Understanding Science

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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Science</h1>
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free
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searchable">This article is about a branch of knowledge. For other uses, see <a
href="/wiki/Science_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Science
(disambiguation)">Science (disambiguation)</a>.</div>


<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux"
style="display:none">Systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge</div>


<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist"
style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em
1.0em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em
0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-
title" style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em;">Part of
<a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a>
on</td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em
0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:175%;padding-top:0;
display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a class="mw-selflink
selflink">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead"
style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-
align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow">Overview</div></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-
size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;"><div
class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of
science">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific
literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of
science">Philosophy</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of
science">Branches</a></div></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-
size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;"><div
class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical
science">Physical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life
sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity"
title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow"><div class="hlist
hlist-separated" style="font-size:110%;"><ul><li><a
href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology
studies">Society</a></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="NavContent"
style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-
top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science
communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of
scientific knowledge">Sociology</a></li></ul>
</tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-
weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid
#aaa;display:block; margin-top:0.7em; border-top:1px solid #bbf; padding-
top:0.15em; border-bottom:1px solid #bbf;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of
science">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science"
title="Category:Science">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-
align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;margin-top:0; padding-
top:0.15em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a
href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this
template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr
title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a
class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Template:Science&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this
template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jp
g/260px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="172"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP
.jpg/390px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/520
px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-
height="1980" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Universe"
title="Universe">Universe</a> represented as multiple disk-shaped slices
across time, which passes from left to right.</div></div></div>
Science (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word
scientia, meaning "knowledge")<a
href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> is a systematic enterprise that <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">builds</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" title="Taxonomy (general)">organizes</a> <a
href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the form of <a
href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">testable</a> <a
href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanations</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Predictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Predictions">predictions</a>
about the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EOWilson1999a-
2">[2]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Heilbron-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-webster-4">[4]</a>
The earliest roots of science can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"
title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia"
title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in around 3500 to 3000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-
5">[5]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-6">[6]</a> Their contributions to <a
href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> entered and shaped Greek <a
href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>
of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical
antiquity</a>, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events
in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">physical world</a> based on
natural causes.<a
href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-6">[6]</a> After
the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western
Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, knowledge of <a
href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" title="History of science in
classical antiquity">Greek conceptions of the world</a> deteriorated in <a
href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> during the
early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle
Ages">Middle Ages</a><a
href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-7">[7]</a> but was preserved in the <a
href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> during the <a
href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden
Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-
Lindberg8-8">[8]</a> The recovery and assimilation of <a
href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek
works</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science
in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic inquiries</a> into Western Europe from the
10th to 13th century revived "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural
philosophy">natural philosophy</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg10-
9">[9]</a> which was later transformed by the <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific
Revolution</a> that began in the 16th century<a href="#cite_note-Principe2011-10">[10]</a> as <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#New_ideas" title="Scientific Revolution">new
ideas and discoveries</a> departed from <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#Ancient_and_medieval_background"
title="Scientific Revolution">previous Greek conceptions</a> and traditions.[11]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Lindberg14-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-
Stanford_Encyclopedia-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007c-14">[14]</a> The <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> soon
played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the <a
href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th
century</a> that many of the institutional and <a href="/wiki/Scientist"
title="Scientist">professional</a> features of science began to take shape;<a href="#cite_note-
Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-
17">[17]</a> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to
"natural science."<a href="#cite_note-
18">[18]</a>
<a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern
science">Modern science</a> is typically divided into three major <a
href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches</a> that
consist of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural
sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physics"
title="Physics">physics</a>), which study nature in the broadest sense; the <a
href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> (e.g., <a
href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology"
title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology"
title="Sociology">sociology</a>), which study individuals and societies; and the <a
href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal sciences</a> (e.g., <a
href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics"
title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer
science">theoretical computer science</a>), which study abstract concepts. There is
disagreement,<a
href="#cite_note-Bishop1991-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nickles2013-
20">[20]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Bunge_1998-21">[21]</a> however, on whether the
formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on <a
href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical
evidence</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-Fetzer2013-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nickles2013-
20">[20]</a> Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for
practical purposes, such as <a href="/wiki/Engineering"
title="Engineering">engineering</a> and medicine, are described as <a
href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-
23">[23]</a><a
href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>
Science is based on <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>,
which is commonly conducted in <a href="/wiki/Academic_institution" title="Academic
institution">academic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research
institute">research institutions</a> as well as in <a
href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">government agencies</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">companies</a>. The practical impact of
scientific research has led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Science_policy"
title="Science policy">science policies</a> that seek to influence the scientific
enterprise by prioritizing the development of <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)"
title="Product (business)">commercial products</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weapon"
title="Weapon">armaments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health
care">health care</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection"
title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>.

<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input
type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox"
style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-
heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel"
for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Early_cultures">1.1 Early cultures</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Classical_antiquity">1.2 Classical
antiquity</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Medieval_science">1.3 Medieval science</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a
href="#Renaissance_and_early_modern_science">1.4
Renaissance and early modern science</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Age_of_Enlightenment">1.5 Age of
Enlightenment</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#19th_century">1.6 19th century</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#20th_century">1.7 20th century</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#21st_century">1.8 21st century</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Branches_of_science">2 Branches of science</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Natural_science">2.1 Natural science</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Social_science">2.2 Social science</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Formal_science">2.3 Formal science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Scientific_research">3 Scientific research</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Scientific_method">3.1 Scientific method</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Verifiability">3.1.1 Verifiability</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Role_of_mathematics">3.2 Role of
mathematics</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Philosophy_of_science">3.3 Philosophy of science</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Certainty_and_science">3.3.1 Certainty and
science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Scientific_literature">3.4 Scientific
literature</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Practical_impacts">3.5 Practical
impacts</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Challenges">3.6 Challenges</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Replication_crisis">3.6.1 Replication
crisis</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a
href="#Fringe_science,_pseudoscience,_and_junk_science">3.6.2 Fringe science, pseudoscience,
and junk science</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Scientific_community">4 Scientific community</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Scientists">4.1 Scientists</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Women_in_science">4.1.1 Women in
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Learned_societies">4.2 Learned
societies</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Science_and_the_public">5 Science and the public</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Science_policy">5.1 Science policy</a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Funding_of_science">5.1.1 Funding of
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Public_awareness_of_science">5.2 Public awareness of
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Science_journalism">5.3 Science
journalism</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Politicization_of_science">5.4 Politicization of
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Notes">7 Notes</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#References">8 References</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Further_reading">9 Further reading</a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2>History</h2>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of
science</a></div>
Science in a broad sense existed before the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era"
class="mw-redirect" title="Modern era">modern era</a> and in many historical <a
href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grant1997-
27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect"
title="Modern science">Modern science</a> is distinct in its <a
href="#Scientific_practice">approach</a> and successful in its <a
href="#Literature">results</a>, so it now defines what science is in the strictest
sense of the term.<a
href="#cite_note-Heilbron-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pingree1992-
28">[28]</a> Science in its original sense was a word for a type of
knowledge, rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In
particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other
and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered
long before <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded
history</a> and led to the development of complex <a href="/wiki/Abstract_thought"
class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract thought">abstract thought</a>. This is shown by
the construction of complex <a href="/wiki/Calendar"
title="Calendar">calendars</a>, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, <a
href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> at a national
scale, such as those which harnessed the <a href="/wiki/Floodplain"
title="Floodplain">floodplain</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtse" class="mw-
redirect" title="Yangtse">Yangtse</a> with <a href="/wiki/Reservoir"
title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> dams, and dikes, and buildings such as
the Pyramids. However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between
knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of
communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems. <a
href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a> was known in prehistory,
and the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a>
was the earliest known producer of bronze-like alloys. It is thought that early
experimentation with heating and mixing of substances over time developed into <a
href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>.

<h3>Early cultures</h3>
href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_early_cultures" title="History of science in
early cultures">History of science in early cultures</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_A
O19837.jpg/110px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" decoding="async" width="110"
height="315" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvr
e_AO19837.jpg/165px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO1983
7.jpg/220px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-
file-height="1686" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Clay models of animal <a href="/wiki/Liver"
title="Liver">livers</a> dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries
BCE, found in the royal palace in <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari,
Syria">Mari, Syria</a></div></div></div>
Neither the words nor the concepts "science" and "nature" were part of the
conceptual landscape in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near
East">Ancient Near East</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia"
title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> used knowledge about the properties of
various natural chemicals for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Pottery"
title="Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>,
glass, soap, metals, <a href="/wiki/Lime_plaster" title="Lime plaster">lime
plaster</a>, and waterproofing;<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-31">[31]</a> they
also studied <a href="/wiki/Animal_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal
physiology">animal physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy"
title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_behavior" class="mw-
redirect" title="Animal behavior">behavior</a> for <a href="/wiki/Divination"
title="Divination">divinatory</a> purposes<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-31">[31]</a> and
made extensive records of the movements of astronomical objects for their study of
<a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The Mesopotamians
had <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian
medicine">intense interest in medicine</a><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-31">[31]</a> and
the earliest <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical
prescription">medical prescriptions</a> appear in <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language"
title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> during the <a
href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of
Ur</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2112 BCE – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2004
BCE).<a href="#cite_note-
33">[33]</a> Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little
interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of
gathering information<a
href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-31">[31]</a> and mainly only studied
scientific subjects which had obvious practical applications or immediate relevance
to their religious system.<a
href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-31">[31]</a>

<h3>Classical
antiquity</h3>
href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" title="History of science in
classical antiquity">History of science in classical antiquity</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a
href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature
(philosophy)</a></div>
In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical
antiquity</a>, there is no real ancient analog of a modern <a
href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>. Instead, well-educated,
usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various
investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time.<a href="#cite_note-Lehoux-
34">[34]</a> Before the invention or discovery of the <a
href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of "<a href="/wiki/Nature"
title="Nature">nature</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient
Greek">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Phusis" class="mw-redirect"
title="Phusis">phusis</a>) by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosopher"
class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosopher">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a>,
the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a
plant grows,<a href="#cite_note-
35">[35]</a> and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships
a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first
philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish
"nature" and "convention."<a
href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>:209 <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy"
title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a>, the precursor of <a
href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, was
thereby distinguished as the knowledge of nature and things which are true for
every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was
philosophy – the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were
mainly speculators or <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theorists</a>,
particularly interested in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy"
title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to
imitate nature (artifice or <a href="/wiki/Technology"
title="Technology">technology</a>, Greek technē) was seen by classical
scientists as a more appropriate interest for <a href="/wiki/Artisans" class="mw-
redirect" title="Artisans">artisans</a> of lower <a href="/wiki/Social_class"
title="Social class">social class</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>
The early <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek
philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school"
title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a>, which was founded by <a
href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> and
later continued by his successors <a href="/wiki/Anaximander"
title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus"
title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, were the first to attempt to explain
<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena" title="List of natural phenomena">natural
phenomena</a> without relying on the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural"
title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>.<a href="#cite_note-O'Grady-38">[38]</a> The <a
href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> developed a
complex number philosophy<a
href="#cite_note-Burkert1972-39">[39]</a>:467–68 and contributed
significantly to the development of mathematical science.<a href="#cite_note-Burkert1972-
39">[39]</a>:465 The <a href="/wiki/Atomism"
title="Atomism">theory of atoms</a> was developed by the Greek philosopher <a
href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his student <a
href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The Greek
doctor <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> established
the tradition of systematic medical science<a href="#cite_note-Touwaide2005-
43">[43]</a> and is known as "<a
href="/wiki/List_of_persons_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field#Medic
ine_and_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of persons considered father or
mother of a scientific field">The Father of Medicine</a>".<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.
jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv85
75.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/3
40px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Aristotle"
title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, 384–322 BCE, one of the early figures in the
development of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific
method">scientific method</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></div></div></div>
A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was <a
href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>' example of applying philosophy
to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political
communities, and human knowledge itself. The <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method"
title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> as documented by <a href="/wiki/Plato"
title="Plato">Plato</a>'s dialogues is a <a href="/wiki/Dialectic"
title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses
are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to
contradictions. This was a reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Sophist"
title="Sophist">Sophist</a> emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric"
title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly
held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency
with other beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-
46">[46]</a> Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics
as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. Socrates was later, in the
words of his Apology, accused of corrupting the youth of Athens because he
did "not believe in the gods the state believes in, but in other new spiritual
beings". Socrates refuted these claims,<a
href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> but was sentenced to death.:30e
<a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> later created a
systematic programme of <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect"
title="Teleological">teleological</a> philosophy: Motion and change is described as
the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of
things they are. In his physics, the Sun goes around the Earth, and many things
have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a <a
href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">formal
cause</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final
cause">final cause</a>, and a role in a cosmic order with an <a
href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a>. The Socratics
also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of
the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into <a
href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political
philosophy</a>). Aristotle maintained that man knows a thing scientifically "when
he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first
principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>
The Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus
of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> (310–230 BCE) was the first to propose a <a
href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> of the
universe, with the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> at the center and all
the planets orbiting it.<a
href="#cite_note-McClellan2015-50">[50]</a> Aristarchus's model was
widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.<a href="#cite_note-
McClellan2015-50">[50]</a> The inventor and mathematician <a
href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes of Syracuse</a> made major
contributions to the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Calculus"
title="Calculus">calculus</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-51">[51]</a> and
has sometimes been credited as its inventor,<a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-51">[51]</a>
although his proto-calculus lacked several defining features.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-
51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the
Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal
encyclopedia <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History
(Pliny)">Natural History</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lawson2004-52">[52]</a>[54]</a> dealing with history, geography,
medicine, astronomy, earth science, botany, and zoology.<a href="#cite_note-Lawson2004-
52">[52]</a>
Other scientists or proto-scientists in Antiquity were <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus"
title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid"
title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herophilos"
title="Herophilos">Herophilos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus"
title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy"
title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>.

