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Chap 2
Chap 2
Grain Texture
Clastic sediment and sedimentary rocks are made up of discrete particles.
The texture of a sediment refers to the group of properties that describe
the individual and bulk characteristics of the particles making up a
sediment:
Individual
Grain Size
Grain Shape
Grain Orientation
Porosity
Permeability
Secondary properties
that are related to the
others.
Grain Size
I. Grain Volume (V)
a) Based on the weight of the particle:
m V S
m
V
S
d
V
6
longest dimension.
dI or b-axis
intermediate dimension.
dS or c-axis
shortest dimension.
maximum
tangent
rectangle
Step 3. Rotate the particle so that you view the surface that is at right
angles to the plane of maximum projection.
dS is the longest distance through the particle in the direction normal to
the plane of maximum projection.
V=
dL x d I x d S
The three axes lengths that are commonly measured are often
expressed as a single dimension known as the nominal diameter of a
particle (dn):
dn is the diameter of the sphere with volume (V1) equal the volume (V2)
of the particle with axes lengths dL, dI and dS.
V1 = volume of the sphere.
V2 = volume of a particle.
(a triaxial ellipsoid)
3
V1 d n
6
V2 d L d I d S
6
3
dn d L d I ds
6
6
3
dn d L d I ds
6
6
dn can be solved by rearranging the terms:
6
d dLdI ds
6
3
n
3
dn d L d I ds
6
6
dn can be solved by rearranging the terms:
6
d dLdI ds
6
3
n
3
dn d L d I ds
6
6
dn can be solved by rearranging the terms:
6
d dLdI ds
6
3
n
3
dn d L d I ds
6
6
dn can be solved by rearranging the terms:
6
d dLdI ds
6
3
n
d dLdI ds
3
n
Therefore:
dn 3 d L d I ds
Nominal diameter
b) Sieving
Used to determine the grain size distribution
(a bulk property of a sediment).
A sample is passed through a
vertically stacked set of square-holed
screens (sieves).
A set of screens are stacked, largest holes on top, smallest on the bottom
and shaken in a sieve shaker (Rotap shakers are recommended).
Grains that are larger than the holes
remain on a screen and the smaller
grains pass through, collecting on
the screen with holes just smaller
than the grains.
The grains collected on each screen
are weighed to determine the weight
of sediment in a given range of size.
The later section on grain size distributions will explain the method more
clearly.
Details of the sieving method are given in Appendix I of the course notes.
a) Direct measurement
Settling velocity can be measured using settling tubes: a
transparent tube filled with still water.
In a very simple settling tube:
A particle is allowed to fall from the top of a column of
fluid, starting at time t1.
The particle accelerates to its terminal velocity
and falls over a vertical distance, L, arriving there
at a later time, t2.
The settling velocity can be determined:
t2 t1
ii) Tube diameter: the diameter of the tube must be at least 5 times the
diameter of the largest particle that will be passed through the tube.
If the tube is too narrow the particle will be slowed as it settles by the
walls of the tube (due to viscous resistance along the wall).
iii) In the case of tubes designed to measure bulk samples, sample size
must be small enough so that the sample doesnt settle as a mass of
sediment rather than as discrete particles.
Large samples also cause the risk of developing turbulence in the
column of fluid which will affect the measured settling velocity.
FG depends on the volume and density (s) of the particle and is given by:
FG d s g s gd 3
6
6
FB is equal to the weight of fluid that is displaced by the particle:
FD 3dU
Where (the lower case Greek letter mu) is the fluids dynamic
viscosity and U is the velocity of the particle; 3d is proportional to the
area of the particles surface over which viscous resistance acts.
FG S gd 3
6
FB gd 3
6
FD 3dU
FG FG FB
3
S gd gd 3
6
6
S gd 3
6
'
FG S gd 3
6
submerged
weight of the
particle.
The net gravity force acting on a particle falling through the fluid.
F S gd 3 and
6
'
G
Acting downward,
causing the particle to
settle.
