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Hydraulics: Stress (Units N/M)
Hydraulics: Stress (Units N/M)
1. Hydraulics : It is the branch of Engineering which deals with the behaviour of fluid
under the conditions of rest (or) motion.
2. Fluid mechanics : It is the branch of engineering which deals with the behaviour of
fluid under the conditions of rest and motion.
3. Fluid Kinematics : It is the fluid mechanics which deals study of velocity &
acceleration of fluid particles without taking into consideration any force (or) energy
4. Density = = Mass / Volume (Units = Kg/m3)
5. Specific Weight (or) Weight density = = x g = density x Sp. Gravity
= Weight/ unit volume (Units = KN/m 3)
6. Specific gravity =
Sp. Wt of liquid
(Units = No units)
0
Sp.wt of pure water at standard temp (4 c)
C.G.S Units =
N-S/m2 = 1 Pa-S
0.1 N-S/m2 = 1 poise = 0.1 Pa-S = 1 dyne-S/cm2
16. Kinematic Viscosity: It is defined as the ratio of dynamic Viscosity (or) absolute
viscosity to the density of liquid
Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity
Density
S.I Units
C.G.S Units =
m2/S
0.1 cm 2 /S = 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/S
The Surface tension of mercury at normal temperature is higher than that of water
The Viscosity of water higher than that of mercury
17. Compressibility:
Volumetric strain = V
Compressive stress P
Bulk modulus
= Compressive stress = P
Volumetric strain
V
= Increase in pressure
Volumetric Strain
The vertical height from the free surface of the liquid is called
Static head
19. The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in
contact and it is known as atmospheric pressure. It is also known as barometric
pressure.
20. The pressure measured with the help of a pressure gauge is known as guage pressure.
21. Atmospheric (or) Barometric pressure at sea level(above absolute zero) is call
Standard atmospheric pressure
=
=
=
101.3 KN/m2
10.3m of water
760mm of Hg
The pressure below atmospheric, gauge pressure will be negative. This negative
pressure is known as vaccum pressure.
22. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure(positive)
(for pressure above atmospheric)
23. Manometers is used to measure i) High pressure of liquids
ii) Vaccum pressure (or) negative pressure
iii) Pressure in pipes and channels
24. Differential manometer is used to measure Difference of pressure between
Two points in a pipe
25. U-Tube Differential manometer is used to measure Pressure difference between
Two points.
26. Inverted Differential manometer is used to measure Low Difference of pressure
accurately
27. Piezometer is simplest form of manometer is used to measure Moderate pressures of
liquid
28. Orifice meter (cheaper than venturimeter) is used to measure Discharge of the liquid
29. Venturi meter is used to measure Discharge of the liquid
30. Pitot tube is used to measure Velocity of flow at required point in a pipe.
31. Total Pressure : The force exerted by a static fluid on a surface (either plance or
curved) when the fluid comes in contact with the surface. This force
always normal to the surface.
32. Centre of Pressure : The point of application of the resultant pressure on the surface
(or)
The resultant hydrostatic force acts through a point is known as
centre of pressure
33. Horizontally immersed surface = P = W.A. X
34. Vertically immersed surface = P = W.A. X
and depth of centre of pressure (h) = IG + X
AX
P .
2sin
K2
Where K radius of gyration
h.g
h metacentric height
39. Buoyancy : The tendency of liquid to uplift an immersed body, because of the
upward thrust of the liquid is known as buoyancy.
38. The time of Oscillation (T) = 2
40. Buoyant force : The force tending to lift up the body is called force of buoyancy (or)
buoyant force
41. Centre of Buoyancy : The point through which the buoyant force is supposed to act,
is known as centre of buoyancy.
42. Metacentre : The point about which a floating body starts oscillating, when given
small angular displacement. It is denoted by M
43. Metacentric height : The distance between the centre of gravity (G) of the floating
body and the metacentre(M)
If the force of buoyancy is more than the weight of the liquid displaced, then
the body will float.
If the force of buoyancy is less than the weight of the liquid displaced, then the
body sink down.
When the body is placed over a liquid, if the gravitational force is less than the
upthrust of the liquid, then the body will float.