<h3>Medieval science</h3>
href="/wiki/File:Brain,_G_Reisch.png" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Brain
%2C_G_Reisch.png/220px-Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png" decoding="async" width="220"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Brain
%2C_G_Reisch.png/330px-Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png 2x" data-file-
width="436" data-file-height="575" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div
class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain,_G_Reisch.png" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor Reisch (1504) <a
href="/wiki/Margarita_philosophica" class="mw-redirect" title="Margarita
philosophica">Margarita philosophica</a>. Medieval science postulated a <a
href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricle</a> of the
brain as the location for our <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common
sense">common sense</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>:189 where the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms"
class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">forms</a> from our <a
href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory
systems</a> commingled.</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a
href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval
Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the
Middle Ages">European science in the Middle Ages</a></div>
Because of the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"
title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> due to the <a
href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> an
intellectual decline took place in the western part of Europe in the 400s. In
contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine
Empire</a> resisted the attacks from invaders, and preserved and improved upon the
learning. <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John
Philoponus</a>, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of
physics and to note its flaws.:pp.307, 311, 363,
402 John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics
served as an inspiration to medieval scholars as well as to Galileo Galilei who ten
centuries later, during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific
Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, extensively cited Philoponus in his works
while making the case for why Aristotelian physics was flawed.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg7-
During <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late
antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle
Ages">early Middle Ages</a>, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural
phenomena was used. Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four
causes">four causes</a> prescribed that four "why" questions should be answered in
order to explain things scientifically.<a
href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in
some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Western Roman Empire and
periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science (or "<a
href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>"
as it was called) and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained
preserved through the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like <a
href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of
Seville</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-Grant1996-59">[59]</a> However, Aristotle's original
texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely
known, the <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus
(dialogue)">Timaeus</a>, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the
few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in
the early Middle Ages. Another original work that gained influence in this period
was <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a
href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, which contains a
geocentric description of the solar system.
During late antiquity, in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-
redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a> many Greek classical texts
were preserved. Many <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac
language">Syriac</a> translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and
Monophysites.<a
href="#cite_note-Grant2007b-60">[60]</a> They played a role when they
translated Greek classical texts into Arabic under the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate"
title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, during which many types of classical learning were
preserved and in some cases improved upon.<a href="#cite_note-Grant2007b-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-
euclid,ptolemy-61">[a]</a> In addition, the neighboring <a
href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Empire</a>
established the medical <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of
Gondishapur">Academy of Gondeshapur</a> where Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians
established the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th
and 7th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-
62">[61]</a>
The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of
Wisdom</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect"
title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad"
title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>,Aristotelianism</a> flourished. <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi"
title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (801–873) was the first of the Muslim <a
href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a>
philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce <a
href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek
philosophy">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic
philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world"
title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age"
title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> flourished from this time until
the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol
invasions">Mongol invasions</a> of the 13th century. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham"
title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen), as well as his predecessor <a
href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_(mathematician)" title="Ibn Sahl (mathematician)">Ibn
Sahl</a>, was familiar with Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Optics_(Ptolemy)"
title="Optics (Ptolemy)">Optics</a>, and used experiments as a means to gain
knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-
65">[b]</a><a
href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-toomer1964Review-
space:nowrap;">:463–65 Alhazen disproved Ptolemy's theory of
vision,<a href="#cite_note-
68">[66]</a> but did not make any corresponding changes to
Aristotle's metaphysics. Furthermore, doctors and alchemists such as the Persians
<a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-
Razi">Al-Razi</a> also greatly developed the science of <a href="/wiki/Medicine"
title="Medicine">Medicine</a> with the former writing the <a
href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon of
Medicine</a>, a medical encyclopedia used until the 18th century and the latter
discovering multiple compounds like <a href="/wiki/Ethanol"
title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>. Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most
important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the
practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back
their claims.<a href="#cite_note-
69">[67]</a>
In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical
antiquity</a>, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned
in ancient times, but in Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at
Bologna began to open human bodies, and <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi"
title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a> (c. 1275–1326) produced the ﬁrst
known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.<a href="#cite_note-Shwayder-
71">[69]</a>
By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger
monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and
agricultural innovations were made which increased the food supply and population.
In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek
into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.[7]</a>
By 1088, the first university in Europe (the <a
href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of
Bologna</a>) had emerged from its clerical beginnings. Demand for Latin
translations grew (for example, from the <a
href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of
Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>); western Europeans began collecting
texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek, Arabic,
and Hebrew. Manuscript copies of Alhazen's <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics"
title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> also propagated across Europe before
1240,<a href="#cite_note-
space:nowrap;">:Intro. p. xx as evidenced by its incorporation
into Vitello's <a href="/wiki/Perspectiva" class="mw-redirect"
title="Perspectiva">Perspectiva</a>. Avicenna's <a
href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon</a> was
translated into Latin.<a href="#cite_note-
73">[71]</a> In particular, the texts of Aristotle, <a
href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[c]</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, preserved in the Houses of Wisdom
and also in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine
Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-
75">[72]</a> were sought amongst Catholic scholars. The influx of
ancient texts caused the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century"
title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a> and the
flourishing of a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect"
title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism"
title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism"
title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe"
title="Western Europe">western Europe</a>, which became a new geographic center of
science. An experiment in this period would be understood as a careful
process of observing, describing, and classifying.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> One prominent
scientist in this era was <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger
Bacon</a>. Scholasticism had a strong focus on revelation and <a
href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic reasoning</a>, and gradually
fell out of favour over the next centuries, as <a href="/wiki/Alchemy"
title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>'s focus on experiments that include direct observation
and meticulous documentation slowly increased in importance.

<h3>Renaissance
and early modern science</h3>
href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific
Revolution</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" class="image"><img
alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_m
ounting_19.jpg/220px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" decoding="async"
width="220" height="331" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextan
t_mounting_19.jpg/330px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.
jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="595" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>
became more <a href="/wiki/Accurate" class="mw-redirect"
title="Accurate">accurate</a> after <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho
Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> devised his <a href="/wiki/Measuring_instrument"
title="Measuring instrument">scientific instruments</a> for measuring angles
between two <a href="/wiki/Celestial_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial
body">celestial bodies</a>, before the invention of the telescope. <a
href="/wiki/Tycho%27s_observational_astronomy" class="mw-redirect"
title="Tycho's observational astronomy">Brahe's observations</a> were the basis
for <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's
laws">Kepler's laws</a>.</div></div></div>
New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the <a
href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, both by challenging
long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the
improvement and development of technology such as the <a
href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> and the <a
href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. Before what we now know as
the Renaissance started, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger
Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> each built up a
scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and
finally apperception of the individual and universal <a
href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">forms</a> of Aristotle.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> A
model of vision later known as perspectivism was <a href="/wiki/One-
point_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="One-point perspective">exploited and
studied</a> by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of
Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a>:
formal, material, and final.<a
href="#cite_note-Smith1981-78">[75]</a>
In the sixteenth century, <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect"
title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> formulated a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism"
title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model of the solar system unlike the <a
href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of <a
href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest"
title="Almagest">Almagest</a>. This was based on a theorem that the <a
href="/wiki/Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">orbital periods</a> of the
planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he
found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.<a
<a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a> and
others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and
shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1981-
78">[75]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Cohen-80">[77]</a>:102 Kepler modelled the eye as a
water-filled glass sphere with an aperture in front of it to model the entrance
pupil. He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a
single point at the back of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina
at the back of the eye.<a href="#cite_note-
81">[d]</a> Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus'
heliocentric model through the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Kepler
%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary
motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian
metaphysics and described his work as a search for the <a
href="/wiki/Musica_universalis" title="Musica universalis">Harmony of the
Spheres</a>.

href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg"
class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-
_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/220px-Justus_Sustermans_-
_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-
_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-
_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"
title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, regarded as the father of modern
science.<a href="#cite_note-
space:nowrap;">:Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> made
innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However, he became persecuted after
Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system. Galileo had
used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work
"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", which greatly offended Urban
VIII.<a href="#cite_note-
Pope_Urban_VIII-83">[79]</a>
In Northern Europe, the new technology of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press"
title="Printing press">printing press</a> was widely used to publish many
arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.
<a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> published
philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science.
Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than
geometry should be used in order to study nature. Bacon emphasized the importance
of experiment over contemplation. Bacon further questioned the Aristotelian
concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should
study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there
is any specific nature, or "<a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect"
title="Formal cause">formal cause</a>", of each complex type of thing. This new
science began to see itself as describing "<a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-
redirect" title="Physical law">laws of nature</a>". This updated approach to
studies in nature was seen as <a href="/wiki/Mechanistic" class="mw-redirect"
title="Mechanistic">mechanistic</a>. Bacon also argued that science should aim for
the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.

<h3>Age of
Enlightenment</h3>
href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of
Enlightenment</a></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-
IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/220px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-
IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/330px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="559" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-
IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a
href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, shown here in a
1689 portrait, made seminal contributions to <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics"
title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity"
title="Gravity">gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>.
Newton shares credit with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect"
title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> for the development of
calculus.</div></div></div>
As a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of
Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac
Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"
title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> succeeded in
developing a new physics, now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics"
title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, which could be confirmed by
experiment and explained using mathematics (Newton (1687), <a
href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ
Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica</a>). Leibniz also incorporated terms from <a
href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian
physics</a>, but now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example, "<a
href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Potential"
title="Potential">potential</a>" (modern versions of Aristotelian "<a
href="/wiki/Actuality_and_potentiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Actuality and
potentiality">energeia and potentia</a>"). This implied a shift in
the view of objects: Where Aristotle had noted that objects have certain innate
goals that can be actualized, objects were now regarded as devoid of innate goals.
In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all
work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final
causes for each type of thing.<a
href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> It is during this period that the word
"science" gradually became more commonly used to refer to a type of pursuit
of a type of knowledge, especially knowledge of nature – coming close in
meaning to the old term "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural
philosophy">natural philosophy</a>."
During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became producing
wealth and <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a> that would
improve human lives, in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_materialism" title="Economic
materialism">materialistic</a> sense of having more food, clothing, and other
things. In <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Bacon's words</a>,
"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new
inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible
philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human
happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation".Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific
society">scientific societies</a><a
href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academy"
title="Academy">academies</a>, which had largely replaced universities as centres
of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the
backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important
development was the <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular
culture">popularization</a> of science among an increasingly literate population.
<a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">Philosophes</a>
introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the <a
href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> and the
popularization of <a href="/wiki/Newtonianism"
title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire"
title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French
translator of Newton's Principia.
Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the <a
href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of
science</a>;<a href="#cite_note-
87">[83]</a> however, the century saw significant advancements in the
practice of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>; the development of biological <a
href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>; a new
understanding of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>; and the maturation of
<a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> as a discipline, which
established the foundations of modern chemistry.
<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of
Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers chose a short history of scientific
predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and
guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of <a href="/wiki/Nature"
title="Nature">nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural
law">natural law</a> to every physical and social field of the day. In this
respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be
discarded.<a href="#cite_note-
88">[84]</a>

<h3>19th century</h3>
href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop
.jpg/180px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="180"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_c
rop.jpg/270px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/
360px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles
Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in 1854, by then working towards publication of <a
href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the
Origin of Species</a>.</div></div></div>
href="/wiki/File:1893_interior_of_Los_Angeles_California_Grand_Opera_House_during_N
ational_Irrigation_Congress.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1893_interior_of_Los_Angel
es_California_Grand_Opera_House_during_National_Irrigation_Congress.jpg/220px-
1893_interior_of_Los_Angeles_California_Grand_Opera_House_during_National_Irrigatio
n_Congress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1893_interior_of_Los_An
geles_California_Grand_Opera_House_during_National_Irrigation_Congress.jpg/330px-
n_Congress.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1893_interior_of_Los_Angeles_Ca
lifornia_Grand_Opera_House_during_National_Irrigation_Congress.jpg/440px-
n_Congress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="429" /></a> <div
href="/wiki/File:1893_interior_of_Los_Angeles_California_Grand_Opera_House_during_N
ational_Irrigation_Congress.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Session
of a <a href="/wiki/National_Irrigation_Congress" title="National Irrigation
Congress">National Irrigation Congress</a> in Los Angeles, California, in 1893,
with a banner reading "Science, Not Chance"</div></div></div> The nineteenth
century is a particularly important period in the history of science since during
this era many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began
to take shape such as: transformation of the life and physical sciences, frequent
use of precision instruments, emergence of terms like "biologist", "physicist",
"scientist"; slowly moving away from antiquated labels like "natural philosophy"
and "natural history", increased professionalization of those studying nature lead
to reduction in amateur naturalists, scientists gained cultural authority over many
dimensions of society, economic expansion and industrialization of numerous
countries, thriving of popular science writings and emergence of science
journals.<a
href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-17">[17]</a>
Early in the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John
Dalton">John Dalton</a> suggested the modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory"
title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Democritus"
title="Democritus">Democritus</a>'s original idea of indivisible particles called
atoms.

href="/wiki/File:Candle-light-animated.gif" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-
animated.gif/180px-Candle-light-animated.gif" decoding="async" width="180"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-
animated.gif/270px-Candle-light-animated.gif 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-
animated.gif/360px-Candle-light-animated.gif 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:Candle-light-animated.gif" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Combustion and chemical reactions were studied by <a
href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and
reported in his lectures before the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal
Institution">Royal Institution</a>: <a
href="/wiki/The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle" title="The Chemical History of a
Candle">The Chemical History of a Candle</a>, 1861.</div></div></div>
Both <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> and
<a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a>
systematized methodology: the latter coined the term <a href="/wiki/Scientist"
title="Scientist">scientist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Whewell_scientist-89">[85]</a>
When <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>
published <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of
Species">On the Origin of Species</a> he established <a href="/wiki/Evolution"
title="Evolution">evolution</a> as the prevailing explanation of biological
complexity. His theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural
selection">natural selection</a> provided a natural explanation of how <a
href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> originated, but this only gained
wide acceptance a century later.
The laws of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of
energy">conservation of energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum"
title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of
mass</a> suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of
resources. With the advent of the steam engine and the <a
href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial
revolution">industrial revolution</a>, there was, however, an increased
understanding that all forms of energy as defined in physics were not equally
useful: they did not have the same <a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy
quality">energy quality</a>. This realization led to the development of the laws of
<a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, in which
the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the <a
href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of a closed universe increases
over time.
The <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect"
title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a> was also established in
the 19th century, and raised new questions which could not easily be answered using
Newton's framework. The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the <a
href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> were discovered in the last decade of the
19th century: the discovery of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>
inspired the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect"
title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>. In the next year came the discovery of the
first subatomic particle, the <a href="/wiki/Electron"
title="Electron">electron</a>.

<h3>20th century</h3>
href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif"
decoding="async" width="181" height="313" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="181"
data-file-height="313" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The
<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-
redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Molecule"
title="Molecule">molecule</a> that encodes the <a href="/wiki/Genetics"
title="Genetics">genetic</a> instructions used in the development and functioning
of all known living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and
many <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a
href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of
relativity</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"
title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> led to the replacement of classical
mechanics with a new physics which contains two parts that describe different types
of events in nature.
In the first half of the century, the development of <a
href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_fertilizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial
fertilizer">artificial fertilizer</a> made global human <a
href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>
possible. At the same time, the structure of the atom and its nucleus was
discovered, leading to the release of "<a href="/wiki/Atomic_energy" title="Atomic
energy">atomic energy</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear
power">nuclear power</a>). In addition, the extensive use of technological
innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in
transportation (<a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect"
title="Automobile">automobiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft"
title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>), the development of <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-
redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Space_race" class="mw-redirect"
title="Space race">space race</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race"
title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a>.
The molecular structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> was
discovered in 1953. The discovery of the <a
href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect"
title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background
radiation</a> in 1964 led to a rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Steady_State_theory"
class="mw-redirect" title="Steady State theory">Steady State theory</a> of the
universe in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>
theory of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges
Lemaître</a>.
The development of <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight"
title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> in the second half of the century allowed the
first astronomical measurements done on or near other objects in space, including
<a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">manned landings on the
Moon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space
telescopes</a> lead to numerous discoveries in astronomy and cosmology.
Widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated
circuit">integrated circuits</a> in the last quarter of the 20th century combined
with <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications
satellite">communications satellites</a> led to a revolution in <a
href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information
technology</a> and the rise of the global <a href="/wiki/Internet"
title="Internet">internet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile
computing">mobile computing</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Smartphone"
title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>. The need for mass systematization of long,
intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields
of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> and
computer-assisted <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific
modelling">scientific modelling</a>, which are partly based on the Aristotelian
paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-
90">[86]</a>
Harmful <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issue" class="mw-redirect"
title="Environmental issue">environmental issues</a> such as <a
href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Acidification_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig"
title="Acidification (disambiguation)">acidification</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> came to the
public's attention in the same period, and caused the onset of <a
href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental
science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental
technology">environmental technology</a>.