FD 3dU
Acting upward,
retarding the settling of
the particle.
What is the relationship between these two forces at the terminal settling
velocity?
'
They are equal: FD = FG
FD F
'
G
3
F
gd
and
F
U
Where D
S
6
'
G
Such that:
3dU S gd 3
6
3 d S gd 3
6
3 d S gd 3
6
Rearranging the terms:
2
1
3
S gd
6
3 d
gd
18
Example:
A spherical quartz particle with a diameter of 0.1 mm falling through
still, distilled water at 20C
d = 0.0001m
s= 2650kg/m3
g = 9.806 m/s2
= 998.2kg/m3
gd
18
Under these conditions (i.e., with the values listed above) Stokes Law
reduces to:
8.954 105 d 2
Temp.
C
Ns/m2
Kg/m3 mm/s
100
2.84 10-4
30
958.4
S gd 2
18
dS
18
S g
Sedmentologists often express grain size in units call Phi Units (; the
lower case Greek letter phi).
Phi units assign whole numbers to the boundaries between size classes.
Phi was originally defined as:
log 2 d (mm)
d (mm)
log 2
dO
Where dO = 1 mm.
log 2 1(mm) 0
2-0 = 1
log 2 .25(mm) 2
2-2 = 0.25
2-3 = 0.125
log 2 64(mm) 6
2-(-6) = 64
log10 d (mm)
log10 2
d (mm) 2
Note that when grain size is plotted as phi units grain size becomes
smaller towards the right.
2. Weight
(grams)
3. Weight
(%)
-0.5
0.40
1.3
1.3
1.42
4.6
5.9
0.5
2.76
8.9
14.8
1.0
4.92
15.9
30.7
1.5
5.96
19.3
50.0
2.0
5.96
19.3
69.3
2.5
4.92
15.9
85.2
3.0
2.76
8.9
94.1
3.5
1.42
4.6
98.7
4.0
0.40
1.3
100
Total:
30.92
100
1. Grain size class: the size of holes on which the weighed sediment
was trapped in a stack of sieves.
2. Weight (grams): the weight, in grams, of sediment trapped on the
sieve denoted by the grain size class.
3. Weight (%): the weight
of sediment trapped
expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the total
sample.
4. Cumulative Weight (%):
the sum of the weights
expressed as a percentage
(column 3).
2. Weight
(grams)
3. Weight
(%)
4. Cumulative
Weight (%)
-0.5
0.40
1.3
1.3
1.42
4.6
5.9
0.5
2.76
8.9
14.8
1.0
4.92
15.9
30.7
1.5
5.96
19.3
50
2.0
5.96
19.3
69.3
2.5
4.92
15.9
85.2
3.0
2.76
8.9
94.1
3.5
1.42
4.6
98.7
4.0
0.40
1.3
100
Total:
30.92
100
2. Weight
(grams)
3. Weight
(%)
4. Cumulative
Weight (%)
-0.5
0.40
1.3
1.3
1.42
4.6
5.9
0.5
2.76
8.9
14.8
1.0
4.92
15.9
30.7
1.5
5.96
19.3
50
2.0
5.96
19.3
69.3
2.5
4.92
15.9
85.2
3.0
2.76
8.9
94.1
3.5
1.42
4.6
98.7
4.0
0.40
1.3
100
Total:
30.92
100
2. Weight
(grams)
3. Weight
(%)
4. Cumulative
Weight (%)
-0.5
0.40
1.3
1.3
1.42
4.6
5.9
0.5
2.76
8.9
14.8
1.0
4.92
15.9
30.7
1.5
5.96
19.3
50
2.0
5.96
19.3
69.3
2.5
4.92
15.9
85.2
3.0
2.76
8.9
94.1
3.5
1.42
4.6
98.7
4.0
0.40
1.3
100
Total:
30.92
100
2. Weight
(grams)
3. Weight
(%)
4. Cumulative
Weight (%)
-0.5
0.40
1.3
1.3
1.42
4.6
5.9
0.5
2.76
8.9
14.8
1.0
4.92
15.9
30.7
1.5
5.96
19.3
50
2.0
5.96
19.3
69.3
2.5
4.92
15.9
85.2
3.0
2.76
8.9
94.1
3.5
1.42
4.6
98.7
4.0
0.40
1.3
100
Total:
30.92
100
Md 50
Mean
Standard deviation
84 16 95 5
4
6. 6
Skewness
84 16 250 95 5 250
Sk
2 84 16
2 95 5
Kurtosis
95 5
K
2.44( 75 25 )
16 50 84
3
i) Median (Md)
The midpoint of the distribution; the 50th percentile.
