Understanding Random

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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Randomness</h1>
<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia</div>
<div id="contentSub"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">
(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Random&redirect=no" class="mw-
redirect" title="Random">Random</a>)</span></div>
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<a class="mw-jump-link" href="#mw-head">Jump to navigation</a>
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<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-
ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-
searchable">"Random" redirects here. For other uses, see <a
href="/wiki/Random_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Random
(disambiguation)">Random (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><div
style="display:inline;" class="plainlinks selfreference noprint">For a random
Wikipedia article, see <a href="/wiki/Special:Random"
title="Special:Random">Special:Random</a>. For information about Wikipedia's random
article feature, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Random"
title="Wikipedia:Random">Wikipedia:Random</a>.</div></div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a
href="/wiki/File:RandomBitmap.png" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RandomBitmap.png/220px-
RandomBitmap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RandomBitmap.png/330px-
RandomBitmap.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RandomBitmap.png/440px-
RandomBitmap.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:RandomBitmap.png"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A pseudorandomly generated <a
href="/wiki/Bitmap" title="Bitmap">bitmap</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>In the common parlance, <b>randomness</b> is the apparent lack of <a
href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">pattern</a> or <a href="/wiki/Predictability"
title="Predictability">predictability</a> in events.<sup id="cite_ref-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-
2">[2]</a></sup> A random sequence of events, <a href="/wiki/Symbol"
title="Symbol">symbols</a> or steps often has no <a
href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/order" class="extiw"
title="wikt:order">order</a> and does not follow an intelligible pattern or
combination. Individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but since
they often follow a <a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability
distribution">probability distribution</a>, the frequency of different outcomes
over numerous events (or "trials") is predictable.<sup id="cite_ref-3"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> For example, when
throwing two <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>, the outcome of any
particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In
this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than its
haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, <a href="/wiki/Probability"
title="Probability">probability</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Information_entropy"
class="mw-redirect" title="Information entropy">information entropy</a>.
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ramsey_theory" title="Ramsey theory">Ramsey
theory</a>, ideal randomness is impossible especially for large structures. For
example, professor <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Motzkin" title="Theodore
Motzkin">Theodore Motzkin</a> pointed out that "while disorder is more probable in
general, complete disorder is impossible".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Misunderstanding of this can lead to
numerous <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy
theories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
5">[5]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cristian_S._Calude" title="Cristian S.
Calude">Cristian S. Calude</a> stated that: "given the impossibility of true
randomness, the effort is directed towards studying degrees of randomness".<sup
id="cite_ref-calude2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-calude2017-
6">[6]</a></sup> It can be proven that there is infinite hierarchy (in
terms of quality or strength) of forms of randomness.<sup id="cite_ref-
calude2017_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-calude2017-
6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>The fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal
definitions of randomness. In statistics, a <a href="/wiki/Random_variable"
title="Random variable">random variable</a> is an assignment of a numerical value
to each possible outcome of an <a href="/wiki/Event_space" class="mw-redirect"
title="Event space">event space</a>. This association facilitates the
identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events. Random variables
can appear in <a href="/wiki/Random_sequence" title="Random sequence">random
sequences</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Random_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Random
process">random process</a> is a sequence of random variables whose outcomes do not
follow a <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">deterministic</a> pattern,
but follow an evolution described by <a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution"
title="Probability distribution">probability distributions</a>. These and other
constructs are extremely useful in <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory"
title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> and the various <a
href="/wiki/Applications_of_randomness" title="Applications of
randomness">applications of randomness</a>.
</p><p>Randomness is most often used in <a href="/wiki/Statistics"
title="Statistics">statistics</a> to signify well-defined statistical properties.
<a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo
methods</a>, which rely on random input (such as from <a
href="/wiki/Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">random
number generators</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pseudorandom_number_generator"
title="Pseudorandom number generator">pseudorandom number generators</a>), are
important techniques in science, particularly in the field of <a
href="/wiki/Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific
computing">computational science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> By analogy, <a href="/wiki/Quasi-
Monte_Carlo_method" title="Quasi-Monte Carlo method">quasi-Monte Carlo methods</a>
use <a href="/wiki/Low-discrepancy_sequence" title="Low-discrepancy
sequence">quasi-random number generators</a>.
</p><p><b>Random selection</b>, when narrowly associated with a <a
href="/wiki/Simple_random_sample" title="Simple random sample">simple random
sample</a>, is a method of selecting items (often called units) from a population
where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items
in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90
blue marbles, a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with
probability 1/10. Note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles
from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations
where a population consists of items that are distinguishable, a random selection
mechanism requires equal probabilities for any item to be chosen. That is, if the
selection process is such that each member of a population, say research subjects,
has the same probability of being chosen, then we can say the selection process is
random.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-
2">[2]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input
type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox"
style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-
heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel"
for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span
class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#In_science"><span
class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">In science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#In_the_physical_sciences"><span
class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">In the physical
sciences</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#In_biology"><span
class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">In biology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#In_mathematics"><span
class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">In mathematics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#In_statistics"><span
class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">In statistics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#In_information_science"><span
class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">In information
science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#In_finance"><span
class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">In finance</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#In_politics"><span
class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">In politics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Randomness_and_religion"><span
class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Randomness and
religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Applications"><span
class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Applications</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Generation"><span
class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Generation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Measures_and_tests"><span
class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Measures and tests</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a
href="#Misconceptions_and_logical_fallacies"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span
class="toctext">Misconceptions and logical fallacies</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#A_number_is_"due""><span
class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">A number is
"due"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a
href="#A_number_is_"cursed"_or_"blessed""><span
class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">A number is "cursed" or
"blessed"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Odds_are_never_dynamic"><span
class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Odds are never
dynamic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span
class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span
class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Further_reading"><span
class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#External_links"><span
class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/History_of_randomness" title="History of randomness">History of
randomness</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg"
class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pompeii_-
_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-
_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg" decoding="async" width="220"
height="175" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pompeii_-
_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pompeii_-
_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1461" data-
file-height="1159" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Fresco"
title="Fresco">fresco</a> of dice players in <a href="/wiki/Pompei"
title="Pompei">Pompei</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with
that of fate. Many ancient peoples threw <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>
to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient
cultures used various methods of <a href="/wiki/Divination"
title="Divination">divination</a> to attempt to circumvent randomness and fate.<sup
id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup
id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Chinese of 3000 years ago were perhaps the earliest people to formalize
odds and chance. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in
non-quantitative forms. It was only in the 16th century that Italian mathematicians
began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention
of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> had a positive impact on
the formal study of randomness. In the 1888 edition of his book <i>The Logic of
Chance</i>, <a href="/wiki/John_Venn" title="John Venn">John Venn</a> wrote a
chapter on <i>The conception of randomness</i> that included his view of the
randomness of the digits of <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>, by using them to
construct a <a href="/wiki/Random_walk" title="Random walk">random walk</a> in two
dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>The early part of the 20th century saw a rapid growth in the formal analysis
of randomness, as various approaches to the mathematical foundations of probability
were introduced. In the mid- to late-20th century, ideas of <a
href="/wiki/Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic information
theory">algorithmic information theory</a> introduced new dimensions to the field
via the concept of <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_randomness" class="mw-redirect"
title="Algorithmic randomness">algorithmic randomness</a>.
</p><p>Although randomness had often been viewed as an obstacle and a nuisance for
many centuries, in the 20th century computer scientists began to realize that the
<i>deliberate</i> introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective
tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases, such <a
href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized
algorithms">randomized algorithms</a> even outperform the best deterministic
methods.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_science">In science</span></h2>
<p>Many scientific fields are concerned with randomness:
</p>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-
column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_probability" title="Algorithmic
probability">Algorithmic probability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern
recognition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">Probability
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum
mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical
mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_the_physical_sciences">In the physical
sciences</span></h3>
<p>In the 19th century, scientists used the idea of random motions of molecules in
the development of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical
mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> to explain phenomena in <a
href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Gas_laws" title="Gas laws">the properties of gases</a>.