<h3>21st century</h3>
href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/180px-
CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="166" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-
event.jpg/270px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/360px-
CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A simulated event in the CMS detector of
the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large
Hadron Collider</a>, featuring a possible appearance of the <a
href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.</div></div></div>
The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human
Genome Project</a> was completed in 2003, determining the sequence of nucleotide
base pairs that make up human DNA, and identifying and mapping all of the genes of
the human genome.<a href="#cite_note-
91">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Induced_pluripotent_stem_cell"
title="Induced pluripotent stem cell">Induced pluripotent stem cells</a> were
developed in 2006, a technology allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem
cells capable of giving rise to any cell type found in the body, potentially of
huge importance to the field of <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_medicine"
title="Regenerative medicine">regenerative medicine</a>.With the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs
boson">Higgs boson</a> in 2012, the last particle predicted by the <a
href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle
physics was found. In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational
wave">gravitational waves</a>, predicted by <a href="/wiki/General_relativity"
title="General relativity">general relativity</a> a century before, were <a
href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of
gravitational waves">first observed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iop2017oct16-93">[89]</a>
<h2>Branches of
science</h2>
href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches of
science</a></div>
<a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Modern_science" title="History of
science">Modern science</a> is commonly divided into three major <a
href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches</a>: <a
href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>. Each of
these branches comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific <a
href="/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discipline
(academia)">disciplines</a> that often possess their own <a
href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> and expertise.empirical sciences</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bunge1998-
96">[92]</a> as their knowledge is based on <a
href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical
observations</a> and is capable of being tested for its validity by other
researchers working under the same conditions.<a href="#cite_note-popper2002a-97">[93]</a>
There are also closely related disciplines that use science, such as <a
href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, which are sometimes described
as <a href="/wiki/Applied_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied
sciences">applied sciences</a>. The relationships between the branches of science
are summarized by the following table.

<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<td rowspan="3">
</td>
<th colspan="3">Science
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect"
title="Empirical science">Empirical sciences</a>
</th>
<th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal
science</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic</a>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry"
title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology"
title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth
science">earth science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_science" class="mw-redirect"
title="Space science">space science</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics"
title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Statistics"
title="Statistics">statistics</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">agricultural
science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business
administration">Business administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy"
title="Public policy">public policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marketing"
title="Marketing">marketing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence"
title="Jurisprudence">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy"
title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/International_development"
title="International development">international development</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>Natural science</h3>
href="/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Universe.png" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe.pn
g/450px-The_Scientific_Universe.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="300"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe
.png/675px-The_Scientific_Universe.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/The_Scientific_Universe.png/900
px-The_Scientific_Universe.png 2x" data-file-width="4050" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Universe.png" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>The scale of the Universe mapped to branches of science
and showing how one system is built atop the next through the <a
href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_sciences" title="Hierarchy of the sciences">hierarchy
of the sciences</a>.</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a
href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science" title="Outline of natural science">Outline
of natural science</a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a> is
concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of <a
href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">natural phenomena</a> based on <a
href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>
from <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Experimentation" class="mw-redirect"
title="Experimentation">experimentation</a>. It can be divided into two main
branches: <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">life
science</a> (or biological science) and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science"
title="Outline of physical science">physical science</a>. These two branches may be
further divided into more specialized disciplines. Physical science is subdivided
into branches, including <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy"
title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth
science">earth science</a>. Modern natural science is the successor to the <a
href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>
that began in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient
Greece</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> debated the benefits of
using approaches which were more <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics"
title="Mathematical physics">mathematical</a> and more experimental in a methodical
way. Still, philosophical perspectives, <a href="/wiki/Conjecture"
title="Conjecture">conjectures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presupposition"
title="Presupposition">presuppositions</a>, often overlooked, remain necessary in
natural science.<a
href="#cite_note-Gauch2003-98">[94]</a> Systematic data collection,
including <a href="/wiki/Discovery_science" title="Discovery science">discovery
science</a>, succeeded <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural
history">natural history</a>, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and
classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-Oglivie2008-99">[95]</a>
Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular
audiences.<a
href="#cite_note-Wordnet_definition-100">[96]</a>

<h3>Social science</h3>
href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline of
social science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-
demand.svg/220px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png" decoding="async"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-
shift-demand.svg/330px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-
demand.svg/440px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217"
data-file-height="217" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>In <a href="/wiki/Economics"
title="Economics">economics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand"
title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> model describes how prices vary in
a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> as a
result of a balance between product availability and consumer
demand.</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> is
concerned with <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> and the <a
href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">relationships</a> among <a
href="/wiki/Individuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Individuals">individuals</a>
within a society. It has many branches that include, but are not limited to, <a
href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication
studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_geography"
title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence"
title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics"
title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science"
title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology"
title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public
health">public health</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology"
title="Sociology">sociology</a>. Social scientists may adopt various <a
href="/wiki/Philosophical_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical
theories">philosophical theories</a> to study individuals and society. For example,
<a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> social scientists use
methods resembling those of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural
science">natural sciences</a> as tools for understanding society, and so define
science in its stricter <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect"
title="Modern science">modern sense</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism"
title="Antipositivism">Interpretivist</a> social scientists, by contrast, may use
social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically <a
href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a>
theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice,
researchers are often <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclectic</a>,
using multiple <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodologies</a>
(for instance, by combining both <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research"
title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative
research</a>). The term "<a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social
research">social research</a>" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as
practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.

<h3>Formal science</h3>
href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_formal_science" title="Outline of formal science">Outline of
formal science</a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a> is
involved in the study of <a href="/wiki/Formal_systems" class="mw-redirect"
title="Formal systems">formal systems</a>. It includes <a href="/wiki/Mathematics"
title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> <a
href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer
science">theoretical computer science</a>. The formal sciences share similarities
with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study
of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences
as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for <a
href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>,
to verify their abstract concepts.<a href="#cite_note-Fetzer2013-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bill2007-
103">[99]</a><a
href="#cite_note-popper2002a-97">[93]</a> The formal sciences are
therefore <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a
posteriori">a priori</a> disciplines and because of this, there is
disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop1991-
19">[19]</a><a
href="#cite_note-Bunge_1998-21">[21]</a> Nevertheless, the formal
sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. <a href="/wiki/Calculus"
title="Calculus">Calculus</a>, for example, was initially invented to understand <a
href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion
(physics)">motion</a> in physics.<a href="#cite_note-MujumdarandTejinder2016-
104">[100]</a> Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on
mathematical applications include <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics"
title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">mathematical
chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect"
title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Mathematical_finance" title="Mathematical finance">mathematical
finance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical
economics">mathematical economics</a>.

<h2>Scientific
research</h2>
href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></div>
Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied research. Basic
research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for
solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Although some scientific
research is <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied
research">applied research</a> into specific problems, a great deal of our
understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of <a
href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a>. This leads
to options for technological advances that were not planned or sometimes even
imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when allegedly in response to
the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded: "Sir, what
is the use of a new-born child?".<a
href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> For example, research into the
effects of red light on the human eye's <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod
cell">rod cells</a> did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the
discovery that our <a href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night
vision</a> is not troubled by red light would lead <a
href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a>
teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and
helicopters.<a
href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-106">[102]</a> Finally, even basic
research can take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific
method is built to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Role_of_chance_in_discovery"
title="Scientific method">harness luck</a>.

<h3>Scientific method</h3>
href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific
method</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:IRAS_10082-5647.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-5647.jpg/220px-
IRAS_10082-5647.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-
5647.jpg/330px-IRAS_10082-5647.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-5647.jpg/440px-
IRAS_10082-5647.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1994" data-file-height="1950" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:IRAS_10082-5647.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The central star IRAS 10082-5647 was
captured by the Advanced Camera for Surveys aboard the <a
href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space
Telescope</a>.</div></div></div>
Scientific research involves using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method"
title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, which seeks to <a
href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectively</a>
explain the events of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> in a <a
href="/wiki/Reproducible" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproducible">reproducible</a>
way.<a href="#cite_note-
difrancia1976-107">[103]</a> An explanatory <a
href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>
or <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is put forward as
explanation using principles such as parsimony (also known as "<a href="/wiki/Occam
%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Occam's Razor">Occam's Razor</a>") and
are generally expected to seek <a href="/wiki/Consilience"
title="Consilience">consilience</a> – fitting well with other accepted facts
related to the phenomena.<a
href="#cite_note-EOWilson-108">[104]</a> This new explanation is used
to make <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect"
title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> predictions that are testable by experiment or
observation. The predictions are to be posted before a confirming experiment or
observation is sought, as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of a
prediction is evidence of progress.<a
href="#cite_note-109">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-difrancia1976-
107">[103]</a><a
href="#cite_note-fara2009-111">[105]</a> This is done partly through
observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to
simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the
discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a
predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).
Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish <a
href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> (to avoid the <a
href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply
causation">correlation fallacy</a>).
When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or
discarded.<a href="#cite_note-
Nola2005k-112">[106]</a> If the hypothesis survived testing, it may
become adopted into the framework of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory"
title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>, a logically reasoned, self-
consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural
phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of
phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be
logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis
explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated
according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. In addition to
testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a>, an
attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or
mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested,
based on observable phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Nola2005j-113">[107]</a>
While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a
preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that
science as a whole can eliminate this bias.<a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a>[109]</a> This can be achieved by careful <a
href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental
design</a>, transparency, and a thorough <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer
review">peer review</a> process of the experimental results as well as any
conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-
href="#cite_note-117">[111]</a> After the results of an experiment
are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to
double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar
experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.<a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a> Taken in its
entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while
minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (especially the
<a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation
bias</a>).<a href="#cite_note-
backer-119">[113]</a>

<h4>Verifiability</h4>
<a href="/wiki/John_Ziman" title="John Ziman">John Ziman</a> points out that <a
href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective
verifiability">intersubjective verifiability</a> is fundamental to the creation of
all scientific knowledge.<a
href="#cite_note-ziman1978c-120">[114]</a> Ziman shows how scientists
can identify patterns to each other across centuries; he refers to this ability as
"perceptual consensibility."<a href="#cite_note-ziman1978c-120">[114]</a> He
then makes consensibility, leading to consensus, the touchstone of reliable
knowledge.<a
href="#cite_note-ziman1978e-121">[115]</a>

<h3>Role of
mathematics</h3>
href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_c
urve.svg/220px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_unde
r_curve.svg/330px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_curve.
svg/440px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-
href="/wiki/File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Calculus, the mathematics of continuous change, underpins
many of the sciences.</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> is essential in
the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_law"
class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws</a><a href="#cite_note-popper2002e-122">[116]</a>
in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> sciences. For
example, it is used in quantitative <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling"
title="Scientific modelling">scientific modeling</a>, which can generate new
hypotheses and predictions to be tested. It is also used extensively in observing
and collecting <a href="/wiki/Measurements" class="mw-redirect"
title="Measurements">measurements</a>. <a href="/wiki/Statistics"
title="Statistics">Statistics</a>, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize
and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability
of their experimental results.
<a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational
science">Computational science</a> applies computing power to <a
href="/wiki/Simulation#Computer_simulation" title="Simulation">simulate</a> real-
world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than
formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the <a
href="/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics" title="Society for
Industrial and Applied Mathematics">Society for Industrial and Applied
Mathematics</a>, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in
advancing scientific knowledge.<a

<h3>Philosophy of
science</h3>
href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of
science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/220px-
JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/330px-
JohnLocke.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/440px-
JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>English philosopher and physician <a
href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> (1632–1704), a leading
philosopher of British empiricism</div></div></div>
Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed
to justify the scientific method: (1) that there is an <a
href="/wiki/Objective_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective
reality">objective reality</a> shared by all rational observers; (2) that this
objective reality is governed by <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural
law">natural laws</a>; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic
<a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimentation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-
3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science"
title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> seeks a deep understanding
of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid.
The belief that scientific theories should and do represent <a
href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> reality is known as
<a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">realism</a>. It can
be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism#Anti-realism_in_science"
title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>, the view that the success of science does
not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as <a
href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a>. One
form of anti-realism is <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, the
belief that the mind or <a href="/wiki/Consciousness"
title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> is the most basic essence, and that each
mind generates its own reality.<a
href="#cite_note-124">[g]</a> In an idealistic <a
href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world view</a>, what
is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The
most popular position is <a href="/wiki/Empiricism"
title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Galileo1638-125">[h]</a> which
holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that
scientific theories are the result of generalizations from such observations.<a href="#cite_note-
Godfrey-Smith2003c-126">[118]</a> Empiricism generally encompasses <a
href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>, a position that tries
to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of
observations humans can make and hence the finite amount of empirical evidence
available to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary because the number of
predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known
from the finite amount of evidence using <a href="/wiki/Deductive_logic" class="mw-
redirect" title="Deductive logic">deductive logic</a> only. Many versions of
empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being <a href="/wiki/Bayesianism"
class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesianism">Bayesianism</a><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003o-
127">[119]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method"
class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetico-deductive method">hypothetico-deductive
method</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003c-126">[118]</a>

href="/wiki/File:Karl_Popper2.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/220px-
Karl_Popper2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/330px-
Karl_Popper2.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/440px-
Karl_Popper2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="593" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Popper2.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Austrian-British philosopher of
science Karl Popper (1902–1994) in 1990. He is best known for his work on <a
href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">empirical
falsification</a>.</div></div></div>
Empiricism has stood in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Rationalism"
title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, the position originally associated with <a
href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, which
holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.<a href="#cite_note-
Godfrey-Smith2003b-128">[120]</a> <a
href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical
rationalism</a> is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by
Austrian-British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl
Popper</a>. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection
between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by
observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories and that the
only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with
it.<a
href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003d-129">[121]</a> Popper proposed
replacing verifiability with <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability"
title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> as the landmark of scientific theories
and replacing induction with <a href="/wiki/Falsificationism" class="mw-redirect"
title="Falsificationism">falsification</a> as the empirical method.<a href="#cite_note-
Godfrey-Smith2003d-129">[121]</a> Popper further claimed that there
is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method
of criticism, <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and
error</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003g-130">[122]</a> It covers all
products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and
art.<a href="#cite_note-
131">[123]</a>
Another approach, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism"
title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, colloquially termed "shut up and
multiply,"<a href="#cite_note-
132">[124]</a> emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for
explaining and predicting phenomena.<a
href="#cite_note-133">[125]</a> It views scientific theories as black
boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being
relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to
be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists should not make a
fuss about (see <a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics"
title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations of quantum
mechanics</a>). Close to instrumentalism is <a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism"
title="Constructive empiricism">constructive empiricism</a>, according to which the
main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about
observable entities is true.
<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> argued that
the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a <a
href="/wiki/Logically_consistent" class="mw-redirect" title="Logically
consistent">logically consistent</a> "portrait" of the world that is consistent
with observations made from its framing. He characterized normal science as
the process of observation and "puzzle solving" which takes place within a
paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes
another in a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm
shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-
134">[126]</a> Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims,
and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more
"portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A
paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in
the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a
new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made
against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a
paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position,
however, is not one of <a href="/wiki/Relativism"
title="Relativism">relativism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KuhnP206-135">[127]</a>
Finally, another approach often cited in debates of <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific
skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> against controversial movements like "<a
href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a>" is <a
href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological
naturalism">methodological naturalism</a>. Its main point is that a difference
between natural and <a href="/wiki/Supernatural"
title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> explanations should be made and that science
should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003j-
href="#cite_note-137">[i]</a> That the restriction is merely
methodological (rather than ontological) means that science should not consider
supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either.
Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief <a
href="/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria" title="Non-overlapping magisteria">outside
the scope of science</a>. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science
requires strict adherence to <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect"
title="Empirical">empirical</a> study and independent verification as a process for
properly developing and evaluating explanations for <a href="/wiki/Observation"
title="Observation">observable</a> phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a> The absence of
these standards, <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_authority" class="mw-redirect"
title="Appeal to authority">arguments from authority</a>, biased <a
href="/wiki/Observational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational
studies">observational studies</a> and other common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy"
title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> are frequently cited by supporters of methodological
naturalism as characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-
science">non-science</a> they criticize.

