavy metal fluoride glass is the <a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title
="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a> glass group, composed of <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zir
conium">zirconium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href
="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">lanthanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" ti
tle="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium<
/a> fluorides. Their main technological application is as <a href="/wiki/Optical
_waveguide" title="Optical waveguide" class="mw-redirect">optical waveguides</a>
in both planar and fiber form. They are advantageous especially in the <a href=
"/wiki/Mid-infrared" title="Mid-infrared" class="mw-redirect">mid-infrared</a> (
2000 5000 nm) range.</p>
<p>HMFGs were initially slated for optical fiber applications, because the intri
nsic losses of a mid-IR fiber could in principle be lower than those of silica f
ibers, which are transparent only up to about 2 m. However, such low losses were
never realized in practice, and the fragility and high cost of fluoride fibers m
ade them less than ideal as primary candidates. Later, the utility of fluoride f
ibers for various other applications was discovered. These include mid-<a href="
/wiki/IR_spectroscopy" title="IR spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect">IR spectrosco
py</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optic_sensor" title="Fiber optic sensor">fiber opti
c sensors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermometry" title="Thermometry" class="mw-redirec
t">thermometry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optical_imaging" title="Optical imaging">
imaging</a>. Also, fluoride fibers can be used for guided lightwave transmission
in media such as YAG (<a href="/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet" title="Yttrium a
luminium garnet">yttrium aluminium garnet</a>) <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Lase
r">lasers</a> at 2.9 m, as required for medical applications (e.g. <a href="/wiki
/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denti
stry" title="Dentistry">dentistry</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><
a href="#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref
-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a
></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Phosphate_glass">Phosphate glass</span><span c
lass="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/i
ndex.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section

: Phosphate glass">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span><
/h4>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Phosphorus-pent
oxide-3D-balls.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/thumb/2/27/Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-balls.png/220px-Phosphorus-pentox
ide-3D-balls.png" width="220" height="221" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-balls.png/330p
x-Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
ns/thumb/2/27/Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-balls.png/440px-Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-ba
lls.png 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="1100" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Phosphorus-pentoxide-3D-balls.png" clas
s="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
The P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> cagelike structure the basic building block for ph
osphate glass.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Phosphate_glass" title="Phosphate glass">Phosphate glass</a> c
onstitutes a class of optical glasses composed of <a href="/wiki/Metaphosphate"
title="Metaphosphate">metaphosphates</a> of various metals. Instead of the SiO<s
ub>4</sub> <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedra" title="Tetrahedra" class="mw-redirect">tet
rahedra</a> observed in silicate glasses, the building block for this glass form
er is <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_pentoxide" title="Phosphorus pentoxide">phosphor
us pentoxide</a> (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), which crystallizes in at least fo
ur different forms. The most familiar <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_sci
ence)" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorph</a> (see figure) compr
ises molecules of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>.</p>
<p>Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers
with a high concentration of doping rare earth ions. A mix of fluoride glass and
phosphate glass is fluorophosphate glass.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference
"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_
ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span>
</a></sup></p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Chalcogenide_glass">Chalcogenide glass</span><
="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit s
ection: Chalcogenide glass">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span
></span></h4>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogens</a> the elements in
<a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">group 16</
a> of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</
a> particularly <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (S), <a href="/wi
ki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> (Se) and <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" ti
tle="Tellurium">tellurium</a> (Te) react with more <a href="/wiki/Electropositive"
title="Electropositive" class="mw-redirect">electropositive</a> elements, such
as <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, to form <a href="/wiki/Chal
cogenides" title="Chalcogenides" class="mw-redirect">chalcogenides</a>. These ar
e extremely versatile compounds, in that they can be crystalline or amorphous, m
etallic or semiconducting, and conductors of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion
s</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>. <a href="/wiki
/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Glass containing chalcogenides</
a> can be used to make fibers for far infrared transmission.<sup class="noprint
Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wi
kipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This cla
im needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a
></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Process">Process</span><span class="mw-editsec
ptical_fiber&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Process">edit<

/a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Preform">Preform</span><span class="mw-editsec
ptical_fiber&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Preform">edit<
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:OF-MCVD.svg" cl
ass="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba
/OF-MCVD.svg/300px-OF-MCVD.svg.png" width="300" height="350" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/OF-MCVD.svg/450px-OF
-MCVD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/OF-MCVD.
svg/600px-OF-MCVD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="600" /></a
>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:OF-MCVD.svg" class="internal" title="En
large"></a></div>
Illustration of the modified chemical vapor deposition (inside) process</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter "pref
orm" with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then "pulling" th
e preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by
three <a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition
">chemical vapor deposition</a> methods: <i>inside vapor deposition</i>, <i>outs
ide vapor deposition</i>, and <i>vapor axial deposition</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-go
war1993_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gowar1993-58"><span>[</span>
58<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>With <i>inside vapor deposition</i>, the preform starts as a hollow glass tub
e approximately 40 centimeters (16 in) long, which is placed horizontally a
nd rotated slowly on a <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">lathe</a>. Gases such
as <a href="/wiki/Silicon_tetrachloride" title="Silicon tetrachloride">silicon
tetrachloride</a> (SiCl<sub>4</sub>) or <a href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride"
title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium tetrachloride</a> (GeCl<sub>4</sub>) a
re injected with <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the end of
the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen burner, bri
nging the temperature of the gas up to 1900 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="K
elvin">K</a> (1600 C, 3000 F), where the tetrachlorides react with oxyge
n to produce <a href="/wiki/Silica" title="Silica" class="mw-redirect">silica</a
> or <a href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">germania</a> (g
ermanium dioxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow th
is reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to
earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this
technique is called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modified_chemical_vapor_depos
ition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Modified chemical vapor
deposition (page does not exist)">modified chemical vapor deposition</a> (MCVD)<
/i>.</p>
<p>The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which sub
sequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the
large difference in temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the g
as to push the particles outwards (this is known as <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresi
s" title="Thermophoresis">thermophoresis</a>). The torch is then traversed up an
d down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch ha
s reached the end of the tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the t
ube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This proc
ess is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For ea
ch layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulti
ng in precise control of the finished fiber's optical properties.</p>
<p>In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by
<i>flame hydrolysis</i>, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germaniu
m tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H<sub>2</sub>O) in an <a hr