When the body is placed over a liquid, if the gravitational force is more than
the upthrust of the liquid, then the body will sing down
55. Rate of Discharge : The quantity of liquid flowing per second through a section of
pipe (or) channel is called discharge
Units = cumecs (or) m3/s
Rate of discharge =(Q) = a. v
56. Equation of continuity: The quantity of liquid passing per second is same at all
sections is known as equation of continuity
Q1=Q2=Q3 or a1v1 = a2v2 = a3v3
57. The point at which the streamlines first become parallel is called vena contracta.
58. Theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta = 2.g H ( This expression is called
Torcellis theorem)
59. In a convergent divergent mouthpiece, the ratio of areas at outlet and at vena
contracta(i.e convergences of mouthpiece) = a/ac = 1+ Ha-Hc
H
60. The error in discharge (dQ/Q) to the error in measurement of head(dH/H) over a
rectangular notch = dQ = 3 dH
Q 2 H
61. The error in discharge (dQ/Q) to the error in measurement of head(dH/H) over a
Traiangular notch = dQ = 5 dH
Q 2 H
62. Bazins Formula of discharge over Rectangular weir = mL2.g H 3/2
Where m is equal to = 0.405 + 0.003
H
63. The discharge through Siphon spillway = cd.a .2.g H
64.
75. When a jet of water enters and leaves the moving curved vane , then the force of jet in
the direct of motion of the vane = WaV (Vw-Vwl)
G
76. Hydraulic turbine: It converts Hydraulic energy to Mechanical energy
77. Centrifugal pump : It converts Kinetic Energy of water to Pressure Energy
78. Pump : It converts Mechanical Energy into hydraulic Energy
79. Hydraulic ram is used for lifting water without an electric motor
80. At vena contracta
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
x2
4yH
Mouthpiece: (It is an attachment in the form of a small tube or pipe fixed to the orifice)
91. External mouth piece: Pressure at venacontracta = Ha 0.89H
92. The discharge through external mouthpiece = 0.855 a
2gH
2gH
95. The discharge through internal mouthpiece when running full = 0.707 a
2gH
101.
The discharge large triangular notch = 8/15 cd.b .2.g .tan(/2).H 5/2
102.
Weir:( Any regular obstruction in an open channel over which the flow takes place)
103.
Weir is used to measure the rate of flow of water in rivers (or) streams
104.
105.
106.
The discharge over a trapezoidal notch (or) weir is called a Cipolleti notch (or)
Cipolleti weir
Discharges of trapezoidal notch (or) weir = Discharge over rectangular notch (or) weir +
Discharge over triangle notch (or) weir
Broad Crested weir:
108.
Submerged (or) drowned weir: When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is
above the top surface of a weir, then the weir is known as submerged or drowned weir.
(D/s>top)
i)
ii)
It has been observed that whenever water is flowing over a rectangular weir,
having no end contractions, the nappe (i.e, sheet of water flowing over the weir)
touches the side walls of the channel. After flowing over the weir, the nappe falls
away from the weir, thus creating a space beneath the water. In such a case, some
air is trapped beneath the weir.
iii)
If the atmospheric pressure exists beneath the nappe, it is then known as free
nappe.
iv)
If the pressure below the nappe is negative, it is then called a depressed nappe.
v)
Sometimes, no air is left below the water and the nappe adheres or clings to the
downstream side of the weir. Such a nappe is called clinging nappe or an adhering
nappe.
109.
i) Loss of head due to friction in a pipe (hL) = 4.f.l.v2 (Major loss of head)
2.g.d
ii) Minor loss of head due to friction
a) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement(he) = (V1-V2)2
2.g
b) Loss of head due to sudden contraction(hc) =
V2
2.g
1 -1
CC
115.
118.
2/3
1/2
119.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127. The Depth of channel is more than Critical depth of channel is known as tranquil
flow
i.e., dchannel > dcr is known as tranquil flow
a) Froudes Number (FN) < 1.00
a) Ideal fluid
=> No viscosity
ii)
The rate of discharge in the main pipe is equal to the sum of discharges in each
of parallel pipes
Q = Q1 + Q2
loss of head in each pipe is same
hf1 = hf2 = 4.f1.l1.v12 = 4.f2.l2.v22
2.g.d1
2.g.d2
131. Laminar Flow : Viscosity dominating over the inertia forces (take at low level). It
takes at low velocities (VIL)
132. Turbulent Flow: Inertia forces dominating over the Viscosity (Takes at high level).
It takes at high velocities. (IVT)
133. Critical Velocity: The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar flow to
turbulent flow, is called critical velocity
134. Lower Critical Velocity : The Velocity at which Laminar Flow stops
135. Higher Critical Velocity : The Velocity at which Turbulent Flow starts
136.