<h4>Certainty and
science</h4>
A scientific theory is <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect"
title="Empirical">empirical</a><a href="#cite_note-Galileo1638-125">[h]</a>[130]</a> and is always open to <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability"
title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> if new evidence is presented. That is, no
theory is ever considered strictly <a href="/wiki/Certainty"
title="Certainty">certain</a> as science accepts the concept of <a
href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[j]</a> The philosopher of
science <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> sharply
distinguished truth from certainty. He wrote that scientific knowledge "consists in
the search for truth," but it "is not the search for certainty ... All human
knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Popper1996-141">[131]</a>
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our
understanding. According to psychologist <a href="/wiki/Keith_Stanovich"
title="Keith Stanovich">Keith Stanovich</a>, it may be the media's overuse of words
like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly
proving everything it thought was true to be false.<a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-
106">[102]</a> While there are such famous cases as the <a
href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of
relativity</a> that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme
exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information
from different experiments by various <a href="/wiki/Research"
title="Research">researchers</a> across different branches of science; it is more
like a climb than a leap.<a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-106">[102]</a>
Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as
their acceptance in the scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-142">[k]</a> For example, <a
href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric theory</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">the theory of evolution</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Relativity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativity
theory">relativity theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease"
title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> still bear the name "theory" even
though, in practice, they are considered <a href="/wiki/Fact"
title="Fact">factual</a>.<a
Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a> adds
that, although the best definition for "<a href="/wiki/Knowledge"
title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>" is contested, being <a href="/wiki/Skeptical"
class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical">skeptical</a> and entertaining the
possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct.
Therefore, scientists adhering to proper scientific approaches will doubt
themselves even once they possess the <a href="/wiki/Truth"
title="Truth">truth</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-144">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fallibilist"
class="mw-redirect" title="Fallibilist">fallibilist</a> <a
href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">C. S.
Peirce</a> argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that
merely quarrelsome, verbal, or <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_doubt" class="mw-redirect"
title="Hyperbolic doubt">hyperbolic doubt</a> is fruitless<a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a> – but also
that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting
uncritically on common sense.<a
href="#cite_note-146">[135]</a> He held that the successful sciences
trust not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link) but
to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.[136]</a>
Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet";
it avoids the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the
single cause">single-cause fallacy</a>. This means a scientist would not ask merely
"What is the cause of ...", but rather "What are the most
significant causes of ...". This is especially the case in the more
macroscopic fields of science (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Psychology"
title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology"
title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-
106">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a>
often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the long list of
factors that are most important to consider.<a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-106">[102]</a>
For example, knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and
upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behavior, but a deep
understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.

<h3>Scientific
literature</h3>
href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific
literature</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Science_Vol._1_(1880).jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_
%281880%29.jpg/220px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_
%281880%29.jpg/330px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_
%281880%29.jpg/440px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1886" data-
href="/wiki/File:Science_Vol._1_(1880).jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Cover of the first volume of the scientific journal <a
href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> in
1880.</div></div></div>
Scientific research is published in an enormous range of <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific
literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-
148">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific
journal">Scientific journals</a> communicate and document the results of research
carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an
archival record of science. The first scientific journals, <a
href="/wiki/Journal_des_S%C3%A7avans" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal des
Sçavans">Journal des Sçavans</a> followed by the <a
href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a>, began
publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has
steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and
technical journals in publication was 11,500.<a href="#cite_note-149">[138]</a> The <a
href="/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicine" title="United States
National Library of Medicine">United States National Library of Medicine</a>
currently indexes 5,516 journals that contain articles on topics related to the
life sciences. Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed
articles are published in English.<a
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the
research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific
paper">scientific paper</a>. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies
that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news,
and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.
<a href="/wiki/List_of_science_magazines" title="List of science
magazines">Science magazines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist"
title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Vie"
title="Science & Vie">Science & Vie</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific
American</a> cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-
technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and
advances in certain fields of research. <a href="/wiki/Science_book" title="Science
book">Science books</a> engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the
<a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> genre,
primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the
ideas, if not the methods, of science.
Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-
scientific disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Literature"
title="Literature">literature</a> or more specifically, <a href="/wiki/Poetry"
title="Poetry">poetry</a>, include the Creative Writing Science resource
developed through the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Literary_Fund" title="Royal Literary
Fund">Royal Literary Fund</a>.<a

<h3>Practical impacts</h3>
Discoveries in fundamental science can be world-changing. For example:

<dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Research</th>
<th>Impact
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static
electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>
(c. 1600) <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric
current">Electric current</a> (18th century)</td>
<td>All electric appliances, dynamos, electric power stations, modern <a
href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, including <a
href="/wiki/Electric_lighting" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric
lighting">electric lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television"
title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric
heating">electric heating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation"
title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">deep brain
stimulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic
tape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeaker</a>, and the
<a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a> (1665)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, hence <a
href="/wiki/Fiber_optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optic">fiber optic</a>
cable (1840s), modern <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"
title="Submarine communications cable">intercontinental communications</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Cable_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable TV">cable TV</a> and
internet.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ
theory</a> (1700)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a>, leading to decreased
transmission of infectious diseases; <a href="/wiki/Antibody"
title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, leading to techniques for disease diagnosis and <a
href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted</a> anticancer
therapies.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> (1798)</td>
<td>Leading to the elimination of most infectious diseases from developed countries
and the worldwide eradication of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox"
title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">Photovoltaic
effect</a> (1839)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a> (1883), hence <a
href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, solar powered <a
href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calculator"
title="Calculator">calculators</a> and other devices.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>The strange orbit of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)"
title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> (1859) and other research leading
to <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special</a> (1905)
and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general
relativity</a> (1916)</td>
<td>Satellite-based technology such as <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect"
title="GPS">GPS</a> (1973), <a href="/wiki/Satnav" class="mw-redirect"
title="Satnav">satnav</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_communications" class="mw-
redirect" title="Satellite communications">satellite communications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nasa2004-
152">[l]</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> (1887)</td>
<td>Radio had become used in innumerable ways beyond its better-known areas of <a
href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast</a> <a
href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> (1927) and <a
href="/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio station">radio</a>
(1906) <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>. Other
uses included – <a href="/wiki/Emergency_services" class="mw-redirect"
title="Emergency services">emergency services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar"
title="Radar">radar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Navigation"
title="Navigation">navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weather_prediction" class="mw-
redirect" title="Weather prediction">weather prediction</a>), <a
href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Wireless_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless
communications">wireless communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysics"
title="Geophysics">geophysics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wireless_networking"
class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless networking">networking</a>. Radio waves also
led researchers to adjacent frequencies such as <a href="/wiki/Microwave"
title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, used worldwide for heating and cooking food.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect"
title="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a> (1896) and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter"
title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> (1932)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a> treatment (1896), <a
href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a>
(1905), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear
reactors</a> (1942) and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear
weapon">weapons</a> (1945), <a href="/wiki/Mineral_exploration" class="mw-redirect"
title="Mineral exploration">mineral exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/PET_scans"
class="mw-redirect" title="PET scans">PET scans</a> (1961), and <a
href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a> (via <a
href="/wiki/Isotopic_labeling" title="Isotopic labeling">isotopic labeling</a>).
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>
(1896)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a>,
including <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed
tomography">computed tomography</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>
(1900)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor
devices</a> (1906), hence modern <a href="/wiki/Computing"
title="Computing">computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" class="mw-
redirect" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> including the
integration with wireless devices: the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile
phone">mobile phone</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-nasa2004-152">[l]</a> <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp"
title="LED lamp">LED lamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">Plastics</a>
(1907)</td>
<td>Starting with <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a>, many
types of artificial polymers for numerous applications in industry and daily life.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect"
title="Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a> (1880s, 1928)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Salvarsan" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvarsan">Salvarsan</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a> etc.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic
resonance">Nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (1930s)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy">Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (1946), <a
href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic
resonance imaging</a> (1971), <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging"
title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance
imaging</a> (1990s).
</td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl>
<h3>Challenges</h3>
<h4>Replication
crisis</h4>
href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">Replication crisis</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></div>
The replication crisis is an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Methodological" class="mw-
redirect" title="Methodological">methodological</a> crisis primarily affecting
parts of the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Life_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Life science">life
sciences</a> in which scholars have found that the results of many scientific
studies are difficult or impossible to <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility"
title="Reproducibility">replicate or reproduce</a> on subsequent investigation,
either by independent researchers or by the original researchers themselves.[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-
Why_'Statistical_Significance'_Is_Often_Insignificant-
154">[142]</a> The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was
coined in the early 2010s<a
href="#cite_note-155">[143]</a> as part of a growing awareness of the
problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in <a
href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">metascience</a>, which aims to improve
the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.
<h4>Fringe
science, pseudoscience, and junk science</h4>
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to
claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes
referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience"
title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science"
title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Junk_science"
title="Junk science">junk science</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-157">[m]</a> Physicist <a
href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> coined the
term "<a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" title="Cargo cult science">cargo cult
science</a>" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because
their activities have the outward appearance of science but actually lack the "kind
of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.[145]</a> Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from
hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the
most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.[146]</a>
There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides
of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad science,"
research that may be well-intended but is actually incorrect, obsolete, incomplete,
or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "<a
href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">scientific
misconduct</a>" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally
misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery
to the wrong person.<a
href="#cite_note-COPE1999PDF-160">[147]</a>

<h2>Scientific
community</h2>
href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Scientific
community</a></div>
The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific
community</a> is a group of all interacting scientists, along with their respective
societies and institutions.

<h3>Scientists</h3>
href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" class="image"><img
alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutz
er_-_restoration.jpg/220px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg"
decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schm
utzer_-_restoration.jpg/330px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-
_restoration.jpg/440px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg 2x" data-
file-width="2523" data-file-height="3313" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div
class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>German-born scientist <a
href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–
1955) developed the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of
relativity">theory of relativity</a>. He also won the <a
href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in
Physics</a> in 1921 for his work in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics"
title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a>.</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> are individuals who
conduct <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific
research</a> to advance knowledge in an area of interest.<a href="#cite_note-eowilsonfoundation-
161">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-researchcouncil-162">[149]</a>
The term scientist was coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell"
title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in 1833. In modern times, many
professional scientists are trained in an <a href="/wiki/Academy"
title="Academy">academic setting</a> and upon completion, attain an <a
href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a>, with the
highest degree being a <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a>
such as a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor
of Philosophy</a> (PhD).<a
href="#cite_note-Cyranoski2011-163">[150]</a> Many scientists pursue
careers in various <a href="/wiki/Sector_(economic)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Sector (economic)">sectors of the economy</a> such as <a
href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_sector"
title="Private sector">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)"
title="Administration (government)">government</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">nonprofit
organizations</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-Kwok2017-164">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Editorial2017a-
165">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woolston2017-166">[153]</a>
Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about <a href="/wiki/Reality"
title="Reality">reality</a>, with some scientists having a desire to apply
scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, environment, or
industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. The
<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, a widely regarded
prestigious award,<a
href="#cite_note-Stockton2014-167">[154]</a> is awarded annually to
those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of <a
href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics"
title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry"
title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics"
title="Economics">economics</a>.

<h4>Women in science</h4>
href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></div>
href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">Women in STEM
fields</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/220p
x-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/3
30px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/440px-
Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1984" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie
Curie</a> was the first person to be awarded two <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize"
title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"
title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a> in 1903 and <a
href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in
Chemistry">Chemistry</a> in 1911.<a href="#cite_note-NobelFacts-
168">[155]</a></div></div></div>
Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with some notable
exceptions.<a href="#cite_note-
169">[n]</a> Women faced considerable discrimination in science, much
as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies, such as frequently being
passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.<a href="#cite_note-170">[o]</a>
For example, <a href="/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-
Franklin">Christine Ladd</a> (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as "C.
Ladd"; Christine "Kitty" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded
her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see <a
href="/wiki/Truth_table#Truth_table_for_all_binary_logical_operators" title="Truth
table">truth table</a>), color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded notable
researchers like <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig
Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce"
title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>. The achievements of
women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as
laborers within the <a href="/wiki/Separate_spheres" title="Separate
spheres">domestic sphere</a>.<a
In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of
institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of
women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early
21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in
physics are given to men.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the
early part of the 21st century, women in the United States earned 50.3% of
bachelor's degrees, 45.6% of master's degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and
engineering fields. They earned more than half of the degrees in psychology (about
70%), social sciences (about 50%), and biology (about 50-60%) but earned less than
half the degrees in the physical sciences, earth sciences, mathematics,
engineering, and computer science.<a
href="#cite_note-172">[157]</a> Lifestyle choice also plays a major
role in female engagement in science; women with young children are 28% less likely
to take tenure-track positions due to work-life balance issues,<a href="#cite_note-173">[158]</a> and female
graduate students' interest in careers in research declines dramatically over the
course of graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains
unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-
174">[159]</a>

<h3>Learned societies</h3>
href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned society</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_Lon
don_no_annotation.jpg/368px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_
London_no_annotation.jpg/552px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_London_n
o_annotation.jpg/736px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg 2x" data-
file-width="1104" data-file-height="750" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div
class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Physicists in front of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society"
title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> building in London
(1952).</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned societies</a>
for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have
existed since the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance"
title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-175">[160]</a> Many scientists belong to a learned
society that promotes their respective scientific <a
href="/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discipline
(academia)">discipline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Profession"
title="Profession">profession</a>, or group of related disciplines.[161]</a> Membership may be open to all, may require possession
of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.<a href="#cite_note-auto-
177">[162]</a> Most scientific societies are <a href="/wiki/Non-
profit_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit organization">non-profit
organizations</a>, and many are <a href="/wiki/Professional_association"
title="Professional association">professional associations</a>. Their activities
typically include holding regular <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference"
title="Academic conference">conferences</a> for the presentation and discussion of
new research results and publishing or sponsoring <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal"
title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> in their discipline. Some also act
as <a href="/wiki/Professional_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional
bodies">professional bodies</a>, regulating the activities of their members in the
public interest or the collective interest of the membership. Scholars in the <a
href="/wiki/Sociology_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of
science">sociology of science</a>[<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"
title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] argue that learned societies are of key
importance and their formation assists in the emergence and development of new
disciplines or professions.
The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly
enabled by the creation of distinguished <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_sciences"
title="Academy of sciences">academy of sciences</a> in a number of countries such
as the Italian <a
href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei
Lincei</a> in 1603,<a
href="#cite_note-178">[163]</a> the British <a
href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1660, the
French <a href="/wiki/Acad
%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des Sciences">Académie
des Sciences</a> in 1666,<a
href="#cite_note-179">[164]</a> the American <a
href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of
Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1863, the German <a
href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm
Institute">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute</a> in 1911, and the <a
href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of
Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> in 1928. International scientific
organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Council_for_Science"
title="International Council for Science">International Council for Science</a>,
have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of
different nations.