ef="/wiki/Oxyhydrogen" title="Oxyhydrogen">oxyhydrogen</a> flame. In outside vap
or deposition the glass is deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before f
urther processing. In vapor axial deposition, a short <i>seed rod</i> is used, a
nd a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the source rod,
is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, s
olid preform by heating to about 1800 K (1500 C, 2800 F).</p>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:122px;"><a href="/wiki/File:DShaped1.png" c
lass="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/DSh
aped1.png/120px-DShaped1.png" width="120" height="120" class="thumbimage" srcset
="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/DShaped1.png/180px-DShaped1.png
1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/DShaped1.png/240px-DShaped
1.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:DShaped1.png" class="internal" title="E
nlarge"></a></div>
Cross-section of a fiber drawn from a D-shaped <b>preform</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Typical communications fiber uses a circular preform. For some applications s
uch as <a href="/wiki/Double-clad_fiber" title="Double-clad fiber">double-clad f
ibers</a> another form is preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-Kouznetsov_59-0" class="re
ference"><a href="#cite_note-Kouznetsov-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></
sup> In <a href="/wiki/Fiber_laser" title="Fiber laser">fiber lasers</a> based o
n double-clad fiber, an asymmetric shape improves the <a href="/wiki/Filling_fac
tor" title="Filling factor">filling factor</a> for <a href="/wiki/Laser_pumping"
title="Laser pumping">laser pumping</a>.</p>
<p>Because of the surface tension, the shape is smoothed during the drawing proc
ess, and the shape of the resulting fiber does not reproduce the sharp edges of
the preform. Nevertheless, careful polishing of the preform is important, since
any defects of the preform surface affect the optical and mechanical properties
of the resulting fiber. In particular, the preform for the test-fiber shown in t
he figure was not polished well, and cracks are seen with the confocal <a href="
/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">optical microscope</a>.</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Drawing">Drawing</span><span class="mw-editsec
ptical_fiber&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Drawing">edit<
<p>The preform, however constructed, is placed in a device known as a <a href="/
w/index.php?title=Drawing_tower&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title
="Drawing tower (page does not exist)">drawing tower</a>, where the preform tip
is heated and the optical fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resu
ltant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fi
ber thickness.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Coatings">Coatings</span><span class="mw-edits
ection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title
=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Coatings">ed
it</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The light is guided down the core of the fiber by an optical cladding with a
lower refractive index that traps light in the core through total internal refle
ction.</p>
<p>The cladding is coated by a buffer that protects it from moisture and physica
l damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurkjian_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_noteKurkjian-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup> The buffer coating is what
gets stripped off the fiber for termination or splicing. These coatings are UVcured urethane acrylate composite materials applied to the outside of the fiber
during the drawing process. The coatings protect the very delicate strands of gl
ass fiber about the size of a human hair and allow it to survive the rigors of manuf
acturing, proof testing, cabling and installation.</p>
<p>Today s glass optical fiber draw processes employ a dual-layer coating approach
. An inner primary coating is designed to act as a shock absorber to minimize at
tenuation caused by microbending. An outer secondary coating protects the primar
y coating against mechanical damage and acts as a barrier to lateral forces. Som
etimes a metallic armor layer is added to provide extra protection.</p>
<p>These fiber optic coating layers are applied during the fiber draw, at speeds
approaching 100 kilometers per hour (60 mph). Fiber optic coatings are app
lied using one of two methods: <i>wet-on-dry</i> and <i>wet-on-wet</i>. In wet-o
n-dry, the fiber passes through a primary coating application, which is then UV
cured then through the secondary coating application, which is subsequently cured.
In wet-on-wet, the fiber passes through both the primary and secondary coating
applications, then goes to UV curing.</p>
<p>Fiber optic coatings are applied in concentric layers to prevent damage to th
e fiber during the drawing application and to maximize fiber strength and microb
end resistance. Unevenly coated fiber will experience non-uniform forces when th
e coating expands or contracts, and is susceptible to greater signal attenuation
. Under proper drawing and coating processes, the coatings are concentric around
the fiber, continuous over the length of the application and have constant thic
kness.</p>
<p>Fiber optic coatings protect the glass fibers from scratches that could lead
to strength degradation. The combination of moisture and scratches accelerates t
he aging and deterioration of fiber strength. When fiber is subjected to low str
esses over a long period, fiber fatigue can occur. Over time or in extreme condi
tions, these factors combine to cause microscopic flaws in the glass fiber to pr
opagate, which can ultimately result in fiber failure.</p>
<p>Three key characteristics of fiber optic waveguides can be affected by enviro
nmental conditions: strength, attenuation and resistance to losses caused by mic
robending. External fiber optic coatings protect glass optical fiber from enviro
nmental conditions that can affect the fiber s performance and long-term durabilit
y. On the inside, coatings ensure the reliability of the signal being carried an
d help minimize attenuation due to microbending.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_issues">Practical issues</span><span
on: Practical issues">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></spa
n></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cable_construction">Cable construction</span><
="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit s
ection: Cable construction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span
></span></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical_fiber_c
able.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/thumb/0/02/Optical_fiber_cable.jpg/220px-Optical_fiber_cable.jpg" width="220"
height="91" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/0/02/Optical_fiber_cable.jpg/330px-Optical_fiber_cable.jpg 1.5x, //upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Optical_fiber_cable.jpg/440px-Optical
_fiber_cable.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="289" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical_fiber_cable.jpg" class="interna
l" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
An <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable" title="Optical fiber cable">optical fiber
cable</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Optical
_fiber_cable" title="Optical fiber cable">Optical fiber cable</a></div>
<p>In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough <a href="/wi
ki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Buffer_(optical_fiber)" titl
e="Buffer (optical fiber)">buffer</a></i> layer, which may be further surrounded