137.
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow,
Lower Critical Velocity
Higher Critical Velocity
500 - Laminar
2000 - Turbulent
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143. Loss of head due to friction in a pipe of uniform diameter in which viscous flow is
taking place = 16 .
Rn
144. The Co-efficient of Viscosity (in poises), according to the method of orifice type
Viscometer = = 0.0022t 1.80 x Sp.gr. of liquid ()
t
2
146. Torque req. to overcome viscous resistance of Collar bearing (T)= N R1 -R1
60t
147.
The Velocity of Wave Sound =
K/
Where K- Bulk modulus
Density of the liquid
148.
i) Mach number < Unity = Sub-Sonic Flow
ii) Mach number = Unity = Sonic Flow
iii) Mach between 1 to 6 = Super Sonic Flow
iv) Mach between > 6 = Hypersonic Flow
149.
150.
151.
152.
Surface tension force = Surface tension per unit length x length of the surface
flowing liquid
153.
154.
155.
d) Eulers Number =
(En)
e) Machs Number =
(Mn)
W Q (Hs+Hd)
2 W Q (Hs+Hd)
12 70
(Slow Speed)
80 420
(Medium Speed)
Peltan Wheel
Francis Turbine
420 1000
(High Speed)
Kaplan Turbine
Head
Low Head
< 15
Medium
15 70m
High Head
70 250m
> 250m
Peltan Wheel
160. Specific Speed of turbine = produces unit horse power at unit head
161. For low discharge, high head = reciprocating pump
162. a) Peltan Wheel
b) Francis Turbine
c) Kaplan Turbine
163. A Turbine is called Impulse, if an inlet of the turbine, the total energy is only
Kinetic energy
164. A Turbine is called reaction turbine, if an inlet of the turbine, the total energy is
only Kinetic energy and pressure energy
165. For a low head, high discharge Kaplan turbine
166. For high head, low discharge Peltan turbine (Receprocating pumps)
167. For high head, impellers are mounted in series
168. To discharge large quantity of liquid impellers are mounted in parallel.
169. Flow reaction of francis turbine = Velocity of flow at inlet
Theoretical Jet of velocity
= 0.15 to .30
2.g.H
176. a) Mechanical efficiency of turbine (hm) =
Power at shaft
Power given to the runner
Power at shaft
.
Power at inlet of turbine
2
194. Total Gradient Line (TGL) lies over Hydraulic Gradient line (HGL) = Velocity head
195. Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) lies over Centre line = Pressure head
196. Total Gradient Line (TGL) lies over Centre line = Pressure head + Velocity head
197. The valve closure is said to be gradual, line require to close valve (t) > 2L/C
198. The valve closure is said to be sudden, line require to close valve (t) < 2L/C
199. Reynold number = VL/
200. Frouds number = V/Lg
201. Mach number = V/C
202. Drag force is defined as the force exerted by flowing fluid on a solid body in the
direction of flow, expression =1/2 V2 x CD x A
203. Lift force is defined as the forced exerted by a flowing fluid on a solid body
perpendicular to the direction of flow, expression = 1/2 V2 x CL x A
204. Drag force = Pressure + Viscous force
208. The terminal velocity, weight of body = Drag force + buoyant force
209. Mach angle = Sin = C/V
210. The relation between surface tension() and difference of pressure(p) between
inside and out side of liquid droplet (p) = 4/d
211. For soap bubble, the surface tension, difference of pressure, (p) = 8/d
212. For liquid jet, (p) = 2/d
213. The centre of pressure for a plane surface lies at a depth = 2/3 x height of the
immersed surface
214. Flow of a fluid in a pipe takes place from higher energy to lower energy
215. The point, through which the weight is acting, is called centre of gravity
216. The point, about which a floating body, starts oscillating when the body is titled is
called meta centre
217. Orifice, mouthpieces are used to measure rate of flow
218. Velocity of approach(V) = Discharge over notch
Area of channel
2
0/
222. When the pipes are connected in series, the total rate of flow is same as flowing
through each pipe, H = hf1 + hf2
223. When the pipes are connected in parallel, the total loss of head is same as in
each pipe
hf1 = hf2, Q = Q1 + Q2
224. Water hammer in pipes takes place when Flowing fluid suddenly brought to rest by
closing valve = V K
225. The valve is closed gradually = LV
t
226. Model analysis of pipes flow are based on Reynold number
227. Model analysis of free surface flows are based on Froude number
228. Model analysis of aeroplanes and projectile moving at Super sonic speed are
based on Mach number
229. The boundary-layer takes place for real fluids
230. The thickness of laminar boundary layer x
1/2
4/5
256. The angle of contact()between water and glass tube in case of capillary rise = 00
257. The angle of contact()between mercury and glass tube in case of capillary
depression = 1280
Equilibrium
condition
Stable
For Floating
body
M lies above G
For Submerged
body
B lies above G
Unstable
M lies below G
B lies below G
Neutral
M and G coincides
B and G coincides
II. Non-Uniform flow: A flow, in which the liquid particles at different sections of a
pipe or channel have the different velocities, is called non
uniform flow.