</p><p>According to several standard interpretations of <a
href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>,
microscopic phenomena are objectively random.<sup id="cite_ref-12"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> That is, in an
experiment that controls all causally relevant parameters, some aspects of the
outcome still vary randomly. For example, if a single unstable <a href="/wiki/Atom"
title="Atom">atom</a> is placed in a controlled environment, it cannot be predicted
how long it will take for the atom to decay—only the probability of decay in a
given time.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
13">[13]</a></sup> Thus, quantum mechanics does not specify the outcome of
individual experiments, but only the probabilities. <a
href="/wiki/Hidden_variable_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden variable
theory">Hidden variable theories</a> reject the view that nature contains
irreducible randomness: such theories posit that in the processes that appear
random, properties with a certain statistical distribution are at work behind the
scenes, determining the outcome in each case.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_biology">In biology</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis
(20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a> ascribes the observed diversity
of life to random genetic <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>
followed by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural
selection</a>. The latter retains some random mutations in the <a
href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a> due to the systematically
improved chance for survival and reproduction that those mutated genes confer on
individuals who possess them.
</p><p>Several authors also claim that evolution (and sometimes development)
requires a specific form of randomness, namely the introduction of qualitatively
new behaviors. Instead of the choice of one possibility among several pre-given
ones, this randomness corresponds to the formation of new possibilities.<sup
id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The characteristics of an organism arise to some extent deterministically
(e.g., under the influence of genes and the environment), and to some extent
randomly. For example, the <i>density</i> of <a href="/wiki/Freckles" class="mw-
redirect" title="Freckles">freckles</a> that appear on a person's skin is
controlled by genes and exposure to light; whereas the exact location of
<i>individual</i> freckles seems random.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a
</p><p>As far as behavior is concerned, randomness is important if an animal is to
behave in a way that is unpredictable to others. For instance, insects in flight
tend to move about with random changes in direction, making it difficult for
pursuing predators to predict their trajectories.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_mathematics">In mathematics</span></h3>
<p>The mathematical theory of <a href="/wiki/Probability"
title="Probability">probability</a> arose from attempts to formulate mathematical
descriptions of chance events, originally in the context of <a
href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a>, but later in connection with
physics. <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a> is used to
infer the underlying <a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability
distribution">probability distribution</a> of a collection of empirical
observations. For the purposes of <a href="/wiki/Simulation"
title="Simulation">simulation</a>, it is necessary to have a large supply of <a
href="/wiki/Random_sequence" title="Random sequence">random numbers</a>—or means to
generate them on demand.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic
information theory">Algorithmic information theory</a> studies, among other topics,
what constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Random_sequence" title="Random sequence">random
sequence</a>. The central idea is that a string of <a href="/wiki/Bit"
title="Bit">bits</a> is random if and only if it is shorter than any computer
program that can produce that string (<a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov_randomness"
class="mw-redirect" title="Kolmogorov randomness">Kolmogorov randomness</a>), which
means that random strings are those that cannot be <a href="/wiki/Data_compression"
title="Data compression">compressed</a>. Pioneers of this field include <a
href="/wiki/Andrey_Kolmogorov" title="Andrey Kolmogorov">Andrey Kolmogorov</a> and
his student <a href="/wiki/Per_Martin-L%C3%B6f" title="Per Martin-Löf">Per Martin-
Löf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ray_Solomonoff" title="Ray Solomonoff">Ray Solomonoff</a>,
and <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chaitin" title="Gregory Chaitin">Gregory Chaitin</a>.
For the notion of infinite sequence, one normally uses <a href="/wiki/Per_Martin-L
%C3%B6f" title="Per Martin-Löf">Per Martin-Löf</a>'s definition.
That is, an infinite sequence is random if and only if it withstands all
recursively enumerable null sets. The other notions of random sequences include,
among others, recursive randomness and Schnorr randomness, which are based on
recursively computable martingales. It was shown by <a href="/wiki/Yongge_Wang"
title="Yongge Wang">Yongge Wang</a> that these randomness notions are generally
different.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-
17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Randomness occurs in numbers such as <a href="/wiki/Binary_logarithm"
title="Binary logarithm">log (2)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>. The
decimal digits of pi constitute an infinite sequence and "never repeat in a
cyclical fashion." Numbers like pi are also considered likely to be <a
href="/wiki/Normal_number" title="Normal number">normal</a>, which means their
digits are random in a certain statistical sense.
</p>
<blockquote><p>
Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of
pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times.
Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10,
much less normality in other number bases.<sup id="cite_ref-18"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_statistics">In statistics</span></h3>
href="/wiki/Statistical_randomness" title="Statistical randomness">Statistical
randomness</a></div>
<p>In statistics, randomness is commonly used to create <a
href="/wiki/Simple_random_samples" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple random
samples">simple random samples</a>. This allows surveys of completely random groups
of people to provide realistic data that is reflective of the population. Common
methods of doing this include drawing names out of a hat, or using a random digit
chart (a large table of random digits).
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_information_science">In information
science</span></h3>
<p>In information science, irrelevant or meaningless data is considered noise.
Noise consists of numerous transient disturbances, with a statistically randomized
time distribution.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication
theory">communication theory</a>, randomness in a signal is called "noise", and is
opposed to that component of its variation that is causally attributable to the
source, the signal.
</p><p>In terms of the development of random networks, for communication randomness
rests on the two simple assumptions of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s" title="Paul
Erdős">Paul Erdős</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfr%C3%A9d_R%C3%A9nyi" title="Alfréd
Rényi">Alfréd Rényi</a>, who said that there were a fixed number of nodes and this
number remained fixed for the life of the network, and that all nodes were equal
and linked randomly to each other.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"
style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span
title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March
2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-19"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_finance">In finance</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Random_walk_hypothesis" title="Random walk hypothesis">random
walk hypothesis</a> considers that asset prices in an organized <a
href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> evolve at
random, in the sense that the expected value of their change is zero but the actual
value may turn out to be positive or negative. More generally, asset prices are
influenced by a variety of unpredictable events in the general economic
environment.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_politics">In politics</span></h2>
<p>Random selection can be an official method to resolve <a href="/wiki/Tie_(draw)"
title="Tie (draw)">tied</a> elections in some jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-20"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Its use in
politics is very old, as office holders in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens"
class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Ancient Athens</a> were chosen by lot,
there being no voting.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Randomness_and_religion">Randomness and
religion</span></h2>
<p>Randomness can be seen as conflicting with the <a href="/wiki/Deterministic"
class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> ideas of some
religions, such as those where the universe is created by an omniscient deity who
is aware of all past and future events. If the universe is regarded to have a
purpose, then randomness can be seen as impossible. This is one of the rationales
for religious opposition to <a href="/wiki/Evolution"
title="Evolution">evolution</a>, which states that <a href="/wiki/Non-random"
class="mw-redirect" title="Non-random">non-random</a> selection is applied to the
results of random genetic variation.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>
philosophies state that any event is the result of previous events, as is reflected
in the concept of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>. As such, this
conception is at odd with the idea of randomness, and any reconciliation between
both of them would require an explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-21"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>In some religious contexts, procedures that are commonly perceived as
randomizers are used for divination. <a href="/wiki/Cleromancy"
title="Cleromancy">Cleromancy</a> uses the casting of bones or dice to reveal what
is seen as the will of the gods.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications">Applications</span></h2>
href="/wiki/Applications_of_randomness" title="Applications of
randomness">Applications of randomness</a></div>
<p>In most of its mathematical, political, social and religious uses, randomness is
used for its innate "fairness" and lack of bias.
</p><p><b>Politics</b>: <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian
democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was based on the concept of <a
href="/wiki/Isonomia" title="Isonomia">isonomia</a> (equality of political rights),
and used complex allotment machines to ensure that the positions on the ruling
committees that ran Athens were fairly allocated. <a href="/wiki/Sortition"
title="Sortition">Allotment</a> is now restricted to selecting jurors in Anglo-
Saxon legal systems, and in situations where "fairness" is approximated by <a
href="/wiki/Randomization" title="Randomization">randomization</a>, such as
selecting <a href="/wiki/Juror" class="mw-redirect" title="Juror">jurors</a> and
military <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">draft</a> lotteries.