by a <i>jacket</i> layer, usually glass. These layers add strength to the fiber
but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assembl
ies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to prevent
light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces <a href="/
wiki/Crosstalk_(electronics)" title="Crosstalk (electronics)">cross-talk</a> bet
ween the fibers, or reduces <a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">flare<
/a> in fiber bundle imaging applications.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_r
ef-hecht2002_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hecht2002-61"><span>[</
span>61<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for ap
plications such as direct burial in trenches, high voltage isolation, dual use a
s power lines,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><s
pan>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style
="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipe
dia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification o
f its source citation(s). (November 2008)">not in citation given</span></a></i>]
</sup> installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine ins
tallation, and insertion in paved streets. The cost of small fiber-count pole-mo
unted cables has greatly decreased due to the high demand for <a href="/wiki/Fib
er_to_the_home" title="Fiber to the home" class="mw-redirect">fiber to the home<
/a> (FTTH) installations in Japan and South Korea.</p>
<p>Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber's loss increases grea
tly if the fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This crea
tes a problem when the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool, mak
ing <a href="/wiki/FTTX" title="FTTX" class="mw-redirect">FTTX</a> installations
more complicated. "Bendable fibers", targeted towards easier installation in ho
me environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657. This type of fiber can b
e bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse impact. Even more ben
dable fibers have been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href
="#cite_note-63"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup> Bendable fiber may als
o be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitious
ly monitored by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage.<sup id="cite_ref-64
" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></
sup></p>
<p>Another important feature of cable is cable's ability to withstand horizontal
ly applied force. It is technically called max tensile strength defining how muc
h force can be applied to the cable during the installation period.</p>
<p>Some fiber optic cable versions are reinforced with <a href="/wiki/Aramid" ti
tle="Aramid">aramid</a> yarns or glass yarns as intermediary <a href="/w/index.p
hp?title=Strength_member&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stren
gth member (page does not exist)">strength member</a>. In commercial terms, usag
e of the glass yarns are more cost effective while no loss in mechanical durabil
ity of the cable. Glass yarns also protect the cable core against rodents and te
rmites.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Termination_and_splicing">Termination and spli
cing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</
span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=29" t
itle="Edit section: Termination and splicing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsectio
n-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ST-optical-fibe
r-connector-hdr-0a.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ST-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg/170px-ST-optica
l-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg" width="170" height="265" class="thumbimage" srcset
="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ST-optical-fiber-connector
-hdr-0a.jpg/255px-ST-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia
.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ST-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg/340px-ST
-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="
1461" /></a>
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ST-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">ST conne
ctors</a> on <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_fiber" title="Multi-mode fiber" class="mw
-redirect">multi-mode fiber</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by <a href="/wiki/Optical_
fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">optical fiber connectors</a>. T
hese connectors are usually of a standard type such as <i>FC</i>, <i>SC</i>, <i>
ST</i>, <i>LC</i>, <i>MTRJ</i>, or <i>SMA,</i> which is designated for higher po
wer transmission.</p>
<p>Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by <i>splicing
</i>, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguid
e. The generally accepted splicing method is <a href="/wiki/Fusion_splicing" tit
le="Fusion splicing">arc fusion splicing</a>, which melts the fiber ends togethe
r with an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>. Fo
r quicker fastening jobs, a mechanical splice is used.</p>
<p>Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically operates
as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice enclosure that will
protect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped of their protective polyme
r coating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket, if present). The ends are <i
>cleaved</i> (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them perpendicular, and are
placed into special holders in the splicer. The splice is usually inspected via
a magnified viewing screen to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The
splicer uses small motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small sp
ark between <a href="/wiki/Electrodes" title="Electrodes" class="mw-redirect">el
ectrodes</a> at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the splicer generate
s a larger spark that raises the temperature above the <a href="/wiki/Melting_po
int" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of the glass, fusing the ends toget
her permanently. The location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so
that the molten core and cladding do not mix, and this minimizes optical loss.
A splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by directing light through th
e cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking from the cladding on the
other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical. The complexity of this p
rocess makes fiber splicing much more difficult than splicing copper wire.</p>
<p>Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to install, bu
t there is still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and precision cleaving
. The fiber ends are aligned and held together by a precision-made sleeve, often
using a clear <a href="/wiki/Index-matching_gel" title="Index-matching gel" cla
ss="mw-redirect">index-matching gel</a> that enhances the transmission of light
across the joint. Such joints typically have higher optical loss and are less ro
bust than fusion splices, especially if the gel is used. All splicing techniques
involve installing an enclosure that protects the splice.</p>
<p>Fibers are terminated in connectors that hold the fiber end precisely and sec
urely. A fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounde
d by a sleeve that holds the barrel in its mating socket. The mating mechanism c
an be <i>push and click</i>, <i>turn and latch</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bayonet_mo
unt" title="Bayonet mount">bayonet mount</a></i>), or <i>screw-in</i> (<i>thread
ed</i>). A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserti
ng it into the rear of the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used to
hold the fiber securely, and a <a href="/wiki/Strain_relief" title="Strain reli
ef" class="mw-redirect">strain relief</a> is secured to the rear. Once the adhes
ive sets, the fiber's end is polished to a mirror finish. Various polish profile
s are used, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For single-mode
fiber, fiber ends are typically polished with a slight curvature that makes the
mated connectors touch only at their cores. This is called a <i>physical contact
</i> (PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an angle, to make an <i>
angled physical contact (APC)</i> connection. Such connections have higher loss
than PC connections, but greatly reduced back reflection, because light that ref
lects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core. The resulting signal
strength loss is called <i><a href="/wiki/Gap_loss" title="Gap loss">gap loss</a
></i>. APC fiber ends have low back reflection even when disconnected.</p>
<p>In the 1990s, terminating fiber optic cables was labor-intensive. The number
of parts per connector, polishing of the fibers, and the need to oven-bake the e
poxy in each connector made terminating fiber optic cables difficult. Today, man
y connectors types are on the market that offer easier, less labor-intensive way
s of terminating cables. Some of the most popular connectors are pre-polished at
the factory, and include a gel inside the connector. Those two steps help save
money on labor, especially on large projects. A <a href="/wiki/Cleave_(fiber)" t
itle="Cleave (fiber)">cleave</a> is made at a required length, to get as close t
o the polished piece already inside the connector. The gel surrounds the point w
here the two pieces meet inside the connector for very little light loss.<sup cl
ass="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a h
ref="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span ti
tle="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation neede
d</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Free-space_coupling">Free-space coupling</span
><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a hr
ef="/w/index.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit
section: Free-space coupling">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</s
pan></span></h3>
<p>It is often necessary to align an optical fiber with another optical fiber, o
r with an <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronic_device" title="Optoelectronic device" cl
ass="mw-redirect">optoelectronic device</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Light-emitt
ing_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a>, a <a href="/wi
ki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diode</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Modulat
or" title="Modulator" class="mw-redirect">modulator</a>. This can involve either
carefully aligning the fiber and placing it in contact with the device, or can
use a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> to allow coup
ling over an air gap. In some cases the end of the fiber is polished into a curv
ed form that makes it act as a lens. Some companies can even shape the fiber int
o lenses by cutting them with lasers.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>In a laboratory environment, a bare fiber end is coupled using a fiber launch
system, which uses a <a href="/wiki/Microscope_objective_lens" title="Microscop
e objective lens" class="mw-redirect">microscope objective lens</a> to focus the
light down to a fine point. A precision <a href="/wiki/Translation_stage" title
="Translation stage" class="mw-redirect">translation stage</a> (micro-positionin
g table) is used to move the lens, fiber, or device to allow the coupling effici
ency to be optimized. Fibers with a connector on the end make this process much
simpler: the connector is simply plugged into a pre-aligned fiberoptic collimato
r, which contains a lens that is either accurately positioned with respect to th
e fiber, or is adjustable. To achieve the best injection efficiency into singlemode fiber, the direction, position, size and divergence of the beam must all be
optimized. With good beams, 70 to 90% coupling efficiency can be achieved.</p>
<p>With properly polished single-mode fibers, the emitted beam has an almost per
fect Gaussian shape even in the far field if a good lens is used. The lens needs to
be large enough to support the full numerical aperture of the fiber, and must no
t introduce <a href="/wiki/Optical_aberration" title="Optical aberration">aberra
tions</a> in the beam. <a href="/wiki/Aspheric_lens" title="Aspheric lens">Asphe
ric lenses</a> are typically used.</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fiber_fuse">Fiber fuse</span><span class="mw-e
itle=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fiber fu
se">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>At high optical intensities, above 2 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" title="Megawatt
" class="mw-redirect">megawatts</a> per square centimeter, when a fiber is subje
cted to a shock or is otherwise suddenly damaged, a <i>fiber fuse</i> can occur.