50% of the sample is finer than the median and 50% of the sample is
coarser than the median.
16 50 84
M
3
16 50 84
M
3
16 = -0.59
16 50 84
M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
16 50 84
M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
84 = 1.27
16 50 84
M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
84 = 1.27
0.59 0.35 1.27
M
3
= 0.34
Well sorted
Moderately sorted
Poorly sorted
> 4.00
Examples of sorting:
Sk = 0
Perfectly symmetrical.
Md = M
Sk > 0
The distribution has more fine particles than a symmetrical distribution
would have.
The distribution is said to be fine tailed.
M is finer than Md
Sk < 0
The distribution has more coarse particles than a symmetrical
distribution would have.
The distribution is said to be coarse tailed.
M is coarser than Md
Terminology:
v) Kurtosis (K)
A measure of the peakedness of the distribution (related to sorting).
Drill bit:
Boron alloy buttons +/- diamond grit.
From: Gomez, Rosser, Peacock, Hicks and Palmer, 2001, Downstream fining in a rapidly aggrading gravel
bed river. Water Resources Research, v. 37, p. 1813-1823.
Grain Shape
An individual property (rather than a bulk property) that is as
fundamental as grain size.
Shape can be described in a variety of ways:
Roundness: a description of how angular the edges of a particle are.
Sphericity: how closely a particles shape resembles a sphere.
Form: the overall appearance of a particle.
Surface texture: scratches, pits, grooves, etc. on a particles surface.
I. Roundness
Several methods of description; some more practical than others.
a) Wadells Roundness (RW)
Time consuming and very impractical but results are reliable.
RW: the ratio of the average radius of curvature of the corners on the
surface of a grain to the radius of curvature of the largest circle that can
be inscribed within the projection of the particle.
RW
r 1 r
NR
RF
II. Sphericity
A measure of how closely a particle resembles a sphere.
Usually denoted by , the capital Greek letter psi.
A measure of sphericity is useful to determine whether or not Stokes
Law of settling is applicable (e.g., how much a particle differs from a
sphere).
Sphericity determines the use of a sediment (e.g., high sphericity
sediment is not particularly good for making concrete).
a) Wadells Sphericity ()
: the ratio of the diameter of a sphere with the same volume as the
particle to the volume diameter of a sphere that will circumscribe the
particle.
VS
3
VC
VS
3
VC
3
VC d L
6
By this procedure:
3
3
VS d L
6
VS
3
VC
VS d L d I d S
6
and
3
VC d L
6
6
3 dLdI dS 3 2
6
dL
dI dS
3 2
dL
By either method, as approaches 1 the particle approaches a sphere in
overall shape (i.e., for a perfect sphere = 1).
P 3
d S2
dLdI
Sneed and Folk argued that it was the projection area of a particle that
experienced the viscous drag of moving fluid, therefore it was more
important than the volume of the particle.
1
With increasing sphericity.
dS
dLdI
di
dc
III. Form
Provides a consistent terminology for describing the overall form of
particles.
Based on various ratios of dL, dI and dS
a) Zingg Form Index
ii) Hardness
Particularly hard clasts (e.g., granite, quartz-cemented sandstone, etc.)
change in shape during transport less readily than softer lithologies.
Softer lithologies (e.g., limestone) change shape much more readily.