</p><p><b>Games</b>: Random numbers were first investigated in the context of <a
href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a>, and many randomizing devices,
such as <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Shuffling_playing_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuffling playing
cards">shuffling playing cards</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roulette"
title="Roulette">roulette</a> wheels, were first developed for use in gambling. The
ability to produce random numbers fairly is vital to electronic gambling, and, as
such, the methods used to create them are usually regulated by government <a
href="/wiki/Gaming_Control_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaming Control
Board">Gaming Control Boards</a>. Random drawings are also used to determine <a
href="/wiki/Lottery" title="Lottery">lottery</a> winners. In fact, randomness has
been used for games of chance throughout history, and to select out individuals for
an unwanted task in a fair way (see <a href="/wiki/Drawing_straws" title="Drawing
straws">drawing straws</a>).
</p><p><b>Sports</b>: Some sports, including <a href="/wiki/American_football"
title="American football">American football</a>, use <a href="/wiki/Coin_toss"
class="mw-redirect" title="Coin toss">coin tosses</a> to randomly select starting
conditions for games or <a href="/wiki/Seed_(sports)" title="Seed
(sports)">seed</a> tied teams for <a href="/wiki/Playoffs"
title="Playoffs">postseason play</a>. The <a
href="/wiki/National_Basketball_Association" title="National Basketball
Association">National Basketball Association</a> uses a weighted <a
href="/wiki/NBA_Draft_Lottery" class="mw-redirect" title="NBA Draft
Lottery">lottery</a> to order teams in its draft.
</p><p><b>Mathematics</b>: Random numbers are also employed where their use is
mathematically important, such as sampling for <a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll"
title="Opinion poll">opinion polls</a> and for statistical sampling in <a
href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a> systems.
Computational solutions for some types of problems use random numbers extensively,
such as in the <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte
Carlo method</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic
algorithm">genetic algorithms</a>.
</p><p><b>Medicine</b>: Random allocation of a clinical intervention is used to
reduce bias in controlled trials (e.g., <a
href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized
controlled trials">randomized controlled trials</a>).
</p><p><b>Religion</b>: Although not intended to be random, various forms of <a
href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> such as <a
href="/wiki/Cleromancy" title="Cleromancy">cleromancy</a> see what appears to be a
random event as a means for a divine being to communicate their will (see also <a
href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> for more).
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Generation">Generation</span></h2>
href="/wiki/Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">Random
number generation</a></div>
href="/wiki/File:Roulette_wheel.jpg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Roulette_wheel.jpg/200px-
Roulette_wheel.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Roulette_wheel.jpg/300p
x-Roulette_wheel.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Roulette_wheel.jpg/400px-
Roulette_wheel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="639" /></a> <div
class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Roulette_wheel.jpg"
class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The ball in a <a href="/wiki/Roulette"
title="Roulette">roulette</a> can be used as a source of apparent randomness,
because its behavior is very sensitive to the initial conditions.</div></div></div>
<p>It is generally accepted that there exist three mechanisms responsible for
(apparently) random behavior in systems:
</p>
<ol><li><i>Randomness</i> coming from the environment (for example, <a
href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a>, but also
<a href="/wiki/Hardware_random_number_generator" title="Hardware random number
generator">hardware random number generators</a>).</li>
<li><i>Randomness</i> coming from the initial conditions. This aspect is studied by
<a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>, and is observed
in systems whose behavior is very sensitive to small variations in initial
conditions (such as <a href="/wiki/Pachinko" title="Pachinko">pachinko</a> machines
and <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>).</li>
<li><i>Randomness</i> intrinsically generated by the system. This is also called <a
href="/wiki/Pseudorandomness" title="Pseudorandomness">pseudorandomness</a>, and is
the kind used in <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-random_number_generator" class="mw-redirect"
title="Pseudo-random number generator">pseudo-random number generators</a>. There
are many algorithms (based on <a href="/wiki/Arithmetics" class="mw-redirect"
title="Arithmetics">arithmetics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton"
title="Cellular automaton">cellular automaton</a>) for generating pseudorandom
numbers. The behavior of the system can be determined by knowing the <a
href="/wiki/Random_seed" title="Random seed">seed state</a> and the algorithm used.
These methods are often quicker than getting "true" randomness from the
environment.</li></ol>
<p>The many <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_randomness" title="Applications of
randomness">applications of randomness</a> have led to many different methods for
generating random data. These methods may vary as to how unpredictable or <a
href="/wiki/Statistical_randomness" title="Statistical randomness">statistically
random</a> they are, and how quickly they can generate random numbers.
</p><p>Before the advent of computational <a href="/wiki/Random_number_generator"
class="mw-redirect" title="Random number generator">random number generators</a>,
generating large amounts of sufficiently random numbers (which is important in
statistics) required a lot of work. Results would sometimes be collected and
distributed as <a href="/wiki/Random_number_table" title="Random number
table">random number tables</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Measures_and_tests">Measures and
tests</span></h2>
href="/wiki/Randomness_tests" title="Randomness tests">Randomness tests</a></div>
<p>There are many practical measures of randomness for a binary sequence. These
include measures based on frequency, <a href="/wiki/Discrete_transform"
title="Discrete transform">discrete transforms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complexity"
title="Complexity">complexity</a>, or a mixture of these, such as the tests by Kak,
Phillips, Yuen, Hopkins, Beth and Dai, Mund, and Marsaglia and Zaman.<sup
id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_nonlocality" title="Quantum nonlocality">Quantum
nonlocality</a> has been used to certify the presence of genuine or strong form of
randomness in a given string of numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline"
id="Misconceptions_and_logical_fallacies">Misconceptions and logical
fallacies</span></h2>
href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's
fallacy</a></div>
<p>Popular perceptions of randomness are frequently mistaken, and are often based
on fallacious reasoning or intuitions.
</p>
<h3><span id="A_number_is_.22due.22"></span><span class="mw-headline"
id="A_number_is_"due"">A number is "due"</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a
href="/wiki/Coupon_collector%27s_problem" title="Coupon collector's
problem">Coupon collector's problem</a></div>
<p>This argument is, "In a random selection of numbers, since all numbers
eventually appear, those that have not come up yet are 'due', and thus more likely
to come up soon." This logic is only correct if applied to a system where numbers
that come up are removed from the system, such as when <a href="/wiki/Playing_card"
title="Playing card">playing cards</a> are drawn and not returned to the deck. In
this case, once a jack is removed from the deck, the next draw is less likely to be
a jack and more likely to be some other card. However, if the jack is returned to
the deck, and the deck is thoroughly reshuffled, a jack is as likely to be drawn as
any other card. The same applies in any other process where objects are selected
independently, and none are removed after each event, such as the roll of a die, a
coin toss, or most <a href="/wiki/Lottery" title="Lottery">lottery</a> number
selection schemes. Truly random processes such as these do not have memory, which
makes it impossible for past outcomes to affect future outcomes. In fact, there is
no finite number of trials that can guarantee a success.
</p>
<h3><span id="A_number_is_.22cursed.22_or_.22blessed.22"></span><span class="mw-
headline" id="A_number_is_"cursed"_or_"blessed"">A number is
"cursed" or "blessed"</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a
href="/wiki/Benford%27s_law" title="Benford's law">Benford's law</a></div>
<p>In a random sequence of numbers, a number may be said to be cursed because it
has come up less often in the past, and so it is thought that it will occur less
often in the future. A number may be assumed to be blessed because it has occurred
more often than others in the past, and so it is thought likely to come up more
often in the future. This logic is valid only if the randomisation is biased, for
example with a loaded die. If the die is fair, then previous rolls can give no
indication of future events.
</p><p>In nature, events rarely occur with perfectly equal frequency, so observing
outcomes to determine which events are more probable makes sense. However, it is
fallacious to apply this logic to systems designed to make all outcomes equally
likely, such as shuffled cards, dice, and roulette wheels.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Odds_are_never_dynamic">Odds are never
dynamic</span></h3>
<p>In the beginning of a scenario, one might calculate the probability of a certain
event. However, as soon as one gains more information about the scenario, one may
need to re-calculate the probability accordingly.