The reflection from the damage vaporizes the fiber immediately before the break
, and this new defect remains reflective so that the damage propagates back towa
rd the transmitter at 1 3 meters per second (4 11 km/h, 2 8 mph).<sup id="ci
te_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>66<span>]</sp
an></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><sp
an>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Open_fiber_control" tit
le="Open fiber control">open fiber control</a> system, which ensures <a href="/w
iki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">laser eye safety</a> in the event of a br
oken fiber, can also effectively halt propagation of the fiber fuse.<sup id="cit
e_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span>[</span>68<span>]</spa
n></a></sup> In situations, such as undersea cables, where high power levels mig
ht be used without the need for open fiber control, a "fiber fuse" protection de
vice at the transmitter can break the circuit to keep damage to a minimum.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-edits
ection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title
=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">ed
it</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0
.5em 1em">
<table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px"
>
<tr style="vertical-align:middle">
<td style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="i
mage"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb
/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" width="28" height="28" cla
ss="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola
_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-filewidth="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></td>
<td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:b
old"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics p
ortal</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webki
t-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borescope" title="Borescope">Borescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cable_jetting" title="Cable jetting">Cable jetting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_cable" title="Data cable">Data cable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_acoustic_sensing" title="Distributed acoustic sen
sing">Distributed acoustic sensing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">Endoscopy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_amplifier" title="Fiber amplifier" class="mw-redirect">
Fiber amplifier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_Bragg_grating" title="Fiber Bragg grating">Fiber Bragg
grating</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fibre_Channel" title="Fibre Channel">Fibre Channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_pigtail" title="Fiber pigtail" class="mw-redirect">Fibe
r pigtail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_laser" title="Fiber laser">Fiber laser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiberscope" title="Fiberscope">Fiberscope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient
-index optics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interconnect_bottleneck" title="Interconnect bottleneck">Inte
rconnect bottleneck</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_mode" title="Leaky mode">Leaky mode</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Li-Fi" title="Li-Fi">Li-Fi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Light_Peak" title="Light Peak" class="mw-redirect">Light Peak

</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modal_bandwidth" title="Modal bandwidth">Modal bandwidth</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifie
r</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable" title="Optical fiber cable">Optical fibe
r cable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical
communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">Opti
cal fiber connector</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_interconnect" title="Optical interconnect">Optical in
terconnect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_mesh_network" title="Optical mesh network">Optical me
sh network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_power_meter" title="Optical power meter">Optical powe
r meter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_time-domain_reflectometer" title="Optical time-domain
reflectometer">Optical time-domain reflectometer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_optical_interface" title="Parallel optical interface
">Parallel optical interface</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photonic-crystal_fiber" title="Photonic-crystal fiber">Photon
ic-crystal fiber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Return_loss" title="Return loss">Return loss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small_form-factor_pluggable_transceiver" title="Small form-fa
ctor pluggable transceiver">Small form-factor pluggable transceiver</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vector_s
oliton" title="Vector soliton">Vector soliton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communicatio
ns cable">Submarine communications cables</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subwavelength-diameter_optical_fibre" title="Subwavelength-di
ameter optical fibre">Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surround_Optical_Fiber_Immunoassay_(SOFIA)" title="Surround O
ptical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA)" class="mw-redirect">Surround Optical Fiber Imm
unoassay (SOFIA)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/XENPAK" title="XENPAK">XENPAK</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-e
itle=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Referenc
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<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 3
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tle="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FJQE.2003.818311">10.1109/JQE.2003.818311</a>.<
/span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%
3AOptical+fiber&rft.atitle=Highly+efficient%2C+high-gain%2C+short-length%2C+
and+power-scalable+incoherent+diode+slab-pumped+fiber+amplifier%2Flaser&rft.
au=Kouznetsov%2C+D.&rft.aulast=Kouznetsov%2C+D.&rft.au=Moloney%2C+J.V.&a
mp;rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003IJQE...39
.1452K&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJQE.2003.818311&rft.issue=11&rf
t.jtitle=IEEE+Journal+of+Quantum+Electronics&rft.pages=1452-1461&rft_val
_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=39" class="Z3988"><sp
an style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/ph/p/id/129
#toc2">"Light collection and propagation"</a>. <i>National Instruments' Develope
r Zone</i>. National Instruments Corporation<span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-19</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx
_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rf
t.atitle=Light+collection+and+propagation&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%
3A%2F%2Fzone.ni.com%2Fdevzone%2Fcda%2Fph%2Fp%2Fid%2F129%23toc2&rft.jtitle=Na
tional+Instruments%27+Developer+Zone&rft.pub=National+Instruments+Corporatio
n&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span st
yle="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-hecht2002-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite
_ref-hecht2002_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="
citation book">Hecht, Jeff (2002). <i>Understanding Fiber Optics</i> (4th ed.).
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tional Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/013-027828-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-027828-9">0-13-027828-9</a>.</span>
<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpti
cal+fiber&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Hecht%2C+Jeff&rft.aulast=Hecht&amp
;rft.btitle=Understanding+Fiber+Optics&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=4th&amp
;rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-13-027828-9&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft_val
_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:non
e;"> </span></span></span></li>
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http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screening.pdf">"Scre
ening report for Alaska rural energy plan"</a> (PDF). <i>Alaska Division of Comm
unity and Regional Affairs</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screenin
g.pdf">the original</a> on May 8, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retri
eved <span class="nowrap">April 11,</span> 2006</span>.</span><span title="ctx_v
er=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.
atitle=Screening+report+for+Alaska+rural+energy+plan&rft.genre=article&r
ft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dced.state.ak.us%2Fdca%2FAEIS%2FPDF_Files%2FAIDEA_Energy_
Screening.pdf&rft.jtitle=Alaska+Division+of+Community+and+Regional+Affairs&a
mp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style
="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation pressrelease"
><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.corning.com/news_cente
r/news_releases/2007/2007072301.aspx">"Corning announces breakthrough optical fi
ber technology"</a> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/Corning_Incorporated" title=
"Corning Incorporated" class="mw-redirect">Corning Incorporated</a>. 2007-07-23<
span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-09</s
pan></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.w
ikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.btitle=Corning+announces+breakthrough+optic
al+fiber+technology&rft.date=2007-07-23&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3
A%2F%2Fwww.corning.com%2Fnews_center%2Fnews_releases%2F2007%2F2007072301.aspx&am
p;rft.pub=Corning+Incorporated&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abo
ok" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Olzak, T
om (2007-05-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.is
/1Suj">"Protect your network against fiber hacks"</a>. <i>Techrepublic</i>. CNET

. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.techr
epublic.com.com/security/?p=222">the original</a> on 2012-07-07<span class="refe
rence-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-10</span></span>.</sp
an><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AO
ptical+fiber&rft.atitle=Protect+your+network+against+fiber+hacks&rft.auf
irst=Tom&rft.aulast=Olzak&rft.au=Olzak%2C+Tom&rft.date=2007-05-03&am
p;rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.techrepublic.com.com%2Fsecurit
y%2F%3Fp%3D222&rft.jtitle=Techrepublic&rft.pub=CNET&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#
160;</span></span></span></li>
nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opteksystems.com/laser-lens">"L
aser Lensing"</a>. <i>OpTek Systems Inc</i>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2
004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.atitle=Lase
r+Lensing&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opteksystems.com%2Fl
aser-lens&rft.jtitle=OpTek+Systems+Inc.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Ak
ev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></spa
n></span></li>
</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Atki
ns, R. M.; Simpkins, P. G.; Yablon, A. D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="exter
nal text" href="http://ol.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=72607">"Track of a fiber fuse:
a Rayleigh instability in optical waveguides"</a>. <i>Optics Letters</i> <b>28<
/b> (12): 974 976. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nof
ollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003OptL...28..
974A">2003OptL...28..974A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="
Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href=
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.28.000974">10.1364/OL.28.000974</a>. <a href="/w
iki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a>&#1
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2836750">12836750</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3A
sid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.atitle=Track+of+a+fiber+fuse%3A+a
+Rayleigh+instability+in+optical+waveguides&rft.au=Atkins%2C+R.+M.&rft.a
ufirst=R.+M.&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.au=Simpkins%2C+P.+G.&rft.au=Yablo
n%2C+A.+D.&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fol.os
a.org%2Fabstract.cfm%3Fid%3D72607&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003OptL...28..974
A&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FOL.28.000974&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F128367
50&rft.issue=12&rft.jtitle=Optics+Letters&rft.pages=974-976&rft_
val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=28" class="Z3988">
<span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Hitz
, Breck (August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.
photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=16745">"Origin of 'fiber fuse' is revealed"</a>.
<i>Photonics Spectra</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span cla
ss="nowrap">2011-01-23</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp
;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.atitle=Origin+of+%
27fiber+fuse%27+is+revealed&rft.aufirst=Breck&rft.au=Hitz%2C+Breck&r
ft.aulast=Hitz&rft.date=August+2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A
%2F%2Fwww.photonics.com%2FArticle.aspx%3FAID%3D16745&rft.jtitle=Photonics+Sp
ectra&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><spa
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</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Seo,
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://www.furukawa.co.jp/review/fr024/fr24_04.pdf">"Evaluation of high-power endura
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org/issn/1348-1797">1348-1797</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">2008-07-05</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88
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rnal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span c
lass="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/i
ndex.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section
: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span><
/h2>
<div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul>
<li><span class="citation book">Agrawal, Govind (2010). <i>Fiber-Optic Communica
tion Systems</i> (4 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title
="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" hre
f="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470918524">10.1002/9780470918524</a>. <a href
umber">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470505113" title="Sp
ecial:BookSources/9780470505113">9780470505113</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z
39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.au=A
grawal%2C+Govind&rft.aufirst=Govind&rft.aulast=Agrawal&rft.btitle=Fi
ber-Optic+Communication+Systems&rft.date=2010&rft.edition=4&rft.genr
e=book&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470918524&rft.isbn=978047050511
3&rft.pub=Wiley&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="
Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
<li>Gambling, W. A., "The Rise and Rise of Optical Fibers", <i>IEEE Journal on S
elected Topics in Quantum Electronics</i>, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 1084 1093, Nov.
/Dec. 2000. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object iden
tifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/
10.1109%2F2944.902157">10.1109/2944.902157</a></li>
<li>Mirabito, Michael M.A; and Morgenstern, Barbara L., <i>The New Communication
s Technologies: Applications, Policy, and Impact</i>, 5th. Edition. Focal Press,
2004. (<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0240805860" class="internal mw-magicl
ink-isbn">ISBN 0-24-080586-0</a>).</li>
<li>Mitschke F., <i>Fiber Optics - Physics and Technology</i>, Springer, 2009 (<
a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642037023" class="internal mw-magiclink-is
bn">ISBN 978-3-642-03702-3</a>)</li>
<li>Nagel S. R., MacChesney J. B., Walker K. L., "An Overview of the Modified Ch
emical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) Process and Performance", <i>IEEE Journal of Quan
tum Electronics</i>, Vol. QE-18, No. 4, p. 459, April 1982. <a href="/wiki/
Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nof
ollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FTMTT.1982.1131071
">10.1109/TMTT.1982.1131071</a></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Rajiv Ramaswami; Kumar Sivarajan; Galen Sasaki (
27 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//books.google.
com/books?id=WpByp4Ip0z8C"><i>Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective</i></a>.
Morgan Kaufmann. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="Inte
rnational Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources
/978-0-08-092072-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092072-6">978-0-08-09207
2-6</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikip
edia.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.au=Galen+Sasaki&rft.au=Kumar+Sivarajan&
rft.aulast=Rajiv+Ramaswami&rft.au=Rajiv+Ramaswami&rft.btitle=Optical+Net
works%3A+A+Practical+Perspective&rft.date=27+November+2009&rft.genre=boo
k&rft_id=%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWpByp4Ip0z8C&rft.isbn=978
-0-08-092072-6&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Ake
v%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></
li>
<li>VDV Works LLC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vdvwo
rks.com/LennieLw"><i>Lennie Lightwave's Guide To Fiber Optics</i></a>, 2002-6.</
li>
<li><span class="citation book">Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). <i>The World is Flat
</i>. Picador. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="Interna
tional Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/97
8-0-312-42507-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-42507-4">978-0-312-42507-4
</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedi
a.org%3AOptical+fiber&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Thomas+L.
&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.btitle=The+World+is+Flat&rft.date=2007&
rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-312-42507-4&rft.pub=Picador&rft_val_fm
> </span></span> The book discusses how fiberoptics has contributed to <a h
ref="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, and has revol
utionized communications, business, and even the distribution of capital among c
ountries.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://telecom-info.telcordia.
com/site-cgi/ido/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-771&">GR-771, <i>Generic
Requirements for Fiber Optic Splice Closures</i></a>, Telcordia Technologies, I
ssue 2, July 2008. Discusses fiber optic splice closures and the associated hard
ware intended to restore the mechanical and environmental integrity of one or mo
re fiber cables entering the enclosure.</li>
<li><span class="citation web">Paschotta, Rdiger. <a rel="nofollow" class="extern
al text" href="http://www.rp-photonics.com/passive_fiber_optics.html">"Tutorial
on Passive Fiber optics"</a>. RP Photonics<span class="reference-accessdate">. R
etrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2013</span>.</span><span title="
ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+fiber&amp
;rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft.aulast=Paschotta&rft.au=Paschotta%2C+R%C3%
BCdiger&rft.btitle=Tutorial+on+Passive+Fiber+optics&rft.genre=book&r
ft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rp-photonics.com%2Fpassive_fiber_optics.html&rft.pub=
RP+Photonics&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">
<span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span cla
ss="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/ind
ex.php?title=Optical_fiber&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section:
External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2
>
<table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-col
or:#f9f9f9">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thum
b/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset
="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-l
ogo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.sv
g/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /
></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a
href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Optical_fibers" class="extiw" title=
"commons:Category:Optical fibers">Optical fibers</a></b></i>.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefoa.org/">The Fi
ber Optic Association</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefoa.org/tech/con