<h2>Science and the
public</h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Science and society"
redirects here. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Society"
title="Science & Society">Science & Society</a>. For the study of science
as a social activity, see <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge"
title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific
knowledge</a>.</div>
<h3>Science policy</h3>
href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>, <a
href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">History of
science policy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of
science">Economics of science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-Science-Policy-
Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/220px-UN-Science-Policy-
Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147"
class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-
Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/330px-UN-Science-Policy-
Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-Science-Policy-
Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/440px-UN-Science-Policy-
Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-
href="/wiki/File:UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The United Nations Global Science-
Policy-Business Forum on the Environment in Nairobi, Kenya
(2017).</div></div></div>
Science policy is an area of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public
policy">public policy</a> concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of
the scientific enterprise, including <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-
redirect" title="Research funding">research funding</a>, often in pursuance of
other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial
product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental
monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge
and consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with
the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences. In accordance with
<a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> being
concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to
consider how science and technology can best serve the public.
<a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> <a
href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> has influenced the funding of <a
href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> and science for
thousands of years, particularly within civilizations with highly organized
governments such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of
China">imperial China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman
Empire">Roman Empire</a>. Prominent historical examples include the <a
href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of
China</a>, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of
<a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" title="Dynasties in Chinese
history">several dynasties</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)"
title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze"
title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a>, an immense feat of <a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">hydraulic
engineering</a> begun by <a href="/wiki/Sunshu_Ao" title="Sunshu Ao">Sunshu Ao</a>
(孫叔敖 7th c. BCE), <a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a> (西門
豹 5th c.BCE), and Shi Chi (4th c. BCE). This construction dates from the 6th
century BCE under the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui
Dynasty</a> and is still in use today. In China, such state-supported
infrastructure and scientific research projects date at least from the time of the
<a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a>, who
inspired the study of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> during the
period of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of
Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> and the study of defensive fortifications
like the Great Wall of China during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period"
title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>.
Public policy can directly affect the funding of <a
href="/wiki/Capital_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital
equipment">capital equipment</a> and intellectual infrastructure for industrial
research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research. <a
href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, director of the
<a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of
Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and
Development</a> for the United States government, the forerunner of the <a
href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science
Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, wrote in July 1945 that "Science is a
proper concern of government."<a

<h4>Funding of
science</h4>
href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of
science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Buil
ding_-_Central_Block.jpg/220px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_B
uilding_-_Central_Block.jpg/330px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-
_Central_Block.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_
-_Central_Block.jpg/440px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg 2x"
data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a> <div
href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/CSIRO"
title="CSIRO">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a>
(CSIRO) Main Entomology Building in Australia</div></div></div>
Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which
potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive
funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations,
allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most <a
href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> is
between 1.5% and 3% of <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic
product">GDP</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-OECD2008-181">[166]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/OECD"
title="OECD">OECD</a>, around two-thirds of <a
href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and
development</a> in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and
20% and 10% respectively by <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect"
title="Universities">universities</a> and government. The government funding
proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in <a
href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. Similarly, with some
exceptions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology"
title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>) government provides the bulk of the funds
for <a href="/wiki/Basic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic science">basic
scientific research</a>. Many governments have dedicated agencies to support
scientific research. Prominent scientific organizations include the <a
Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States"
title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/CONICET" class="mw-
redirect" title="CONICET">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> in
Argentina, <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organisation</a> (CSIRO) in Australia, <a
href="/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" class="mw-redirect"
title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">Centre national de la
recherche scientifique</a> in France, the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society"
title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft" title="Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft">Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft</a> in Germany, and <a
href="/wiki/Spanish_National_Research_Council" title="Spanish National Research
Council">CSIC</a> in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the
most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term
commercialisation possibilities rather than "<a href="/wiki/Blue_skies_research"
title="Blue skies research">blue-sky</a>" ideas or technologies (such as <a
href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>).

<h3>Public awareness of
science</h3>
href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">Public
awareness of science</a></div>
href="/wiki/Science_outreach" title="Science outreach">Science outreach</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science
communication</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-
_DSC01881.JPG" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-
_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/250px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-
_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" decoding="async" width="250"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-
_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-
_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4030" data-
href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-
_DSC01881.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dinosaur exhibit in the
<a href="/wiki/Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science" title="Houston Museum of Natural
Science">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a></div></div></div>
The <a href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of
science">public awareness of science</a> relates to the attitudes, behaviors,
opinions, and activities that make up the relations between science and the general
public. it integrates various themes and activities such as <a
href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">science
communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_museum" title="Science museum">science
museums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_festival" title="Science festival">science
festivals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_fair" title="Science fair">science fairs</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen science</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Science_in_popular_culture" title="Science in popular culture">science
in popular culture</a>. Social scientists have devised various metrics to measure
the public understanding of science such as factual knowledge, self-reported
knowledge, and structural knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Ladwig-182">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eveland-
183">[168]</a>

<h3>Science
journalism</h3>
href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">Science
journalism</a></div>
The <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> face a number
of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific
claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole.
Determining how much weight to give different sides in a <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific
debate">scientific debate</a> may require considerable expertise regarding the
matter.<a href="#cite_note-
184">[169]</a> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and
even <a href="/wiki/Beat_reporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Beat reporter">beat
reporters</a> who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may be ignorant
about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.
<h3>Politicization of
science</h3>
href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of
science">Politicization of science</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Cook_et_al._(2016)_Studies_consensus.jpg" class="image"><img
alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._
%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/300px-Cook_et_al._
%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._
%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/450px-Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg
1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._
%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/600px-Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg
2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a> <div
href="/wiki/File:Cook_et_al._(2016)_Studies_consensus.jpg" class="internal"
title="Enlarge"></a></div>Results of seven papers from 2004–2015 assessing the
overwhelming scientific consensus on man-made global warming (see <a
href="/wiki/Surveys_of_scientists%27_views_on_climate_change" title="Surveys of
scientists' views on climate change">Surveys of scientists' views on climate
change</a>), in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy"
title="Global warming controversy">political controversy over this issue</a>,
particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_global_warming#United_States"
class="mw-redirect" title="Public opinion on global warming">United
States</a>.</div></div></div>
<a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of
science">Politicization of science</a> occurs when <a href="/wiki/Government"
title="Government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business"
title="Business">business</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy
group">advocacy groups</a> use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings
of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported, or interpreted.
Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as <a
href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-
intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualism</a>, perceived
threats to religious beliefs, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism"
title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism"
title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a>, and fear for business interests.[172]</a> Politicization of science is usually accomplished when
scientific information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty
associated with the scientific evidence.<a
href="#cite_note-188">[173]</a> Tactics such as shifting
conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific
consensus</a> have been used to gain more attention for views that have been
undermined by scientific evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-189">[174]</a>
Examples of issues that have involved the politicization of science include the <a
href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" title="Global warming controversy">global
warming controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_pesticides" title="Health
effects of pesticides">health effects of pesticides</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco" title="Health effects of tobacco">health
effects of tobacco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-
189">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Der_Linden2017-
190">[175]</a>