</p>
href="/wiki/File:Monty_open_door.svg" class="image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Monty_open_door.svg/100px-
Monty_open_door.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="56"
class="thumbimage"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Monty_open_door.svg/150
px-Monty_open_door.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Monty_open_door.svg/200px-
Monty_open_door.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="100" /></a>
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a
href="/wiki/File:Monty_open_door.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>In
the <a href="/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem" title="Monty Hall problem">Monty Hall
problem</a>, when the host reveals one door that contains a goat, this provides new
information that needs to be factored into the calculation of
probabilities.</div></div></div>
<p>For example, when being told that a woman has two children, one might be
interested in knowing if either of them is a girl, and if yes, what is probability
that the other child is also a girl. Considering the two events independently, one
might expect that the probability that the other child is female is ½ (50%), but by
building a <a href="/wiki/Probability_space" title="Probability space">probability
space</a> illustrating all possible outcomes, one would notice that the probability
is actually only ⅓ (33%).
</p><p>To be sure, the probability space does illustrate four ways of having these
two children: boy-boy, girl-boy, boy-girl, and girl-girl. But once it is known that
at least one of the children is female, this rules out the boy-boy scenario,
leaving only three ways of have the two children: boy-girl, girl-boy, girl-girl.
From this, it can be seen only ⅓ of these scenarios would have the other child
being also a girl<sup id="cite_ref-NYOdds_24-0" class="reference"><a
href="#cite_note-NYOdds-24">[24]</a></sup>(see <a
href="/wiki/Boy_or_girl_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Boy or girl
paradox">Boy or girl paradox</a> for more).
</p><p>In general, by using a probability space, one is less likely to miss out on
possible scenarios, or to neglect the importance of new information. This technique
can be used to provide insights in other situations such as the <a
href="/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem" title="Monty Hall problem">Monty Hall problem</a>,
a game show scenario in which a car is hidden behind one of three doors, and two
goats are hidden as <a href="/wiki/Booby_prize" title="Booby prize">booby
prizes</a> behind the others. Once the contestant has chosen a door, the host opens
one of the remaining doors to reveal a goat, eliminating that door as an option.
With only two doors left (one with the car, the other with another goat), the
player must decide to either keep their decision, or to switch and select the other
door. Intuitively, one might think the player is choosing between two doors with
equal probability, and that the opportunity to choose another door makes no
difference. However, an analysis of the probability spaces would reveal that the
contestant has received new information, and that changing to the other door would
increase their chances of winning.<sup id="cite_ref-NYOdds_24-1"
class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYOdds-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleatory" class="mw-redirect"
title="Aleatory">Aleatory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaitin%27s_constant" title="Chaitin's constant">Chaitin's
constant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chance_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig"
title="Chance (disambiguation)">Chance (disambiguation)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency
probability">Frequency probability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">Indeterminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_system" title="Nonlinear system">Nonlinear
system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability_interpretations" title="Probability
interpretations">Probability interpretations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">Probability
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudorandomness"
title="Pseudorandomness">Pseudorandomness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Random.org" title="Random.org">Random.org</a>—generates random
numbers using atmospheric noises</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sortition" title="Sortition">Sortition</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width:
30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-
1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a
href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford
English Dictionary</a></i> defines "random" as "Having no definite aim or purpose;
not sent or guided in a particular direction; made, done, occurring, etc., without
method or conscious choice; haphazard."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-
0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-
1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite
class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/randomness">"Definition of randomness |
Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">.
Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=D
efinition+of+randomness+%7C+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Frandomness&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-
deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r951705291">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-
style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output
.id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-
image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-
Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6
5/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-
output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-
parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-
image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-
2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d
6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-
output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-
image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-
2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a
a/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-
position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output
.cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-
output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-
output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-
image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-
logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-
gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4
c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-
size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-
code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-
output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-
format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-
wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output
.cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-
selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style></span>
</li>
3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathvault.ca/math-
glossary/#arbitrary">"The Definitive Glossary of Higher Mathematical Jargon –
Arbitrary"</a>. <i>Math Vault</i>. 1 August 2019<span class="reference-
accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span>
2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Math+Vault&rft.atitle=The+Defin
itive+Glossary+of+Higher+Mathematical+Jargon+%E2%80%93+Arbitrary&rft.date=2019-
08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathvault.ca%2Fmath-glossary%2F
%23arbitrary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness"
class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite
id="CITEREFHans_Jürgen_Prömel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hans Jürgen Prömel
(2005). "Complete Disorder is Impossible: The Mathematical Work of Walter Deuber".
<i><a href="/wiki/Combinatorics,_Probability_and_Computing" title="Combinatorics,
Probability and Computing">Combinatorics, Probability and Computing</a></i>.
Cambridge University Press. <b>14</b>: 3–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963548304006674">10.1017/S0963548304006674</a>.</
cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combinatorics
%2C+Probability+and+Computing&rft.atitle=Complete+Disorder+is+Impossible
%3A+The+Mathematical+Work+of+Walter+Deuber&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=3-
16&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1017%2FS0963548304006674&rft.au=Hans+J%C3%BCrgen+Pr
%C3%B6mel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness"
</li>
5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ted.com, (May 2016). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.ted.com/talks/patrickjmt_the_origin_of_countless_conspiracy_theor
ies/transcript">The origin of countless conspiracy theories</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-calude2017-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a
href="#cite_ref-calude2017_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-
calude2017_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-
text"><a href="/wiki/Cristian_S._Calude" title="Cristian S. Calude">Cristian S.
Calude</a>, (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~cristian/crispapers/QR_TP.pdf">"Quantum
Randomness: From Practice to Theory and Back"</a> in "The Incomputable Journeys
Beyond the Turing Barrier" Editors: <a href="/wiki/S._Barry_Cooper" title="S. Barry
Cooper">S. Barry Cooper</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?
title=Mariya_I._Soskova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mariya I.
Soskova (page does not exist)">Mariya I. Soskova</a>, 169–181, doi:10.1007/978-3-
319-43669-2_11.</span>
</li>
7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text"
href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~junliu/Workshops/workshop2007/">Third
Workshop on Monte Carlo Methods</a>, Jun Liu, Professor of Statistics, Harvard
University</span>
</li>
8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook to life in ancient
Rome</i> by Lesley Adkins 1998 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512332-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-
512332-8">0-19-512332-8</a> page 279</span>
</li>
9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Religions of the ancient
world</i> by Sarah Iles Johnston 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
01517-7">0-674-01517-7</a> page 370</span>
</li>
10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Annotated readings in the
history of statistics</i> by Herbert Aron David, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98844-0"
title="Special:BookSources/0-387-98844-0">0-387-98844-0</a> page 115. Note that the
1866 edition of Venn's book (on Google books) does not include this
chapter.</span>
</li>
11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReinert2010"
class="citation web cs1">Reinert, Knut (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.mi.fu-
berlin.de/wiki/pub/ABI/DiscretMathWS10/runtime.pdf">"Concept: Types of
algorithms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Freie Universität
Berlin</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20
November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Freie+Universit
%C3%A4t+Berlin&rft.atitle=Concept
%3A+Types+of+algorithms&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Reinert&rft.aufirst=Kn
ut&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mi.fu-berlin.de%2Fwiki%2Fpub%2FABI
%2FDiscretMathWS10%2Fruntime.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3ARandomness" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
id="CITEREFZeilingerAspelmeyerŻukowskiBrukner2007" class="citation journal
cs1">Zeilinger, Anton; Aspelmeyer, Markus; Żukowski, Marek; Brukner, Časlav;
Kaltenbaek, Rainer; Paterek, Tomasz; Gröblacher, Simon (April 2007). "An
experimental test of non-local realism". <i>Nature</i>. <b>446</b> (7138): 871–875.
<a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a
href="//arxiv.org/abs/0704.2529">0704.2529</a></span>. <a
href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode
(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.446..871G">2007Natur.446..871G</a
>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi
(identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05677">10.1038/nature05677</a>. <a
href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN
(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a
href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID
(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17443179">17443179</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+experiment
al+test+of+non-
local+realism&rft.volume=446&rft.issue=7138&rft.pages=871-
875&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2007Natur.446..871G&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0704.2529&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F17443179&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05677&rft.issn=1476-
4687&rft.aulast=Zeilinger&rft.aufirst=Anton&rft.au=Aspelmeyer
%2C+Markus&rft.au=%C5%BBukowski%2C+Marek&rft.au=Brukner%2C+
%C4%8Caslav&rft.au=Kaltenbaek%2C+Rainer&rft.au=Paterek
%2C+Tomasz&rft.au=Gr%C3%B6blacher%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Each nucleus decays
spontaneously, at random, in accordance with the blind workings of chance." <i>Q
for Quantum</i>, <a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin" title="John Gribbin">John
Gribbin</a></span>
</li>
id="CITEREFLongoMontévilKauffman2012" class="citation book cs1">Longo, Giuseppe;
Montévil, Maël; Kauffman, Stuart (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11720588"><i>No Entailing
Laws, but Enablement in the Evolution of the Biosphere</i></a>. <i>Proceedings of
the 14th Annual Conference Companion on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation</i>.