Unconsolidated material (e.g., cohesive mud) changes shape almost
immediately when it is transported.
b) Changes in Shape by Transport
Transport of particles by water, wind or flowing glaciers has the
potential to cause changes to their shape over time.
During transport particles interact with each other and with the surface
over which they move.
Shape is modified by grinding, chipping and crushing that takes place
due to this interaction.
The following figure reports data derived from long distance transport of
blocks cut initially as cubes within a circular flume.
Changes in roundness and sphericity for cubes of chert (a very hard rock
type) and softer limestone.
Roundness increases for limestone much more quickly with transport
than the harder chert, especially during the early phase of transport.
Sphericity changes shape only very slowly because the particles began
as relatively equant shaped cubes (i.e., with high sphericity to begin
with).
Relatively large masses of material must be removed to significantly
change the sphericity of a particle.
Gray area must be
removed to increase
sphericity.
Time 2: the spheres are preferentially removed as they roll away from
the site due to the current. The remaining particles are largely angular
and the particles down stream are more rounded and spherical.
Demir, 2003, Downstream changes in bed material size and shape characteristics in a small upland stream:
Cwm Treweryn, in South Wales, Yerbilimleri, v. 28, p. 33-47.
ii) The swash and backwash may lead to back and forth motion of the
particle on the beach face.
This leads to abrasion of one side and if the waves cause it to flip over
abrasion takes place on the other side, ultimately leading to a discshaped clast.
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 4
http://www.sandcollectors.org
I. Porosity (P)
The proportion of any material that is void space, expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of material.
VP
P 100
VT
VT VG
P
100
VT
VP VT VG
In general, the greater the angularity of the particles the more open the
framework (more open fabric) and the greater the possible porosity.
b) Grain Size
On its own, grain size has no influence on porosity!
Consider a cube of sediment of
perfect spheres with cubic
packing.
VT VG
P
100
VT
VT VG
P
100
VT
Length of a side of the cube = d n = dn
Volume of the cube (VT):
VT dn dn dn d 3n3
Total number of grains: n n n = n3
Volume of a single grain: V
3
d
6
3
3
VG n d n d 3
6
6
3
VT VG
P
100
VT
Where: VT d n
3 3
3
d n n d
6 100
P
d 3 n3
3 3
Therefore:
Therefore:
d n 1
6
P
100
3 3
d n
3 3
Rearranging:
and
3
VG n d
6
3
P 1 100 48%
6
d (grain size) does not affect the porosity so that porosity is independent
of grains size.
No matter how large or small the spherical grains in cubic packing have
a porosity is 48%.
c) Sorting
In general, the better sorted the sediment the greater the porosity.
In well sorted sands fine grains are not available to fill the pore spaces.
This figure shows the relationship between sorting and porosity for
clay-free sands.
For clay-free sands the silt and fine sand particles are available to fill
the pore space between large grains and reduce porosity.
i) Compaction
Particles are forced into closer packing by the weight of overlying
deposits, reducing porosity.
May include breakage of grains.
Most effective if clay minerals are present (e.g., shale).
Freshly deposited mud may have 70% porosity but burial under a
kilometre of sediment reduces porosity to 5 or 10%.
http://www.engr.usask.ca/~mjr347/prog/geoe118/geoe118.022.html
ii) Cementation
Precipitation of new minerals from pore waters causes cementation of
the grains and acts to fill the pore spaces, reducing porosity.
Most common cements are calcite and quartz.
iv) Solution
If pore waters are undersaturated with respect to the minerals making up
a sediment then some volume of mineral material is lost to solution.
Calcite, that makes up limestone, is relatively soluble and void spaces
that are produced by solution range from the size of individual grains to
caverns.
Quartz is relatively soluble when pore waters have a low Ph.
Solution of grains reduces VG, increasing porosity.
Solution is the most effective means of creating secondary porosity.
v) Pressure solution
The solubility of mineral grains increases under an applied stress (such
as burial load) and the process of solution under stress is termed
Pressure Solution.
The solution takes place at the grain contacts where the applied stress is
greatest.
v) Fracturing
Fracturing of existing rocks creates a small increase in porosity.