<h2>See also</h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-
column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books" title="Antiquarian science
books">Antiquarian science books</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" title="Index of branches of
science">Index of branches of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_occupations" title="List of scientific
occupations">List of scientific occupations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline of
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_popular_culture" title="Science in popular
culture">Science in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">Scientific
dissent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of
scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft">Wissenschaft</a> – all areas
of scholarly study</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width:
30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: lower-
alpha;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-euclid,ptolemy-61"><a
href="#cite_ref-euclid,ptolemy_61-0">^</a> Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and Ptolemy, as is shown by
the title of his lost work A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of
Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions
of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book From <a
href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaibia" title="Ibn Abi Usaibia">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a>'s catalog,
as cited in (<a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a>) harv error: multiple targets (4×):
CITEREFSmith2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors"
title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>):91(vol .1), p.
xv
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-
65">^</a> "[Ibn al-Haytham] followed
Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of
his effort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but
now undertaken on larger scale."— <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>,
p. 59
</li>
74">^</a> The translator, <a
href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> (c.
1114–1187), inspired by his love of the <a href="/wiki/Almagest"
title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, came to Toledo, where he knew he could find the
Almagest in Arabic. There he found Arabic books of every description, and learned
Arabic in order to translate these books into Latin, being aware of 'the poverty of
the Latins'. —As cited by <cite id="CITEREFBurnett2002" class="citation
journal cs1">Burnett, Charles (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3ad3/9cf6bd0bc13db9e195e51cd650704ee08a40.pdf
">"The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth
Century"</a> (PDF). Science in Context.
14 (1–2): 249–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889701000096">10.1017/S0269889701000096</a>.
<a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID
(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143006568">143006568</a>.</cite><spa
n title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+in+Context&rft.atitle=T
he+Coherence+of+the+Arabic-
Latin+Translation+Program+in+Toledo+in+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.volume=14&rf
t.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=249-88&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1017%2FS0269889701000096&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org
%2FCorpusID
%3A143006568&rft.aulast=Burnett&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org
%2F3ad3%2F9cf6bd0bc13db9e195e51cd650704ee08a40.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"><style data-mw-
deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r951705291">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-
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gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6
5/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-
output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-
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6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
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gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a
a/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output
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selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style>
</li>
81">^</a> Kepler, Johannes (1604) Ad
Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur (Supplements
to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in <cite
id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (January 1,
2004). "What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?". Proceedings of
the American Philosophical Society. 148 (2): 180–94. <a
href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR
(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a>. <a
href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID
(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15338543">15338543</a>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philoso
phical+Society&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+about
%3F&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180-94&rft.date=2004-01-
01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F15338543&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/>
<ul><li>The full title translation is from p. 60 of James R. Voelkel (2001)
Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy Oxford University Press. Kepler was
driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July
10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the
image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking
directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of
the Sun were impossible because there were historical accounts of total eclipses.
Instead, he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the
projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image – this
fact is now fundamental for optical system design). Voelkel, p. 61, notes that
Kepler's experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye
because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by
ignoring the eye.</li></ul>
</li>
109">^</a> <a
href="#CITEREFdi_Francia1976">di Francia 1976</a>, pp. 4–5: "One learns in a
laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting, and one
learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental
form of experimentation in physics is to teach young people to work with their
hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and taught to work with
measuring instruments – each student carrying out real experiments in physics.
This form of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book."
</li>
110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFara2009">Fara
2009</a>, p. 204: "Whatever their discipline, scientists claimed to share a
common scientific method that ... distinguished them from non-
scientists."
</li>
124">^</a> This realization is the topic of
<a href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective
verifiability">intersubjective verifiability</a>, as recounted, for example, by <a
href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> (1949, 1965) <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mb
p_djvu.txt">Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance</a>, who points out that
all knowledge, including natural or social science, is also subjective. p. 162:
"Thus it dawned upon me that fundamentally everything is subjective, everything
without exception. That was a shock."
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Galileo1638-125">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Galileo1638_125-0">a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-Galileo1638_125-1">b</a> In his investigation of the <a
href="/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of falling
bodies">law of falling bodies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo
Galilei">Galileo</a> (1638) serves as an example for scientific investigation:
<a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New
Sciences</a> "A piece of wooden moulding or scantling, about 12 cubits long,
half a cubit wide, and three finger-breadths thick, was taken; on its edge was cut
a channel a little more than one finger in breadth; having made this groove very
straight, smooth, and polished, and having lined it with parchment, also as smooth
and polished as possible, we rolled along it a hard, smooth, and very round bronze
ball. Having placed this board in a sloping position, by lifting one end some one
or two cubits above the other, we rolled the ball, as I was just saying, along the
channel, noting, in a manner presently to be described, the time required to make
the descent. We ... now rolled the ball only one-quarter the length of the channel;
and having measured the time of its descent, we found it precisely one-half of the
former. Next, we tried other distances, comparing the time for the whole length
with that for the half, or with that for two-thirds, or three-fourths, or indeed
for any fraction; in such experiments, repeated many, many, times." Galileo solved
the problem of time measurement by weighing a jet of water collected during the
descent of the bronze ball, as stated in his Two New Sciences.
</li>
137">^</a> credits <a
href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van
Orman Quine</a> (1969) "Epistemology Naturalized" Ontological Relativity and
Other Essays New York: Columbia University Press, as well as <a
href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, with the basic ideas of
naturalism – <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_Epistemology" class="mw-redirect"
title="Naturalized Epistemology">Naturalized Epistemology</a>, but Godfrey-Smith
diverges from Quine's position: according to Godfrey-Smith, "A naturalist can think
that science can contribute to answers to philosophical questions, without
thinking that philosophical questions can be replaced by science
questions.".
</li>
140">^</a> "No amount of experimentation
can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." —<a
href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, noted by
Alice Calaprice (ed. 2005) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton University
Press and Hebrew University of Jerusalem, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12074-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-
12074-9">0-691-12074-9</a> p. 291. Calaprice denotes this not as an exact
quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and
Deduction". Collected Papers of Albert Einstein 7 Document 28. Volume
7 is The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R.
Schulmann, et al., eds.
</li>
142">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFleck1979"
class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck,
Ludwik</a> (1979). Trenn, Thaddeus J.; Merton, Robert K (eds.). Genesis and
Development of a Scientific Fact. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1"><bdi>978-0-226-25325-
1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+a+Scientific+F
act&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1979
&rft.isbn=978-0-226-25325-
1&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/> Claims that before a
specific fact "existed", it had to be created as part of a social agreement within
a community. <a href="/wiki/Steven_Shapin" title="Steven Shapin">Steven Shapin</a>
(1980) "A view of scientific thought" Science ccvii (Mar 7, 1980) 1065–66
states "[To Fleck,] facts are invented, not discovered. Moreover, the appearance of
scientific facts as discovered things is itself a social construction: a
made thing. "
</li>
<li id="cite_note-nasa2004-152">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-nasa2004_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-
nasa2004_152-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-
nasa/2004/26mar_einstein">Evicting Einstein</a>, March 26, 2004, <a
href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. "Both [relativity and quantum
mechanics] are extremely successful. The Global Positioning System (GPS), for
instance, wouldn't be possible without the theory of relativity. Computers,
telecommunications, and the Internet, meanwhile, are spin-offs of quantum
mechanics."
</li>
157">^</a> "Pseudoscientific –
pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the
Oxford American Dictionary, published by the <a
href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford
English Dictionary</a>; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996)."Defining Pseudoscience",
Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–76, as cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-
science/#NonSciPosSci">"Science and Pseudo-science"</a> (2008) in Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states: "Many writers on
pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science.
The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title <a
href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in
the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a>. According to
Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), "[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that
they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones." These and many other authors assume
that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following
two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents
try to create the impression that it is scientific".
<ul><li>For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Science Addison
Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
05173-4">0-321-05173-4</a>, Bennett et al. The Cosmic Perspective 3e Addison
Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
8738-2">0-8053-8738-2</a>; See also, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. Scientific Method
in Practice (2003).</li>
<li>A 2006 <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science
Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> report on Science and engineering
indicators quoted <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael
Shermer</a>'s (1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they
appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and
plausibility" (p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to
describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed
at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (p.
17)'.<cite id="CITEREFShermer_M.1997" class="citation book cs1">Shermer M. (1997).
Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other
Confusions of Our Time. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things
%3A+Pseudoscience%2C+Superstition
%2C+and+Other+Confusions+of+Our+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+H.
+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3090-
3&rft.au=Shermer+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/> as cited by <cite
id="CITEREFNational_Science_Board._National_Science_Foundation,_Division_of_Science
_Resources_Statistics2006" class="citation book cs1">National Science Board. <a
Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, Division of Science Resources
Statistics (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130201220040/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sei
nd06/c7/c7s2.htm">"Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding"</a>.
Science and engineering indicators 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm">the
original</a> on February 1, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Technology
%3A+Public+Attitudes+and+Understanding&rft.btitle=Science+and+engineering+indic
ators+2006&rft.date=2006&rft.au=National+Science+Board.
+National+Science+Foundation
%2C+Division+of+Science+Resources+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov
%2Fstatistics%2Fseind06%2Fc7%2Fc7s2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3AScience" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li>"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the
world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the
status that scientific truths now have," from the <a
href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford
English Dictionary</a>, second edition 1989.</li></ul>
</li>
169">^</a> Women in science have included:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> (c. 350–415 CE), of the
<a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of
Alexandria</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trotula" title="Trotula">Trotula</a> of Salerno, a physician c.
1060 CE.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Herschel" title="Caroline Herschel">Caroline
Herschel</a>, one of the first professional astronomers of the 18th and 19th
centuries.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-
Franklin">Christine Ladd-Franklin</a>, a doctoral student of <a
href="/wiki/C.S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a>,
who published <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein" class="mw-redirect"
title="Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>'s proposition 5.101 in her dissertation, 40
years before Wittgenstein's publication of <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-
Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Leavitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Henrietta
Leavitt">Henrietta Leavitt</a>, a professional <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers"
title="Harvard Computers">human computer and astronomer</a>, who first published
the significant relationship between the luminosity of <a
href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variable</a> stars
and their distance from Earth. This allowed Hubble to make the discovery of the <a
href="/wiki/Expanding_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Expanding
universe">expanding universe</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_theory"
class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a>, who proved
the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of
energy">conservation of energy</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Constants_of_motion"
class="mw-redirect" title="Constants of motion">constants of motion</a> in
1915.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, who made
discoveries relating to radioactivity along with her husband, and for whom <a
href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> is named.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind
Franklin</a>, who worked with X-ray diffraction.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell
Burnell</a>, at first not allowed to study science in her preparatory school,
persisted, and was the first to observe and precisely analyse the radio pulsars,
for which her supervisor was recognized by the 1974 Nobel prize in Physics. (Later
awarded a Special Breakthrough Prize in Physics in 2018, she donated the cash award
in order that women, ethnic minority, and refugee students might become physics
researchers.)</li>
<li>In 2018 <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Donna
Strickland</a> became the third woman (the second being <a
href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-
Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a> in 1962) to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics,
for her work in chirped pulse amplification of lasers. <a
href="/wiki/Frances_H._Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances H.
Arnold">Frances H. Arnold</a> became the fifth woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry for the directed evolution of enzymes.</li></ul>
See the project of <a href="/wiki/Jess_Wade" title="Jess Wade">Jess Wade</a> (<a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/27/health/scientist-women-wikipedia-entries-
trnd/index.html">Christina Zdanowicz (27 July 2018), </a><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/27/health/scientist-women-
wikipedia-entries-trnd/index.html">CNN A physicist is writing one Wikipedia
entry a day to recognize women in science</a> )
</li>
170">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nina_Byers"
title="Nina Byers">Nina Byers</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/">Contributions of 20th Century Women to
Physics</a> which provides details on 83 female physicists of the 20th century. By
1976, more women were physicists, and the 83 who were detailed were joined by other
women in noticeably larger numbers.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
1">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHarper"
class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=science">"science"</a>. <a
href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online
Etymology Dictionary</a>. Retrieved September 20, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft
.atitle=science&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A
%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-EOWilson1999a-2"><a
href="#cite_ref-EOWilson1999a_2-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, E.O. (1999).
"The natural sciences". <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135">Consilience:
The Unity of Knowledge</a> (Reprint ed.). New York, New York: Vintage.
pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55">49</a>–71.
<a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+natural+sciences&rft.btitle=C
onsilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York
%2C+New+York&rft.pages=49-
71&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-
0-679-76867-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=E.O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsilienceunity00wils_135&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Heilbron-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Heilbron_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_3-
1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_3-
2">c</a> "... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a
discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and
even by <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>; and
required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and
organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like
descriptions."— p.vii <cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book
cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J. L.
Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). "Preface". The Oxford
Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press.
pp. vii–X. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Com
panion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-
X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-
511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.+%28editor-in-chief
%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-webster-4"><a href="#cite_ref-
webster_4-0">^</a> <cite class="citation
encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science">"science"</a>. Merriam-
Webster Online Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-
Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, Inc. Retrieved
October 16, 2011. <q>3 a: knowledge or a
system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws
especially as obtained and tested through scientific method b: such
knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its
phenomena.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=science&rft.btitle=Merriam-
Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg1-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Lindberg1_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-
1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-
2">c</a> "The
historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one
that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need
to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should
expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be."
p.3—<cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David
C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". The beginnings of Western science: the
European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional
context (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
pp. 1–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+before+the+Greeks&rft.bti
tle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science
%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious
%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-
27&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007
&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-
7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant2007a-6">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Grant2007a_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-
Grant2007a_6-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFGrant2007" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Edward (2007).
"Ancient Egypt to Plato". <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran">A History of
Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</a>
(First ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a
href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16">1</a>–26. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+to+Plato&rft.btitle
=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy
%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York
26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&a
mp;rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-
1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org
%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg9-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
Lindberg9_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-
1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-
2">c</a> <cite
id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The
revival of learning in the West". The beginnings of Western science: the
European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+learning+in+the+West&a
mp;rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science
7&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg8-8"><a
href="#cite_ref-Lindberg8_8-0">^</a> <cite
id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007).
"Islamic science". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific
tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (Second ed.).
Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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ginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical
%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago
%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=163-
&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-
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href="#cite_ref-Lindberg10_9-0">^</a> <cite
id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The
recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science". The beginnings of
Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and
institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago
Press. pp. 225–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-
226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+recovery+and+assimilation+of+Gree
k+and+Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science
53&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&am
p;rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Principe2011-10"><a
href="#cite_ref-Principe2011_10-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence
M. (2011). "Introduction". Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction
(First ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. <a
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c+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York
3&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&r
ft.isbn=978-0-199-56741-
6&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1990_11-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLindberg1990" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C.
(1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A
preliminary sketch". In David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (eds.).
Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution (First ed.). Chicago, Illinois:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34262-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0-521-34262-9"><bdi>978-0-521-34262-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conceptions+of+the+Scientific+Revolut
ion+from+Baker+to+Butterfield
%3A+A+preliminary+sketch&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+the+Scientific+Revolution&a
mp;rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-
26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&a
mp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-34262-
</li>
href="#cite_ref-Lindberg14_12-0">^</a> The beginnings of Western
science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and
institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+ancient+and+medieval+sc
ience&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science
368&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&a
mp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-13"><a
href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_13-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDel_Soldato2016" class="citation book
cs1">Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/">The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research
Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&a
mp;rft.edition=Fall+2016&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab
%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Del+Soldato&rft.aufirs
t=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2016%2Fentries
%2Fnatphil-ren%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant2007c-14"><a
href="#cite_ref-Grant2007c_14-0">^</a> <span class="reference-
"Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period
to the end of the nineteenth century". <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran">A History of Natural
Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</a> (First
ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289">274</a>–322. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transformation+of+medieval+natural+ph
ilosophy+from+the+early+period+modern+period+to+the+end+of+the+nineteenth+century&a
mp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy
%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York
322&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&
amp;rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-
1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org
%2Fdetails%2Fhistorynaturalph00gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-15"><a
href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_15-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan,
David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History
of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences
%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago
%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn
=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
16">^</a> The Oxford English
Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lightman_19th-17">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-0">a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFLightman2011" class="citation book
cs1">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "13. Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael;
Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens
to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-
0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Science+and+the+Public&rft.bt
itle=Wrestling+with+Nature+
%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=Unive
rsity+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-
0226317830&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHarrison2015"
class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter
Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). The Territories of Science and
Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. <a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226184517"
title="Special:BookSources/9780226184517"><bdi>9780226184517</bdi></a>. <q>The
changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new
nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was
the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had
spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the
traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in
the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice
(see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of
one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities
relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical
life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&a
mp;rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=164-
165&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=97802261
84517&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bishop1991-19">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Bishop1991_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-
Bishop1991_19-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBishop1991" class="citation book cs1">Bishop, Alan (1991).
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54#v=onepage">"Environmental activities and mathematical
culture"</a>. Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics
Education. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 20–59.
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+activities+and+mathemat
ical+culture&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Enculturation
%3A+A+Cultural+Perspective+on+Mathematics+Education&rft.place=Norwell
%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=20-
59&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-792-
31270-3&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9AgrBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA54%23v
%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nickles2013-20">^ <a
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href="#cite_ref-Nickles2013_20-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFNickles2013" class="citation book
cs1">Nickles, Thomas (2013). "The Problem of Demarcation". Philosophy of
Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Demarcation&rft.bt
itle=Philosophy+of+Pseudoscience
%3A+Reconsidering+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=104&a
mp;rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Nickles
&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bunge_1998-21">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Bunge_1998_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-
Bunge_1998_21-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBunge1998" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, Mario (1998).
"The Scientific Approach". Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to
Theory. 1 (revised ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 3–50.
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Approach&rft.btitl
e=Philosophy+of+Science
%3A+Volume+1%2C+From+Problem+to+Theory&rft.place=New+York
50&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978
-0-765-80413-6&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Fetzer2013-22">^ <a
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Fetzer2013_22-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFFetzer2013" class="citation book cs1">Fetzer, James H.
(2013). "Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-
based systems". Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines (1st
ed.). Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 271–308. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+reliability+and+public+polic
y%3A+Limits+of+knowledge+of+computer-
based+systems&rft.btitle=Computers+and+Cognition
%3A+Why+Minds+are+not+Machines&rft.place=Newcastle
%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=271-
308&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2013&am
p;rft.isbn=978-1-443-81946-
6&rft.aulast=Fetzer&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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23">^</a> <cite
id="CITEREFFischerFabry2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G
(2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">"Thinking and acting
scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education"</a>. GMS Zeitschrift
für Medizinische Ausbildung. 31 (2): Doc24. <a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
(identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.3205%2Fzma000916">10.3205/zma000916</a>. <a
href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC
(identifier)">PMC</a> <a
href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">4027809</a>. <a
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GMS+Zeitschrift+f
%C3%BCr+Medizinische+Ausbildung&rft.atitle=Thinking+and+acting+scientifically
%3A+Indispensable+basis+of+medical+education&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&
rft.pages=Doc24&rft.date=2014&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc
%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24872859&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.3205%2Fzma000916&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Fabry
%2C+G&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles
%2FPMC4027809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbraham2004"
class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, Reem Rachel (2004). <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0">"
Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking
skills in undergraduate medical students"</a>. Advances in Physiology
Education. 28 (3): 102–04. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004">10.1152/advan.00001.2004</a>. <a
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15319191">15319191</a>. <a
href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID
href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21610124">21610124</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physiology+Education&am
p;rft.atitle=Clinically+oriented+physiology+teaching
%3A+strategy+for+developing+critical-
thinking+skills+in+undergraduate+medical+students&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3
&rft.pages=102-04&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21610124&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F15319191&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Reem+Rachel&am
p;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper
%2F3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSinclair"
class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair, Marius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">"On the Differences between
the Engineering and Scientific Methods"</a>. The International Journal of
Engineering Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Engine
ering+Education&rft.atitle=On+the+Differences+between+the+Engineering+and+Scien
tific+Methods&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=Marius&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.ijee.ie%2Fcontents%2Fc090593.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
</li>
26">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a
href="http://www.engr.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php">"Engineering
Technology :: Engineering Technology :: Purdue School of Engineering and
Technology, IUPUI"</a>. www.engr.iupui.edu. Retrieved September 7,
2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.engr.iupui.edu&rft.atitle=E
ngineering+Technology+%3A%3A+Engineering+Technology+%3A
%3A+Purdue+School+of+Engineering+and+Technology%2C+IUPUI&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.engr.iupui.edu%2Fdepartments%2Fent%2Fabout%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant1997-27"><a
href="#cite_ref-Grant1997_27-0">^</a> <cite
id="CITEREFGrant1997" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Edward (January 1, 1997).
"History of Science: When Did Modern Science Begin?". The American Scholar.
66 (1): 105–113. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.jstor.org/stable/41212592">41212592</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Scholar&rft.atitle
=History+of+Science%3A+When+Did+Modern+Science+Begin
%3F&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-113&rft.date=1997-01-
01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable
%2F41212592&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pingree1992-28"><a
href="#cite_ref-pingree1992_28-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPingree1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a
href="/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">Pingree, David</a> (December
1992). "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science". Isis. 83 (4):
554–63. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode
(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Isis...83..554P">1992Isis...83..554P</a
>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F356288">10.1086/356288</a>. <a