GECCO '12. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 1379–1392. <a
href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX
(identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely
accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?
doi=10.1.1.701.3838">10.1.1.701.3838</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2330784.2330946">10.1145/2330784.2330946</a>. <a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450311786"
title="Special:BookSources/9781450311786"><bdi>9781450311786</bdi></a>.</cite><span
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Entailing+Laws
%2C+but+Enablement+in+the+Evolution+of+the+Biosphere&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY
%2C+USA&rft.series=GECCO+%2712&rft.pages=1379-
1392&rft.pub=ACM&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv
%2F1201.2069&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2330784.2330946&rft_id=%2F
%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi
%3D10.1.1.701.3838&rft.isbn=9781450311786&rft.aulast=Longo&rft.aufirst=
Giuseppe&rft.au=Mont%C3%A9vil%2C+Ma%C3%ABl&rft.au=Kauffman
%2C+Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11720588&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
id="CITEREFLongoMontévil2013" class="citation journal cs1">Longo, Giuseppe;
Montévil, Maël (1 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://www.academia.edu/11720575">"Extended criticality, phase spaces and
enablement in biology"</a>. <i>Chaos, Solitons & Fractals</i>. Emergent
Critical Brain Dynamics. <b>55</b>: 64–79. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013CSF....55...64L">2013CSF....55...64L</a
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chaos.2013.03.008">10.1016/j.chaos.2013.03.008</a
>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chaos%2C+Solitons+
%26+Fractals&rft.atitle=Extended+criticality
%2C+phase+spaces+and+enablement+in+biology&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=64-
79&rft.date=2013-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.1016%2Fj.chaos.2013.03.008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2013CSF....55...64L&rft.aulast=Longo&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft.au=Mon
t%C3%A9vil%2C+Ma%C3%ABl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu
%2F11720575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness"
</li>
16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBreathnach1982"
class="citation journal cs1">Breathnach, A. S. (1982). "A long-term hypopigmentary
effect of thorium-X on freckled skin". <i>British Journal of Dermatology</i>.
<b>106</b> (1): 19–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2133.1982.tb00897.x">10.1111/j.1365-
2133.1982.tb00897.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7059501">7059501</a>. <q>The distribution of
freckles seems entirely random, and not associated with any other obviously
punctuate anatomical or physiological feature of skin.</q></cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Dermatology&
rft.atitle=A+long-term+hypopigmentary+effect+of+thorium-
X+on+freckled+skin&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-
25&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-
2133.1982.tb00897.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F7059501&rft.aulast=Breathnach&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yongge Wang: Randomness and
Complexity. PhD Thesis, 1996. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free"
href="http://webpages.uncc.edu/yonwang/papers/thesis.pdf">http://webpages.uncc.edu/
yonwang/papers/thesis.pdf</a></span>
</li>
18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/Science-
Articles/Archive/pi-random.html">"Are the digits of pi random? researcher may hold
the key"</a>. Lbl.gov. 23 July 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved
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%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Are+the+digits+of+pi+random
%3F+researcher+may+hold+the+key&rft.pub=Lbl.gov&rft.date=2001-07-
23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2FScience-Articles%2FArchive%2Fpi-
random.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness"
</li>
19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laszso Barabasi, (2003), Linked,
Rich Gets Richer, P81</span>
</li>
20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Municipal Elections Act (Ontario,
Canada) 1996, c. 32, Sched., s. 62 (3) : "If the recount indicates that two or
more candidates who cannot both or all be declared elected to an office have
received the same number of votes, the clerk shall choose the successful candidate
or candidates by lot."</span>
</li>
21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReichenbach1990"
class="citation book cs1">Reichenbach, Bruce (1990). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?
id=euWuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121"><i>The Law of Karma: A Philosophical Study</i></a>.
Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-11899-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-
1-349-11899-1"><bdi>978-1-349-11899-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Karma
%3A+A+Philosophical+Study&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&r
ft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-349-11899-
1&rft.aulast=Reichenbach&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeuWuCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid
</li>
22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Terry Ritter, Randomness tests: a
literature survey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.ciphersbyritter.com/RES/RANDTEST.HTM">ciphersbyritter.com</a></spa
n>
</li>
23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPironio2010"
class="citation journal cs1">Pironio, S.; et al. (2010). "Random Numbers Certified
by Bell's Theorem". <i>Nature</i>. <b>464</b> (7291): 1021–1024. <a
href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode
(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.464.1021P">2010Natur.464.1021P</a
href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09008">10.1038/nature09008</a>. <a
href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID
(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20393558">20393558</a>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Random+Number
s+Certified+by+Bell
%27s+Theorem&rft.volume=464&rft.issue=7291&rft.pages=1021-
1024&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0911.3427&rft_id=info%3Apmid
%2F20393558&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature09008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode
%2F2010Natur.464.1021P&rft.aulast=Pironio&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-NYOdds-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-
NYOdds_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYOdds_24-
1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite
id="CITEREFJohnson2008" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, George (8 June 2008). <a
href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/books/review/Johnson-G-t.html?
_r=1">"Playing the Odds"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span
%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=P
laying+the+Odds&rft.date=2008-06-
08&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F06%2F08%2Fbooks%2Freview%2FJohnson-G-t.html%3F_r
%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARandomness"
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul><li><i>Randomness</i> by Deborah J. Bennett. Harvard University Press, 1998.
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
10745-4">0-674-10745-4</a>.</li>
<li><i>Random Measures, 4th ed.</i> by <a href="/wiki/Olav_Kallenberg" title="Olav
Kallenberg">Olav Kallenberg</a>. Academic Press, New York, London; Akademie-Verlag,
Berlin, 1986. <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR
(identifier)">MR</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0854102">0854102</a>.</li>
<li><i>The Art of Computer Programming. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, 3rd
ed.</i> by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a>.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
89684-2">0-201-89684-2</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness" title="Fooled by Randomness">Fooled by
Randomness</a>, 2nd ed.</i> by <a href="/wiki/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb" title="Nassim
Nicholas Taleb">Nassim Nicholas Taleb</a>. Thomson Texere, 2004. <link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58799-190-X"
title="Special:BookSources/1-58799-190-X">1-58799-190-X</a>.</li>
<li><i>Exploring Randomness</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chaitin" title="Gregory
Chaitin">Gregory Chaitin</a>. Springer-Verlag London, 2001. <link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85233-417-7"
title="Special:BookSources/1-85233-417-7">1-85233-417-7</a>.</li>
<li><i>Random</i> by Kenneth Chan includes a "Random Scale" for grading the level
of randomness.</li>
<li><i>The Drunkard’s Walk: How Randomness Rules our Lives</i> by <a
href="/wiki/Leonard_Mlodinow" title="Leonard Mlodinow">Leonard Mlodinow</a>.