(or)
If the velocity of the fluid flow change w.r.t length of direction of flow is called uniform
flow.
III.
Steady flow:
If the velocity, pressure, density does not change at a point w.r.t time is called steady
flow.
Flow through a long pipe at constant rate is called steady uniform flow.
IV.
Unsteady flow:
If the velocity, pressure, density change at a point w.r.t time is called unsteady flow.
Flow through a expanding tube at constant rate is called unsteady uniform flow.
Flow through a expanding tube at increasing rate is called unsteady non-uniform flow.
Long pipe
- Steady
Constant rate
Non Uniform
Uniform
V. Streamline flow:
A flow, in which each liquid particle has a definite path and the
paths of individual particles do not cross each other, is called a
streamline flow.
If the fluid particles move in straight lines and all the lines are
parallel to the surface, the flow is called laminar flow.
VIII.
Compressibility flow: A flow, in which the volume of a fluid and its density changes
during the flow, is called a compressible flow. All the gases are
considered to have compressible flow.
(or)
If the density of fluid changes from point to point in a flow is called compressible
flow.
In a compressible flow, the volume of the flowing liquid changes during the flow.
IX.
Incompressible flow: A flow, in which the volume of a fluid and its density changes
does not change during the flow, is called a incompressible flow. All
the liquids are considered to have incompressible flow.
(or)
If the density of fluid is constant from point to point in a flow is called incompressible
flow.
In a incompressible flow, the volume of the flowing liquid does not changes during
the flow.
X.
Rotational flow: A flow, in which the fluid particles also rotate (i.e., have some
angular velocity) about their own axes while flowing, is called
rotational flow.
In a rotational flow, the particles rotate about their own axes while flowing.
XI.
Irrotational flow: A flow, in which the fluid particles do not rotate (i.e., have some
angular velocity) about their own axes and not retain their original
orientations, is called rotational flow.
XII.
One-dimensional flow: A flow, in which the streamlines of its moving particles are
represented by straight line, is called an one-dimensional flow.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Stable equilibrium :If a floating body in a liquid returns back to its original position,
when given a small angular displacement, then the body is said to
be in stable equilibrium.
XVI.
Un Stable equilibrium: If a floating body in a liquid does not returns back to its
original position and heels farther away, when given a small
angular displacement, then the body is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
XVII.
XVIII. Pascals law: The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at is same in all directions.
XIX.Archimedes principle: When a body is immersed wholly (or) partially in a liquid, it is
lifted up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by
the body.
XX.Newtons law of resistance: The force exerted by a moving fluid on an immersed body is
directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum due to
the presence of the body.
XXI.Water hammer: When a liquid flowing through a long pipe is suddenly brought to rest by
closing valve at the end of a pipe, then pressure wave of high
intensity is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of
high intensity has effect of hammering action on the walls of the
pipe. This phenomenon is known as water hammer (or) hammer
blow.
The magnitude of water hammer depends upon
a) Length of pipe line
b) The elastic properties of the pipe material
c) The elastic properties of the liquid flowing through the pipe
d) The speed at which the valve is closed.