href="//www.jstor.org/stable/234257">234257</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Hellenophilia+v
ersus+the+History+of+Science&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=554-
63&rft.date=1992-12&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable
%2F234257&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F356288&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F1992Isis...83..554P&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/>
</li>
29">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian"
title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> (司馬遷, d. 86 BCE) in his <a
href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" title="Records of the Grand
Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a> (太史公書) covering some 2500
years of Chinese history, records <a href="/wiki/Sunshu_Ao" title="Sunshu
Ao">Sunshu Ao</a> (孫叔敖, fl. c. 630–595 BCE – <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty"
title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>), the first known <a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic
engineer">hydraulic engineer</a> of China, cited in (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham"
title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> et al. (1971) <a
href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in
China">Science and Civilisation in China</a> 4.3 p. 271) as having built
a reservoir which has lasted to this day.
</li>
30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRochberg2011"
class="citation book cs1">Rochberg, Francesca (2011). "Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in
Ancient Mesopotamia". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
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%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.1+Natural+Knowledge+in+Ancient+Mes
opotamia&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+
%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Univers
ity+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-
0226317830&rft.aulast=Rochberg&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_31-0">a</a> <a
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%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+Denver
%2C+Colorado%2C+and+Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=273-76&rft.pub=ABC-
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9&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9veK7E2JwkUC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq
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%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref
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href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a
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%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org
%2FCorpusID%3A122508567&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable
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s&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+Surgery
%2C+and+Public+Health+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&
rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2005&rft.au=R+D.+Biggs&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lehoux-34"><a href="#cite_ref-
Lehoux_34-0">^</a> <cite
id="CITEREFLehoux2011" class="citation book cs1">Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural
Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison,
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University of Chicago Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Natural+Knowledge+in+the+Classical
+World&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+
%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Univer
sity+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-
0226317830&rft.aulast=Lehoux&rft.aufirst=Daryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
35">^</a> See the quotation in <a
href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> (8th century BCE) <a
href="/wiki/Nature#cite_note-2" title="Nature">Odyssey 10.302–03</a>
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36">^</a> "Progress or Return" in An
Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss (Expanded
version of Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss, 1975.) Ed.
Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.
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37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCropseyStrauss"
class="citation book cs1">Cropsey; Strauss (eds.). History of Political
Philosophy (3rd ed.). p. 209.</cite>
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id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245&dq=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist#v=onepage">Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy</a>. New
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%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thales+of+Miletus
%3A+The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science+and+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York+City
%2C+New+York+and+London
%2C+England&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=
978-0-7546-0533-1&rft.aulast=O
%27Grady&rft.aufirst=Patricia+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZTUlDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA245%26dq%3DThales%2Bof%2BMiletus%2Bfirst
%2Bscientist%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burkert1972-39">^ <a
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href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Burkert, Walter</a> (June 1,
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id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage">Lore
and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1"><bdi>978-0-674-53918-1</bdi></a>. <a
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?
id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&am
p;ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=Pythagoreanism&
f=false">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2018.</cite><span
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lore+and+Science+in+Ancient+Pythagoreanis
m&rft.place=Cambridge
%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1972-06-
01&rft.isbn=978-0-674-53918-
1&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0qqp4Vk1zG0C%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq
%3DPythagoreanism%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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40">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPullman1998"
class="citation book cs1">Pullman, Bernard (1998). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-
BpgC&pg=PA56&dq=Leucippus+Democritus+atom#v=onepage">The Atom in the
History of Human Thought</a>. pp. 31–33. <a
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ahht.book.....P">1998ahht.book.....P</a
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amp;rft.pages=31-33&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F1998ahht.book.....P&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515040-
7&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQs5hur-BpgC%26pg%3DPA56%26dq%3DLeucippus
%2BDemocritus%2Batom%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3AScience" class="Z3988">CS1
maint: ref=harv (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1
maint: ref=harv">link</a>)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
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id="CITEREFCohenLefebvre2017" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre,
Claire, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA427&dq=Leucippus+Democritus+atom#v=onepage">Handboo
k of Categorization in Cognitive Science</a> (Second ed.). Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Categorization+in+Cognitive+S
cience&rft.place=Amsterdam
%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=427&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Elsevier&a
mp;rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101107-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzIrCDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA427%26dq%3DLeucippus
%2BDemocritus%2Batom%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
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42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMargotta1968"
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href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>). New
York City, New York: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden
Press">Golden Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Medicine&rft.place=New+Y
ork+City
%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Golden+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Margotta&amp
;rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout
%2FThe_story_of_medicine.html%3Fid%3D+vFZrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Touwaide2005-43"><a
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(2005). Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224&dq=Hippocrates+medical+science#v=onepage">Medie
val Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</a>. New York City, New
York and London, England: Routledge. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology
%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York+City
%2C+New+York+and+London
%2C+England&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=
978-0-415-96930-7&rft.aulast=Touwaide&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A
%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D77y2AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA224%26dq%3DHippocrates
%2Bmedical%2Bscience%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
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class="citation book cs1">Leff, Samuel; Leff, Vera (1956). <a rel="nofollow"
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title="London">London</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers"
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%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Witchcraft+to+World+Health&rft.p
lace=London
%2C+England&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Leff&rft.auf
irst=Samuel&rft.au=Leff%2C+Vera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHjNrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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45">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMitchell2003"
class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Jacqueline S. (February 18, 2003). <a
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es/knows.htm">"The Origins of Science"</a>. Scientific American Frontiers.
PBS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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2003. Retrieved November
3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Frontiers&r
ft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Science&rft.date=2003-02-
18&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fsaf%2F1307%2Ffeatures%2Fknows.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext
%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 17. <a
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hoppe
r/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">Archived</a>
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%253D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 27. <a
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%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato
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%253D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Apol.
+30&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170">"Plato, Apology, section 30"</a>.
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tle=Plato%2C+Apology%2C+section+30&rft.date=1966&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPlat.%2BApol.%2B30%26fromdoc
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%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (H. Rackham
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%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0054%253Abekker%2520page
%253D1139b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/> 1139b
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<li id="cite_note-McClellan2015-50">^ <a
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100&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-
1-4214-1776-9&rft.aulast=McClellan+III&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=Dorn
%2C+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dah1ECwAAQBAJ
%26pg%3DPA99%26dq%3DAristarchus%2Bheliocentrism%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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<li id="cite_note-Edwards1979-51">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Edwards1979_51-0">a</a> <a
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8&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=C.H.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DilrlBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75%26dq%3DArchimedes
%2Bcalculus%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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<li id="cite_note-Lawson2004-52">^ <a
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%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AY1ALzh9V0C%26pg%3DPA190%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe
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mp;rft.isbn=9780199262885&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Trevor+Morgan&r
ft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6NC_T_tG9lQC%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe
%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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%2C+England&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=201
0&rft.isbn=9781139484534&rft.aulast=Doode&rft.aufirst=Aude&rft_id=h
ttps%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYoEhAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe
%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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class="citation cs2">Smith, A. Mark (June 2004), "What is the History of Medieval
Optics Really About?", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
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title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a>, <a
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15338543">15338543</a></cite><span
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phical+Society&rft.atitle=What+is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+About
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06&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283&rft_id=info%3Apmid
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Lindberg7_56-1">b</a> The beginnings of Western science:
the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional
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rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science
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mp;rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018-05-
01&rft.aulast=Wildberg&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2016%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"><link
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58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle"
title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"
title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a> II, 3, and <a
href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics
(Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> V, 2
</li>
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Middle+Ages%3A+Their+Religious
%2C+Institutional+and+Intellectual+Contexts&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+the
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title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-
0521200936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521200936"><bdi>978-
0521200936</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/745412">745412</a>.</cite><span
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Iran&rft.pla
ce=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1968%2F1991&rft_id=info
%3Aoclcnum%2F745412&rft.isbn=978-0521200936&rfr_id=info%3Asid
citation-comment">CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others"
title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)<link rel="mw-deduplicated-
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63">^</a> <cite class="citation
encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">"Bayt al-Hikmah"</a>.
Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/B
ayt-al-Hikmah">Archived</a> from the original on November 4, 2016. Retrieved November 3,
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Hikmah&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FBayt-al-Hikmah&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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64">^</a> Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi.
In Leaman, O & Nasr, H (2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London:
Routledge. p. 165. Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi, pp. 166–67. In Oliver
Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy. London:
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cs1">"Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages.
2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+in+Islam&rft.btitle=Oxfor
d+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid
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Isis. 55 (4): 463–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Reviewed+work
%3A+Ibn+al-Haythams+Weg+zur+Physik
%2C+Matthias+Schramm&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-
65&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349914&rft_id=%2F
%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable
%2F228328&rft.aulast=Toomer&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/> See p. 464: "Schramm sums
up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p.
465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major
figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of
experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and
others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously
investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern
physics be evaluated."
</li>
68">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith
2001</a>
harvnb error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFSmith2001 (<a
href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn
template errors">help</a>):Book I, [6.54]. p. 372
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69">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSelin2006"
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href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168">155</a>–156. <a
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S">2008ehst.book.....S</a
>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
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%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=155-
156&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2008ehst.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-
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70">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNumbers2009"
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Retrieved May 11, 2019.</cite><span
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%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2011%2F04%2Fdebunking-a-myth
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72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith
2001</a>
harvnb error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFSmith2001 (<a
href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn
template errors">help</a>)
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ophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception
%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary
%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus
%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man
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8-89&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7040292&rft_id=%2F
%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F231249&rft_id=info%3Adoi
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%3DPgmbZIybuRoC%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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86">^</a> Thomas G. Bergin (ed.),
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88">^</a> Cassels, Alan. Ideology and
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an class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved March 8,
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Sc
ientist%3A+The+story+of+a+word&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-
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%2C+and+Knowledge+Structure+Density&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages
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id="CITEREFMcIlwaineNguyen2005" class="citation journal cs1">McIlwaine, S.; Nguyen,
D.A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064">"Are Journalism Students
Equipped to Write About Science?"</a>. Australian Studies in Journalism.
14: 41–60. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/vi
ew/UQ:8064">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved February 20,
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p;rft.atitle=Are+Journalism+Students+Equipped+to+Write+About+Science
%3F&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=41-
60&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=McIlwaine&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Nguyen
%2C+D.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fespace.library.uq.edu.au%2Fview%2FUQ
%3A8064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
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187">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2017"
class="citation journal cs1">Goldberg, Jeanne (2017). <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/pol
iticization_of_scientific_issues">"The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking
through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass"</a>. <a
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Inquirer</a>. 41 (5): 34–39. Archived from <a rel="nofollow"
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%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=T
he+Politicization+of+Scientific+Issues%3A+Looking+through+Galileo
%27s+Lens+or+through+the+Imaginary+Looking+Glass&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=5&
amp;rft.pages=34-
39&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=http
s%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow
%2Fpoliticization_of_scientific_issues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
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id="CITEREFBolsenDruckman2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bolsen, Toby; Druckman,
James N. (2015). "Counteracting the Politicization of Science". Journal of
Communication (65): 746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Communication&rft.at
itle=Counteracting+the+Politicization+of+Science&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=746
&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bolsen&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft.au=Druckman
%2C+James+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-189">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_189-0">a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_189-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFFreudenbergGramlingDavidson2008"
class="citation journal cs1">Freudenberg, William F.; Gramling, Robert; Davidson,
Debra J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pd
f">"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of
Doubt"</a> (PDF). Sociological Inquiry.
78: 2–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">10.1111/j.1475-
682X.2008.00219.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Inquiry&rft.atitle
=Scientific+Certainty+Argumentation+Methods+%28SCAMs
%29%3A+Science+and+the+Politics+of+Doubt&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=2-
38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-
682X.2008.00219.x&rft.aulast=Freudenberg&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=
Gramling%2C+Robert&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Debra+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F
%2Fsciencepolicy.colorado.edu%2Fstudents
%2Fenvs_5720%2Ffreudenberg_etal_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
</li>
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href="#cite_ref-van_Der_Linden2017_190-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFvan_der_LindenLeiserowitzRosenthalMaibach2017"
class="citation journal cs1">van der Linden, Sander; Leiserowitz, Anthony;
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oculating+the+Public+against+Misinformation+about+Climate+Change&rft.volume=1&a
mp;rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2017&rft_id=%2F
%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6607159&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F31565263&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008&rft.aulast=van+der+Linden&rft.aufirst=Sander&am
p;rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Maibach
%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fbitstream
%2F1810%2F270860%2F1%2Fglobal%2520challenges.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output
.refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-
indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-
indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-
left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output
.refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist columns
references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width:
30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li>Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind
and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. <link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-833-7"
title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-833-7">0-89526-833-7</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFBecker1968" class="citation book cs1"><a
href="/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Becker, Ernest</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://archive.org/details/structureofevila00beck">The structure of evil;
an essay on the unification of the science of man</a>. New York: G.
Braziller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+structure+of+evil
%3B+an+essay+on+the+unification+of+the+science+of+man&rft.place=New+York&rf
t.pub=G.
+Braziller&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_i
d=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstructureofevila00beck&rfr_id=info
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li>Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds.(2014). All About Science: Philosophy,
History, Sociology & Communication. World Scientific: Singapore. <link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a
title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4472-92-0">978-981-4472-92-0</a></li>
<li>Cole, K.C., Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking
revelations <a href="/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Long_Island,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Island, New
York">Long Island, New York</a>, March 23, 1986, pp. 21+</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCrease2011" class="citation book cs1">Crease, Robert P.
(2011). World in the Balance: the historic quest for an absolute system of
measurement. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 317. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+in+the+Balance
%3A+the+historic+quest+for+an+absolute+system+of+measurement&rft.place=New+York
&rft.pages=317&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-
393-07298-3&rft.aulast=Crease&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li>Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under
fire. Will anything change?", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American"
title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 321, no. 4 (October
2019), pp. 62–67. "The use of <a href="/wiki/P_value" class="mw-redirect"
title="P value">p values</a> for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine
<a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical
significance">statistical significance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Experiment"
title="Experiment">experimental</a> results has contributed to an illusion of <a
href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> and [to] <a
href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility crises</a> in
many scientific fields. There is growing determination to reform statistical
analysis... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others
would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.)</li>
<li>Feyerabend, Paul (2005). Science, history of the philosophy, as cited in
<cite id="CITEREFHonderich,_Ted2005" class="citation book cs1">Honderich, Ted
(2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford <a
href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University
Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&rf
t.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&am
p;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-
7&rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1999" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P.
(1999). Robbins, Jeffrey (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00rich">The pleasure of
finding things out the best short works of Richard P. Feynman</a>.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465013128" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0465013128"><bdi>978-0465013128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+pleasure+of+finding+things+out+the+be
st+short+works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&rft.place=Cambridge
%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-
0465013128&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpleasureoffindin00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid
<li><cite id="CITEREFFeynman,_R.P.1999" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, R.P.
(1999). <a
href="https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00feyn">The Pleasure of
Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman</a>.
Perseus Books Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pleasure+of+Finding+Things+Out
%3A+The+Best+Short+Works+of+Richard+P.
+Feynman&rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info
%3Aoclcnum%2F181597764&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02395-0&rft.au=Feynman
%2C+R.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails
%2Fpleasureoffindin00feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li>Feynman, Richard <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf">"Cargo Cult
Science"</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGaukroger2006" class="citation book cs1">Gaukroger, Stephen
(2006). The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Science and the Shaping of
Modernity 1210–1685. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+a+Scientific+Culture
%3A+Science+and+the+Shaping+of+Modernity+1210%E2%80%931685&rft.place=Oxford&amp
;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-929644-
6&rft.aulast=Gaukroger&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid
<li>Gopnik, Alison, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf">"Finding Our Inner
Scientist"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus
(journal)">Daedalus</a>, Winter 2004.</li>
<li>Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., Science in the Twentieth
Century, Routledge 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
28606-9">0-415-28606-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Levin" title="Yuval Levin">Levin, Yuval</a> (2008).
Imagining the Future: Science and American Democracy. New York, Encounter
Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
209-2">1-59403-209-2</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1976" class="citation book cs1"><a
href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, D.C.</a> (1976).
Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt
%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Vision+from+al-
Kindi+to+Kepler&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&r
ft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=D.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel
Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions"
title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions</a>, 1962.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_F.1998" class="citation book cs1">William F., McComas
href="http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of
%20Science.pdf">"The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the
myths"</a> (PDF). In McComas, William F. (ed.).
The nature of science in science education: rationales and strategies.
Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+principal+elements+of+the+nature+
of+science
%3A+Dispelling+the+myths&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+science+in+science+education
%3A+rationales+and+strategies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9
78-0-7923-6168-8&rft.aulast=William+F.&rft.aufirst=McComas&rft_id=http
%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Froe%2FKnowability_590%2FWeek2%2FMyths%2520of
%2520Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1954" class="citation journal cs1"><a
href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1954). <a
href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in
China">"Science and Civilisation in China: Introductory Orientations"</a>.
1. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China
%3A+Introductory+Orientations&rft.volume=1&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Nee
dham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
class="Z3988"> Cite
journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a
href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1
errors">help</a>)CS1 maint:
ref=harv (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint:
<li><cite id="CITEREFOblerEstrin,_Herman_A.1962" class="citation book cs1">Obler,
Paul C.; Estrin, Herman A. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/newscientistessa00oble">The New Scientist:
Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science</a>. <a
href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor
Books</a>, Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Scientist
%3A+Essays+on+the+Methods+and+Values+of+Modern+Science&rft.pub=Anchor+Books
%2C+Doubleday&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Obler&rft.aufirst=Paul+C.&rf
t.au=Estrin%2C+Herman+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails
%2Fnewscientistessa00oble&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">Papineau, David</a>.
(2005). Science, problems of the philosophy of., as cited in <cite
id="CITEREFHonderich,_Ted2005" class="citation book cs1">Honderich, Ted (2005).
The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire"
title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University Press. <a
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&rf
t.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&am
p;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-
7&rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><cite id="CITEREFParkin1991" class="citation book cs1">Parkin, D. (1991).
"Simultaneity and Sequencing in the Oracular Speech of Kenyan Diviners". In Philip
M. Peek (ed.). African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing. Indianapolis,
IN: Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Simultaneity+and+Sequencing+in+the+Or
acular+Speech+of+Kenyan+Diviners&rft.btitle=African+Divination+Systems
%3A+Ways+of+Knowing&rft.place=Indianapolis
%2C+IN&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Parkin
&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jessica_Riskin&action=edit&redlink=1"
class="new" title="Jessica Riskin (page does not exist)">Riskin, Jessica</a>, "Just
Use Your Thinking Pump!" (review of <a href="/w/index.php?
title=Henry_M._Cowles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry M.
Cowles (page does not exist)">Henry M. Cowles</a>, The Scientific Method: An
Evolution of Thinking from Darwin to Dewey, <a
href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard
University Press</a>, 372 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books"
title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol.
LXVII, no. 11 (2 July 2020), pp. 48–50.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRussell1985" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand
(1985) [1952]. The Impact of Science on Society. London: Unwin. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&rft.
place=London&rft.pub=Unwin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-04-300090-
8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid
<li><cite id="CITEREFRutherfordAhlgren1990" class="citation book cs1">Rutherford,
F. James; Ahlgren, Andrew (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/scienceforallame00ruth">Science for all
Americans</a>. New York, NY: <a
href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American
Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the
Advancement of Science</a>, Oxford University Press. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+for+all+Americans&rft.place=N
ew+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science
%2C+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506771-
2&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=F.+James&rft.au=Ahlgren
%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails
%2Fscienceforallame00ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001). <a
href="/wiki/De_Aspectibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Aspectibus">Alhacen's
Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and
Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the
Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols</a>.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 91. <a
href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a
href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical
Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception
%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus
%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA
%93ir
%2C+2+vols&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Transactions+of+the+American+P
hilosophical+Society&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2001&a
mp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47168716&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-914-
5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/>
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark
(2001). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English
Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus",
the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One".
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 91 (4): i–337. <a
%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir
%22%3A+Volume+One&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=i-
337&rft.date=2001&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable
<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001).
"Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English
Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus",
the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two".
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 91 (5): 339–819.
<a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir
%22%3A+Volume+Two&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=339-
819&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657357&rft_id=%2F
%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657357&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.
+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience"
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFThurs2007" class="citation book cs1">Thurs, Daniel Patrick
href="https://archive.org/details/sciencetalkchang00thur">Science Talk: Changing
Notions of Science in American Popular Culture</a>. <a
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+Talk
%3A+Changing+Notions+of+Science+in+American+Popular+Culture&rft.date=2007&r
ft.isbn=978-0-8135-4073-
3&rft.aulast=Thurs&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencetalkchang00thur&rfr_id=info%3Asid
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul>
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<h2>External links</h2>
Publications