nID.htm">FOA color code for connectors</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jimhayes.com/lennie
lw/">Lennie Lightwave's Guide To Fiber Optics</a></li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rp-photonics.com/f
ibers.html">Fibers</a>", article in RP Photonics' <i>Encyclopedia of Laser Physi
cs and Technology</i></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fabila.com/proyecto
s/ftth/tecnologia.asp">How Fiber Optics are made</a> In video</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gare.co.uk/technol
ogy_watch/fibre.htm">Fibre optic technologies</a>", Mercury Communications Ltd,
August 1992.</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gare.co.uk/technol
ogy_watch/photo.htm">Photonics & the future of fibre</a>", Mercury Communica
tions Ltd, March 1993.</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcelect.com/fiber
cable.htm">Fiber Optic Tutorial</a>" Educational site from Arc Electronics</li>
<li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/el
ectronicbricks.it/electronicbricks/technolgies-and-competitive-advantages/compet
itive-advantages-of-pof">Plastic Optical Fiber</a>", Technologies and competitiv
e advantages of POF
Plastic Optical Fiber</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/r
es-6-005-understanding-lasers-and-fiberoptics-spring-2008/laser-fundamentals-i/"
>MIT Video Lecture: Understanding Lasers and Fiberoptics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spie.org/Documents/Publ
ications/00%20STEP%20Module%2007.pdf">Fundamentals of Photonics: Module on Optic
al Waveguides and Fibers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdemo.inue.uni-stuttg
art.de/webdemos/02_lectures/uebertragungstechnik_2/chromatic_dispersion">webdemo
for chromatic dispersion</a> Institute of Telecommunicatons, University of Stut
tgart</li>
</ul>
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<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Template:Optical_telecommunication&action=edit"><span title="Edit th
is template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li
>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telecommunication" title="Opt
ical telecommunication" class="mw-redirect">Optical telecommunication</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px">
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telecommunication" t
itle="Optical telecommunication" class="mw-redirect">Basic</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-widt
h:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beacon" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic te
legraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International mar
itime signal flags">Ships flags</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore_line" title="Semaphore line">Semaphore line</a></li
>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">Heliograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telecommunication" t
itle="Optical telecommunication" class="mw-redirect">Advanced</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-wid
th:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">
Fiber-optic telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical c
ommunication">Free-space optical telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_wireless" title="Optical wireless">Optical wireless</
a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Optical fiber</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable" title="Optical fiber cable">cable</a></l
i>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">conn
ector</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_Carrier_transmission_rates" title="Optical Carrier tr
ansmission rates">Optical Carrier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intensity_modulation" title="Intensity modulation">Intensity
modulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modulating_retro-reflector" title="Modulating retro-reflector
">Modulating retro-reflector</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_Transport_Network" title="Optical Transport Network">
Optical Transport Network</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<tr>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-s
pacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_science" title="Template:Glass
science"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;
border:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_science" title="Template
talk:Glass science"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none
transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Glass_science&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template"
style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a> scienc
e topics</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Basics</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Glass formulation</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/AgInSbTe" title="AgInSbTe">AgInSbTe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioglass" title="Bioglass">Bioglass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">
Borophosphosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate g
lass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">Ceramic glaze</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide g
lass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">Cobalt glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry glass</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" title="Crown glass (optics)">Crown glas
s</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flint_glass" title="Flint glass">Flint glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate_glass" title="Fluorosilicate glass">Fluorosili
cate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Gold ruby glass</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milk_glass" title="Milk glass">Milk glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">Phosphos
ilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic len
s glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glass" title="Glass">Silicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soda-lime_glass" title="Soda-lime glass">Soda-lime glass</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate" title="Sodium hexametaphosphate">So
dium hexametaphosphate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soluble_glass" title="Soluble glass">Soluble glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tellurite_glass" title="Tellurite glass">Tellurite glass</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_expansion_glass" title="Ultra low expansion glass">
Ultra low expansion glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">Uranium glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">Vitreous enamel</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glassceramic">Glass-ceramics</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_glass" title="Bioactive glass">Bioactive glass</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic-to-metal_seals" title="Glass-ceramic-to-metal s
eals">Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Glass preparation</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealing</a></l
i>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">
Chemical vapor deposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_batch_calculation" title="Glass batch calculation">Glas
s batch calculation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_forming" title="Template:Glass forming" class=
"mw-redirect">Glass forming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Hot_end" title="Glass production">Glass melt
ing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_of_glass_properties" title="Calculation of glass
properties">Glass modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liquidus" title="Liquidus">Liquidus temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sol-gel" title="Sol-gel">Sol-gel technique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity#Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials" title="Viscosity"
>Viscosity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optic
s</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Achromat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">Dispersion</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient
-index optics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darke
ning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifie
r</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Optical fiber</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_lens_design" title="Optical lens design">Optical lens
design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic len
s</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_glass" title="Photosensitive glass">Photosensi
tive glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and transl
ucency">Transparent materials</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Surface modification</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">Anti
-reflective coating</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened
glass">Chemically strengthened glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glasses" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dealkalization" title="Dealkalization">Dealkalization</a></li
>
<li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li
>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darke
ning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazin
g</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Self-cleanin
g glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sol-gel" title="Sol-gel">Sol-gel technique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Toughened_glass" title="Toughened glass">Toughened glass</a><
/li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Diverse topics</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass-coated_wire" title="Glass-coated wire">Glass-coated wir
e</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_databases" title="Glass databases">Glass databases</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">Glass electrode</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber_reinforced_concrete" title="Glass fiber reinforce
d concrete">Glass fiber reinforced concrete</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement" title="Glass ionomer cement">Glass iono
mer cement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_microsphere" title="Glass microsphere">Glass microspher
es</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Glass-reinforced plastic</a></
li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glass_science_institutes" title="Category:Glass scie

nce institutes">Glass science institutes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass-to-metal_seal" title="Glass-to-metal seal">Glass-to-met
al seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_Drop" title="Prince Rupert's Drop">Prince R
upert's Drops</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Vitrification" title="Radioactive waste">Ra
dioactive waste vitrification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">Windshield</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<tr>
<table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="bo
rder-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:
Telecommunications"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none tr
ansparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Temp
late talk:Telecommunications"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;backg
round:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Telecommunications&action=edit"><span title="Edit this temp
late" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommuni
cation">Telecommunications</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;
border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<div class="floatright"><a href="/wiki/File:Telecom-icon.svg" class="image" titl
e="Telecommunications symbol"><img alt="Telecommunications symbol" src="//upload
.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/50px-Telecom-icon.s
vg.png" width="50" height="50" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/75px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/100px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x"
data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a
></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broa
dcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satel
lite">Communications satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer n
etwork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums<
/a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">El
ectrical telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="
Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Inte
rnet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mo
bile phone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical
telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegr
aphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_prepaid_mobile_phone" title="History of the pr
epaid mobile phone">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li
>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Sa
tellite communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunica
tion">Telecommunications history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Te
lephone</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telep
hone Cases</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Televisi
on</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of comm
unication technology">Timeline of communication technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_c
oaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a
></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" title="Videoconferencing">Videocon
ferencing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></
li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">
Videotelephony</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneers</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px
;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin
Howard Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexande
r Graham Bell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a><
/li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish
Chandra Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</
a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fesse
nden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marcon
i</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Pop
ov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Phili
pp Reis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Papin_Tissot" title="Camille Papin Tissot">Camille Pa
pin Tissot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheats
tone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K
. Zworykin</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="
Transmission medium">Transmission<br />
media</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical c
ommunication">Free-space optical</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Optical fiber</strong></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">Telephone lines</a></l
i>
<li><a href="/wiki/Microwave#Communication" title="Microwave">Terrestrial microw