Fracturing is particularly important in producing porosity in rocks with
low primary porosity.
VP
P 100
VT
P VT
VP
100
P 10%
Therefore:
10 160, 000
VP
100
16, 000m
of oil
DArcys Law:
Ap
Qk
L
Q
V
A
Thus, DArcys Law can be expressed as:
Q
Ap 1
p
V k
k
A
L A
L
Expanded:
1 1
V k p
L
1 1
V k p
L
So, the apparent velocity of a fluid flowing through a granular material
depends on several factors:
p: this is the driving force behind the flow of fluid through granular
materials.
The greater the change in pressure the greater the rate of flow.
(try blowing pop out of a straw!)
1 1
V k p
L
1
:
1
:
L
The longer the pathway of the fluid the more pressure is needed to
push the fluid through the material.
(try drinking a milkshake through a 1 metre long straw!)
This is a viscous effect: resistance to deformation is cumulative
along the length of the tube: the longer the tube (or pathway) the
greater the total resistance.
Those are all properties that are independent of the granular material.
There are also controls on permeability that are exerted by the granular
material and are accounted for in the term (k) for permeability:
k is proportional to all sediment properties that influence the flow of
fluid through any granular material (note that the dimensions of k are
cm2).
Two major factors:
1. The diameter of the pathways through which the fluid moves.
2. The tortuosity of the pathways (how complex they are).
Smaller pathways reduce porosity and the size of the pathways so the
more tightly packed the sediment the lower the permeability.
ii) Porosity
In general, permeability increases with primary porosity.
The larger and more abundant the pore spaces the greater the
permeability.
Pore spaces must be well connected
to enhance permeability.
Shale, chalk and vuggy rocks (rocks with large solution holes) may have
very high porosity but the pores are not well linked.
The discontinuous pathways result in low permeability.
Fractures can greatly enhance permeability but do not increase porosity
significantly.
A 0.25 mm fracture will pass fluid
at the rate that would be passed
by13.5 metres of rock with 100 md
permeability.
v) Post-burial processes
Like porosity, permeability is changed following burial of a sediment.
b) Directional permeability
Permeability is not necessarily isotropic (equal in all directions)
Fractures are commonly aligned in the same direction, greatly
enhancing permeability in the direction that is parallel to the
fractures.
Fluid that is introduced at the surface will follow a path that is towards the
direction of dip of the beds.
The direction along the long axes of grains will have larger pathways
and therefore greater permeability than the direction that is parallel to
the long axes.
Grain Orientation
Fabric: the group of properties that are related to the spatial
arrangement of the particles (including packing and orientation).
The term is commonly used to refer to orientation only.
Why is it important?
1. It can affect other properties.
e.g., permeability, how it breaks (building stone).
2. It can have genetic significance.
The problem with grain size and shape was that they may be inherited
from their source rock.
The thin sections allow the identification of the average a-axis orientation,
whether the a- or b-axes are imbricate and the direction of imbrication.
Complex fabrics also develop with a mix of a(t)b(i) and a(p)a(i) that may
appear isotropic.
Actually, the distributions are very similar and effectively normal but
this cannot be recognized on such histograms because 0 and 360 are
equal but shown to be at extreme ends of the scale.
30 class intervals
30 class intervals
30 class intervals
30 class intervals
30 class intervals
30 class intervals
1 1
=1
Rose segments:
2 1.41
=2
Rose segments:
3 1.73
=3
Rose segments:
42
=4
Rose segments:
5 2.24
=5
Rose segments:
Number of
Observations
(n)
22= 4
32 = 9
42 = 16
52 = 25
In a graphical representation of the data the eye sees the area of the
segments.
With a length proportional scale the sense that is given is that an increase
in number of observations from 1 to 5 is 25 times rather than 5 times.
The area proportional scale shows an increase in area that is truly
proportional to the increase in the number of observations.
Length proportional scales overly emphasizes class intervals with large
numbers of observations.