<ul><li>"<a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/GCSE_Science" class="extiw"
title="b:GCSE Science">GCSE Science textbook</a>". <a href="/wiki/Wikibooks"
title="Wikibooks">Wikibooks</a>.org</li></ul>
Resources

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.euroscience.org/">Euroscience</a></li>
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docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-57;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-
57;brand=default">Classification of the Sciences</a> in Dictionary of the
History of Ideas. (Dictionary's new electronic format is badly botched, entries
after "Design" are inaccessible. Internet Archive <a rel="nofollow"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080619205103/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-
local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57">old version</a>).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.gov/">United
States Science Initiative</a> Selected science information provided by US
Government agencies, including research & development results</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://undsci.berkeley.edu/index.php">How science works</a> <a
href="/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology" title="University of
California Museum of Paleontology">University of California Museum of
Paleontology</a></li></ul>
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target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar"><a
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%B2%E0%BD%82" title="ཚན་རིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" class="interlanguage-
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href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC_
%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Эрдэм ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr"
hreflang="bxr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li
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%C3%A8ncia" title="Ciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a
href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Ăслăх –
Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><a
href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyensya" title="Siyensya – Cebuano"
lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V
%C4%9Bda" title="Věda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn"><a
href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Shona" lang="sn"
hreflang="sn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum"><a
href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi" title="Sayansi – Tumbuka" lang="tum"
hreflang="tum" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a
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lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li
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href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskab" title="Videnskab – Danish" lang="da"
hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a
href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft – German"
lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a
href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadus" title="Teadus – Estonian" lang="et"
hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE
%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Επιστήμη – Greek" lang="el"
hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li
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lang="myv" hreflang="myv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a
href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Spanish" lang="es"
hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a
href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienco"
title="Scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext"><a
href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ncia" title="Céncia – Extremaduran"
lang="ext" hreflang="ext" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li
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href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzia" title="Zientzia – Basque" lang="eu"
hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a
href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="‫ – علم‬Persian"
lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<فارسی‬/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><a
href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigyan" title="Vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif"
hreflang="hif" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a
href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – French" lang="fr"
hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a
href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenskip" title="Wittenskip – Western
Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><a
href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sience" title="Sience – Friulian" lang="fur"
hreflang="fur" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola
%C3%ADocht" title="Eolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a
href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaylleeaght" title="Oaylleeaght – Manx"
lang="gv" hreflang="gv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a
href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saidheans" title="Saidheans – Scottish Gaelic"
lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a
href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia" title="Ciencia – Galician" lang="gl"
hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh"><a
href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма –
Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a
href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 – Gan Chinese"
lang="gan" hreflang="gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><a
href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E
%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="વિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-hak"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4-ho%CC%8Dk"
title="Khô-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" class="interlanguage-
link-target">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-
ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="과학 –
Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw"><a
href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeakamai" title="Akeakamai – Hawaiian"
lang="haw" hreflang="haw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a
href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF
%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy"
hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a
href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi"
class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost –
Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a
href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienco" title="Cienco – Ido" lang="io"
hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig"><a
href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamihe" title="Amamihe – Igbo" lang="ig"
hreflang="ig" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a
href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – Iloko" lang="ilo"
hreflang="ilo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a
href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu – Indonesian" lang="id"
hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a
href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia" title="Scientia – Interlingua"
lang="ia" hreflang="ia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a
href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientie" title="Scientie – Interlingue"
lang="ie" hreflang="ie" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os"><a
href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Зонад –
Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a
href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzululwazi" title="Inzululwazi – Xhosa"
lang="xh" hreflang="xh" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu"><a
href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isayensi" title="Isayensi – Zulu" lang="zu"
hreflang="zu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V
%C3%ADsindi" title="Vísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza –
Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a
href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="‫ – מדע‬Hebrew"
lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<עברית‬/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a
href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu" title="Èlmu – Javanese" lang="jv"
hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/L
%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-kn"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C
%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn"
hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc"><a
href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Илму –
Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a
href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მეცნიერება –
Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb"><a
href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99czba" title="Ùczba – Kashubian"
lang="csb" hreflang="csb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a
href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Ғылым –
Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw"><a
href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhonieth" title="Godhonieth – Cornish"
lang="kw" hreflang="kw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a
href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi" title="Sayansi – Swahili" lang="sw"
hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg"><a
href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizabu" title="Kizabu – Kongo" lang="kg"
hreflang="kg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a
href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Haitian Creole" lang="ht"
hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr"><a
href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans" title="Syans – Guianan Creole"
lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl
gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a
href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanist" title="Zanist – Kurdish" lang="ku"
hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a
href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим – Kyrgyz"
lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad"><a
href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensia" title="Sensia – Ladino" lang="lad"
hreflang="lad" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a
href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D
%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94"
ິທະຍາສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" class="interlanguage-link-
title="ວ
target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a
href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(ratio)" title="Scientia (ratio) –
Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin
%C4%81tne" title="Zinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a
href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssenschaft" title="Wëssenschaft –
Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a
href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Илим –
Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a
href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslas" title="Mokslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt"
hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><a
href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciensa" title="Sciensa – Ligurian" lang="lij"
hreflang="lij" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a
href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weitesjap" title="Weitesjap – Limburgish"
lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn"><a
href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Lingua Franca Nova"
lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca
Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><a
href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/saske" title="saske – Lojban" lang="jbo"
hreflang="jbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a
href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Lombard" lang="lmo"
hreflang="lmo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lumbaart</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a
href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Tudomány – Hungarian"
lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai"><a
href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai"
class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-mk"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA
%D0%B0" title="Наука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a
href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansa" title="Siansa – Malagasy" lang="mg"
hreflang="mg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a
href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D
%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml"
hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt"><a
href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenza" title="Xjenza – Maltese" lang="mt"
hreflang="mt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P
%C5%ABtaiao" title="Pūtaiao – Maori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" class="interlanguage-
link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a
href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-xmf"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C
%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მენცარობა –
Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" class="interlanguage-link-
target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a
href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="‫ – علم‬Egyptian
Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<مصرى‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw"><a
href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD
%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6" title="သိပ္ပံ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာ မန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ms"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Malay"
lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min"><a
href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains" title="Sains – Minangkabau" lang="min"
hreflang="min" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku
%C5%8F-h%C5%8Fk" title="Kuŏ-hŏk – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-mwl"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncia"
title="Ciéncia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a
href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_
%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn"
hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a
href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD
%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="သိပ္ပံ ပညာ –
Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-
target">မြန်မာဘာသာ </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a
href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlamatiliztli" title="Tlamatiliztli – Nāhuatl"
lang="nah" hreflang="nah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj"><a
href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakadidike" title="Vakadidike – Fijian"
lang="fj" hreflang="fj" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa
Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a
href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschap" title="Wetenschap – Dutch"
lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="https://nds-
nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL"
hreflang="nds-NL" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a
href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne"
class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-new"><a
href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF
%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दुसिका – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new"
class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科
学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語
</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo"><a
href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%B2%DF%9E%DF%8F" title="ߏߞ߲ߐߟ –
N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߏߞߒ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a
href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ӏилма –
Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><a
href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedenskap" title="Wedenskap – Northern
Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih"><a
href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saiens" title="Saiens – Norfuk / Pitkern"
lang="pih" hreflang="pih" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk /
Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a
href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskap" title="Vitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål"
lang="nb" hreflang="nb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a
href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitskap" title="Vitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk"
lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm"><a
href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienche" title="Scienche – Norman" lang="nrf"
hreflang="nrf" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci
%C3%A9ncia" title="Sciéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-mhr"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD
%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Шанче – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-or"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C
%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-om"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayinsii" title="Saayinsii –
Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan"
title="Fan –
Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a
href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF
%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-pnb"><a
href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="‫– سائنس‬
Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<پنجابی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap"><a
href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensia" title="Siensia – Papiamento"
lang="pap" hreflang="pap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a
href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="‫– پوهنه‬
Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<پښتو‬/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam"><a
href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayans" title="Sayans – Jamaican Creole
English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a
href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E
%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A"
title="វ ិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a
href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienches" title="Scienches – Picard"
lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><a
href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Piedmontese"
lang="pms" hreflang="pms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a
href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschop" title="Wetenschop – Low German"
lang="nds" hreflang="nds" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a
href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Polish" lang="pl"
hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci
%C3%AAncia" title="Ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-kaa"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilim" title="Ilim – Kara-
Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh"><a
href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0lim" title="İlim – Crimean Turkish"
lang="crh" hreflang="crh" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a
href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Știință –
Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a
href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Romansh" lang="rm"
hreflang="rm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a
href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamut%27ay" title="Hamut'ay – Quechua"
lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a
href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука –
Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a
href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука –
Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a
href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85" title="Үөрэх –
Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха
тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm"><a
href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – Samoan" lang="sm"
hreflang="sm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><a
href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E
%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa"
hreflang="sa" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृ तम्</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat"><a
href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5"
title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a
href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isci%C3%A8ntzia" title="Iscièntzia – Sardinian"
lang="sc" hreflang="sc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a
href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Scots" lang="sco"
hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st"><a
href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayense" title="Sayense – Southern Sotho"
lang="st" hreflang="st" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso"><a
href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutamahlale" title="Thutamahlale – Northern
Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa
Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a
href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca" title="Shkenca – Albanian" lang="sq"
hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a
href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza" title="Scienza – Sicilian" lang="scn"
hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a
href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_
%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80"
title="නවීන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" class="interlanguage-link-
target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a
href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science – Simple English"
lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple
English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a
href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="‫– سائنس‬
Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<سنڌي‬/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss"><a
href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isayensi" title="Isayensi – Swati" lang="ss"
hreflang="ss" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a
href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Slovak" lang="sk"
hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a
href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanost" title="Znanost – Slovenian" lang="sl"
hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a
href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saynis" title="Saynis – Somali" lang="so"
hreflang="so" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a
href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="‫– زانست‬
Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<کوردی‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn"><a
href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoro" title="Skoro – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn"
hreflang="srn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a
href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука –
Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски /
srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a
href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka" title="Nauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh"
hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski /
српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a
href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmu" title="Élmu – Sundanese" lang="su"
hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a
href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiede" title="Tiede – Finnish" lang="fi"
hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a
href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskap" title="Vetenskap – Swedish"
lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a
href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham" title="Agham – Tagalog" lang="tl"
hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a
href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF
%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta"
class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tt"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Фән
– Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a
href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9E
%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D
%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="విజ్ఞానశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te"
class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-th"><a
href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E
0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai"
lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a
href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Илм – Tajik"
lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to"><a
href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi" title="Saienisi – Tongan" lang="to"
hreflang="to" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr"><a
href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%A5_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E
%A6%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᏂᎦᎥ ᎠᎦᏎᏍᏔᏅ – Cherokee" lang="chr"
hreflang="chr" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve"><a
href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saintsi" title="Saintsi – Venda" lang="ve"
hreflang="ve" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tshivenda</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy"><a
href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E
%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article
badge"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – Turkish"
lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk"><a
href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylym" title="Ylym – Turkmen" lang="tk"
hreflang="tk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm"><a
href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука –
Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug"><a
href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%8A%E1%A8%94"
title="ᨔᨕᨗᨊᨔ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a
href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наука –
Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a
href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="‫– سائنس‬
Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<اردو‬/a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za"><a
href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gohyoz" title="Gohyoz – Zhuang" lang="za"
hreflang="za" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec"><a
href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensa" title="Siensa – Venetian" lang="vec"
hreflang="vec" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a
href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedo" title="Tedo – Veps" lang="vep"
hreflang="vep" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a
href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khoa học – Vietnamese"
lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo"><a
href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolav" title="Nolav – Volapük" lang="vo"
hreflang="vo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="https://fiu-
vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiid%C3%BCs" title="Tiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-wa"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syince" title="Syince –
Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><a
href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4" title="格致 –
Classical Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言
</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls"><a
href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weetnschap" title="Weetnschap – West Flemish"
lang="vls" hreflang="vls" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a
href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syensya" title="Syensya – Waray" lang="war"
hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xam-
xam" title="Xam-xam – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu"><a
href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Wu Chinese"
lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts"><a
href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayensi" title="Sayensi – Tsonga" lang="ts"
hreflang="ts" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a
href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A
4%D7%98" title="‫ – וויסנשאפט‬Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-
link-target">‫<יִידיש‬/a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a
href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1y%E1%BA%B9%CC%81ns%C3%AC" title="Sáyẹ́nsì
– Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue badge-
Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article badge"><a
href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學 –
Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語
</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a
href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C4%B1nasiye" title="Şınasiye – Zazaki"
lang="diq" hreflang="diq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="https://bat-
smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muokslos" title="Muokslos – Samogitian" lang="sgs"
hreflang="sgs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a
href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学 – Chinese"
lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk"><a
href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opa" title="Opa – Kotava" lang="avk"
hreflang="avk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld"><a
href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%ABnza" title="Sciënza – Ladin"
lang="lld" hreflang="lld" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li></ul>
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