Pantheon Books, New York, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42404-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0-375-42404-5">978-0-375-42404-5</a>.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox"
style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/40px-
Wikiversity-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="32" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-
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Wikiversity-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a
href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Random" class="extiw"
title="v:Random">Random</a></b></i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<tbody><tr>
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-
v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40"
class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-
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/></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a
href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/randomness" class="extiw"
title="wiktionary:randomness">randomness</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<tbody><tr>
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-
Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-
logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a
href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Randomness" class="extiw"
title="q:Special:Search/Randomness">Randomness</a></b></i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<tbody><tr>
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-
logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-
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height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Randomness" class="extiw"
title="commons:Category:Randomness"><span
style="">Randomness</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.quantumlab.de">QuantumLab</a> Quantum random number generator with
single photons as interactive experiment.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="http://www.fourmilab.ch/hotbits/">HotBits</a> generates random numbers from
radioactive decay.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://random.irb.hr">QRBG</a>
Quantum Random Bit Generator</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qrng.physik.hu-
berlin.de/">QRNG</a> Fast Quantum Random Bit Generator</li>
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070406063940/http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTC
S/chaitin/sciamer.html">Chaitin: Randomness and Mathematical Proof</a></li>
href="http://www.fourmilab.ch/random/">A Pseudorandom Number Sequence Test Program
(Public Domain)</a></li>
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050404045817/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-
local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-46"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a>
Chance</li>
href="http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~cristian/Calude361_370.pdf">Computing a Glimpse
of Randomness</a></li>
href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chance-randomness/">Chance versus
Randomness</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy"
title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy</a></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dynamical_systems"
style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-
inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th
scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar
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id="Dynamical_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Dynamical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamical
systems">Dynamical systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-
group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th
id="core" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="margin:
10px 0px">core</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attractor" title="Attractor">attractor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_theory#Bifurcation_types" title="Bifurcation
theory">bifurcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Limit_set" title="Limit set">limit set</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lyapunov_exponent" title="Lyapunov exponent">lyapunov
exponent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(dynamics)" title="Orbit (dynamics)">orbit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_point" title="Periodic point">periodic point</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phase_space" title="Phase space">phase space</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anosov_diffeomorphism" title="Anosov diffeomorphism">anosov
diffeomorphism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_tongue" title="Arnold tongue">Arnold tongue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_A" title="Axiom A">axiom A dynamical system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_diagram" title="Bifurcation diagram">bifurcation
diagram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Box-counting_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="Box-counting
dimension">box-counting dimension</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_dimension" title="Correlation dimension">correlation
dimension</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_system" title="Conservative system">conservative
system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ergodicity" title="Ergodicity">ergodicity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/False_nearest_neighbors" class="mw-redirect" title="False
nearest neighbors">false nearest neighbors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hausdorff_dimension" title="Hausdorff dimension">Hausdorff
dimension</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Invariant_measure" title="Invariant measure">invariant
measure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lyapunov_stability" title="Lyapunov stability">Lyapunov
stability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Measure-preserving_dynamical_system" title="Measure-preserving
dynamical system">measure-preserving dynamical systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_(mathematics)" title="Mixing
(mathematics)">mixing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Poincaré
section">Poincaré section</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Recurrence_plot" title="Recurrence plot">recurrence
plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stable_manifold" title="Stable manifold">stable
manifold</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Topological_conjugacy" title="Topological conjugacy">topological
conjugacy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="margin: 10px 0px">theorems</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_theory#Ergodic_theorems" title="Ergodic
theory">Ergodic theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_(Hamiltonian)" title="Liouville's
theorem (Hamiltonian)">Liouville's theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krylov%E2%80%93Bogolyubov_theorem" title="Krylov–Bogolyubov
theorem">Krylov–Bogolyubov theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9-Bendixson_theorem" class="mw-redirect"
title="Poincaré-Bendixson theorem">Poincaré-Bendixson theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_recurrence_theorem" title="Poincaré recurrence
theorem">Poincaré recurrence theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Takens%27s_theorem" title="Takens's theorem">Takens's
theorem</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image"
rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:C
%C3%B4ne_textileII.png" class="image" title="Conus textile shell"><img alt="Conus
textile shell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/C
%C3%B4ne_textileII.png/100px-C%C3%B4ne_textileII.png" decoding="async" width="100"
height="180" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/C
%C3%B4ne_textileII.png/150px-C%C3%B4ne_textileII.png 1.5x,
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%C3%B4ne_textileII.png 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="4211" /></a>
<p><br />
</p>
<a href="/wiki/File:Circle_map_poincare_recurrence.jpeg" class="image"
title="Circle map with black Arnold tongues"><img alt="Circle map with black Arnold
tongues"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Circle_map_poincare_recurr
ence.jpeg/100px-Circle_map_poincare_recurrence.jpeg" decoding="async" width="100"
height="200"
srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Circle_map_poincare_rec
urrence.jpeg/150px-Circle_map_poincare_recurrence.jpeg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Circle_map_poincare_recurrence.
jpeg/200px-Circle_map_poincare_recurrence.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-
height="900" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />branches</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even
hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_theory" title="Bifurcation theory">Bifurcation
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_chaos" title="Control of chaos">Control of
chaos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">Dynamical
system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_theory" title="Ergodic theory">Ergodic theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chaos" title="Quantum chaos">Quantum chaos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stability_theory" title="Stability theory">Stability
theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization_of_chaos" title="Synchronization of
chaos">Synchronization of chaos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Chaotic<br />maps (<a href="/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps"
title="List of chaotic maps">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="margin: 10px
0px">discrete</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arnold%27s_cat_map" title="Arnold's cat map">Arnold's
cat map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_map" title="Baker's map">Baker's map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Complex_quadratic_polynomial" title="Complex quadratic
polynomial">Complex quadratic map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_map_lattice" title="Coupled map lattice">Coupled map
lattice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duffing_map" title="Duffing map">Duffing map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dyadic_transformation" title="Dyadic transformation">Dyadic
transformation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dynamical_billiards" title="Dynamical billiards">Dynamical
billiards</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_billiard" title="Outer
billiard">outer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_map_(discrete_dynamical_systems)" title="Exponential
map (discrete dynamical systems)">Exponential map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_iterated_map" title="Gauss iterated map">Gauss
map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gingerbreadman_map" title="Gingerbreadman map">Gingerbreadman
map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9non_map" title="Hénon map">Hénon map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_map" title="Horseshoe map">Horseshoe map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ikeda_map" title="Ikeda map">Ikeda map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interval_exchange_transformation" title="Interval exchange
transformation">Interval exchange map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_rotation" title="Irrational rotation">Irrational
rotation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kaplan%E2%80%93Yorke_map" title="Kaplan–Yorke map">Kaplan–Yorke
map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_map" title="Logistic map">Logistic map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_map" title="Standard map">Standard map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tent_map" title="Tent map">Tent map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tinkerbell_map" title="Tinkerbell map">Tinkerbell map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zaslavskii_map" title="Zaslavskii map">Zaslavskii
map</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div
style="margin: 10px 0px">continuous</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_scroll_attractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Double
scroll attractor">Double scroll attractor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duffing_equation" title="Duffing equation">Duffing
equation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lorenz_system" title="Lorenz system">Lorenz system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra
equations">Lotka–Volterra equations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mackey-Glass_equations" title="Mackey-Glass equations">Mackey-
Glass equations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rabinovich%E2%80%93Fabrikant_equations" title="Rabinovich–
Fabrikant equations">Rabinovich–Fabrikant equations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ssler_attractor" title="Rössler attractor">Rössler
attractor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Three-body_problem" title="Three-body problem">Three-body
problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Pol_oscillator" title="Van der Pol oscillator">Van der
Pol oscillator</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chaotic <a href="/wiki/Physical_system"
title="Physical system">phy-<br />sical systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chua%27s_circuit" title="Chua's circuit">Chua's
circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93B%C3%A9nard_convection" title="Rayleigh–Bénard
convection">Convection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Double_pendulum" title="Double pendulum">Double
pendulum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_pendulum" title="Elastic pendulum">Elastic
pendulum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Pasta%E2%80%93Ulam%E2%80%93Tsingou_problem"
title="Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem">FPUT problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population
dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swinging_Atwood%27s_machine" title="Swinging Atwood's
machine">Swinging Atwood's machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tilt-A-Whirl" title="Tilt-A-Whirl">Tilt-A-Whirl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather
forecasting">Weather</a></li></ul>
style="width:1%">Chaos<br />theorists</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Berry_(physicist)" title="Michael Berry
(physicist)">Michael Berry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary
Cartwright</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leon_O._Chua" title="Leon O. Chua">Leon O. Chua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_Feigenbaum" title="Mitchell Feigenbaum">Mitchell
Feigenbaum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Grassberger" title="Peter Grassberger">Peter
Grassberger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Celso_Grebogi" title="Celso Grebogi">Celso Grebogi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gutzwiller" title="Martin Gutzwiller">Martin
Gutzwiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brosl_Hasslacher" title="Brosl Hasslacher">Brosl
Hasslacher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michel_H%C3%A9non" title="Michel Hénon">Michel Hénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Jitomirskaya" title="Svetlana Jitomirskaya">Svetlana
Jitomirskaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bryna_Kra" title="Bryna Kra">Bryna Kra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton
Lorenz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Lyapunov" title="Aleksandr Lyapunov">Aleksandr
Lyapunov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot" title="Benoit Mandelbrot">Benoît
Mandelbrot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hee_Oh" title="Hee Oh">Hee Oh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ott" title="Edward Ott">Edward Ott</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri
Poincaré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rees" title="Mary Rees">Mary Rees</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Otto_R%C3%B6ssler" title="Otto Rössler">Otto Rössler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Ruelle" title="David Ruelle">David Ruelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Series" title="Caroline Series">Caroline
Series</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oleksandr_Mykolayovych_Sharkovsky" title="Oleksandr Mykolayovych
Sharkovsky">Oleksandr Mykolayovych Sharkovsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nina_Snaith" title="Nina Snaith">Nina Snaith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floris_Takens" title="Floris Takens">Floris Takens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Terras" title="Audrey Terras">Audrey Terras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Tsingou" title="Mary Tsingou">Mary Tsingou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amie_Wilkinson" title="Amie Wilkinson">Amie Wilkinson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Yorke" title="James A. Yorke">James A. Yorke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lai-Sang_Young" title="Lai-Sang Young">Lai-Sang
Young</a></li></ul>
style="width:1%">Related<br />articles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">Butterfly
effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory_in_organizational_development" title="Chaos theory
in organizational development">Chaos theory in organizational development</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">Complexity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edge_of_chaos" title="Edge of chaos">Edge of chaos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Predictability" title="Predictability">Predictability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe
Institute</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Statistics"
style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed
navbox-inner" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col"
class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li
class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Statistics"
title="Template:Statistics"><abbr title="View this template"
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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Statistics" title="Template talk:Statistics"><abbr
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title=Template:Statistics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template"
shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div
id="Statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Statistics"
title="Statistics">Statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow"
colspan="2"><div id="*_Outline_*_Index">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_statistics" title="Outline of
statistics">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles" title="List of statistics
articles">Index</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div
id="Descriptive_statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive
statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
href="/wiki/Continuous_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect"
title="Continuous probability distribution">Continuous data</a></th><td
class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a
href="/wiki/Central_tendency" title="Central tendency">Center</a></th><td
left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">Mean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">geometric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_mean" title="Harmonic mean">harmonic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">Median</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical
dispersion">Dispersion</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Variance#Sample_variance" title="Variance">Variance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">Standard
deviation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation" title="Coefficient of
variation">Coefficient of variation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Percentile" title="Percentile">Percentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Range_(statistics)" title="Range (statistics)">Range</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interquartile_range" title="Interquartile range">Interquartile
range</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_distribution" class="mw-redirect"
title="Shape of the distribution">Shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">Central
limit theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">Moments</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">Skewness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">Kurtosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/L-moment" title="L-moment">L-moments</a></li></ul></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Count_data" title="Count
data">Count data</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_dispersion" title="Index of dispersion">Index of
dispersion</a></li></ul>
style="width:12.5em">Summary tables</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grouped_data" title="Grouped data">Grouped data</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_distribution" title="Frequency distribution">Frequency
distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency
table</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" title="Correlation and
dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient" title="Pearson correlation
coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rank_correlation" title="Rank correlation">Rank correlation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient"
title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's ρ</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Kendall rank
correlation coefficient">Kendall's τ</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial
correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Graphics</a></th><td
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biplot" title="Biplot">Biplot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Box_plot" title="Box plot">Box plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correlogram" title="Correlogram">Correlogram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fan_chart_(statistics)" title="Fan chart (statistics)">Fan
chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forest_plot" title="Forest plot">Forest plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Q%E2%80%93Q_plot" title="Q–Q plot">Q–Q plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-
leaf display</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radar_chart" title="Radar chart">Radar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Violin_plot" title="Violin plot">Violin plot</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></t
d></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
id="Data_collection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data
collection</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Study
design</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical
population">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">Effect size</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical
power">Statistical power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_design" title="Optimal design">Optimal design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size
determination">Sample size determination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(statistics)" title="Replication
(statistics)">Replication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Missing_data" title="Missing data">Missing data</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Survey
methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling
(statistics)">Sampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified
sampling">stratified</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster
sampling">cluster</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Controlled experiments</a></th><td
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Scientific
control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">Randomized
experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled
trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">Random
assignment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blocking_(statistics)" title="Blocking
(statistics)">Blocking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction
(statistics)">Interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial
experiment</a></li></ul>
style="width:12.5em">Adaptive Designs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" title="Adaptive clinical
trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Up-and-Down_Designs" title="Up-and-Down Designs">Up-and-Down
Designs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_approximation" title="Stochastic
approximation">Stochastic approximation</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational
Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-
sectional study</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">Natural
experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-
experiment</a></li></ul>
id="Statistical_inference" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical
inference</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Statistical_theory" title="Statistical theory">Statistical
theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Population (statistics)">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability
distribution">Probability distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_distribution" title="Sampling distribution">Sampling
distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_statistic" title="Order statistic">Order
statistic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution
function">Empirical distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Density_estimation" title="Density estimation">Density
estimation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical
model</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Model
specification">Model specification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup><i>p</i></sup>
space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical
parameter">Parameter</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Location_parameter" title="Location
parameter">location</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scale_parameter" title="Scale parameter">scale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shape_parameter" title="Shape
parameter">shape</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric
family</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_function" title="Likelihood
function">Likelihood</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotone_likelihood_ratio"
title="Monotone likelihood ratio"><span style="font-
size:85%;">(monotone)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale
family">Location–scale family</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential
family</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness
(statistics)">Completeness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufficient_statistic" title="Sufficient
statistic">Sufficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in
principle">Statistical functional</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping
(statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/U-statistic" title="U-statistic">U</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/V-statistic" title="V-statistic">V</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">Optimal decision</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_function" title="Loss function">loss
function</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(statistics)" title="Efficiency
(statistics)">Efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_distance" title="Statistical distance">Statistical
distance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_(statistics)" title="Divergence
(statistics)">divergence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" title="Asymptotic theory
(statistics)">Asymptotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robust_statistics" title="Robust
statistics">Robustness</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Frequentist_inference" title="Frequentist inference">Frequentist
inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Point_estimation" title="Point estimation">Point
estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estimating_equations" title="Estimating
equations">Estimating equations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum
likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_moments_(statistics)" title="Method of moments
(statistics)">Method of moments</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/M-estimator" title="M-estimator">M-estimator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_distance_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum
distance estimation">Minimum distance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Unbiased
estimators</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator" title="Minimum-variance
unbiased estimator">Mean-unbiased minimum-variance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rao%E2%80%93Blackwell_theorem" title="Rao–Blackwell
theorem">Rao–Blackwellization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann%E2%80%93Scheff%C3%A9_theorem" title="Lehmann–Scheffé
theorem">Lehmann–Scheffé theorem</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Median-unbiased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Median-
unbiased estimator">Median unbiased</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in
principle">Plug-in</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Interval_estimation" title="Interval
estimation">Interval estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">Confidence
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pivotal_quantity" title="Pivotal quantity">Pivot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood
interval">Likelihood interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">Prediction
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tolerance_interval" title="Tolerance interval">Tolerance
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)" title="Resampling
(statistics)">Resampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping
(statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jackknife_resampling" title="Jackknife
resampling">Jackknife</a></li></ul></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" title="Statistical
hypothesis testing">Testing hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-_and_two-tailed_tests" title="One- and two-tailed
tests">1- & 2-tails</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Power_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power
(statistics)">Power</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniformly_most_powerful_test" title="Uniformly most powerful
test">Uniformly most powerful test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Permutation_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Permutation
test">Permutation test</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomization_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomization
test">Randomization test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple
comparisons">Multiple comparisons</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric
statistics">Parametric tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio
test">Likelihood-ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Score_test" title="Score test">Score/Lagrange
multiplier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wald_test" title="Wald test">Wald</a></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td
colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test <span style="font-
size:90%;">(normal)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's