ave</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">Molecules</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Net
work topology">Network topology</a><br />
and switching</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Link
s</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunicat
ion)">Terminal node</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a>&
#160;(<a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></l
i>
<li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exch
ange</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multipl
exing">Multiplexing</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multi-user_MIMO#SDMA" title="Multi-user MIMO">Space-division<
/a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division mu
ltiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing
">Time-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-divis
ion multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular
momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access" title="Code division multiple
access">Code-division</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network"
title="Telecommunications network">Networks</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Servic
es Digital Network">ISDN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN<
/a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched tel
ephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equip
ment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network">Television</a>
</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li
>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By continent</th>
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
<table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="borde
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa
topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;bo
rder:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template t
alk:Africa topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none t
ransparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Africa_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template"
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Africa</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sove
reign state">Sovereign states</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in A
lgeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in An
gola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Ben
in">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in
Botswana">Botswana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications
in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" title="Telecommunications in B
urundi" class="mw-redirect">Burundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in
Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications i
n Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Te
lecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></
li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad
">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in C
omoros">Comoros</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" t
itle="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Rep
ublic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telec
ommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in
Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egy
pt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunica
tions in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in E
ritrea">Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in
Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gab
on">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications i
n the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Gha
na">Ghana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Gu
inea">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunication
s in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications
in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Cte d'Ivoire)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Ken
ya">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in L
esotho">Lesotho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" title="Telecommunications in L
iberia" class="mw-redirect">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" title="Telecommunications in Lib
ya" class="mw-redirect">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications i
n Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" title="Telecommunications in Ma
lawi">Malawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali
">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications i
n Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in
Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in M
orocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications i
n Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in N
amibia">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Nig
er">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in N
igeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rw
anda">Rwanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" t
itle="Telecommunications in So Tom and Prncipe">So Tom and Prncipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in S
enegal">Senegal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications i
n Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications
in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" title="Telecommunications in S
omalia" class="mw-redirect">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications
in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan&action=edi
t&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan (page does
not exist)">South Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sud
an">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Swaziland" title="Telecommunications in
Swaziland">Swaziland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in
Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo
">Togo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in T
unisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" title="Telecommunications in Ug

anda" class="mw-redirect">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Za
mbia">Zambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in
Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_wi
th_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States w
ith limited<br />
recognition</a></div>
</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" t
itle="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" class="mw-redi
rect">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications i
n Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territo
ry" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />
other territories</div>
</th>
<div>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" title="Telecommunic
ations in the Canary Islands" class="mw-redirect">Canary Islands</a> / <a h
ref="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta" clas
s="mw-redirect">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" t
itle="Telecommunications in Melilla" class="mw-redirect">Melilla</a> / <a h
ref="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa&actio
n=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Plazas de soberana
(page does not exist)">Plazas de soberana</a> <small style="font-size:85%;"
>(Spain)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" title="Telecommunications in M
adeira" class="mw-redirect">Madeira</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Port
ugal)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in M
ayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union" ti

tle="Telecommunications in Runion">Runion</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(
France)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" title="Telecommunications
in Saint Helena" class="mw-redirect">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tel
ecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Isla
nd" class="mw-redirect">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Telecommunica
tions_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha" class=
"mw-redirect">Tristan da Cunha</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(United Ki
ngdom)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunicatio
ns in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia top
ic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border
:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template tal
k:Asia topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none trans
parent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" st
yle=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Asia</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" ti
tle="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" title="Telecommunications
in Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in A
rmenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications i
n Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in B
ahrain">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications i
n Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bh
utan">Bhutan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Br

unei">Brunei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burma" title="Telecommunications in Bur
ma">Burma (Myanmar)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in
Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in Chi
na">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cy
prus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications i
n East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egy
pt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunica
tions in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in Ind
ia">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in
Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" title="Telecommunications in Iran
" class="mw-redirect">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq
">Iraq</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Is
rael">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" title="Telecommunications in Jap
an" class="mw-redirect">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jo
rdan">Jordan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications i
n Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications
in North Korea">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications
in South Korea">South Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Ku
wait">Kuwait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications i
n Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" title="Telecommunications in Laos
">Laos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in L
ebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in
Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications
in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in
Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nep
al">Nepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman
">Oman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in
Pakistan" class="mw-redirect">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunicati
ons in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qat
ar">Qatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Ru

ssia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications
in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in
Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in
Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syr
ia">Syria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications i
n Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in
Thailand">Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Tu
rkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications
in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Teleco
mmunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications i
n Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in V
ietnam">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yem
en">Yemen</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_
recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />
limited recognition</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&a
mp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not e
xist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="T
elecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">NagornoKarabakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunicati
ons in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Palestinian_territories" title="Tel
ecommunications in the Palestinian territories" class="mw-redirect">Palestine</a
></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=e
dit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page
does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Ta
iwan">Taiwan</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="
Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />
other territories</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_T
erritory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in
the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean
Territory</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&actio
n=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island
(page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Island
s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Co
cos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" title="Telecommunications in
Hong Kong" class="mw-redirect">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Mac
au">Macau</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe
topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;bo
rder:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template t
alk:Europe topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none t
ransparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template"
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="
Telecommunications in Europe" class="mw-redirect">Telecommunications in Europe</
a></div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in A
lbania">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in A
ndorra">Andorra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in A
rmenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in A
ustria">Austria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications i
n Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in B
elarus">Belarus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in B
elgium">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecomm
unications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in
Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in C
roatia">Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cy
prus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunic
ations in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in D
enmark">Denmark</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in E
stonia">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in F
inland">Finland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in Fr
ance">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunica
tions in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in G
ermany">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Gr
eece">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in H
ungary">Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in I
celand">Iceland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecom
munications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Ita
ly">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications i
n Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in La
tvia">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunication
s in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in
Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications i
n Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Telec
ommunications in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Mal
ta">Malta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in M
oldova">Moldova</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in Mo
naco">Monaco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications i
n Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunicati
ons in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in No
rway">Norway</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Po
land">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in
Portugal">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" title="Telecommunications in R
omania" class="mw-redirect">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Ru
ssia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications i
n San Marino">San Marino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Se
rbia">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in
Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in
Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spa
in">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sw
eden">Sweden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications
in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Tu
rkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in U
kraine">Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunic
ations in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_wi
th_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States w
ith limited<br />
recognition</a></div>
</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&a
mp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not e

xist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" title="Telecommunications in Ko
sovo">Kosovo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="T
elecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">NagornoKarabakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunicati
ons in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=e
dit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page
does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications
in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit
&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in land (page does not exis
t)">land</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunica
tions in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" title="Telecommunications in
Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect">Gibraltar</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&a
mp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not e
xist)">Guernsey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Je
rsey">Jersey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Telecommunicati
ons in the Isle of Man" class="mw-redirect">Isle of Man</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&a
mp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not e
xist)">Svalbard</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other entities</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunic
ations in the European Union" class="mw-redirect">European Union</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template
:North America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none
transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Tem
plate talk:North America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;bac
kground:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:North_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this tem
plate" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in North America</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sovereign states</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommuni
cations in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications
in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in
Barbados">Barbados</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Be
lize">Belize</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Ca
nada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications i
n Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba
">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in
Dominica">Dominica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecomm
unications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications
in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in G
renada">Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in
Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Hai
ti">Haiti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in
Honduras">Honduras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in J
amaica">Jamaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" title="Telecommunications in Me
xico">Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in
Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Pa
nama">Panama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommu
nications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications
in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title
="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommuni
cations in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" title="Telecommunica
tions in the United States" class="mw-redirect">United States</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and<br />
</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in
Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aru
ba">Aruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in B
ermuda">Bermuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&am
p;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exi
st)">Bonaire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Tele
communications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunic
ations in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications
in Curaao">Curaao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in
Greenland">Greenland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications i
n Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications i
n Martinique">Martinique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications i
n Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" title="Telecommunicatio
ns in Navassa Island" class="mw-redirect">Navassa Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications
in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Telecommu
nications in Saint Barthlemy" class="mw-redirect">Saint Barthlemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_
Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in t
he Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Telec
ommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&r
edlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">S
aba</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=
edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (pag
e does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=ed
it&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page do
es not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Te
lecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></
li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title
="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin I
slands</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Ocean
ia topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;
border:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template
talk:Oceania topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none
transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:Oceania_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template"
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Oceania</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>