Always make sure that you know what kind of data is being presented in
a given rose diagram.
Some data are unidirectional (point only in one direction; e.g., the dip
direction of a planar surface such as cross-bedding).
On a rose diagram for such data each observation will have one unique
direction.
Some data are bidirectional (a trend with two directions at 180 to each
other; e.g., the alignment of a particle long axis.).
Quite often bidirectional data are
plotted to show both directions
associated with the trend.
The rose diagrams will plot as what
appears to be perfectly symmetrical
bipolar distributions whereas the
data are actually unimodal.
Treated arithmetically:
346 24 67 437
mean
146
3
3
Clearly wrong!
25.5
R 2.52
Ungrouped data
Grouped data
The following outlines the steps to calculate the direction and magnitude
of the resultant vector:
Step 1. Calculate the direction of the resultant vector.
Ungrouped Data
Grouped Data
w ni sin i
w ni sin i
i 1
i 1
NC
v ni cos i
v ni cos i
i 1
i 1
tan
w
tan
v
1
R v w
2
100
L 100%
L 0%
L = 26%
L = 92%
pe
1 L2 N 0.0001)
p = 1; an equal number of
observations in each directional
class.
Raw data:
Grouped data:
184
187
191
196
198
201
204
205
207
208
210
212
214
216
222
224
Class interval
Midpoint
Frequency
180-189
184.5
190-199
194.5
200-209
204.5
210-219
214.5
220-229
224.5
Note: 10 classes.
Total (N):
17
205
Raw data:
184
187
191
196
198
201
204
205
207
208
210
212
214
216
222
224
w ni sin i
i 1
Total:
sin 184
sin 187
sin 191
sin 196
sin 198
sin 201
sin 204
sin 205
sin 205
sin 207
sin 208
sin 210
sin 212
sin 214
sin 216
sin 222
sin 224
-7.04
v ni cos i
i 1
Total:
cos 184
cos 187
cos 191
cos 196
cos 198
cos 201
cos 204
cos 205
cos 205
cos 207
cos 208
cos 210
cos 212
cos 214
cos 216
cos 222
cos 224
-15.13
205
w ni sin i 7.04
v ni cosi 15.13
i 1
i 1
7.04
tan
24.95
15.13
w
tan
v
1
24.95+180=204.95
Apply the Case Rule:
if w>0 AND v>0
remains unchanged
if w>0 AND v<0 OR w<0 AND v<0
add 180 to the calculated value of
if w<0 AND v>0
add 360 to the calculated value of
w ni sin i 7.04
v ni cosi 15.13
i 1
R v w
2
R
L 100
N
pe
1 L2 N 0.0001)
i 1
15.13
7.04 16.69
2
16.69
L
100 98.17%
17
pe
1 98.17 2 170.0001)
= 204.95
R = 16.69
L = 98.17%
p = 7.67 10-8
7.67 108
Grouped data:
Class interval
Midpoint
Frequency
180-189
184.5
190-199
194.5
200-209
204.5
210-219
214.5
220-229
224.5
Note: 10 classes.
Total (N):
17
w ni sin i 2sin184.5+3sin194.5+6sin204.5+4sin214.5+2sin224.5
i 1
7.06
NC
NC
NC
w ni sin i 7.06
v ni cosi 15.08
i 1
i 1
7.06
tan
25.09
15.08
w
tan
v
1
25.09+180=205.09
Apply the Case Rule:
if w>0 AND v>0
remains unchanged
if w>0 AND v<0 OR w<0 AND v<0
add 180 to the calculated value of
if w<0 AND v>0
add 360 to the calculated value of
NC
NC
w ni sin i 7.06
v ni cosi 15.08
i 1
R v w
2
R
L 100
N
pe
1 L2 N 0.0001)
i 1
15.08
7.06 16.65
2
16.65
L
100 97.95%
17
pe
1 97.952 170.0001)
= 205.09
R = 16.65
L = 97.95%
p = 8.25 10-8
8.25 108
Slight error in the Grouped Data method because the actual observations
are not used.