<i>t</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/F-test" title="F-test"><i>F</i>-test</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Goodness_of_fit" title="Goodness of fit">Goodness of
fit</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-
width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_test" title="Chi-squared test">Chi-
squared</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G-test" title="G-test"><i>G</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov
test">Kolmogorov–Smirnov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anderson%E2%80%93Darling_test" title="Anderson–Darling
test">Anderson–Darling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lilliefors_test" title="Lilliefors test">Lilliefors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jarque%E2%80%93Bera_test" title="Jarque–Bera test">Jarque–
Bera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Wilk_test" title="Shapiro–Wilk test">Normality
<span style="font-size:90%;">(Shapiro–Wilk)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-
ratio test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model_selection" title="Model selection">Model selection</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation
(statistics)">Cross validation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information
criterion">AIC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion" title="Bayesian information
criterion">BIC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rank_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Rank
statistics">Rank statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_test" title="Sign test">Sign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sample_median" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample
median">Sample median</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test" title="Wilcoxon signed-rank
test">Signed rank <span style="font-size:90%;">(Wilcoxon)</span></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hodges%E2%80%93Lehmann_estimator" title="Hodges–Lehmann
estimator">Hodges–Lehmann estimator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test" title="Mann–Whitney U test">Rank
sum <span style="font-size:90%;">(Mann–Whitney)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_statistics" title="Nonparametric
statistics">Nonparametric</a> <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis
of variance">anova</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Wallis_one-way_analysis_of_variance"
title="Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance">1-way <span style="font-
size:90%;">(Kruskal–Wallis)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedman_test" title="Friedman test">2-way <span style="font-
size:90%;">(Friedman)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonckheere%27s_trend_test" title="Jonckheere's trend
test">Ordered alternative <span style="font-size:90%;">(Jonckheere–
Terpstra)</span></a></li></ul></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference"
title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian
probability</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior_probability" title="Prior probability">prior</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_probability" title="Posterior
probability">posterior</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Credible_interval" title="Credible interval">Credible
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_factor" title="Bayes factor">Bayes factor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_estimator" title="Bayes estimator">Bayesian estimator</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation" title="Maximum a posteriori
estimation">Maximum posterior estimator</a></li></ul></li></ul>
id="CorrelationRegression_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div
class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence"
title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></li><li><a
href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression
analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" title="Correlation and
dependence">Correlation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-
redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-
moment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial
<li><a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding variable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination" title="Coefficient of
determination">Coefficient of determination</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression
analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Errors_and_residuals_in_statistics" class="mw-redirect"
title="Errors and residuals in statistics">Errors and residuals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regression_validation" title="Regression validation">Regression
validation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_model" title="Mixed model">Mixed effects models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_equations_model" title="Simultaneous equations
model">Simultaneous equations models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_adaptive_regression_splines" class="mw-redirect"
title="Multivariate adaptive regression splines">Multivariate adaptive regression
splines (MARS)</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear
regression</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_linear_regression" title="Simple linear
regression">Simple linear regression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">Ordinary
least squares</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">General
linear model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_linear_regression" title="Bayesian linear
regression">Bayesian regression</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Non-
standard predictors</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">Nonlinear
regression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_regression" title="Nonparametric
regression">Nonparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiparametric_regression" title="Semiparametric
regression">Semiparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isotonic_regression" title="Isotonic
regression">Isotonic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robust_regression" title="Robust regression">Robust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heteroscedasticity"
title="Heteroscedasticity">Heteroscedasticity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homoscedasticity"
title="Homoscedasticity">Homoscedasticity</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Generalized_linear_model" title="Generalized linear model">Generalized
linear model</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential
families</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">Logistic <span
style="font-size:90%;">(Bernoulli)</span></a> / <a
href="/wiki/Binomial_regression" title="Binomial
regression">Binomial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression"
title="Poisson regression">Poisson regressions</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Partition_of_sums_of_squares" title="Partition of sums of
squares">Partition of variance</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis
of variance (ANOVA, anova)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of covariance">Analysis
of covariance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis
of variance">Multivariate ANOVA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom
(statistics)">Degrees of freedom</a></li></ul>
id="Categorical_/_Multivariate_/_Time-series_/_Survival_analysis" style="font-
size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical
variable">Categorical</a> / <a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics"
title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival
analysis</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical
variable">Categorical</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohen%27s_kappa" title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's
kappa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency
table</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/McNemar%27s_test" title="McNemar's test">McNemar's
test</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate
statistics">Multivariate</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear
model">Regression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis
of variance">Manova</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component
analysis">Principal components</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">Canonical
<li><a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant
analysis">Discriminant analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical
classification">Classification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation
modeling">Structural equation model</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor
analysis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_distribution" class="mw-redirect"
title="Multivariate distribution">Multivariate distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical
distribution">Elliptical distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_normal_distribution" title="Multivariate normal
distribution">Normal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a></th><td class="navbox-
list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-
weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition_of_time_series" title="Decomposition of time
series">Decomposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend
estimation">Trend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_process" title="Stationary
process">Stationarity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_adjustment" title="Seasonal adjustment">Seasonal
adjustment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_smoothing" title="Exponential smoothing">Exponential
smoothing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cointegration" title="Cointegration">Cointegration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_break" title="Structural break">Structural
break</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">Granger
causality</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickey%E2%80%93Fuller_test" title="Dickey–Fuller
test">Dickey–Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johansen_test" title="Johansen test">Johansen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ljung%E2%80%93Box_test" title="Ljung–Box test">Q-statistic <span
style="font-size:90%;">(Ljung–Box)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Durbin%E2%80%93Watson_statistic" title="Durbin–Watson
statistic">Durbin–Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Breusch%E2%80%93Godfrey_test" title="Breusch–Godfrey
test">Breusch–Godfrey</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time
domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">Autocorrelation
(ACF)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_autocorrelation_function" title="Partial
autocorrelation function">partial (PACF)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cross-correlation" title="Cross-correlation">Cross-correlation
(XCF)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive%E2%80%93moving-average_model"
title="Autoregressive–moving-average model">ARMA model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Jenkins_method" title="Box–Jenkins method">ARIMA
model <span style="font-size:90%;">(Box–Jenkins)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive_conditional_heteroskedasticity"
title="Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity">Autoregressive conditional
heteroskedasticity (ARCH)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vector_autoregression" title="Vector autoregression">Vector
autoregression (VAR)</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Frequency_domain" title="Frequency domain">Frequency
domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_density_estimation" title="Spectral density
estimation">Spectral density estimation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wavelet" title="Wavelet">Wavelet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whittle_likelihood" title="Whittle likelihood">Whittle
likelihood</a></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis"
title="Survival analysis">Survival</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a
href="/wiki/Survival_function" title="Survival function">Survival
function</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaplan%E2%80%93Meier_estimator" title="Kaplan–Meier
estimator">Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_hazards_model" title="Proportional hazards
model">Proportional hazards models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Accelerated_failure_time_model" title="Accelerated failure time
model">Accelerated failure time (AFT) model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First-hitting-time_model" title="First-hitting-time model">First
hitting time</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Failure_rate" title="Failure rate">Hazard
function</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nelson%E2%80%93Aalen_estimator" title="Nelson–Aalen
estimator">Nelson–Aalen estimator</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;">Test</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Log-rank_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Log-rank
test">Log-rank test</a></li></ul>
d></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-
subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title"
colspan="2"><div id="Applications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics" title="List of fields of
application of statistics">Applications</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup"
style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics"
title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics"
title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical
trials</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study
design">studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medical_statistics" title="Medical statistics">Medical
statistics</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Engineering_statistics" title="Engineering statistics">Engineering
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemometrics" title="Chemometrics">Chemometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Methods_engineering" title="Methods engineering">Methods
engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_design" title="Probabilistic design">Probabilistic
design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_process_control" title="Statistical process
control">Process</a> / <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality
control">quality control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability
engineering">Reliability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/System_identification" title="System identification">System
identification</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Social_statistics" title="Social statistics">Social
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actuarial_science" title="Actuarial science">Actuarial
science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">Census</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime
statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_statistics" title="Demographic
statistics">Demography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li>
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accounts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">Official
statistics</a></li>
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statistics">Population statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial
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<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_statistics" title="Environmental
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<li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information
system">Geographic information system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kriging" title="Kriging">Kriging</a></li></ul>
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