<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in
Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications i
n East Timor">East Timor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji
">Fiji</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in
Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Telecommun
ications in the Marshall Islands" class="mw-redirect">Marshall Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" tit
le="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States o
f Micronesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nau
ru">Nauru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications
in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Pal
au">Palau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Telecommunicat
ions in Papua New Guinea" class="mw-redirect">Papua New Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Sam
oa">Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommuni
cations in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Ton
ga">Tonga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tu
valu">Tuvalu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in V
anuatu">Vanuatu</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title=
"Realm of New Zealand">Associated states of New Zealand</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunicat
ions in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" title="Telecommunications in Niue
" class="mw-redirect">Niue</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="
Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunicatio
ns in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&actio
n=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island
(page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Island
s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Co
cos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=e
dit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page
does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunicat
ions in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" title="Telecommunications in Guam
" class="mw-redirect">Guam</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&amp
;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist
)">Hawaii</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunication
s in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=
edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (pag
e does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islan
ds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the N
orthern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands&a
ction=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn
Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Tokelau&action=edit&am
p;redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau (page does not exi
st)">Tokelau</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&acti
on=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futun
a (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
r-spacing:0">
<tr>
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template
:South America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none
transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Tem
plate talk:South America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;bac
kground:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li>
p?title=Template:South_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this tem

plate" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in South America</div>
</th>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" ti
tle="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" title="Telecommunications in
Argentina" class="mw-redirect">Argentina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in B
olivia">Bolivia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in Br
azil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in Chi
le">Chile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" title="Telecommunications in
Colombia" class="mw-redirect">Colombia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in E
cuador">Ecuador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in Gu
yana">Guyana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in
Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in Peru
">Peru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in
Suriname">Suriname</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in U
ruguay">Uruguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in
Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
</th>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Telecommun
ications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunication

s in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Is
lands" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
" class="mw-redirect"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the So
uth Sandwich Islands</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<div>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Fold
er_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width
="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_
Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.
svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Cate
gory:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Telecommunications<
/a></b></li>
<li><img alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/
Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" heig
ht="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/
18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/C
ommons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-h
eight="1376" /> <b><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunicat
ion" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunication">Telecommunication<
/a></b></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal
-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" sr
cset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Port
al-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-pu
zzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="2
8" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunicatio
n">Telecommunication</a></b></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal
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cset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Port
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E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="????????? ??????
B
engali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">?????</a></li>
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%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" ti
tle="??????? ??????
Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">?????????</a></li>
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i%C4%8Dko_vlakno" title="Opticko vlakno
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i</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
ra_%C3%B2ptica" title="Fibra ptica Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Catal</a></li>
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%9F%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="?pt??? ??a
Greek" l
ang="el" hreflang="el">????????</a></li>
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C3%A1ith%C3%ADn_opt%C3%BAil" title="Snithn optil
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C%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AD" title="?????????
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E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="???????? ?????
Hindi" lang="hi" href
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Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvats
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at_optik" title="Serat optik Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesi
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ra_ottica" title="Fibra ottica Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li
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%A1%D7%99%D7%91_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99" title="??? ?????
Hebrew" lang="h
e" hreflang="he">?????</a></li>
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%B2%86%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C_%
E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="????????? ?????
Kannada" la
ng="kn" hreflang="kn">?????</a></li>
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%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%
E1%83%9D%E1%83%AD%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D" title="???????? ????? Georgian" lang="ka" h
reflang="ka">???????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0

%A1%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="????????
Kazakh" lang="kk"
hreflang="kk">???????</a></li>
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ra_optica" title="Fibra optica Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li>
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isk%C4%81_%C5%A1%C4%B7iedra" title="Optiska kiedra
Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="l
v">Latvie u</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5
%A0viesolaidis" title=" viesolaidis
Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuviu</
a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt
ikai_sz%C3%A1l" title="Optikai szl Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a><
/li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0
%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" ti
tle="??????? ?????? Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">??????????</a></li>
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%B4%92%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E
0%B4%95%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC" title="??????????? ???? M
alayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">??????</a></li>
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%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E
0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="?????????? ???? Marathi" la
ng="mr" hreflang="mr">?????</a></li>
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tian_optik" title="Gentian optik Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a
></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1
%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%96%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E
1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="?????????????
Burmese" lang="my" href
lang="my">??????????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt
ische_vezel" title="Optische vezel Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%
E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0" title="??????? ?????
Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne"
>??????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5
%85%89%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC" title="??????
Japanese" lan
g="ja" hreflang="ja">???</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
eroptikk" title="Fiberoptikk Norwegian (bokml)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bok
ml</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt
isk_fiber" title="Optisk fiber

nynorsk</a></li>
Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib

ra_optica" title="Fibra optica Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A4%
E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6" title="???????? ???
Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">??????</
a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5
%9Awiat%C5%82ow%C3%B3d_w%C5%82%C3%B3knisty" title="Swiatlowd wlknisty
Polish" lang
="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
ra_%C3%B3ptica" title="Fibra ptica Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Portugus</a
></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
r%C4%83_optic%C4%83" title="Fibra optica Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Romna<
/a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0
%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%
BE%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="?????????? ???????
Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru"
>???????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
rat_optike" title="Fibrat optike Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li
>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/F
ibbra_ottica" title="Fibbra ottica Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu
</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%81_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1%
E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94" title="??????? ?????
Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si
">?????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//simple.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang=
"simple">Simple English</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt
ick%C3%A9_vl%C3%A1kno" title="Optick vlkno
Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenc
ina</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt
i%C4%8Dno_vlakno" title="Opticno vlakno
Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slove
n cina</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%
DA%A9%DB%8E%D8%A8%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="????? ?????
Sorani Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">?????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0
%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" ti
tle="??????? ??????
Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">?????? / srpski</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt

Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">
Srpskohrvatski / ??????????????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser
at_optik" title="Serat optik Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></
li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val
okuitu" title="Valokuitu Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
eroptik" title="Fiberoptik Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%88" title="???????
Tam
il" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">?????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%B0%86%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%
E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="???????? ????? Telugu" lang="te" hre
flang="te">??????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0
%B9%83%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%81%E
0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87" title="??????????? Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">???</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fib
eroptik" title="Fiberoptik Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Trke</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0
%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="????????
??? Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">??????????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E
1%BB%A3i_quang_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="S?i quang h?c
Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang=
"vi">Ti?ng Vi?t</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="//zh-classical.wi
kipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%B0%8E%E7%BA%96%E7%B6%AD" title="????
Classical Chi
nese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">??</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//war.wikipedia.org/wiki/S
abot_nga_optika" title="Sabot nga optika Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winara
y</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7
%90%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A2" title="??????
?????
Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">??????</a></li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5
%85%89%E5%B0%8E%E7%BA%96%E7%B6%AD" title="???? Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">
??</a></li>
<li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>
</ul>
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